A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar PDF

A DICTIONARY
OF BASIC
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR
--—-1-—-—-—-1-—i-1 _ '— i‘ i— — i r i 1
J1
Seiichi Makino
Mokino
and
Michio Tsutsui
Tsufsui
TheJapanTmes
TheJapanT1mes
‘uh’
First cloth-bound edition: March 1986
First paperback edition: March 1989
18th printing: January 1994
4-7890-0454-6
ISBN 4—7890—0454—6
Copyright © 1986 and 1989 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui
Cover :I CADEC Inc.
All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book

or portions thereof in any form.
Published by The Japan Times, Ltd.

S-4, Shibaura 4-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108, Japan
5-4,
Printed in Japan
Preface
This is a dictionary of basic Japanese grammar designed primarily for first

and second year Japanese students and for teachers of Japanese. After having
examined major textbooks being used in Japan and the United States we have
chosen what we believe to be basic grammatical items. Our descriptions and
explanations have incorporated the recent findings in Japanese linguistics which
we felt were of practical significance.
We have spent three years and a half preparing this dictionary. Each of us
initially prepared half of the original draft: approximately 200 entries. Upon
completion of the first draft of the dictionary (i.e., Entries, Appendixes, Char-
acteristics of Japanese Grammar, and Grammatical Terms), we closely examined,
discussed and improved our individual drafts. Therefore, every part of this
dictionary has virtually been written by both of us.
Naturally we owe a great deal to our predecessors whose works are listed
in the references. Our heart-felt thanks go to them, although we could not ac-
knowledge them individually in each entry where we used their insightful ex-
planations. We would also like to acknowledge many profitable discussions
with our colleagues at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign and at the
Summer Japanese School of Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont. For
fear of omission, we would rather not attempt a comprehensive listing of names.
Even so we would like to mention four individuals whose technical assistance
has made it possible to publish this dictionary: First, Mr. Burr Nelson of the
University of Illinois and Mrs. Sharon Tsutsui, who have edited our English
and provided us with valuable comments and suggestions from the user’s
user's view-
point; also, Mr. Mamoru Yoshizawa, who has patiently and conscientiously as-
sisted with the proofreading; and, last but not least Mr. Masayuki Ishida of
The Japan Times, who has done such conscientious editing: he has been a
perfect midwife for the birth of our progeny and our special thanks go to him.
Spring 1986
Seiichi Makino
Michio Tsutsui
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ........................................................................................... .. v
To the Reader .................................................................................. .. viii
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................... .. x
List of Symbols ............................................................................... .. xi
Grammatical Terms ......................................................................... .. l1
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar ................................................. .. 16
1. Word Order ............................................................................ .. 16
2. Topic ..................................................................................... .. 21
3. Ellipsis .................................................................................. .. 23
4. Personal Pronouns ................................................................... .. 28
5. Passive .................................................................................. .. 33
6. Politeness and Formality .......................................................... .. 36
7. Sentence-final Particles ............................................................. .. 45
8. Sound Symbolisms—giseig0
Symbolisms—giseigo and gitaigo ..................................... .. 50
9. Viewpoint ............................................................................... .. 57
Main Entries ......................................................................... .. 61 ~ 573
Appendixes ..................................................................................... .. 575

S75
1. Basic Conjugations ................................................................... .. 576
S76
2. Semantic Classification of Verbs and Adjectives ......................... .. 582
TABLE or CONTENTS vii
3. Pairs of Intransitive and Transitive Verbs .................................. .. S85

585
4. Connection Forms of Important Expressions ............................... .. 589
5. K0-so-a-do ............................................................................... .. 600
6. Numerals and Counters ................................ .. ........................... .. 602
7. Compound Words ................................................................... .. 608
8. Improving Reading Skill by Identifying an ‘ Extended Sentential
Unit’ ..................................................................................... .. 612
Grammar Index ............................................................................... .. 619
English Index .................................................................................. .. 621
Japanese Index ............................................................................... .. 626
References ..................................................................................... .. 632
To the Reader
This dictionary consists of the following parts:

A. Grammatical Terms contains brief explanations or informal definitions of
the grammatical terms frequently used in this book. If the reader finds that
he is not familiar with these terms, we suggest he read this section carefully.
B. Characteristics of japanese Grammar introduces the reader to the major
characteristics of Japanese grammar and the important concepts involved.
The reader should read through this section before he starts to consult the
dictionary. Some entries from the Main Entries section refer the reader to
topics in this section which provide broader perspectives on those entries.
C. Main Entries constitutes the core of this book. Each entry is organized
as follows:
(D [entry name] Q) [part of speech]
ii gVTu;;ibn]vVi
© [meaning/function] l @
Qt) [English counterpart(s)]
W~"~'W""\ MW "
"W""W"~ lanwnym]
[anwnym]
(5)
® [related expression(s)]
@ 0 Key Sentence(s)
@§Key
®Formation
Examples
@Note(s)
(Related
[Related
Expression(s)]
(D
® [entry name]: Each entry is given in romanized spelling followed by its
hiragana version. Entries are alphabetically ordered based on their ro-
manized spellings.
® [part of speech]: Each entry is followed by its part of speech.
® [meaning / function]: The general meaning or function of the entry is
given in the box below the entry name.
Qt)
@ [English counterpart(s)]: English expressions equivalent to the entry are
given to the right of the box. When the entry has an antonym, it is
provided, as in (ANT. xxx).
IX
[related expression(s)]: Items which are related semantically to the entry

are listed as [REL. aaa; bbb; ccc (ddd)]. Expressions in non-bold type
like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related Expression(s)] ().
Expressions in bold type like ccc contain comparisons to the entry under
(Related
[Related Expression(s)] for ccc. Parenthesized expressions like (ddd) are
explained in the ccc entry.
§Key Sentence(s): Key sentences present basic sentence patterns in
frames according to sentence structure. The parts in red color are
recurrent elements. The same is true of Formation.
Formation: The word formation rules / connection forms for each item
are provided with examples.
Examples: Example sentences are provided for each entry.
Note(s): Notes contain important points concerning the use of the item.
[Related Expression(s)]: Expressions which are semantically close to
the entry are compared and their differences are explained.
D Appendixes contains information such as tables of verb / adjective conju-
gations, a list of connection rules for important expressions and a list of
counters.
E Indexes contains three indexes: the grammar index, the English index and
the Japanese index. The reader, therefore, has three means of access to the
word he is looking up.
List of Abbreviations
Adj(/')=i-type adjective (e.g. takai

Adj(i)=/'-type ‘ high, expensive’, yasui ‘inexpensive ’)
taka/' ‘high,
Adj(na)=na-type adjective (e.g. genk/da
genkida ‘‘healthy’,
healthy’, shizukada ‘ quiet’)
Adv.=adverb
AfT.=affirmative
Aff.=affirmative
ANT.=antonym
ANT. = antonym
Aux.=auxiliary
Conj. = conjunction
Cop.=copula (=da /I desu, datta / deshita)
(= -des-, -mas-)
Fml.=formal (=-des-,
Gr.=Group
Inf. = informal
Irr.=Irregular (e.g. kuru ‘come’, suru ‘ do’)
KS=Key Sentence
LSV = Location + Subject + Verb
LSV=Location+Subject+Verb
N = Noun
N=Noun
Neg. = negative
Neg.=negative
Nom.=nominalizer (=no(=n0 and koto)
NP=Noun Phrase
Phr.=phrase
Phr. = phrase
Pl.=plural
Pot. = potential
Pref.=prefix (e.g. 0-, g0—
g0- ‘‘politeness
politeness markers’)
markers ’)
Pro. = pronoun
Prt. = particle
REL. = Related Expression
REL.=Related
S=Sentence
Sinf=Sentence that ends with an informal predicate (e.g. Nihon ni iku of Nihon
ni iku n desu ‘It is that I am going to Japan.’)
SLV=Subject+Location+Verb
S.o. =someone
S.o.=someone
S.t. =something
SOV = Subject + Object + Verb
SOV=Subject+Object+Verb
SV=Subject+Verb
Str. =structure
xi
Suf.=suffix
Suf.=sufiix (e.g. -sa ‘-ness’, -ya ‘store’)
‘store ’)
V=Verb
Vcond=conditional stem of Gr. 1 Verb (e.g. hanase of hanaseba ‘if s.o. talks ’)
Vinf=informal form of verbs (e.g. hanasu ‘talk’, hanas/vita
hanashita ‘talked ’)
Vmasu=masu-stem of Verb (e.g. hanashi of hanash/'masu
hanashimasu ‘‘talk
talk ’)
Vneg=informal negative form of Gr. 1 verb (e.g. hanasa of hanasanai ‘s.o.
doesn't talk ’)
Vstem=stem of Gr. 2 Verb (e.g. rabe
tabe of taberu ‘eat ’)
‘eat’)
Vte=te-form of Verb (e.g. hanashite ‘talk and ~’, tabete ‘eat and ~’, kite
‘come
‘ come and ~’, shite ‘do and ~’)
Vvol=volitional form of Verb (e.g. hanaso
hanasd ‘ let’s
let's talk ’, tabeyd ‘‘let’s
let’s eat’, koyd
koyé
‘‘let’s
let’s come’, shiyd
shiyé ‘let’s do it’)
WH-word=an interrogative word (e.g. nani nan/' ‘‘what’,
what’, doko ‘‘where’,
where ’, dare ‘ who’,
itsu ‘ when ’, dd
do ‘ how ’, naze ‘ why ’)
List of Symbols
|=>=See
=:>=See or refer to.
?=The degree of unacceptability is indicated by the number of question marks,
three being the highest.
*=ungrammatical or unacceptable (in other words, no native speaker would
accept the asterisked sentence.)
{A / B}C=AC or BC (e.g. {V/Adj(i)}inf=Vinf
{V/Adj(/')}inf=Vinf or Adj(i)inf)
Adj(/')inf)
o=zero (in other words, nothing should be used at a place where a0 occurs.
Thus, Adj(na) {a/
{0 / datta} kamoshirenai is either Adj(na) kamoshirenai or
Adj(na) datta kamoshirenai.)
Grammatical Terms
The following are brief explanations of some grammatical terms most

frequently used in this dictionary.
Active Sentence A sentence which describes an action from the agent's

agent’s point
of view. (Cp. Passive Sentence) In active sentences, the subject is the agent.
Sentences (a) and (b) below are an active and a passive sentence, respectively.
(a)
(3) §'E_¢.li~‘/"
filfiilii/J 3:1 I/it
‘/if I/7)>oT:.,
L70=o7‘:.'.°
Sensei wa Jon 0 shikatta.
shikalta.
(The teacher scolded John.)
(b) 3a ‘/lifilailc l,rb>l51h.7‘.:.,
‘/li9'E;il: 1,n=e21.r:.,
Jon wa sense/' ni shikarareta.
(John was scolded by the teacher.)
Agent One who initiates and / or completes an action or an event. The

agent is not always in the subject position. Compare the positions of the agent
Bill in (a) and (b).
(a) EJbli<'—'9"&5—1oT:,
l:'Jl'li'<'-“)‘§f¢S1o7:.,
Biru wa Masa Mésa 0 burta.
butta.
(Bill hit Martha.)
(b) -v-—*7“lil:')bl:,Si7.:1h.T:,,
—<r——"d'li EJH::¢S1f;1h.T:..,
Mésa wa Biru ni butareta.
(Martha was hit by Bill.)
Appositive Clause (Construction) A clause which modifies a noun (or noun

phrase) and explains what the modified noun is. In (a), Meari ga Tomu ni atta
aria
‘ Mary met Tom’ is an appositive clause, and is what jijilsu
j/jilsu ‘the fact’ refers
I0.
t0.
@ fluxru—#rac%on$¥&florwe.
HHiTU—#tAK%ok$¥EfioTW6°
Watashi wa Mean‘
Meari ga Tomu ni atta jijitsu 0 shine iru.
/'ru.
(I know the fact that Mary met Tom.)
Auxiliary Adjective A dependent adjective that is preceded by and at-

2 GRAMMATICAL TERMS
tached to a verb or another adjective. The bold-printed parts of the follow-

ing sentences are typical auxiliary adjectives.
(8) fifi§aVKfioTfiLU°
@ ?Lli~‘/' a ‘/l:'.fio'Ci'§kLL\.,
Watashi wa Jon ni itte hoshii.
(I want John to go there.)
W zofiéufiweau.
M cofiéaawvrv.
Kono jisho wa tsukaiyasui.
(This dictionary is easy to use.)
(<1) $Lli'§‘L7§'5fi'<7‘:L\,,
(0) %Lli'§'l,7)'3fi/<f:L\,,
Watashi wa sushi ga tabetai.
(I want to eat sushi.)
N2mk$2fik5LM,
w &xufi¥&wt6LM.
Besu wa daigaku 0 deta rashii.
(Beth seems to have graduated from college.)
@ %¥umbw;5E.
R¥mfibw;5fi.
y5da.
Hanako wa sabishii y6da.
(Hanako looks lonely.)
m
(f) ;on¥¥uxwb%5fi.
;'_0)i$¥¥'lii<3\i\l/'€"'5T5o
o-kashi wa oishiséda.
Kono 0-kashi oishis6da.
(This cake looks delicious.)
Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding verb

or adjective. The bold-faced words of the following sentences are typical aux-
iliary verbs.
(a) I1’/I/114-,’*$ir=l£&%l/‘Tl»‘%'v..
(8) 1:"/1/tié>,~$§§£>‘.~3%v\'CL\Za.,
Biru wa ima tegami 0o kaite iru.
(Bill is writing a letter now.)
?<'._¢‘i7b'$Bfil‘I'('55Z>o
(b) .4..~‘i7)3f5§l1'C$§%>.,
Mado ga akete aru.
(The window has been opened. (=The window is open.))
@ %u@%2brb§vh.
M %fl@E2LTL$¢t°
Boku wa shukudai 0 shite shimatta.
(I have done my homework.)
flufificsezfibrawt.
w flufiécxeefibrbwt.
Watashi wa tomodachi ni 0-kane 0 kashite ageta.
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
"reams 3
(I loaned money to my friend.)
(6) 101'
C-031' ‘/l1°=--5’-'li%'4'€Z»°
‘/l-1°:--'6'-l?irA§1_"§'€"'%<>
konpyfité wa takasugiru.
Kono konpytjté
(This computer is too expensive.)
W
(f) va—vuz£—va—e&b#¢ru&.
"V a --9‘liZri%'--‘77J~—2?iKLfJ§1>'CL\€>o
Joji
J6/'i wa supotsuké
supdtsuké 0 hoshigatte iru.
(Lit. George is showing signs of wanting a sports car. (=George wants
a sports car.))
(8')
(1%) ho! T=fi7)3l‘§'>'C5Ef:!
Ibo! f=fi7)§|$$o'C$7‘:!
A! Ame ga futte kita!
(Gee! It's started to rain!)
Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word but
functions like a single particle. For example, the compound particle to shite wa
consists of the particle to, the te-form of suru and the particle wa, but it is used
like a single particle to mean ‘for’. (Cp. Double Particle)
Compound Sentence A sentence which consists of clauses combined by

coordinate conjunctions such as ga meaning ‘ but’
but ’ or by the te-forms
re-forms of verbs,
adjectives or the copula meaning ‘ ~ and’.
(a-) &lii9i<v\7;'h<;<
(a) %t1fi<v\T.;-I‘ia<2 iit 2 8é /oi:.ti‘ii<r)§f.ch>->f:,
/1/&;ti9i<rb§f.c 15>->71,
Boku wa oyoida ga Sumisu-san wa oyoganakatta.
(I swam but Mr. Smith didn’t.)
m
w €EéhdifiKfioT%*éhK%ok,
%ménu§§mfiat%*énm%Qn,
Yoshida-san wa Tokyo ni itte Suzuki-san ni atta.
(Mr. Yoshida went to Tokyo and met Mr. Suzuki.)
Contrastive Marker A particle which marks contrast. For example, when

