FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1.The nasal cavity, the chamber within the nose, is divided medially by a nasal septum and
separated from the oral cavity by the palate. The nasal cavity is line with mucosa which warms,
filters and moisten incoming air. The mucosa also contains receptors for sense of smell.
Paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts drain into the nasal cavity.
2. The pharynx (throat) is mucosa lined, muscular tube with three regions-nasopharynx,
oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx functions in respiration only; the others
serve both respiratory and digestive functions. The pharynx contains tonsils, which act as part of
body defense system.
3.The larynx (voice box) is cartilaginous structure; most prominent is the thyroid cartilage
(Adam’s apple). The larynx connects the pharynx with the trachea below. The laryngeal
opening(glottis) is hooded by the epiglottis, which prevents entry of food or drink into respiratory
passages when swallowing. The larynx contains the vocal folds (true vocal cords) which
produce sounds used in speech.
4. The trachea(windpipe) extends from larynx to the main bronchi. The trachea is a smooth
muscle tube lined with a ciliated mucosa and reinforced with C shaped cartilaginous rings,
which keep the trachea patent.
5. Right and left main (primary) bronchi results from subdivision of the trachea. Each plunges
into the hilus of the lungs on its side.
6.The lungs are paired organs flanking the mediastinum in the thoracic cavity. The lungs are
covered with pulmonary (visceral) pleura; the thorax wall is lined with parietal pleura. Pleural
secretions decrease friction during breathing. The lungs are primarily elastic tissue and
passageways of respiratory tree. The smallest passageway end in clusters of alveoli.
7.The conducting zone includes all respiratory passages from the nasal cavity to the terminal
bronchioles; they conduct air to and from the lungs. Respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts
and sacs and alveoli- which have thin walls through which all gas exchanges are made with
pulmonary capillary blood- are respiratory zone structures.

RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
1. Mechanics of breathing: Gas travels from high pressure to low pressure areas. Pressure
outside the body is atmospheric pressure; pressure inside the lungs is intrapulmonary pressure;
pressure in the intrapleural space is intrapleural pressure (which is always negative). Movement
of air into and out of the lungs is called pulmonary ventilation, or breathing. When inspiratory
muscles contract, intrapulmonary volume increases, its pressure decreases, and air rushes in
(inspiration). When inspiratory muscles relax, the lungs recoil and air rushes out (expiration).
Expansion of the lungs is helped by cohesion between pleurae and by the presence of
surfactant in alveoli.
2. Nonrespiratory air movements: Nonrespiratory air movements are voluntary or reflex activities
that move air into or out of the lungs. These include coughing, sneezing, laughing, crying,
hiccupping and yawning.
3. Respiratory volumes and capacities: Air volumes exchanged during breathing are TV, IRV,
ERV and VC. Residual volume is nonexchangeable respiratory volume an allows gas exchange
to go on continually.
4. Respiratory sounds: Bronchial sounds are sounds of air passing through large respiratory
passageways. Vesicular breathing sounds occur as air fills alveoli.
5. External respiration, gas transport, and internal respiration: Gases move according to the
laws of diffusion. Oxygen moves from alveolar air into pulmonary blood. Most oxygen is
transported bound to hemoglobin inside RBC’s. Carbon dioxide moves from alveolar pulmonary
blood into alveolar air. Most carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ion in plasma. At body
tissues, oxygen moves from blood to the tissues, whereas carbon dioxide moves from the
tissues to blood.
6. Control of respiration
a. Nervous control: Neural centers for control of respiratory rhythm are in medulla and pons.
Reflexes arcs initiated by stretch receptors in the lungs also plays a role in respiration by
notifying neural- centers of excessive overinflation.
B. Physical factors: Increased body temperature, exercise, speech, singing and nonrespiratory
air movements modify both rate and depth of breathing.
c. Volition: To a degree, breathing may be consciously controlled if it does not interfere with
homeostasis.
d. emotional factors: some emotional stimuli can modify breathing. Examples are fear, anger
and excitement.
e. Chemical factors: changes in blood levels of carbon dioxide are the most important stimuli
affecting respiratory rhythm and depth. Carbon dioxide acts directly on the medulla via its effect
on reducing blood pH. Rising levels of carbon dioxide in blood result in faster, deeper breathing;
falling levels lead to shallow slow breathing. Hyperventilation may result in apnea and dizziness
due to alkalosis. Oxygen is less important as a respiratory stimulus in normal, healthy people,
but it is the stimulus for those whose system have become accustomed to high levels of carbon
dioxide as a result of disease.

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
1. The major respiratory disorders are COPD (emphysema and chronic bronchitis) and lung
cancer. A significant cause is cigarette smoking.
2. Emphysema is characterized by permanent enlargement and destruction of alveoli. The lungs
lose their elasticity and expiration becomes an active process.
3.Chronic bronchitis is characterized by excessive mucus production and its pooling in lower
respiration passageways which severely impairs ventilation and gas exchange. Patients may
become cyanotic result of chronic hypoxia.
4. Lung cancer are extremely aggressive and metastasizes rapidly. The three most common
lung cancers are squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and small cell carcinoma.