X is contrasted with Y, it is typically marked by the particle wa. X and Y
S1 and S2, respectively in S1 ga S2, as shown in (a).
usually appear in S]
(a) ~‘/“aa I/l1§l€7‘:z'J3,
~‘/" I/l;t§l€T::2b§, 1:’/l/l15l€7.t
1:’/I/ld25l€>’.ir2b>-sic,
7)=->7‘:.,
Jon wa kita ga, Biru wa konakatta.
(John came here. But Bill didn’t.)
Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences without

subordinating one to the other. A typical coordinate conjunction is ga ‘but’.
Example:
4 GRAMMATICAL "reams
TERMS
(a)
(9') jg->'C\/\i'i"7b<, ‘B0 k ¥_>*?-t?.‘i'li'/L,
iE':>'C'\i‘i'i'fJi, ‘F>'.">l:l.>'§"lIi-'5']?-'/vs
Hashitte imasu ga, chitto mo yasemasen.
(I’m running, but I haven't
(I'm haven’t lost any weight at all.)
Direct Object The direct object of a verb is the direct recipient of an action
represented by the verb. It can be animate or inanimate. An animate direct
object is the direct experiencer of some action (as in (a) and (b) below). An
inanimate direct object is typically something which is created, exchanged or
worked on, in short, the recipient of the action of the verb (as in (c), (d) and
(e) below).
w wn%$u$i&r<&we.
@ mn%$a$E21<aw&.
Yamaguchi-sensei wa gakusei 0 yoku homeru.
(Prof. Yamaguchi often praises his students.)
M #£Du—%&fiiLk°
#H9fi—%2fiiLk°
Kaori wa Ichir6
Ichiro 0 damashita.
(Kaori deceived Ichiro.)
%fl$&%Wk.
M %fi$&%Wk.
Boku wa hon 0 kaita.
(I wrote a book.)
(d) —El§li71~E D9 lC.Z7J-7ER°o7‘:<>

—-El§l'i59~l:' l:Z7J—7%_*%¢7‘.:°
Ichiro wa Midori ni sukafu
sukéfu o0 yatta.
(Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)
M fifiF72%UTBwk°
(B) %Lt:tl<72l3fiU'C:rsv\f.:..
Watashi wa doa 0 akete oita.
(I kept the door open.)
Although direct objects are marked by the particle 0, nouns or noun phrases
marked by 0 are not always direct objects, as shown in (f) and (g). (=>
(=:> 02; 0‘)
W %¥u—%ok$A%E%wfi.
%¥m—%®k¥A$&€hfi.
Hanako wa Ichiro no daigakunydgaku o0 yorokonda.
(Hanako was glad that Ichiro entered college.)
®
(8) rAu%®fiQ@&$wTwk.
I~Al1%¢>fli¥i.‘@"&$\/‘Tl/‘f¢..
Tomu wa sono toki koen
kden 0 aruite ita.
(At that time Tom was walking in the park.)
"reams 5
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
Double Particle A sequence of two particles. The first particle is usually
a case particle and the second is an adverbial particle such as wa ‘topic / con-
trast marker’, mo ‘ also, even’, and shika ‘only’.
n i)‘§‘Ih\5l1B5l'1='é</wb§§Efc.,
(91) ianbmmwsnfikn,
Tokyo kara wa Tanaka-san ga kita.
(Lit. From Tokyo Mr. Tanaka came.)
filtk ii 7-
(b) filii 3/ct =b§%l,T:..,
7"-3/at-'6%fil,T.:.,
Watashi wa Miro-san to mo hanashita.
(I talked with Mr. Miller, too.)
Embedded Sentence A sentence within another sentence is an embedded

sentence. The bold-faced part of each sentence below is the embedded sen-
tence. An embedded sentence is marked by a subordinate conjunction such
as kara ‘because’, keredomo ‘‘although’,
although’, node ‘because’, noni ‘although
‘although’,’,
to ‘if’, the quote marker to ‘that’, a nominalizer (no or koto) or the head
noun of a relative clause.
@ mfiflfififivtéoko
(8) lllB3l:k§E1J<7$L\<‘;,'%‘o7‘:.,
Yamada wa atama ga itai to itra.
itta.
(Yamada said that he had a headache.)
M mwufififiuoréfiewnn.
mmmfifiauorimawnfi.
Yamada wa atama ga itai node gakko 0 yasunda.
(Yamada didn’t go to school, because he had a headache.)
M mmn%Emfi<omfifl%fi.
mmu%@tfi<ofikfisfi.
Yamada wa gaikoku ni iku no ga dai-sukida.
(Yamada loves to go to a foreign country.)
(d) ll-lf£lli§$"¢"§oT:: t 7)§ib%»..

llll':l5lliE$’§'§'.>T:C. l:75§ZlbZ>°
Yamada wa karate 0 naratta koto ga aru.
(Yamada has learned karate before.)
Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In this

dictionary the term “ heater” is used in a broader sense to mean the person
to whom the speaker or the writer communicates.
Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command, as

in Hanase! ‘ Talkl’, Taberol
Tabero! ‘ Eat it!’, Shire!
Shirol ‘ Do it!’ or /(oi!
K0i! ‘ Comel’.
6 GRAMMATICAL TERMS
Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun which does not refer to something specifi-
cally. No in B’s sentence in (a) is an indefinite pronoun. Here, no is used for
jisho ‘ dictionary’, but does not refer to a specific dictionary.
(a) Ar
(11) A: E/o>’.cS¥%r)‘i2$kLv\/o'C'-i-25>,
EA/>‘.c$¥%2b§iii<L\/\/.rC"i"r)>.,
Donna jisho ga hoshii n desu ka.
(What kind of dictionary do you want?)
B1
BI /]~é< v\0)7)3i'§kLv\A/'61",
/l~&<v\0>:b‘i§J<l,v~/we-';-O
Chisai no ga hoshii n desu.
(I want a small one.)
Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The
action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the subject
of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta ‘ ran’ in (a) is an intransitive
verb because the action of running is related only to the subject.
(Cp. Transitive Verb)
(a)
(8-) £%7|<é< /olifio 1:.
£1’-i7l<éA,lifioT:.,
Suzuki-san wa hashitta.
(Mr. Suzuki ran.)
Intransitive verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku ‘go’, kuru ‘ come
come’,’,
aruku ‘ walk’, tobu ‘ fly’, noru ‘get onto’), spontaneous change (such as naru
‘ become’, kawaru ‘ change ’, tokeru ‘ melt’, fukuramu ‘ swell’, hajimaru ‘ be-
gin ’), human emotion (such as yorokobu ‘ rejoice’, sad’,’, omou
rejoice ’, kanashimu ‘ feel sad
‘ feel’), and birth / death (such as umareru ‘ be born’, shinu ‘ die
die’).
’).
(=:>
(=> Appendix 3)
I-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with i.

Examples of i-type adjectives are takai ‘ high, expensive ’ and tsuyoi ‘ strong
strong’,’,
as seen in (a). (Cp. Na-type Adjective)
(8-) ii%ib\1l§1
(*1) §b‘1l§
takai hon
(an expensive book)
5fiL\)k
5'fil.\)\
tsuyoi hito
(a strong person)
/-type adjectives are further subdivided into two types: i-type adjectives which
end with shi-i and those with non-shi-i endings. Most adjectives with Shi-i
GRAMMATICAL TERMS 7
endings express human emotion (such as ureshii ‘ happy ’, kanashii ‘ sad ’,
sabishii ‘lonely
‘ lonely ’, kurushii ‘ painful’); the non-shi-i adjectives are used for ob-
jective descriptions (such as kuroi ‘ black’,
black ’, shiroi ‘ white ’, hiroi ‘ spacious ’, takai
‘ high, expensive ’).
Na-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with
na. For example, shizukada ‘ quiet’ and genkida ‘ healthy ’ are na-type adjec-
tives, as in (a). (Cp. /-type
I-type Adjective)
W
M fimfii
fi#fi%
shizukana ie
(a quiet house)
i%uA
iioA
genkina hito
(a healthy person)
Na-type adjectives are very similar to nouns. Some na-type adjectives can
be used as real nouns as shown in (b). All na-type adjectives behave as nouns
when they are used before the copula da, as shown in (c).
M
W §&uk$r+;.
E$mfi$TTl°
Kenko wa daijidesu
da/jidesu yo.
(Health is important, you know.)
E§uA
Ca eaax
kenkona hito
(a healthy person)
:fiwuEnaan.
rfiwufinian.
Go-shinsersu
Go-shinsetsu wa wasuremasen.
(I'll never forget your kindness.)
fiflfik
Co fifltk
shinsetsuna hito
(a kind person)
Cflkdifi/$5lfilfilfiotlfbklBet“/Drbvifi
M :@Auii/$2{n/r+/n@n/rbn/been/ueavae
h/Uofifivk/Do%DithTLkJ
/v/ l;1<>f.cr)>-.->f.:/ IL-vi) 9 i-ti‘/~/C‘ Lice}
Kono hito wa genki / gakusei [da
{da / desu I/ datta / deshita / janai / jaari-
jaar/I
masen / janakatta / jaarimasendesh/'ta.}
jaarimasendeshita]
(This person {is / was / isn't
isn’t / wasn't} healthy / a student.)
Nominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a noun

phrase or clause. There are two nominalizers no and koto: the former rep-
resents the speaker’s empathetic feeling towards an event / state expressed in the
nominalized noun phrase / clause; the latter represents the speaker’s relatively
anti-empathetic feeling towards an event
event/I state. (=:>
(=0 no”;
no“; kotoi)
koto’)
Noun Phrase / Clause _

_ _ Particle Pl'C(1lC3lZ6
Predicate
Sentence Nominalizer
H¢%2%o
tililsiézt-an o/ca
<1) / ze ti
:1 nub,
$1/Io.
Nihongo o yomu no / koto wa muzukashii.
(Reading Japanese is difficult.)
The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an ordinary noun
or a noun phrase //clause
clause can be used.
Passive Sentence A sentence which describes an action by someone from

the viewpoint of someone else who is affected by that action. (Cf. Active
Sentence) (a) and (b) are passive sentences.
w fluewmsnnn,
(8) flli 1:’/I/l:'.,SIT:h/f:.,
Watashi wa Biru ni butareta.
(I was beaten by Bill.)
(b) 7l<El§l1fi(¥‘lCllI79>1l‘LTC<>
(bl i<E|§li?J<¥l:iiZh>tw‘:.,
Taro wa Akiko ni nakareta.
(Lit. Taro was annoyed by the fact that Akiko cried. (=Taro was an-
noyed by Akiko’s crying.))
Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence in the sense of

‘can do s.t.’ The formation is as follows:
Gr. 1 Verbs Vcond+Zn
Vcond+%'> e.g. 33-ti-Z;
33-ti-Z, ‘can talk’
ru hanase-ru
Gr. 2 Verbs Vstem+ l'o1l’bZ>
I511/Z» e.g. Q/<
fi*<l"o1lLZ>
511,?» ‘can eat’
rareru tabe-rareru
Vstem+zh,Z;'>
Vstem+i1,Zs e.g. Q-<;h,Z>
Q/<h,Zs ‘can eat’
reru tabe-reru
Irr. Verbs 5152)
5E5 51% 611,6
§]E 531,2; ‘ can come ’
kuru korareru
%na2:.
sleh.
koreru
GRAMMATICAL TERMS 9
+5
-#5 flj5]EZ>
];lj;]E%, ‘can do’
‘can do’
suru dekiru
Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the sub-
ject. The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an adjective, or a
noun followed by a form of the copula da. Optionally, objects and other adjec-
tival and / or adverbial modifiers may be present. In (a), (b) and (c) the predi-
cates are printed in bold type.
M @$snu;<mE&Ee.
(4) lfillié /oliJ: ( B5l&E’&E.?a°
Matsumoto-san wa yoku eiga 0 o miru.
(Mr. Matsumoto sees movies often.)
M iFLO)%'li
(b) fl®%UXEZéh®$UfiLU°
Z 5'. Z '5/v0)JZ ")fiLL\o
Watashi no ie wa Sumisu-san no yon’
yori atarashii.
(My house is newer than Mr. Smith’s.)
Smith's.)
@ vavuB$%w$ieT.
vavmB$%w$icT.
Jon wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
(John is a student of Japanese language.)
Prenominal Form The verb /adjective form which immediately precedes

a noun and modifies it. The bold-faced verb and adjectives in (a), (b), (c) and
(d) are prenominal forms.
@ fifi%C/fihfi%%
M asap/annaa
watashi ga yomu / yonda shinbun
(the newspaper I read)
M
(b) Xifl/i%#ot%
J'<=8l-‘/7<=é'1J\1>f:%<’
okii / okikatta ie
(a big house / a house which used to be big)
M
(0) fififi/fifiEotE%
Ililifi‘ /Ililifiofzliw
rippana / rippadatta tatemono
(a magnificent building / a building which used to be magnificent)
w
(dl suteoa/auteafisne-4
$$L\L‘€57aT /$$L\L*E5T:'o1':'7~—=’€-
oishisona / oishisodatta kéki
(a delicious-looking cake / a cake which looked delicious)
Punctual Verb A verb that represents a momentary action which either
occurs once, as in (a), or can be repeated continuously, as in (b).
(a) 9315
£125 ‘ get to know ’
shiru
Ran
EEK; ‘ die ’
shinu
tea 58
the ‘ begin’
hajimaru
Ft,‘-51:5-§" I5
{£5115-T2; ‘ get married ’
kekkonsuru
-‘(>36 5
-(>2!) Z, ‘ stop s.t.’
yameru
[£143
{Q5 ‘ resemble ’
niru
at-r
(b) am“ ‘drop’
otosu
1,-3'5 ‘pluck off’
4,55
mogiru
I)‘ Z;
H 6 ‘ kick ’
keru
EB»?
its-S4 ‘jump’
tobu
flo
#1‘0 ‘ hit ’
utsu
With the auxiliary verb iru (i.e., irui),
iru’), the punctual verbs in (a) express a state
after an action was taken, and those as in (b) express either a repeated action or
a state after an action was taken. (=:> Appendix 2)
(=>
Stative Verb A verb which represents a state of something or someone at

some point in time, as in (a). (=:> Appendix 2)
(=>
(a) be
M as
aru
(exist (of inanimate things))
I/)6
I/\Z>
iru
(exist (of animate things))
GRAMMATICAL "reams ll
L(HZ)
\ Z)
iru
iflu
(need)
lilélé Z»
lil5l€?5
dekiru
cfimbvu
(can do)
Subject The subject is an element of a sentence which indicates an agent

of an action in active sentences (as in (a)) or an experiencer of an action (as in
(b)) or someone or something that is in a state or a situation (as in (c), (d), (e)
and (f)). The subject is normally marked by the particle ga in Japanese unless
it is the sentence topic.
(a.)
(a) ‘J a ‘/7)§
I/753 D9 /t/.’_'2fi*<i’:.,
/v~."I.'E’fi*\'T:°
Jon ga ringo o tabeta.
(John ate an apple.)
(b) —1b55‘E;$lC.libb fofbfcs
X 7 U -7§§5'E;EI£lCl18(J Ehfco
Mean’ ga sensei ni homerareta.
Meari
(Mary was praised by her teacher.)
(c) "J"
1' ‘/
3/ ~“/-11
"/-ii %i1A/\7‘;’,
‘$5.11/\r\T.f°
Nanshi wa kireida.
(Nancy is pretty.)
(d) l~‘7:b‘iF;=flv~T.:,
l~‘77)§f5fi I/\7‘.:,,
Doa ga aita.
(The door opened.)
W 1iL1)§—-’>§>Z>..
(6) m#—0%%.
Tsukue ga hitotsu aru.
(Lit. One table exists. (=There is a table.))
(f) 219*?‘/‘O
E133?‘/‘O
Sara ga aoi.
(The sky is blue.)
Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause with

a subordinate conjunction. Typical subordinate conjunctions are ba ‘if’, kara
‘because’, node ‘because’, keredo ‘ although’ and noni ‘ although’. Thus,
in (a) below, the bold-faced clause with the subordinate conjunction node is
embedded into the main clause Nakayama-san wa gakko o yasunda, ‘Mr.
Nakayama was absent from school.’
12 GRAMMATICAL
cnammarrcm. TERMS
M
a Wmsnufififimotwrfifiewnfi.
nmsxaamaosnoeaaaaxa.
Nakayama-san wa atama ga itakatta node gakko o0 yasunda.
(Mr. Nakayama was absent from school because he had a headache.)
The informal form of a verb / adjective is usually used in a subordinate clause.
Transitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually expresses

an action that acts upon s.o. or s.t. indicated by the direct object. Actions in-
dicated by transitive verbs include real causatives (such as ikaseru ‘make /
let s.o. go’, korosu ‘kill’, miseru ‘show’, nakasu ‘make s.o. cry cry’,’, noseru
‘ put, place ’), exchange (such as ageru ‘ give ’, morau ‘ receive ’, kureru ‘ give ’),
creation (such as tsukuru ‘ make ’, kaku ‘ write ’, kangaeru ‘think
‘ think ’), communica-
tion (such as hanasu ‘speak ’, oshieru ‘‘teach
teach’,’, tsutaeru ‘ convey a message’)
and others. Note that some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Japanese.
(3) $Lli$n§35%».=.
(8) iFLli$75§§>5<>
Watashi wa kuruma ga aru.
(Lit. With me a car exists. (=1 have a car.))
(=I
l.%c1tsfir>§t\Z.>.
(b) (%li2‘o‘fir)§(.\Z~»..
Boku wa o-kane
0-kane ga iru.
(Lit. To me money is necessary. (=1 need money.))
(=I
xsxsnu¢@%m9m&.
@ zazsnu¢@%#9m&.
chdgokugo ga wakaru.
Sumisu-san wa chfigokugo
(Lit. To Mr. Smith Chinese is understandable. (:= Mr. Smith understands
Chinese.))
W Ht:
(d) flu77vz%#&Lw$%.
7 5 :/zifihiw l,tli§lE?a..
Watashi wa furansugo ga sukoshi dekiru.
(Lit. To me French is a bit possible. (=1 can speak French a little.))
(=I
M
(6) *Ténui§vnQénu%@t.
j<_Fé/v(ifij]':'C'$5'§c<'§h/lC.€':1>TZo
Kinoshita-san wa Tokyo de o-to-san
0-to-san hi
ni atta.
(Mr. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.)
M
(f) fiuuswnmciaoot.
flick:/</1/ab‘;-&‘l-Z;§'.f.i‘15\of:,
Watashi ni wa beru ga kikoenakatta.
(Lit. To me the bell wasn’t audible. (=1 wasn’t able to hear the bell.))
M
(8) zzmadgiwfifiiiflo
C C 75* 6li'§§:l:lilrb‘§E.i.$'§'..l:o
Koko kara wa Fujisan ga miemasu yo.
(Lit. From here Mt. Fuji is visible. (=We can see Mt. Fuji from here.))
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
reams 13
flénfififinivibt.
(h) iFLi§li%‘i$4‘#§&c§ ‘J i Lt.
Watashitachi wa shinkansen ni norimashita.
norimashira
(We rode a bullet train.)
%Lt1EH::lL1'C no 6 L I/‘O
(i) ?Llif3fIC{L1'CI'\5 tn.
nireiru rashii.
Watashi wa haha ni niteiru
(It seems that I resemble my mother.)
Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses his will. The

main verb in such sentences is in the volitional form, as in (a).
ffirbific 5 /iii? La 5..

W %#fiC5/fiiibroo
M
Boku ga iko / ikimasho.
(I will go.)
WH-question A question that asks for information about who, what, where,
which, when, why and how, as exemplified by (a) through (f) below.
(Cp. Yes-No Question)
M
(4) Eérbifléi L Tenn,
'§E7b3§lEiLf:.2b><,
Dare ga kimashita ka.
(Who came here?)
(b) fi&fi~i+n.
M {Fl ea-<1-4-iv».
rabemasu ka.
Nani o tabemasu
(What will you eat?)
(6) Ecmfieifm,
M Ezmfiaimmo
Doko ni ikimasu ka.
(Where are you going?)
M
(d) ooaw~ava+a.
uoxm~aoa+».
Itsu Osaka e kaerimasu ka.
(When are you going back to Osaka?)
M E5 L'C§bY’.£l/‘/1/'C‘1“h>.,
(6) L'CEbf.;:v\/v'c=*;~1)=,
Doshite kawanai n desu ka.
(How come you don’t buy it?)
M fiTiL’(§R’\liE5fi"é' i'9“75"<.~.
(f) iffiio
Tokyo eki e wa do ikimasu ka.
(How can I get to Tokyo Station?)
14 GRAMMATICAL reams
TERMS
WH-word An interrogative word which corresponds to English words such

as who, what, where, which, when, why and how. The following are some ex-
amples.
(3) Eifi
M Eli ‘‘Who’
who ’
dare
{H
ffl‘ ‘ what ’
nani / nan
E ;C
E '_‘_ ‘‘ where
where ’’
doko
\/W)
tn’) ‘ when ’
itsu
E5 1,1‘ 2*;-if
l,'C / 253-3? ‘how come / why’
doshite / naze
E5 ‘ how ’
do
Note that Japanese WH-words are not always found in sentence-initial position;
they are frequently found after a topic noun phrase, as shown in (b) and (c)
below.
(b) $0’) 5 <7)/3-‘?
$0) V)/4"-7' 44' '-lCli?E7)3§IEi
"-lC.li?E7335lEi LT:7)>°
LT:7b>o
Kino no pa'ti
pan’ ni wa dare ga kimashita ka.
(Lit. To yesterday’s party, who came there? (=Who came to yesterday’s
party?))
Cp- tibiae)
Eérbié 0 5 r/>»<’--7
e>»<’-—%'- 4 ——lc;I&i
—i:;§i L ran»,
Ten»,
Dare ga kino no poti
péti ni kimashira
kimashita ka.
(Who came to yesterday’s party?)
(c) El7l§'C‘li‘l5I"é: L i LT:7b><,
El7Ii'(’l;H5IEf I/7’:n*°
Nihon de wa nani 0o shimashira
shimashita ka.
(Lit. In Japan what did you do? (=What did you do in Japan?))
Cp. {FIE
(FIE: El2lI'(‘
Elli’? Li Lf:.'.2b>,,
LT.:7)=.,
Nani o nihon de shimashita ka.
(What did you do in Japan?)
Yes-No Question A question that can be answered by hai / é ‘yes’ or

ie ‘no’. (Cp. WH-question) Examples follow:
(8) AI
A1 _l:l5H é /vlifléi L7‘:.r)=-O
_I::ff5l~=l</1/li§lEil.,7‘.:7)~.,
Ueda-san wa kimashitakimashira ka.
(Did Mr. Ueda come?)
onammarrcar.
GRAMMATICAL TERMS 15
B:
Bi lit/\, 5lEELT:.,
(iv), Eléibfco
Hai. kimashita.
Hai,
(Yes, he did.)
(b) A:
A= §%1<F§/vl:I'i§ii‘("§‘7)*,,
@avi<a/waii-c-1-a~.
Suzuki-san wa gakusei desu ka
ka.
(Is Mr. Suzuki a student?)
B: vw\:2'.,
vw~:‘r., ‘E
-'6 5 I;=<=:bD $11-/V,
(Le?) D iii‘/oo
/'e,
le. so ja arimasen.
(No, he isn't.)
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar
1. Word Order
Japanese is typologically classified as an SOV (Subject+Object+Verb)
language, whereas English is classified as SVO. An important fact about
Japanese word order is that each sentence ends in a verb, an adjective or a
form of the copula, and that the order of the other sentence elements is rela-
tively free, except for the topic noun or noun phrase, which normally comes
at sentence-initial position. A sample sentence follows.
(1)
E
(St‘(;b{€§‘
?t‘(:g%‘3‘ Location Direct Object Verb (transitive)
P
Xixé/V
2 /ll zéb §i1
7i-13 B111 §r'
T EI1l=%U
Bi“ U
2 9ai15'aLrv\zs.
%%LTw5
Sum/su | san gwa
Sumisu-san wa NI/70/7
Nihon de I7!/70/7
nihongo Qo o benk Yosh/re iru
benkyoshite iru.
(Mr. Smith is studying Japanese in Japan.)
The Location and the Direct Object can be switched, but the Subject (topic)
and the Verb must normally be in sentence-initial and sentence-final positions,
respectively.
The word order principle for Japanese is the modifier precedes what is mod-
ified. This principle holds whether the modified word is dependent or fully
independent. The function of the modifier is to specify the meaning of the
modified word. Thus, in (1), the verb benkyoshite iru ‘is studying’ is modified
by the preceding elements Subject, Location and Direct Object. Observe the
following phrases and clauses.
(2)
‘2’ A'
dject i ve
Adjective Nounn
Nou ‘3’ Noun Phrase
, .v\
i)'f<\/\ i Relative Clause Noun
aka'
k kkuruma . _ _ ,
6 8‘’
IIHI uruma ac
5C vb1:» =50)?
am :3-mi;
i=i’E/vT 21:
ii
(a red car) C/7IC/7!
chichi ga k/no
kino yonda hon
(a book which my father read yesterday)

cnanacrmusrrcs or JAPANESE GRAMMAR
CHARACTERISTICS 17
‘4’
(4) Noun Particle ‘5’ Subordinate Clause
7;
2 i 7;
23 5 1,,
AJ [1 Sentence Conjunction
I I
Sumisu-san wa
Elli’; ~ fi<
I\_-
as
(Mr.
( M r Smith (topic)) Nihon
NI/70/7 e iku
ku kara
;; ;< _-5 /V
zizéh 75‘;
m (Because I go to Japan)
Sumisu-san
Sumisu san ga
B7? A T?
’\ "< U11’!/8
D‘a‘1/E
(Mr.
(MP Smith (subject))
5m1fh($llbJ¢¢i)) Nihon e iku keredo
7, ;< 5 /V
xizéh (Although I go to JJapan)
apan)
Sum/su san
Sumisu-san
E1118 *\ fi<
I\-.
a
(Mr Smith (object))
(Mr. N/hon
Nihon 9e ku
iku to
—"l
zizéb
2 23/V b (When I go to Japan)
Sum/su san
Sumisu-san m
mo __
Elli '\fi<
-/\'/\/\ as
T;
(Mr.
(MP Smith also)
3150) Nihon
NI/70/7 e iku
ku nara
nara
| til:-‘
;< 7, 3 /V
zizéb [.1 (If you go to Japan)
SUITIISU san
Sumisu-san
Note: A subordinate
din clause precedes
(to
(t0 / by / from M1‘ S mith)
Mr. Smith) 3a main clause,
clause.
I
zizéb
2 2 é /U #5
Sumisu-san
$1/!T"$U $6" kara
/“"8
5‘ -= ’ Nominalized Noun Phrase
(from
(ifflm Mr.
Ml‘ Smith) Sentence Nominalizer
2 ~'=‘ 2 é /V
zizéb ID =1
%§'é
IDIII _'_1Il
_IIJ
1II3 23; '1<
2 fi=fi< E‘
S6
coo" G’0"‘-/ _' f2:*. .2
Q (yr.\:
Sumisu-san
$umI8U-San yori
of! ongaku o kiku no// koto
no
M
((more
((m0l'6 ~) '§.*s--
than Mr.
"H113" M1‘ 2.
<>'‘or¢=PI*".‘:?<. Smith)
Si- mith)
la+a+ _ :\
-_j\
____:\
___.:\
_ ‘Tim
(to listen / listening to music)
Pr- .
I _
In (2) and (3) where the modified word is an independent noun the basic
principle holds; in (4) (5) and (6) where the second element is a dependent word,
such as a particle, conjunction, or nominalizer, the basic modificational principle
also holds, because the meaning of the modified word is fully specified by the mod-
ofthe
ifier. Unlike independent words, however, dependent words require modifiers.
It is important for students of Japanese to recognize and understand some
of the most basic Japanese sentence types and their word order. Examples of
these basic sentence types are given below:
18 CHARACTERISTICS or JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(7) a. Xwa Yda /Xga Y da ‘Speaking of X, X is Y/It is X that is Y’
YdaIXgaYda Y
X (subject / topic) Prt Y Copula
EH ‘P 3 /v
[P 5 /V ti
li 3-E
-}'- TTi
/ “C‘("32
‘T
Tanaka
Tanaka-sansan wa gakusei da I/ desu
desu. o_
(Mr Tanaka is a student)

(Mr. student.)
(In answer to the question: Who is a student?)

X (subject) Prt Y Copula
HilFPé/V
EEIFPé</v 2); IE
E
ék
+ rs/1--r.
T T1‘
Tanaka san
Tanaka-san g
ga gakusei da / desu.
daldesu
(Lit It is Mr.
(Lit. Mr Tanaka who is a student.
student
(=Mr Tanaka is a student
(=Mr. ))
student.))
b. =(1) SOV
=(1) sov
c.
C s Adj
S Adj
._____
Subject (topic) Prt Adi (1)
Adj (i)
iL|JIIa/V
lillllé/v ti %v /%v~r*J"
%v\ /£1/\'C**J“. O
O.
O"1
O.
Yamaka wa-san wa W8/<8! /I wakaidesu.

wakai wakaidesu
(Mr Yamakawa is young.)
(Mr. young)
[F
°’.-<1
.
. urt.
Subject (topic) Prt (ha)
Adj (na)
mm s /U
llllllé/V (1 fairs
'7T:%"i\T /aaa-c-1r.
.E
/7"i':"s‘i‘('C*l‘
__ I PF
.H_ ‘ ti0 .
°--
Yamakawa-san
Yamaka wa-san wa genkida /I genkidesu.
genkldesu
. I
. ..
(Mr Yamakawa is healthy.)

(Mr. healthy)
d. X wa Y ga ~ ‘Speaking of X, Y ~’
X (topic, experiencer) Prt Y Prt Predicate
Ill‘-IE5! :5 /V
Iliflié/V ti
ii -r
" :: 2
7-=2 n§
25* _I:$f:f
_l:$f;' /11$ ‘C"To
/ _l:$'C'*l‘..
Honda-san wa tenisu ga jozuda I/ jozudesu.
(Mr. Honda is good at tennis.)
CHARACTERISTICS or
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 19
X We Pm<>i> EB
X (topic, possessor) Prt Y Prt Predicate
a
% ii
ii a
i vb‘"
75* Ev
E in // E
an-c--r.
we To
Zo wa hana ga nagai I/ nagaidesu.
(An elephant has a long trunk.)
e. (=Subject+Verb)
SV (= Subject+ Verb)
Subject (topic) Prt Verb (intransitive)
zszs/V
2 ~:~: 25b (1la‘ is-at
$135 i:la: fi<
' /near.
#1
fi</“éif O
Sumisu-san wa gakko ni iku I/ ikimasu.
(Mr. Smith goes to school.) P
f. LS V (= Location + Subject + Verb)

LSV
(topic)
Location (topic) Prt Prt Subject Prt Quantity Verb (existence)
#14
cow (ll) (1 fir? mi* --
:1/> be/boat.
Kono machi (ni)
(hi) wa daigaku ga futatsu aru I arimasu.
aru/arimasu.
(In this town there are two universities.)
g. SLV
SL (=Subject+Location+Verb)
V (= Subject + Location + Verb)
Subject (topic)
EM
Prt Location Prt Quantity Verb (existence)
X?"”‘
XX?‘ ii
li crows
C 0) HT cc
(C :.->
:10 as/mat.
Z5 / $3 9 ii‘;-o
T)
Daigaku wa kono machi ni futarsu

futatsu aru I/ arimasu.
(Speaking of universities, there are two of them in this town.)
Finally, as shown in the following diagram, any major element listed ver-
tically in (1) through (8) can be a topic marked by wa. The element with a
lower number tends to be used towards the beginning of a sentence. The order
of elements within the predicate is usually much more pomplex than that
shown below. An adverb, which is omitted in the chart, can be positioned
at any place before the Core Predicate, as long as it is positioned before or after
NP+Prt. The normal position for an adverb, however, is right before the
word it modifies.
___wUo__m%%_”_gcu_'8Q_U_c3lg8m
“Z“E00
E
grgzv %_A%_UEa£§_
L
gomcorfig
Amozv
B200
NU=UQ_ n_
\_ %U°‘_
:_wUO>
_ EU5;‘
“_ ;:
3Mb
“E
A2Q E2
_HcotCcQuwuwmm
_\ oo§E_o5_u:Uaa6%HO
H830“gig:
\
_8_5°m
_8_5Om
“Bog
HBO“
MCESE
MCEEWH
mz
_EQ
\
_ Cm=$_>z
°m§UO‘_H
rEta
T0030
“Ea
ouse
HCOEUOQH
EOEUQE
H2
Q5z FEEL
mE Tgfigg
T8332 “E
mz$3
TEE mEz mzmm
mm “E2 H8__6H
A2“EO
El ANT 5' 5| GT GT E’ 5|
CHARACTERISTICS or JAPANESE GRAMMAR 21
2. Topic
Topic is a key concept in understanding Japanese. Roughly speaking, the
topic of a sentence is what the sentence is about. For example, in (1), the topic
is Hanako and the rest of the sentence provides information about Hanako.
(1) 7lE¥‘liI'ii'(‘*l“.>
?l§:l"'li'$§l~':I'C"T'<>
Hanako wa gakusei desu.
(Hanako is a student.)
[(Speaking of Hanako,) Hanako is a student.]
Topics are presented using various topic-marking devices. Among these,

wa is the most frequent marker. (For other topic-markers, see wal (l:t).)
wa‘ (11).)
When a topic is presented it must be something both the speaker and the
hearer can identify from their knowledge. Usually a topic is something that
has been mentioned in a previous discourse, something the speaker and the
hearer perceive through their five senses, a proper noun or a generic noun,
as seen in (2).
M
m &
a ge,—A®$twéh#Eb?wiLk,Btuéhfltfbfiifi
ga,—Aoxuwénfi&nvwxLn.Buuanuartfiir
‘G L720
I,7‘.:., (O-ji-san was mentioned previously.)
Mukashimukashi. hitori
h/‘tori no o-ji-san ga sunde imashita. 0-ii-san
0-ji-san
wa toremo
totemo binbodeshita.
(Once upon a time, there lived an old man. The old man was very
poon)
b. C1'Ll:I1iFLO)/<
C.1‘Lli$l.0)/< ‘/“('11,
‘/'61“, (Kore is what the speaker and the hearer see.)
Kore wa watashi no pen desu.
(This is my pen.)
¢-
6- §%7l<3/vliEl7lI)K'C"§‘.,
$%7l<3/uliEl2l§1)\'C"§‘., (Suzuki-san is a proper noun.)
Suzuki-san wa nihonjin desu.
(Mr. Suzuki is Japanese.)
d.
€i- <( [I512-Iii:-';I=L§)J1lh.I'C"§‘.,
[;E>(3:li:‘;=L§)]%'(=-;',, (Kujira is a generic noun.)
Kujira wa honyodobutsu desu.
(Whales are mammals.)
In general, any noun phrase (N

(NP)P) can be topicalized, although subject NPs
are the ones most frequently topicalized. (3) presents additional examples. As
seen below, when an NP is topicalized, the particle which follows may or may
not be retained depending on the particle.
M
W 8
m zizénmfiiofiéibks
2i2éAUB$~fi€iLkO
Sumisu-sah
Sumisu-san wa Nihon e ikimashita.
(Mr. Smith went to Japan.)
b- %0JB9&El;t
%0DB9&Elii>b 5E.i
‘ififii Liz,
Lia,
Soho
Sono eiga wa mo mimashita.
(I already saw the movie.)
¢-
6- E11l§('\
El1li('\ / IZ)I1i7‘ffi‘0TCC
lZ)li$T.:ffi'-o7‘:C. <2
<‘: 7)§f.rv\.,
h37.i’:v\,,
Nihon (e /I ni) wa mada itta koto ga hai.
(I haven’t been to Japan yet.)
d. 2 9¥l:|;l£7l§E&>lff:.,,
$9?-lllilliéhplffco
Marika
Mariko ni wa hon o ageta.
(To Mariko, I gave a book.)
c.
.e. 71iJ\"E>lzI:2 i-ii 2
72* U 71h\5l;I:;< 2‘-_</vzbialéfco
z é_</v7)§;lé7‘:..,
Amerika kara wa Smisu-sah
Smisu-san ga kita.
(As for ((lit.) from) America, Mr. Smith came (from there).)
Finally, in discourse, once a topic is established, it does not need to be re-
peated unless another topic is presented. Consider the following passage, con-
sisting of four sentences (a) -— (d) in (4).
M
(4) a
a. X%Hifi7%Unnfiok:t#&wo
i<EBliiT.:f7'2' ‘J hlcfiofcl .&:n‘=i>'.rl/‘O
ni itta koto ga nai.
Taro wa mada Amerika hi hai.
(Taro has not been to America yet.)
b. v\'>bfi€\'2‘.:v\<‘:E'>'Cv\Z>n§i=5$2b‘§f.:v\2b=6i“?&7‘f..¢\/M.
wet,fi%f;y\<‘;.%->'Cv\Z>h§2‘dfih§f.cv\h~6?’rl7‘f.rv\.,
ltsumo ikitai to omotte iru ga o-kane ga nai
/(sumo ikenai.
hai kara ikehai.
(He always thinks he wants to go, but since he has no money, he
cannot go.)
0
6- sxenmwwraeenwnswaao.
&’$3C3/vldllilll/"Ci=5§:’&T:lPb?.C L’-S I1‘ 8% 5 O
O-to-san wa hararaite
0-to-san hataraite o-kane o tamehasai
tamenasai to iu.
(His father tells him to work and save money.)
rsxmufixénmafiawbrnbwofi,
¢ vbiflufifiénnfifiéwbrfibwmfio
o-to-san hi
Demo Taro wa o-to-sah ni o-kane o dashite hoshii no
ho da.
(But Taro wants his father to give him money.)
Here, (4a) introduces a topic, Taro. Since (4b) is a statement about Taro and
Taro is an established topic at this point, Taro wa does not have to be repeated
o-to-san. Since this topic is still
here. (4c), however, presents a new topic, 0-to-san.
in effect when the topic returns to Taro in (4d), Taro wa has to be reintroduced.
A topic must also be presented if a sentence is the first sentence of a new para-
graph, even if the last sentence of the preceding paragraph has the same topic.
3. Ellipsis
In language it is universally observed that strategies exist to minimize the
effort of conveying messages. The most common strategies are ellipsis, contrac-
tion, abbreviation and the use of pronouns. Of these, ellipsis (i.e., the omission
of words) is the most efficient and occurs frequently in Japanese.
Generally speaking, elements which can be understood from the context
and /I or from the situation can be omitted in Japanese unless ellipsis makes the
sentence ungrammatical. For example, in (1), B does not repeat Taro wa and
sono mise de because they can be understood.
(1) A: i<EI§l1"c</)J'§'C'(FI’2Ev\i bras».
JZQEISI:-.1:"é'0)I'5'C*fFI’&Ev\iL7‘:h>,_.,
Taro wa sono mise de nani
hahi o kaimashita ka.
(What did Taro buy at the store?)
B: /<2/‘£51/\il,T:.,
/<‘/ail/\il,f:.,
Pen o kaimashita.
Peh
(He bought a pen.)
Kaimashita, however, cannot be omitted in normal conversation even though

it can be understood here, because Japanese sentences (or clauses) must end with
a core predicate (that is, either a verb, an adjective or a noun phrase which is
followed by a form of the copula). Therefore, without the core predicate kai-
mashita, this sentence is ungrammatical. (In informal conversation, B might
reply “pen” in answer to A’s question, but an answer of this sort is con-
sidered abrupt.)
The following are some general rules of ellipsis in Japanese.
(A) If X is the topic of a sentence (often marked by wa) and it is also the
topic of the sentence which follows it, X can be omitted in the second
sentence. (See (4) in 2. Topic.)
(B) In question-and-answer discourse, if an element X is shared in the
question and the answer, X can be omitted in the answer unless X is
the core predicate. Example:
(2) A:
A= E412-.=/.,i1m=>‘u.:§l&"c
EH=P.~*s/..m*_w>~>‘u.:;l&r < hi i,r.:»=.
um».
Tanaka-san wa mukae hi
ni kite kuremashita ka.
(Did Mr. Tanaka come to pick you up?)
B I
BI lil/‘, §l€'C'
lik‘, §lE'(' < hi L72,
l/7:,
Hai. kite kuremashita.
(Yes, he did.)
24 CHARACTERISTICS or
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(3) A: $>Y’.i’:T:l:-3:72‘ ‘J 7Jl:v\f:B?i°.

ib7.:7‘:li72* 7Jl~:v\7‘:B#. $5'£'C'LT:7)~,,
’ii"C'LT:;n>,,
Ana ta wa Amerika hi
Ahata ni ita toki gakusei deshita ka.
(Were you a student when you were in America?)
B :
lit/\,
til/\, "E
"’c 5 /$E
/$5 'C‘L7‘:,
'C'L7‘:,, (So is more commonly used.)
Hai, so /I gakusei deshita.
(Yes, I was.)
(Refer again to (1). In yes-no question situations, even predicates can be
omitted in very informal conversation.)
(C) If the referent of X is something very close to the speaker and the
hearer, and X can be understood from the context and I/ or the situation,
X can be omitted as in (4) - (6). (The parenthesized words can be
omitted.)
(4) A= (a>r.¢ma)fiss<ra=.
(;bf.:i‘:(i)fi%i'3'h~..
(Anata
(Ahata wa) ikimasu ka.
(Are you going?)
B:
B I liv‘,
(iii/‘y ($Lli)fi"-Z‘ $11,
‘i'i'°
Hai.
Hai, (watashi wa) ikimasu.
(Yes, I am.)
(5) AA:= (#1.iii1)fis a 1,L ..r1; 5 15>.
([?Lii(1)fi€=:i
ka?
(Watashitachi wa) ikimasho ka.?
(Shall we go?)
BI I/"P. ($Li£li).1: Lib: 5..
l/‘R’, (?Liili).l: 5.,
/ya, (watashitachi wa) yoshimasho.
(No, let’s not.)
(6) A: (cm: /-"a-2ii1)fn'e~J-11>.
/ %n(1)(FI"c~rr)=.
(Kore wa I/ Sore wa) nah
nan desu ka.
(What is this Ithat?)
/that?)
B: (-"anti/:ni1)?E%¢a=eo7°vi-iv
(-':~m1/ :n(1)TE¥r)~(5v>7°v+5~/ ('61-,
l~ 'c*~r.,
(Sore wa /I Kore wa) Hanako kara no
ho purezento
purezehto desu.
(That I/ This is a present from Hanako.)
(A) - (C) concern the ellipsis of content words such as nouns and verbs.
However, ellipsis in Japanese is not limited to content words. The following
are some general rules regarding the ellipsis of particles in conversation.
(D) If the referent of X in X wa is psychologically close to the speaker and
the hearer, wa tends to drop unless X is under focus. Examples:
(7) 8-
a. b7‘:< I/(li)lJ-I532:
1bf::< l/(ii)lJ-IE2: fa
‘b 5 Li‘)?-
Lid}
Watakushi (wa) Yamada to moshimasu.
(Lit. I call myself Yamada. (=I am Yamada.))
B £(l1)é,’*.
b- %6®4.W$£r+w.
(FIfiEi'C'1'h>.
Kimi (wa) ima nan-nensei
nah-hehsei desu ka.
(What year (in school) are you in now?)
c.
¢- ::a>2]:(li)i=5i> L5y\.1:..
C<D1l§(li)2‘6b L5v\.1:.,
Kono hon (wa) omoshiroi yo.
Koho
(This book is interesting.)
d.
d- a,a>A((1)%‘t-c~<r>)>.
§>®A(li)§E'<"'i‘n>s
Aho_
Anq hito (wa) dare desu ka.
(Who is that person?)
(E) The subject marker ga can be omitted if the sentence conveys informa-
tion which is expected by the hearer or which is very closely related to
the hearer. Examples:
(8) a. M. %$(?)‘)§lET=..
ex %$(h'*)§lET-1..
densha (ga) kita.
A. dehsha
(Oh, here comes the train.)
b.
b- lifrés/V.
1/~tc-2‘-_</V. :‘<=fi$(r>§)l:l:i§lEiLr‘:..
£fi$(n§)lil:l5lE$ Liza
Minasan,
Mihasah, o-shokuji (ga) dekimashita.
(Folks, the meal is ready now.)
6-
¢- '-Qrlil lil5l‘1l“i</o7)=F>E'lC%§fi(7)3)
'-9,5 HEIFP E’-S A/n> l5E'l::€§3(n§) zb->2‘.-:..1:..
2lbo7‘:J:.,
Kyo Tanaka-sah
Tanaka-san kara kimi hi dehwa (ga) atta yo.
ni denwa
(There was a phone call for you today from Mr. Tanaka.)
¢ $L$L,<0@ObMQfiEUTi?lo
$LgL,<o@oLwUnEnTxT;.
Moshimoshi, kutsu no
ho himo (ga) hodokete masu yo.
(Excuse me, your shoelace is untied.)
(F) The direct object marker o can be omitted unless the NP 0o is under
focus. (O drops more frequently in questions.) Examples:
(m Aa. =—h—Mnnaaanm.
(9) :1 —-I: -(E)fi71~3E't1.“/o7)~,,
Kohi (0)
(o) nomimasen
homimaseh ka.
(Wouldn’t you like coffee?)
b. UR». "’c1h.(2)
Us». -E-ti.(&) 1-f) 6v\i*J'..
I5)/\i-3'.
Ja, sore (o) moraimasu.
(Then, I’ll take it.)
6- 4*-H9'cE%a(a)<r.isv\..
¢- é*19c€%fi(&)<r.:'a’.<v\.
Kohbah
Konban denwa
dehwa (o) kudasai.
(Please give me a call tonight.)
Rules (A) - (F) concern the ellipsis of parts of simple sentences or clauses.
ofsimple
There are, however, cases in which entire clauses are omitted. (G) is a general rule
regarding this sentential ellipsis.
(G) If the message conveyed by a main clause can be understood from the
context and /I or the situation, the main clause can be deleted. Examples:
(10) A: 34>
it /*‘-'--=7‘ 4 ~—(.:5)ef.r7)>-Jain.
0) 5 »<——-=i- ~—l-:;lEf.i:2b>->f:ia.,
pati hi
Kino péti ni konakatta ne.
kohakatta he.
(You didn’t come to the party yesterday.)
B 3I :5 h./,
5 /V, "B J; 0
F33: O <l_:']'l'_:l,7§>-OTCYIAFJ (I‘:,|“l‘T7£7)><>TC.),,
l2’I'l'_:i/7l)*0TC7)‘l‘9(fi‘f'i'7a’I7)*oT€.)°
Uh,
Un, chotto isogashikatta kara (ikenakatra).
(ikehakatta).
(Yeah, (I couldn't come) because I was busy.)
(11) l15l=P5'Bi(¢E-fivw‘:
E"l"5‘BEl~t|i-Fl‘/‘Tc. e15 (2
(E 5 'C"l'2b=)?
"er;-7»)?
Tanaka-sensei hi
Tanaka-sehsei ni kiitara
kiirara (do desu ka).?
ka)?
(Lit. (How will it be) if you ask Prof. Tanaka? (=Why don’t
don't you ask
Prof. Tanaka?))
(12) idéféhili
iifihilili‘I/\ 9D i List?‘
LTGD‘ E (I/\2)>7!)3'C"§‘f.)=).,
.&'(v~:>=;o1"c=~J-19>),
O-cha ga hairimashita kedo (ikaga desu ka).
(Lit. Tea is ready now, but (how would you like it?))
Additionally, ellipsis can take place for psychological reasons. That is, the
speaker may omit a part of a sentence either because he considers it rude, because
he feels uncomfortable saying it or because he doesn’t know how to say it, etc.
For example, if he is offered food he cannot eat, he may say, Sore wa chotto,
‘ (lit.) That is, a little,’ implying Sore wa chotro
chotto taberaremasen,
taberaremaseh, ‘‘lI can hardly
eat it.’ Or, if the speaker hears someone’s unhappy news, he may say, Sore
wa domo, ‘ (lit.) That is, very,’ meaning Sore wa kanashii koto he, ‘ That
koro desu ne,
is a sad thing.’
Finally, it is noted that since ellipsis is common in Japanese, Japanese sen-
tences are often ambiguous in isolation. They are interpreted correctly only if
they are in proper contexts and I/ or situations. Examples:
(13) a. l£<l:.1:§¥l;1:2bi9?lf€<l.'L-'<=~Y’.i:\/‘Q
(:<(1§%(1a>1zv!1¥s1;=<»>*.:v\. Lh>L((£<li)
Ln>L(li<li)
Boku wa Yukiko wa amari sukijanai.
suki/'ahai. Shikashi (boku wa)
§¥l1lFf%f.:.'..
=§¥|ilFf%7‘:°..
Haruko wa sukida.
(I don't
don’t like Yukiko very much. But, I like Haruko.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF
CIIARACTERISTICS or JAPANESE GRAMMAR 27
b a<u%%ubsvfisueaw.
E<u%¥ubiDfi%L¢&W. L#L§¥M
L#L§¥fl
Boku wa Yukiko wa amari sukijanai.
sukijahai. Shikashi Haruko wa
("é-i'¥ifi)!l¥%7‘:'..
('2'-?¥rfi)fl¥%f£..
(Yukiko ga) sukida.
(I don’t like Yukiko very much. But, Haruko likes her.)
M m
8 fimwwa&§oUt®?,éo%<$¢éAt
fiuwwA&5oUk@?,é¢%<E$8Ac
Watashi wa ii hito o mitsuketa node, sassoku Tanaka-san ni
("€'VJAlC)‘:%o'C‘E.» B o1':s
(%@Ai¢)‘§:'oTB50T:a
ni) atte moratta.
(sono hito hi)
(I found a good man, so I asked Mr. Tanaka to see him right
away.)
b.
B iL(1v\v\)(&E,*>h‘2‘.:¢>'C*.
flmwwA&ROHk®?.éo%<Ffl%MU s '2 4:» < (-‘:~</>101)
hiro o mitsuketa node.
Watashi wa ii hito node, sassoku (sono hito hi)
ni)
El3Fl=3hlZ§-’_§o'C£
El3Fl3$h.»l.'.'.§,-">'C‘b B 07:0
5 ‘J l':<>
Tanaka-san ni atte moratta.
(I found a good man, so I asked him to see Mr. Tanaka right away.)
CliARACTl:lRISTlCS OF
4. Personal Pronouns
One of the peculiarities of Japanese personal pronouns is that there is more
than one pronoun for the first and second person and that traditionally there
have been no third person pronouns. The most frequently used first and second
person pronouns are listed below:
"=i:::.':.:1...
”*:1*::.' :.::... singula-
singular
’""""'s°‘
L].-'§:fn§,’,,y First Person ‘I’
I Second Person ‘ You ’
,1;
j
F°:'“=':Y L _ . 4|]
Very Formal bf < 1,

bf: L IIOIIC
watakushi
Forma
:bf'L
bf: L 3b7"<
37> 7‘: < L zbf.cf~'
37> it 7:
I~ ormal
Formal W8l8S/7!
watashi aatakushi
takushz anata
ahata
(female)
Informal (I ( 5) ffft 1,
5,7‘; I, sq -11-.91‘
boku a tash:
atashi kimi
k/mi
(male) (female) (male)
tj_
is 'r
fill’.- 3 z_ 3; /L,
Very Informal tan
at
iii. 13'
/\rH $5 ‘SE 7?. 25> /u 7‘T:f\
ore omae
O/T789 anta
5/lfa
(male) (male)
Informa
Personal
Pronouns Plural
Levels of
L‘i3’f,’l§,,§[,,y
F,,,m,,,,y First Person ‘ We ’ Second Person ‘ You
You’’
.1-
Very Formal bk<LE£ none

watakushidomo
wa takush/domo
ForInfomrma
bfci L/r'_:*5 h_
bk<LtB liotrfchifz
aenmt
Formal wata
wa us itac iI
takushitach anatagata
ahatagata
Forma’ lb 7‘: L 1': *5
bkLt5
wa tashitachi
watashitachi
(£<1':"5
E<EB &>7‘..L1':'(:'>
%kLEB SAEB
%7+1':*.'> wants
§>f.r7‘.:T:*5
boku tachi aatashitachi
tashitachi kimitachi anata
ahata tachi
rachi
Informal (male) (female) (male)
if < Io Z; fr. L b 3 1*.
if -1/~ 6
‘Q
bokura atashira
atashzra k/m/ra
k/mira
(male) (female) (male)
Very
Yer)’ Informal
Informal 15 fl/1’: '5
$52h,T:*:'> fiiitb bbktB
$d'i2_T:*.’> $>/oT:T:*:'>
oretachi anta tachi
omaetachi ahta
--
'1 (male) (male)
fiiib
Biib %nkB
hbkb
omaera antara
ahtara
(male)
Informa
Note: (Male) /I (female) means that the particular pronoun is used by a
male /I female speaker, respectively.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
or ]APANESE
JAPANESE GRAMMAR 29
The first person singular pronoun watakushi has at least six contracted forms.
The way the contraction (i.e., omission of sounds) takes place is as follows:
wata}(;/shi —+
watak;/shi —> watashi (formal)
,Watakushi—->atakushi
yvatakush/'—>atakushi (formal, female)
yéta/;/shi —>atashi
la/éta}(;/shi—+atashi (informal, female)
/wata}(;/at/i —> atai
)vataI(;/,s$/i—+atai (very informal I/ vulgar, female)
wa;a’I(j/shi—> washi
wa)?’/K;/sh/'—> (informal, older male)
,\M9)a(I(j/sh/'——>a§sh/'
,wa}¢/1/sh/'—>asshi (very informal, adult male of the
Bay area of Tokyo)
The fact that there is more than one pronoun for the first and second
person leads us to suspect that Japanese first and second person pronouns are
not pure pronouns but are a kind of noun. In fact, these ‘pronouns ’ can be
freely modified by adjectives or by relative clauses as in (1) and cannot be re-
peated in a single sentence as in (2), which supports the idea that they are
similar to regular nouns.
a tbwflmrvebfionmwo
m 8 tLwnurveLRbnaw,
mirarenai.
/sogashii watashi wa terebi mo mirarehai.
(Lit. Busy me cannot see even TV. (=I cannot even watch TV
because I’m so busy.))
b. %¥#fl%&Hu—B¢%¥&%wTw%.
U %;iéa'iii¥s f.:fLli—- B “l"%é‘i'é2F;fiv\'C v\»‘:.-3.,
Ongaku ga sukiha
Ohgaku sukina watashi wa ichinichi/'0
ichihichi/'0 ongaku 0o kiite iru.
(Lit. I who like music is listening to music all day long. (=Because
I like music, I listen to it all day long.))
6 %v\zF>f:T:(c(1it;'§3~n~
¢- %w&ntmuxfi%menwvLi5. l5f..cv\'c L .r 5..
ni wa mada wakaranai
Wakai anata hi wakarahai desho.
won’t understand it.
(Lit. Young you probably won't (=Since you are
won’t understand it.))
young, you probably won't
(2) 11-a- *i1.(1t1.o=&(1§~e1F1.ozzi£a%=.§1,rw¢.

*5l‘Ll;lI$L0)%[SE'C‘#‘l(¢)7,Eii¢‘:?-,'fiL'C107:,
*Watashi wa watashi ho
no heya de watashi ho
no tomodachi to
hanashite ita.
hahashite
(I was talking with my friend in my room.)
-41.11
—>fl.i:i 11e ‘snip
%l§E"c~ 11e 75£ii.1:I%'5L'Cv\7‘:..
7;Zi£.2§fiL"cv\f:.
Warashi wa 0 heya de o0 tomodachi to hahashite
Watashi hanashite ita.
b-*5Utu€@5wUt0%E?£Ut®§E&W&LTwiLkm,
b-*&Utm%@5&Ht@%E?&ttmfiEtWEbrwibk».
*Anara wa kino anata ho
*Anata no heya de anata no
ho tomodachi to nani o
shire imashita ka.
shite
(What were you doing yesterday with your friend in your room?)
—> $516‘-'T:li€=u)5
$5f’IT:(1%¢>5 11o itiiéo
11851: 11e Keane
izisema Lfini
L-cps l,i':;7b>o
L7‘:2b~,,
Anata wa kino 011 heya de o11 tomodachi to nani
hahi o shite imashita
ka.
It is also important to note that Japanese first and second person pronouns
are deleted unless it is necessary to emphasize me-ness or you-ness. Under
normal communicative situations, who is speaking to whom is obvious, so
Japanese speakers simply omit these pronouns. Students of Japanese, therefore,
should avoid using first and second person pronouns whenever possible.
In addition to first and second person pronouns, there are other ways to
refer to the speaker or the addressee, as summarized in the following chart.
K‘8gfid%ions
K‘8ggd‘§ionS Self-address Forms Alter-address Forms
Kinship terms $556 2-5

.3’; A, (your father) :]=5’;&
J‘-35¢ 5‘; A,
3 A}
o-to-san
0-to-sah o-to-san
0-to-sah
$51-31:-‘S
$55: Z’-S /u (your mother) 235:3
(Your $51-32$ /u lo
o-ka-sah
o-ko-san o-ko-san
o-ka-sah
is I;[Ll/\I/\ 35 /V (your grandpa) is
$5 (L)/\
lilo éS is /v
/V
0-//-sah
o-//-san o-/1-san
o-ji-sah
tetra,
tslfib z’is§ /V /u (your grandma) also
$51129) 2‘<"S-5 /U
lo
o-bé-san
o-bé-sah o-ba-sah
o-bo-san
is I; -1‘-5 /V
fitéh (your uncle) $5 IL 3 35 /olo
0/!-88/7
o/1-san o//-san
oji-sah
:l=st:LI’ a‘-S /u
idlfé /U (your aunt) islfé /u
tat:-.152’; lo
oba-san
oba-sah oba-san
oba-sah
Social role terms aaa
9&5
sensei
S6088!
(your teacher)
(your as
96$
sensei
SQHSQI
1=;[;E(president
¥j;E(president of a company)
shacho
$5 (section chief)
kacho
term none
Occupational terms fiéé
£153/., A, (fish monger)
sakaha-ya-sah
sakana-ya-san
[£15 .3115 /.,
[$15 A} (butcher)
niku-
hiku- ya -san
-sah
First /I Last names TE?- TIE? a’-s /L
Tlifé/o
Hanako Hanako-san
Hanako-sah
EH
B3 =P
‘P a‘25-5 A,
/u
Tanaka-san
Tanaka-sah
CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE
CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR 31
Within a family, if the speaker is considered superior (primarily in terms

of age) to the addressee (Speaker>Addressee), he may use a kinship term as a
form of self-address, but if not, he can use only a first person pronoun in self-
address. If the addressee is considered superior to the speaker (Addressee>
Speaker), the speaker has to employ the kinship term of the addressee when
addressing him, or he must use a second person pronoun or the addressee’s
-san or -chah).
name (optionally with -sah -Chan). Outside the family, in an Addressee>
Speaker situation, the speaker has to employ the addressee’s social role term
when addressing him. If the situation is Speaker>Addressee, the speaker
cannot use his own social role term as a form of self-address, except for the
term sehsei
sensei when it refers to elementary and junior high school teachers.
Occupational terms such as sakaha-ya
sakana-ya ‘ fish monger’, niku-ya
hiku-ya ‘butcher’
and haha-ya
hana-ya ‘florist’ are used as address forms by attaching -san -sah to them.
(=> -ya) Also, a female first name is employed by a young girl as a self-address
form in very informal speech as in (3).
m &@n.§¥%@5—%éA&¥—bLk@;.
Ano he.
Aho ne. Kyoko
Ky6ko kiho
kino /chiré-san
/chiro-sah to déto shita no
ho yo.
(You know what? I (=Kyoko) had a date with Ichiro yesterday !)
There is no real third person pronoun in Japanese. As shown in (4), all
English third person pronouns have no corresponding forms in Japanese.
m 8a mEébfl£$7iUfiKfiok°§%#%%Lkmok@fi°
M mmawmfifirxvwmfiak.%%#%%Lnmok@fi.
Yamada-san wa kyoheh
Yamada-sah kyonen Amerika hi
ni itta. E/"go benkydshirakatta
Eigo ga behkyoshitakatta
no da.
ho
(Mr. Yamada went to America last year. He wanted to study English.)
Lms@m+$mm§on$mafi%orwa.
h Lwsnu+$mm§an§nan§arws.
/linen mae hi
Ueda-san wa joheh ni katta kuruma hi
ni mada notte
hotte iru.
(Mr. Ueda is still driving the car which he bought ten years ago.)
c. A: rl57'li=é'® 5515i
rK7'l;i:éW) 5§lEi Lf:7)>.,
l/T275‘,
Bobu wa kind
kino kimashita ka.
(Did Bob come see you yesterday?)
B:
Br §lEiLf:J:.,
ii. §lEiL7‘:J:.,
E. kimashita yo.
(Yes, he did.)
d-1%
d- AI E$éAE.Ewbni.
HFIKPZS/vii. SE)/‘biQ;?_.>
Tanaka-san-tachi, osoi wa né.
Tanaka-sah-tachi, hé.
(Miss Tanaka and the people with her are late, aren’t they?)
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
B: .E:i1h.'Cv\Z>/vl;»(=f.rv\7)>L15.,
.‘&in'Cv\%'>/vl;»<»f.:v\2b>LIb.,
Wasurete iru hn ja hai
nai ka shira.
(I wonder if they have forgotten about this.)
e ::nekmsc$v~%Mnae.
m ::mekWav$c—%%mma.
Osaka made kuruma de ich/jikah
Koko kara Gsaka ichijikan kakaru.
(It takes one hour from here to Osaka.)
Rf. ht%v1.
4;\~l:Hi'i='C"§‘o
shich/ji desu.
/ma shichiji
(It is seven now.)
During the past century or so, however, the third person pronouns kare
kanojo ‘she’, karera ‘they (male)’ and kahojora
‘ he’, kaho/'0 kanojora ‘they (female)’ have
begun to be employed primarily in novels translated into Japanese and in
Japanese novels. These pronouns are also fairly widely used in current spoken
Japanese. Like first and second person pronouns, they are treated very much
like nouns, as seen in (5).
M
(5) 1
3- %on§.artsnwann.
b“€@ll§$I. &’C)l>€*1l'lAr\?’.r/vffc,
Boku ho
no kanojo. totemo kireiha
kireina nh da.
(My girl friend is very pretty, you know.)
R
h k$&wtwdT<fi%Lk.
k$2mnwm+¢%%cn.
Daigaku o deta kare wa sugu kekkohshita.
kekkonshita.
(Lit. He who finished college got married right away. (=-He
(=He got
married right after graduation from college.))
There is one condition governing the use of third person pronouns:
The speaker / writer is psychologically somewhat distant from the ref-
erent of the pronoun.
5. Passive
The concept of passive in Japanese, which is called ukemi ('5-‘Z*§')
(5%?) (lit. body
which receives something), is considerably different from its English counter-
part. The Japanese passive contains two elements: an event (i.e., an action by
someone /something) and a person or thing which is affected by that event.
For example, if someone runs away and it affects someone else, that action
can be expressed by the passive construction. Or, if someone smokes and it
affects someone else, that can be a passive situation. In other words, the common
characteristic of the Japanese passive is that the event is not under the control
of those affected by it. Note that the person in the first situation above has no
control over someone’s running away and the one in the second has no control
over someone’s smoking.
Passive situations are expressed in various ways according to the situation.
The most common way is to use the passive forms of verbs. (Q (==> rarerul)
rareru‘) For
instance, the above situations can be expressed as in (1), using passive verb
forms.
(1)
(ll a-
3- Ll-IEEI é
I-l-I551 3 /vlifié /vl£';%U"':'>1’1.T:o
/vlifii‘ /vlC%if'f>1’LT:o
Yamada-san wa okusan ni
Yamada-sah hi nigerareta.
(Lit. Mr. Yamada’s wife ran away on him.)
b-
b. :i<EI§a:t%€¢a:r.:e;1f:&'§“b:t1.r=.
i<El§l:t%¥lZ.f:(f.’;£"§‘1b:l'l.T:.,
Taro wa Haruko ni
hi tabako 0o suwareta.
(Lit. Taro had a cigarette smoked by Haruko on him.)
Notice here that in (la) the verb nigeru ‘ run away
away’’ is intransitive and in (lb)
there is a direct object tabako ‘cigarette’. Neither (la) nor (lb) can be ex-
pressed using the English passive construction “be+past participle”. This
type of construction, however, is frequently found in Japanese and is called
‘the indirect passive
passive’.’. In indirect passive sentences the thing affected by the
event is usually human and how the person is affected is interpretable only
from the context. The sentences in (1) show situations where someone is
negatively affected. The following is an example where the person is positively
affected.
M
m *Hsnu%AnMnEenr5nb%5n.
*Hanm%Am%n&enr5nc%5fi.
Kimura-san wa bijih
Kimura-sah bijin hi
ni yoko ni
hi suwararete ureshi soda.
(Lit. Mr. Kimura, having a pretty woman sit beside him, looks happy.)
In indirect passive sentences the agent of the event is usually animate and
the action is volitional. Therefore, the following examples are all unacceptable.
34 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(3) 11-3- *i1.)115(.:§R(.:?§b 15:11:.

*iFLli25lI';9ElI';?§B Bhfzo
*Watashi wa ishi ni
hi atama ni
hi ochirareta.
(*My head was fallen on by a rock.)
b-*bAuE%fi®ib$T$miiBht°
b.*(Au§%aosn¢r$mmsent.
*Tomu wa kosaten
kosateh no
ho mannaka
mahhaka de kuruma ni
hi tomarareta.
(*Tom was stopped in the middle of the intersection by his car.)
There are, however, a very few exceptions, as seen in (4).
(4) f£liFl'5l¢%B#‘l.T:°
%li|'?filC% 61'!-Tzo
Boku wa ame hi ni furareta.
(Lit. It rained on me.)
The passive forms of verbs can also express what is called direct passive.
(5) presents some examples.
(5) a.
a- ~‘/"aa I/lzli
‘J 2/lit’/vlcéifchfzo
l:'/l/lC.»S1T:1'LT:.,
Jon wa Biru ni
hi butareta.
(John was hit by Bill.)
b
b. :@%m+fifiEm%#nt.
2:1/>¥%(1+7‘Ll’(.£1’fE(.:l’§h>#LT:..
jfikyd-seiki hi
Kono e wa jiikyti-seiki ni kakareta.
(This picture was painted in the nineteenth century.)
¢- ?El:.t5Ié2b=6f’l-'T6#1.%>..
C’
Sake wa kome kara tsukurareru.
(Sake is made from rice.)
As seen in (5), direct passive sentences have passive equivalents in English. It
is noted that in direct passive sentences, too, the conditions mentioned above are
(5a) there is a person, John, who was affected by an event,
satisfied. That is, in (Sa)
Bill's
Bill’s hitting, and the event was not under John’s control. The difference between
direct passive and indirect passive is that in direct passive sentences a person I/
thing is directly affected by an event (i.e., a person / thing is the direct receiver
of someone’s /something’s action) as in (5), while in indirect passive sentences
the effect of an event on a person is indirect (i.e., a person is not the direct
receiver of someone’s /something’s
/ something’s action), as seen in (1) - (4).
In general, when a passive sentence is used, it is about the person / thing
which is affected by the event, and when what is affected is human, the sentence
takes the viewpoint of the person rather than the agent of the event.
(See 9. Viewpoint.)
Some passive situations are also expressed by the verb morau ‘ get ’, as in (6).
(6)
W a-
w '=='--ifvv |~iirJ%’-1vl::»r ’\’ 1) :/7’&=bE'>-:>f:.,
1-fiVVbd£—wK4?UVVE£Eok,
Mégaretto wa Poru ni
Magaretto hi iyaringu
iyarihgu o moratta.
(Margaret got a pair of earrings from Paul.)
b
h xru—aza1—1nr»—(e%rte¢t.
x7u—mza4—1m7fi—+m%r£5¢t.
Mean‘ wa Sutibu ni
Meari hi apéto
apato ni
hi kite moratta.
(Mary had Steve come to her apartment. (=Steve came to Mary’s
Mary's
apartment for her.))
G
c. flfiQKfif§&EoT£5ok°
?Lli§ClC.7J2‘ 525-:'C‘€1*f9'9T:<>
hi kamera o katte moratta.
Watashi wa chichi ni
(I had my father buy me a camera. (=My father bought a camera
for me.))
When morau is used, the event always affects the person positively. (This is
not the case with sentences with rareru.) In this case, also, the speaker’s view-
point is that of the person affected by the event. morau”)
(Q morau‘»2)
Naru ‘ become ’ can also express some passive situations. Compare the fol-
lowing pairs of sentences with suru ‘ do’ and naru.
M
(U 1
w musnurxunnfi<:embt.
mDékm7iUnnfi<:&mLt°
Yamaguchi-sah hi iku koto ni
Yamaguchi-san wa Amerika ni hi shita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi has decided to go to America.)
b
h mnsnurxuanfi<:&ma¢t.
mnénn7xunKfi<:&mn¢t.
Yamaguchi-sah hi iku koto ni
Yamaguchi-san wa Amerika ni hi natta.
(It’s been decided that Mr. Yamaguchi is going to America.)
(a a %iu7vvF&%#mLt.
(8) 3- 5‘fi£l£li7 l/‘7 Ffifffrili LT-‘.0
Sensei wa Fureddo o teigaku ni
hi shita.
(The teacher suspended Fred from school.)
a
b. 7vvFu§$mtot.
7 1/ '7 l~'l1F'3-f»'$‘-lC.TaT'>T:o
Fureddo wa teigaku ni
hi natta.
(Fred was suspended from school.)
Here, again, the viewpoint in the (b) sentences is that of the person affected by
the event, and the agent of the event is not the speaker’s main concern.
(Q
(:> koto ni naru; naru)
6. Politeness and Formality

All languages are equipped with polite expressions and Japanese is no
exception. What makes Japanese polite expressions distinctly different from
those of other languages is that the Japanese system involves grammar as well
as lexical items. Basically, there are two ways to be polite in Japanese; one is
to elevate the speaker’s superior, i.e., a person who is older and higher in social
status than the speaker. Expressions of this type are called Honorific Polite
Expressions. The other method is to lower the speaker or his in-group members,
and thus elevate his superior indirectly. Expressions of this type are called
Humble Polite Expressions.
With Honorific Polite Expressions, the subject of the sentence is the speaker’s
superior and the form of the main predicate is an honorific form, as shown
below:
(A) Honorific Polite Verbs
Regular Formation
.
Nonpolite Honorific Polite
Nonpolnte
Dictionar F
(Dictionary r
Form)
‘ Y 0 m) 0
0-I Vmasu nr
ni naru Passive Form
_
sat
‘ET (talk)
(talk)
hanasu
hahasu
' 0-hahashi
seat
- L _ nrll‘.1: naru
0 hanashz ni
as
45
‘
I
r
teens
i'i§31'L5
hanasareru
hahasareru
fizz» (teach)
flab zlbfix.
zfsfii I: fab
1‘;-F.» fiiI'51rI.%>
ate-ans
I
osh/eru
oshieru o osh/e nr
0-oshie hi naru oshierareru
Irregular Forms
'l
I_
Nonpoltte
Nonpolite
(Dlcuonary -
Honorrfic -
(Dictionary Form) Honorific Polite
. .I
R45
5.5.» (see) ..res
% l1:: tr?»
25
miru
m/ru gorah n:
goran hi naru (Gr
(Gr. 1)
l)
at-11 M5
931->'C we (know) :1ea1
($931 7‘is
('49?.
.
sh/tte /ru
sh/rte iru gozohji da
QOZOI7/I
E6/§lE%>/fi<
E6/5lE%»/fi<
nth- (be/come/go) (~13->I,»<>%>
lr‘f>'2l/»‘<=Z:~
iru
/ru / kuru / iku
I/(U irassharu (Gr
rrassharu (Gr. 1)
< nz,
no (gwe (to m¢))
(give (re me)) < tres:5 Z3Z;
ft,
kureru kudasaru (Gr

(Gr. 1)
ass
fi’\Zo (eat)
eat)
. .' 4-
‘ /"K Z3 L_l;2b
16 t_|;1>=aZ»
taberu mesh/agaru (Gr
meshiagaru (Gr. 1)
To MM
(do) tr é Z»
use
suru nasaru
hasaru (Gr. 1)
flee/fi<
seal \‘
_i‘
/E6
kurul/ 34
kuru
if
IkU / rru
(come/go/be)
\ _ 0* (eeme/go/be)
Q \ =- Q
Il'o\¢\'C'
ts)»-e
'1‘
ft
,.
ozde
oide
a(.2us_f‘l_fl. azzs
9' '
nr
hi naru
tr?» (Gr
(GR 1)
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS o1=
or JAPANESE GRAMMAR 37
fie
£43 (wear)
(wear) B55 L cc. £26
BELl: (Gr- 1)1)
2‘; 5 (Gr.
krru
k/ru omeshi ni naru
Rm (die)
Ziliaia tat: < ts
rat: 9 tr:
tr D_ I: tea
ts?» (Gr- 1)
(Gr.1)
shinu o-nakunari ni naru
0-nakunan
E‘; 5 (say)
ru
IU
IF5oL&>?5
ossharu “"“ "
(Gr. 1)
The following are typical examples of sentences using honorific polite verbs:
m
(1) w
a. %im7;vfi®fi$fB$%&BfiicUU$T.
%im7xvw@fi$vH$%&BfiimuU§To
Sense/' wa Amerika no daigaku de nihongo o0 0-oshie ni narimasu.
Sensei
(The professor will teach Japanese at an American college.)
b.
b- %$u7xuw@k#rH$%&fii5n§¢°
5*i‘:it17'2' ‘J 12e>j<$'<*El1l'i%§’$:?5l5'LF.>1l1.$1'.
Sense/'
Sensei wa Amerika no daigaku de nihongo 0 oshieraremasu.
(The professor will teach Japanese at an American college.)
¢-
C. 5‘E.El:llIf'1l/7’.27Zi$%'>&i|’$o
%Efi5W7&fi36&BoL¢U$Lt° l..\*L\$ Lfzo
Sense/'
Sensei wa gorufu 0o nasaru to osshaimashita.
(The professor told me that he’s
he's going to play golf.)
Sentence (la) with its longer honorific expression, is more polite than (lb),
which has a shorter honorific expression. Notice also that the honorific form
in (lb) is the same as the passive form. An important characteristic of the
honorific and passive form is indirectness, the origin of honorific politeness.
Sentence (lc) includes the irregular verbs nasaru ‘ do’ and ossharu ‘ say ’. Such
verbs as nasaru and ossharu which are irregular must be memorized one by one.
Note that the following honorific polite verbs are Gr. 1 verbs, but are irregular
in their conjugations of formal nonpast and imperative forms.
Inf Neg Fml Nonpast Inf Nonpast Conditional Imperative

I I O *
\/‘Ibo L&=67.t\/\ l/\l5'>L*<>L\i'§‘

v‘B'>L1<=F>tc\/\ I/\F;o L&>L\i'§‘ \/‘l5'>L%=
\/‘6'>L»<=/25 \r\F>oL»<>t'l.lll] I/‘F>oL&=l.\
Zn W%OL$fl l/\ E) 0 L Q-> U
irassharanai irasshaimasu irassharu irasshareba Irasshai
irasshai
‘U
<7‘.£é6?.£'l/‘
<2‘:'éF>f.cv\ <7‘.:‘.'él.\i'§‘
<f:'éL\i'§' <T::’éZa
(7536 <7‘.f~=l<1l’Ll:iE'
< 7:’ 3 zhlzf <fféL\
< fa’ 3 L\
kudasaranai kudasaimasu kudasaru kudasareba kudasai
>t:é<F>trv\
t.cér?>t.cv~ >tra‘<t\iT
>’.té<L\i'i‘ tr é5
P’.£é<Z> kénd
lxéhtf tr 5 l.\
t.cét\
nasaranai nasaimasu nasaru
!78S8fU nasareba nasai
28->I,:<-r5f.cv\
$3'JL»(>l:p7'£l/\ is-»LR=L\i'§"
$$0L»$>l,\'§i'§' :t<5->LR=%
1'5 0 L &=> 5 fiohenfi
rs->1/<=na£ :t<5ol,R-l.\
$3 0 L K-> U
ossharanai osshaimasu ossharu osshareba osshai
The honorific polite form of Vte iru is formed as shown in the following
chart.
Honorific Polite Forms of Vte iru.

Iii ti
_ Vte irassharu 00- Vmasu da / de rrassharu

irassharu
I
§5"'i'§/v'C"v\2_5
filo’? v\ 5 (be reading) _t_ __ __* ’ _
yonde iru Ii-‘at/v'GL\b-a L»:-%>
iv’?/v1‘L\I5o L \~'.£> il’5Ei'ir71~7‘: / 'C‘L\bo
§$%»71~7‘:' l..=r:Z>
'C‘L\'5'> Le?»
yonde rrassharu
irassharu o0-yomi
yomr da / de rrassharu
irassharu
I. I
I I
' I, I
fi;%_'C\/\5 (be teaching) fi;r_'((,\5 -3 |_, .95,
I’
¥IX.'Cl/\%>(b6t@3¢h1"8) fiX.’CL\boL=r:Z> Bfilifi / ‘C‘L\E>o L\~Z>

l’:>¥IX_T../'C‘L\boL=oZ>
osh/ere iru
oshiete rrassharu
oshiete irassharu
O
o0-oshie
'II. oshie dal de irassharu
rrassharulI
The use of the honorific polite Vte iru is exemplified by (2) below. Here again
the longer version is more polite than the shorter one. Thus, the hierarchy of
politeness is: o-
0- Vmasu de /'rassharu>Vte
irassharu>Vte irassharu>o- Vmasu da.
m
(m m %iu%:$2£fi#vu5oLvu§T.
&j%$U%:$2£%flTU5OL%U$¢}
Sensei wa ima go-hon o 0-yomi de irasshaimasu.
(The professor is reading a book.)
h %iu%£$2fimvu5¢u¢u§T.
R %ifi%f$EfihTM6oL¢U$T°
Sensei wa ima go-hon o yonde irasshaimasu.
%$m%r$&B%#fi.
Q %iu%r$&£%#E.
Sensei wa ima go-hon o 0-yomi da.
(B) Honorific Polite Adjectives
Regular Formation (Adj(i))

(Dictionary Form) 0- Adj (1')
(i) inf
| _ _ I
2§v~ (young)
i?v\ ts2§v*
B%W
wakai 0 -wakai
5‘§v\
51$!/\ (strong) 385%‘/\
;l=55'§v\
tsu yoi
tsuyoi o - tsu yoi
0-tsuyoi
|-p
Irregular Forms
Wol .J:v\ (good)

v\v\/ J:v\ :B.1:5Lv\
8i6Lw
iil yoi
ii/ 0 -yoroshii
- yoroshii
CHARACTERISTICS or
01-" JAPANESE GRAMMAR 39
Regular Formation (Adj(na))
Honorific Polite
Nonpolite I
00- Adj(na)stem
Ad_i(na)stem {da/de
{da / de Irassharu}
irassharu]
-M {
__._ -_- iibi-
I
ruin’
ii? (healthy)
0"‘
tsiizilf; "cu b —> Ls-61
d=:Js€.{t.. / 'C“L\b'J
'I.
L v 6}
genkida 00-genki
genki {da /I de rrassharu}
irassharu}
saw
2=m~r;'fr, (pretty) tsanv lt./'ei.\-=>¢L\»Z.>l
3’$%1l1J/‘l7‘:'/'C‘l.\'5oL*\'~§>l
f
0
II
H
kireida 0-kirei irassharu]

I
k/reida 0’
I
|
'
kirei {da / de rrassharu]
'
There are additional polite adjectival forms (such as 0-wako

o-wako gozaimasu
‘young’),
(from wakai ‘young ’), o-tsuyo
o-tsuyé gozaimasu (from tsuyoi ‘strong’)), but such
hyperpolite forms are now seldom used by younger native speakers, except in
greetings such as o-hayo
o-hayd gozaimasu (from hayai ‘ early ’), o-medeto
early’), o-medetd gozaimasu
‘ Congratulations!’ (from medetai ‘ auspicious ’) and arigaté gozaimasu ‘ Thank
you very much ’ (from arigatai ‘grateful ’). Adjectives which can be used in
honorific polite sentences are limited to those which refer to personal charac-
teristics. Examples follow:
(3) a- §5'€L\'C"§'lQo
l3) 8- :l=5?é(.\'C*Tta..
0-wakaidesu ne.
(You are young, aren’t you?)
b.
h Bfifié/vlil’57_Iii'i.'C‘l.\I5
2Qénu£iivuB¢Leu§Tw. '2 L*\b(.\i'§')b>..
O-to-san
0-to-san wa 0-genkide
o-genkide irasshaimasu ka.
(Lit. Is your father healthy? (=How is your father’s health?))
In terms of humble polite expressions, the subject of the sentence is the
speaker or someone in his in-group rather than the speaker’s superior. The
humble polite predicates are listed below:
(C) Humble Polite Verbs
Regular Formation
Nonpolite Humble Polite

(Dictionary Form) 0- Vmasu suru / itasu
ii"i§'l'
33*!‘ (talk) il’$‘§€'§'Z>
§52%’%'§'6 / (.\T.:'§'
L\T:'§'
hanasu 0-hanashi suru / itasu
fizz» (teach)
fiié ts'¥ii'.TZ>/(.\t.-:1‘
2l=$fitz".'§'»Z> / Mt?
oshieru 0-oshie suru / itasu
40 CHARACTERISTICS OF
or JAPANESE GRAMMAR
Irregular Formation
Non olite
Nonpolite
(Dictionaiiy
(Dictionary Form) Humble
Humble Polite
P°l“e
| 7 |—
E. 5as(see)
(see) ' I fififb/Wk?
tans-5/v~r~r F 7
m/ru
miru ha/ken
haiken suru I/ itasu (Gr
(Gr. 1)
l. D
lg
f% DD Z5
Z» (borrow)
(borrow) i¥l*“'§‘Zo /I l/‘7‘£'l'
i¥f%T€» W‘ 1‘ r‘
'r‘l
kanru
kariru haishaku suru I/ itasu
gkafy
pkg» / gag
flag, /I 4,
it, :5
I5 59 (drink /I eat I/ receive)
G Y
v 7‘_,7_
Inf: 7:‘'0 <
nomu /I taberu /I morau itadaku (Gr
If8d8l(U (Gr. 1)
-I-Z;
'3‘ Z) (do) vin T7:1‘
T
suru /tasu
itasu (Gr(Gr. 1)
$5as /fi< QM
(go) awe
iv Z,
kuru
kuru]/ I/(U
iku mairu
ma/'ru (Gr. 1)
5 5 (say)
E5 Say) /\\. ',"..--E
$1
l‘a+
om.
r‘
‘
5'
RH_
iu mosu
mésu (Gr
(Gr. 1)
Q5
$5 (meet) is E l.:n>r)>%»
2‘<‘>'ElC7b=73=Z>
au
8U o-me ni kakaru (Gr. 1)
(fiéwro/wk?)
($64-’=“v"fZ> / v\T:.*i“)
(o-ai suru I/ itasu)
we e)
l/\ 5 (be) $66
bl’
iruu
:- oru (Gr.
(Gr 1)
-R5/aife
$5 / zblfo (give) é<L&ifz>
3 L Eb If Z»
varu / ageru
yaru a Q eru 888/7l8g8!'U (Gr 2)
sashiageru (Gr.
in 0 ‘C v~ 25
9:11->'cv\z> (know) fit.‘/tv\Z>
7I;l,'Cv\Z,>
shitte iru
II'U
~"a- ‘N:'
zon/ire I!'U (Gr.
zonjite iru (Gr 2)
Typical sentences containing humble polite expressions follow:
W
(4) a
3- uneoafinexnseae.
?L7)§%V)$6ii1’l%E§5i#'6 L§T°
Watashi ga sono o-nimotsu 0o 0-machi shimasu.
(I will carry your luggage.)
b- l5T:lI7)§l“$‘§1'|.L\f:l..35'§'s
El=7)§§$§1‘LL\T: LQETO
o-tsure itashimasu.
Haha ga 0-tsure
(My mother will take you there.)
Sentence (4b) with its longer humble expression is more humble than (4a)
with a shorter humble expression.
In addition to the two major polite expressions (i.e., Honorific Polite and
Humble Polite Expressions), there is what might be called Neutral Polite Ex-
pression. It is called ‘neutral’ because its predicate de gozaimasu can be
honorific-, humble- or neutral-polite, as shown in the following chart.
(D) Neutral Polite Form of Copula ‘da’
Nonpolite Neutral Polite
Speaker's
Speaker’s superior wa I/ ga 0- I/ go- ~ de
do go-
(a) kiwi?‘
73°
jig-jfiil
T50 Z8im8SU.
zaimasu.
Sense/'
Sense)’ wa byoki
bydk/' da. (Honorific)
(H°"°"fic)
(The professor is ill.) 95$); I-.- ffii-C It - ggui-¢
5!E§i‘1':»1f?;i‘€\-c;:»é'L\§1;-O
0
Sense:
Sensei wa go
go-byoki
byoki de gozaimasu
I'gozaimasu.
Speaker wa I/ ga ~ de gozarmasu
gozaimasu.
lb) 5FLli$iT:'o (1-[umb]e)
Watashi wa gakusei da. ‘
(I am a student.) iFLl1$E'C‘.'_';"¢¥(.\§'§",,
fl-.li$E'C It
" E(L\$'§' 1 O
Watakushi wa gakusei de gozarmasu

gozaimasu. I
.4
Inanimate object wa I/ ga ~ de gozalmasu
gozaimasu.
.
I
(C) $nli%$§-PTO
(cl &”l"'li$$fi'G'l_=> (Neutral)
Are wa gi/'/‘dd
gijido desu.
(That’s the Diet building.) ell"/‘1%$§‘<‘
i
*'
~'-'=' 3'“ F?
*>*"1%$fiT‘~?#L‘ $10 OO
g/jidd de gozarmasu
Are wa gi/ido gozaimasu. I
I.
In (Da) the speaker is being polite to the person referred to by the subject.
In (Db) the speaker is being humble towards the addressee and in (Dc) the
speaker is just using polite speech; it is not directed towards the inanimate
object referred to by the subject.
In the case of honorific polite expressions in general, the polite prefix 0-

or go- is attached to someone or something belonging to the human subject of
a sentence. Although the prefixes 0- and go- are normally attached to Japa-
nese and Sino-Japanese nouns, respectively, the prefix 0- can be attached to
highly Japanized nouns such as benkyé (fijijfi) ‘study’, cha (K)
benkyd (flfi) (X) ‘tea’
‘ tea’ and den-
(E33) ‘‘telephone
wa (‘$33) telephone ’. G 0-, however, is never attached to traditional Japanese
Go-,
nouns. Example sentences in which 0- o- or go- are used are given below:
W A %$u£$2n%ac+#.
w %iuB$2afiee+m.
Sensei wa 0-kuruma 0 0-mochi desu ka.
(Do you have a car, Professor?)
h
b- m¢%&u:$2n§aun¢n.
H§lCl]5‘l‘J§liliC.'2l§2Jf5§%lC7£0TC°
Tanaka-sensei wa go-hon 0 0-kaki ni natta.
Tanaka-sense/'
(Prof. Tanaka has written a book.)
The prefixes 0- and go- can also be attached to things which are not related
to the speaker’s superior, especially to basic items related to clothing, food and
housing. The purpose of such usage is to make a sentence sound more elegant.
Female speakers tend to use 0- and go- in this way more frequently than males.
Example sentences follow:
W Aa ammaflaeafiwmutatrom.
%%u£fl%&$fiw%nL§L;5#.
Konban wa 0-sashimi
0-sash/‘mi to 0-suimono ni shimashd ka.
(Shall we make it sashimi and clear soup tonight?)
B$%wuE:?+m.
h B$%wu2:c+#.
O-tearai wa doko desu ka.
0-tearai
(Where is the washroom?)
It is also important to note that there is a stylistic distinction between the

informal and formal styles, independent of the honorific-, humble-, and neutral-
polite distinctions. The formal style is normally used when one is NOT speak-
ing intimately or personally with someone who belongs to his in-group. The
one’s own in-group or when a
informal style is used when one is speaking with 0ne’s
verb, an adjective or the copula is used in specific grammatical positions, such
as right before hazu da ‘ be expected to ’ or tsumori da ‘intend to’, as shown in
(7)- (=> APP‘-mdlx
(@ APPe"diX 4 (C), (D), (E), (I), (I)
(J) and (K))
(7) 11- %ifi%BW%¥tM6aLe6FMBaL¢MiTfifT¢°
W)» 5Ei(i'%Bb3¥%§i:|.\5-> Li-15 /* U6 -> L’i=L\$'§"li‘I"'C"I‘s
kyo kenkydshitsu
Sensei wa kyd kenkytishitsu ni irassharu /I *irasshaimasu hazu
desu.
(The professor is expected to be at his office
office today.)
h
b- fl#%&u:§$¢a/*:&mL§?o$vr+.
$L)b‘§5'6£-lat: :'.'E¥%1'%> /*:.'E%l,$'§"> it» D '6')‘.
Watashi ga sensei
sense/' ni go-renrakusuru I/ *g0-renrakushimasu
*go-renrakushimasu
tsumori desu.
(I intend to contact you, Professor.)
The formal style is marked by -mas- or -des- as shown in the following

chart.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
Styles In fo rmal Formal
predicates
Predicates Nonpast
Ki Past Nonpast Past
fi'<
E/<66 E41:
fi'<7‘; fifiii‘
fi'< 1 1‘ fifii
QKELK LT;
Verb taberu tabeta tabemasu tabemashita
tabemash/‘ta
(eat) (ate) (eat) (ate)
Verbals
mp
If.‘/\ JiT.h>oT;
JKWOTC Ii." WC-1‘
;i:v\'e<;- IiI2)=~oT:.'C‘*I‘
ll: 71> '2 T1 ‘C’ T
Adj (i) hiroi hirokatta hiroidesu
hiro/‘desu hirokattadesu
h/rokattadesu
- (is wide) (was wide) (is wide) (was wide)
I l
I ‘§31»l/‘Ti
it-'l'L\v‘7‘:f %fb\r‘T.:'oT;'.
é'3"Ll/‘7'.:'0T; €'tl.\r"6"i‘
‘éiltl/"C"l' 'Z='I'Lv\'C"LT:
% i1N"C' L 7‘;
Adj (na) I kireida tta
kireida zta kire/‘desu
kireidesu kireideshita
. (is pretty) (was pretty) (is pretty) (was pretty)
Nominals
in
iff ifiok
$75 0 TC five
21:1-T fivtn
7l§'C' L 7‘;
Noun hon da hon datta hon desu hon deshita
(is a book) (was a book) (is a book
book)) (was a book)
Students of Japanese will usuaily

usually be exposed to the formal style in their
beginning textbook, because it is the proper stylistic register for adults. They
should be aware, however, that the informal style is more basic than the formal
style, as evidenced by the fact that native children master the informal style
first.
It is interesting to note that whenever the speaker takes a speaker-oriented
position he switches his style from formal to informal, even in a formal situation.
For example, a student speaking with his professor would use the formal style
during conversation. But, if he were stung by a bee while talking, he would use
the informal itai ‘ ouch ’, rather than the formal form itaidesu, because getting
stung is purely a speaker-oriented matter. This is an extreme case, but there
are many situations where the informal style must be used due to speaker-
orientation. This results in a formal discourse interspersed with informal ver-
bals and nominals.
Finally, in practical terms, what are the appropriate situations for polite
sentences? Generally speaking, an inferior uses polite speech to an addressee
or to the person presented as the topic of a sentence. Typical situations are
the following:
44
44 CHARACTERISTICS OF
JAPANESE GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR
You are: Your addressee is:
student teacher, professor

subordinate
M boss
salesperson
M customer
junior
M senior
Sometimes, an older person uses polite expressions when he is asking a favor

of a younger person. Under such circumstances, the older person feels psy-
chologically inferior to the person he is addressing.
Another appropriate situation for polite speech involves discourse among
adults of equal status who do not know each other well. Formal Japanese is
also used at such occasions as ceremonies, public speeches and public announce-
ments. The informal style, then, is normally reserved for communication among
equals who are on intimate terms.
CHARACTERISTICS or
JAPANESE GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR 45
7. Sentence-final Particles
In Japanese there is a group of particles called sentence-final particles. In
non-inverted sentences, sentence-final particles are placed at the end of a main
clause and indicate the function of the sentence or express the speaker’s emotion
or attitude toward the hearer in a conversational situation. (Personal letters,
which are a sort of conversation between the sender and the receiver, may also
contain sentence-final particles.) Some of these particles are used‘
used, exclusively
by male or exclusively by female speakers, so they also function to mark the
speaker’s sex. In what follows, we will take some common sentence-final par-
ticles and see how they are used.
(1) is a declarative sentence. If the sentence-final particles ka and ne are
(l)
affixed
affixed to (1), as in (2) and (3), the sentence becomes a question ((2)) and a
sentence of confirmation ((3)).
mEéAu%iv¢.
m mHénu%&rr.
Yamada-sah
Yamada-san wa sense/'
sensei desu.
(Mr. Yamada is a teacher.)
mwénn%Ev+m.
m wwéAu%ir+m.
sensei desu ka.
(Is Mr. Yamada a teacher?)
mmanu%£v1n.
m wwénu%&c1n.
sensei desu ne.
(Mr. Yamada is a teacher, isn’t he?)
Ne is also used to soften requests and invitations, and it often expresses the
speaker’s friendliness.
M)RuK<fiéwH%
(4) §l€'C (< T53 I/‘HGIO
(kudasai) ne.
Kite (kudasa/)
(Please come.)
J: 5130
/sshoni ikimasho ne.

(Let’s go together, shall we?)
Ne can be used with polite imperatives but not with plain imperatives.
#&~fi%&éwb.
W $&~fi%&éwh.
Gakko e ikinasai ne.
(Go to school, okay?)
46 or JAPANESE GRAMMAR
CHARACTERISTICS OF
(7) *'il‘3'E'\f‘fh‘ta..-.
W)*#&~fiUh.
*Gakk6
*Gakk0 e ike ne.
Na functions as the negative imperative marker when it is used with
informal nonpast verbs.
(8) a.
3- C.o'l5'\§lE?57J°
C.0*J'\§l€57§T°
Kotchi e kuru na.
(Don’t come this way.)
b- %<t.
A @i<f.i".
Ugoku na.
(Don’t move.)
affixed to informal declarative or invitational sentences, it some-

When na is affixed
times functions like ne, with the limitation that it is used only by men.
(9) A
M a- —%u—$EfiH.
--Elllzt--£f=3if:.E'££s
Ichiro wa ichi-nensei da na.
(Ichiro is a freshman, isn’t he?)
br
b‘ ""'%% 5 fdto
5&0
/sshoni iko na.

(Let’s go together, shall we?)
Na is also used by men in monologue situations.
(10) a.
A tsa>LWtt., §E4,v\t.cv\,,
$57§=L!/"$7., E55 Lt:/01565.
§€’l>k‘7.iIl/\., E LT:/vT.:'Z> 5.,
Okashii na. Dare mo inai. D6 shiza
shite n daré.
darci.
(It’s strange. There’s nobody.
There's What’s wrong, I wonder?)
Sometimes na is used with formal sentences in older men’s speech. This na

conveys the feeling of weak assertion.
M
(w A %nmBx¢&%Lw??fi.
%nu5x¢&fiLwvTfi.
Sore wa chotto muzukashii desu na.
(That’s a bit difficult.)
difficult.)
Y0, Z0
Yo, 20 and ze are used for assertion. Some English equivalents are “ I tell
you ”, "“ you know ”, “ believe me ”, and “ I’d say ”. Zo
Z0 and ze are exclusively
used in informal male speech.
M A fluflvians.
fluflviekxo
Watashi wa shirimasen yo.
(I don’t know. Believe me.)
b. :*sru1fin‘>*.cv~-t~'.
=‘sii.i1fiia‘t.cv\%'.
Ore wa makenai zo.
(I won’t lose!)
0
C. chufififis
Kore wa kin da ze.
(Hey, this is gold!)
Y0 and ze are also used with invitational sentences.
M ’9il15Elifi.!Kl>
(13) eaaaasx/e. 5 J1/‘ifs
Konban wa nomohomo yo /I ze.
(Let’s drink tonight!)
affixed only to declarative sentences by female speakers. It gives
Wa is afiixed
ffavor and sometimes expresses a light assertion. It is
sentences a feminine flavor
used in both formal and informal speech.
M
(14) A
e- flfiifi+ATTb.
$Li1Rr.£+/\'e1‘b.
jdhachi desu wa.
Watashi wa mada juhachi
(I am still eighteen.)
b-
b- 3>f.'.L,
$f:!./I '5iLLl/‘>l'>°
'51‘!-/l/\(\17o
ureshii wa.
Atashi, ureshi/'
(I’m happy.)
Wa can be used with ne and yo but not with ka, as in (15).
M A
(15) m cflifiwbbs
:31. E]!/\=l91:;..
Kore. takai wa ne.
Kore,
(This is expensive, isn’t it?)
U $L'!>i“T<1'>J1.
5- fl%fi<b;.
Watashi mo iku wa yo.
yo
(I’m going, too.)
(I'm
e-*m¢ant%ebm.
¢-*E¢éu$%ob#.
wa ka.
*Tanaka-san mo kuru we
(Is Mr. Tanaka coming, too?)
Né, né and wé are used in exclamatory sentences. Né can also convey the
idea of confirmation. N5 is usually used by men, but can be heard in conversa-
tions by younger women. W5 is used only by women.
(16) 8-
3- 5'11/I/‘7‘.:'1I1i...
€1l1»\1‘T51Q7'(.s (Malfi)
(Male)
Kireida né.
(Isn’t it pretty!)
48
CHARACTERISTICS JAPANESE GRAMMAR
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
b. =.511,v\f;'b13;'[_°
Z<;h,v\f;'b1:,iii_,, (Female)
Kireida wa né.
(Isn't
(Isn’t it pretty!)
e-
¢- £%7I<%i1.r<f§b<f.r&s.
5i-’i‘7l<El:lZ J1 < fill < 74'?» (Male)
(Mall?)
Suzuki-kun wa yoku hataraku na.
n5.
(Boy, Mr. Suzuki works hard!)
d-
<1l- ';"ca=r:'=r>$5.
-r-can-rhea. (Female)
Sutekida wa.
w5.
wonderful !)
(It’s wonderful!)
Some sentence-final particles appear in questions in informal speech. For
example, in informal male speech kai and dai mark yes I/ no questions and WH-
questions, respectively. (Q dai; kai)
a.
(17) A C.t'ttifi®2lIh\l.\.,
:ni1£e>2t2§\t\. (Male)
Kore wa kimi no hon kai.
(Is this your book?)
:;ni1re'no2(sr-5i.\.
b. .:m:tr:no1kr£t\, (Male)
Kore wa dare no hon dai.
(Whose book is this?)
In informal female speech the sentence-final n(o) desu ka becomes no spoken
with rising intonation. In this use no is almost a female question marker. Ex-
amples follow:
(18)
(18) a.
a. 7,61: /V. 14-—'i~4
71‘?-5/V, »<--3'-4 -lZ'.fi:b>1‘.;: wa)? (Female)
—l:fi-i)~f4:v\0)? (Female)
Tomoko-san.
Tomoko-san, péti ni ikanai
/'kanai no?
(Aren’t you going to the party, Tomoko?)
b. fi]‘&E-50)?
(H2? -5 0)? (Female)
Nani 0 kau no?
(What are you going to buy?)
Kashira and kané also appear in sentence-final position and express the
speaker’s uncertainty about a proposition. The former is usually used by female
speakers and the latter by male speakers.
a- Hi:
(19) A t>H:l5lE%,n\ L6.
%1.l:(>l:i:!§lEz>h\L6. (Female)
Watashi ni mo dekiru kashira.
(Can I do it, too, I wonder?)
b. A Lr=i1n§1J\»t:e>..
l>- §>Lf=:tiH§n\t;85. (Male)
Ashita wa
Ashiza we ame kan5.
(Will it rain tomorrow, I wonder?)
As we have seen in the various examples above, sentence-final particles
play an important role in determining the function of a sentence. Also, by
using these particles in conversation, a speaker expresses his I/ her emotion
or attitude toward the hearer as well as his /I her masculinity /I femininity.
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
Symbolisms—giseig0 and gitaigo

8. Sound Symbolisms—giseigo
Japanese is abundant in sound symbolisms in the form of phonomimes (=
onomatopoeia, giseigo), phenomimes (=gitaig0)
(=gitaigo) and psychomimes (=gitaig0).
(=gitaigo).
All languages have phonomimes or direct phonetic representations of actual
sounds in every day life, such as the English bang, bowwow, cock-a-doodle-do
and meow. English phonomimes are normally considered children’s language
and are not fully integrated into adult language. In Japanese, however, not
only phonomimes but also phenomimes (phonetic representations of phenomena
perceptible by non-auditory senses) and psychomimes (phonetic representations of
human psychological states) are an integral part of adult spoken and written
Japanese. Therefore, it is of vital importance that students of Japanese learn
these sound symbolisms as part of their ordinary vocabulary.
A summary of sound symbolisms is given below. Each sound symbolism
is an adverb associated with a specific verb. The adverb is normally followed
by the quote marker to, because the sound symbolism is perceived as a quotation.
The examples contain the verb that typically co-occurs with the given sound
symbolism.
(A) Voiceless and Voiced Consonants
Voiced consonants tend to represent something big, heavy, dull or dirty;
whereas voiceless consonants represent something small, light, sharp or
pretty.
A -2*
a- =5 6%
B-tr E-((.1:))‘fi%)
6 ((b))'iSZe) Sparklingly)
((shine) Sparkliagly)
kirakira ((to) hikaru)
b. C.'5C16((k)§h§Z;)
C‘. 6 C’. 6 (( t ) E703 25) ((small object) rolls)
korokoro ((to)
((10) korogaru)
c. |£f;|£7‘;((&)§’§¢,Z))
lffglffz; ((&)Y§1‘5 25) ((small amount of liquid) drips)
potapota ((to) ochiru)
d. 3 < 3 (< ((3)515)
((&)l;lJ»5) ((cut) a thin, light object)
sakusaku ((to) kiru)
a’. §'
5' 5%‘ I5 (( &))'f;5)
(5 § 5 3) )'(;Z;.) ((shine) dazzlingly)
giragira ((10) hikaru)
:6 :5 ((k)E2b§Z>)
b’. .'j,'6.'.f6 (( &)fi;b?-Z5) ((heavy object) rolls)
gorogoro ((to)
((10) korogaru)
c’. |£7‘;|£T;((&)§'gf,Z,)
|£7‘;|£7‘;((,1;)?§f;.Z>) ((large amount of liquid) drips)
botabota ((10)
((20) ochiru)
S1
d’. 3'
$'<( 3' (< ((J;){;J]5)
((<t;)i;'IJ25) ((cut) a thick, heavy object)
zakuzaku ((to) kiru)
(B) Velar Consonants—k and g
The velar consonants [k] and [g] tend to represent hardness, sharpness,
clear-cutness, separation, detachment or sudden change.
a. 75\f;7b\f; (l:?§Z5)
7§\t.7§\15(l:7§Z>) ((freeze) hard)
kachikachi (ni koru)
kach/kachi
b. oi D9 ((&)fi;?_25)
< ->3 ((&)fi;?_Z5) ((be visible) clearly)
kukkiri ((to) mieru)
c. 5 elf
3 off D9 ((.l;)$}Ij)h,25)
((&)EIjn;_3) ((separate from people) once and for all)
kippari ((to)
((20) wakareru)
d.
d- hi I5
bi (5 '2
"O (E
(b ’£bZ5)
’§bZa) ((completely)
((Completely) change)
garat (to kawaru)
e. (&'}‘| <)
('0 (&5‘| ((pull) with a jerk)
gut (to hiku)
ff.- (£0
lfo <( 9D ((&)35Ebl.'1)
((t)FE21.1) ((die) suddenly)
((die) suddenly)
pokkuri ((to) shinu)
(C) Dental Fricative Consonant—s
The dental fricative consonant [s] tends to represent a quiet state or a quiet
and quick motion. [sh] in particular seems to represent some quiet human
emotion.
a. 30
'3 (&1‘£t-';_];-353%,)
(&1‘zj*;_I;7)§E>) ((stand up) quickly)
sat (to tachiagaru)
T676 (( 9:)
b- '4'Z>'4'Z> &)'i*%Z>)
E5) ((elide) smoothly)
(($lide)
surusuru ((to) suberu)
e. LLa.2 Lbee <(((&)I5éZe)
.2)I$31z>) <(ir
((it rains) quietly)
shitoshito (to furu)
d. l,/VJ; 9 ((3)331-)
l,/,,.;9. ((3)33-I) ((talk) quietly and intimately)
shinmiri ((to) hanasu)
1,/.,(e~rz>)
e. L/.,(.&~rz») ((be) quiet)
shin (to suru)
f- L .)=4: A/if
/vii 9 ((t)'i'Z>)
((&)'4'Z>) ((be) despvndem)
tleapotttleat)
shonbori ((to) suru)
52
S2 CHARACTERISTICS or JAPANESE GRAMMAR
g.
g- Z’. ‘E’ C2 ti" ff
2:{'.’;% k ) 5&7” 6) ((escape) secretly)
((<‘:)i£if5)
kosokoso ((to) nigeru)
h. I,
l, |¢> /V ((2;
pp A, 3 -I"
T5)5) ((be) dispirited)
shun (to suru)
i. o@{—u((.2))—rz>)
0~-e—t— 9 ((&)H-1:») ((be) quiet)
hissori ((to) suru)
(D) Consonant—r
Liquid C0ns0nant—r
The liquid consonant [r] tends to represent fluidity, smoothness or slip
periness.
a. 1'15 o(l: LT!/\
'§‘6o(& 5)
LT!/)5) ((figure) is slim)
surat (to shite iru)
b. '§"lB'§"‘l?3 ((g)giz',)
-J-:3-;-5 ((<l;)§,§,'I;‘<_Z,) ((answer) with great ease)
surasura ((to) kotaeru)
c. < 5 < Z; ((&)ii925)
5 ((23) $195) ((turn) round and round)
kurukuru ((to) mawaru)
d. 0505 (L
02502; "CI/\5)
(LT!/\£>) ((be) slippery)
tsurutsuru (shite iru)
e. iI;.i5zn5 (L'cv~5)
6- tia62sl.1Za(L'Ci/\E>) ((be) slimy)
nurunuru (shite iru)
f- é5-5 I5
6 3é t5((.1;)$imz>)
6 ((t)i?fE:h.5) ((fiow)
((fi0W) $m°°thly)
$m°°il1ly)
sarasara ((to) nagareru)
g.
g- 7’:foT:lB ((&)filE1lLZ>)
76.5715 ((&)%1!’LZ>) ffsweat or blood) drip continuously)
((sweat
taratara ((to) nagareru)
(E) Nasal Consonants—m and n
The nasal sounds tend to represent tactuality, warmth and softness.
a. {:< d3<
{;< (I/Cv\5)
{;< (L'Cv\2.’>) ((of
((0f a dog or a cat) is plump)
mukumuku (shite iru)
/ru)
b- ¢}‘l:'>tll?‘*3(L'Cl/\%’>)
i7*J{?*)(L'Ci/\Z>) ((be) plump)
muchimuchi (shite iru)
c. f,;;_1;f;,J; ((3) LT!/\Z>)
>§tJ;f;J; ((23) LT!/\5) ((be) slender and delicate)
nayonayo ((10)
((to) shite iru)
d. I:
1: ttoo-. Q»R» 1: P) A»ea (T
I: B (ea)
5) ((be) sticky)
nichanicha (suru)
CHARACTERISTICS OF
e.
el I: ie 5 I: I1) 5 (LT v\5)
l:r;>%3l:|4>6(l,'C)/\5) ((be) slimy)
nyurun yuru (shite iru)
nyurunyuru
f. u;araz»(Lrv~>:>)
e‘a5m5(L"cv\5) ((be) slimy)
nurunuru (shite iru)
g. IateIate(L"cv\5)
g- tabla E (L -c W6) ((be) sticky)
stieky)
nechinechi (shite iru)
nech/nechi
(F) Voiceless Bilabial Plosive-——p
Plosive—p
The voiceless bilabial plosive (=stop) [p] tends to represent explosiveness,
crispiness, strength and suddenness.
a.
al If-e (J;
[J3-9 (.1; E)]5
wig, < 23:5)
74:5) ((become bright) suddenly)
pat (to akaruku naru)
b U‘iLa»9(&I1fl<)
b- U°Le=D(<‘:i1|1<) (whaelt)
(whack)
pishari (to tataku)
c
c. U’/.,(2; < 5)
U3/o(2; (come to (me) in a flash)
(to kuru)
pin (I0
d
d. »< F;/{
¢{ I5 ((
:5/< :5 g) L -Q:-/{6)
((25) gs/<5) (gibber, speak ffuently)
fluently)
perapera ((to)
((10) shaberu)
e.
e of/V0’/v(L'cv\5)
0°/V0"/.)(L'cv\Zs) ((be) Peppy)
peppy)
pinpin
pinp/n (shite iru)
f.
f .51’)/\(&[;ij'Cfi‘<)
51)/\(& fljffi < ) ((leave) suddenly)
pui (to dete iku)
g.
8 .510 (3 l;'I]i)1,5)
5'10 0 (2; fiijzktzp) ((break) suddenly)
putsut (to kireru)
hh. If->1»
(£5 ((.1;)l%’=r)»S=)
n> D (( 3 ) i¥7)>,5i) ((fl0at) suddenly)
((fioat) Suddenly)
pokkari ((to) ukabu)
pokkar/'
(G) Semi-vowel—y
Semi-'vowel—y
The semi-vowel [y] tends to represent weakness, slowness and softness.
a
a. J:v\J:v\(l.’_)‘,;:5)
J1lr\JZl/\(lC. 25:5) (have locomotor ataxia, loss of reflexes)
yoiyoi (ni naru)
bb. J: Ii J; Ii (I: 2*; 5)
J:l£J:i£(lC.f,,c5) ((become) senile)
yoboyobo (ni naru)
c.
C J: ih, J: ah, (II. I; 25)
J::h.J:1h.(lC.2{,c 5) ((become) worn-out)
yore yore (ni naru)
S4 CHARACTERISTICS
cnanacrrzmsrrcs or JAPANESE GRAMMAR
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
d- I'l>BH>I>>
Kb an>~a((a)~;>:1,z>>
((a)v;>n>:>) ((8-wily)
(($Wa)') like waves)
Waves)
yura yura ((10)
((to) yureru)
¢- mo
6- we < 9D (33?)
(3%?) ((speal<)<) Slowly)
((sr><==1l slowly)
yukkuri (hanasu)
r.f- ‘\5/vb
'\'°/bib 09 (aéé)
(<‘:€"5) ((teII)
(Will) softly)
Softly)
yanwari (to iu)
g- ckJ: B 4:at 15B (( a2: ) 2%
$ <)
<) ((w-ilk) totteringly)
((wa|l<) tvttefiflgly)
yochiyochi ((to) aruku)
(H) Back High Vowel—u
Vozvel—u
The back high vowel [u] tends to represent something that has to do with
human physiology or psychology.
a-
8- 5 k 5 k (T5)
(+5) (doze)
(dole)
utouto (suru)
b- 5 *5
‘é' 5 %
3 ('3'Za)
(T5) ((be) bU°Ya"¢)
bl1°Y8"¢)
uk/uki
ukiuki (suru)
c. -3 -5-
-'5 1- -'5
5 1-(£35215
1- (I-3&0’ <<)) ((perceive) dimly)
usuusu (kanzuku)
d. 5-1"-3-j‘(-j-23)
-'5-3‘-5-j‘(-#5) (itch for action)
uzuuzu (suru)
e-
6- 5 '2
5 5B 5 5 I515 (+15)
(+6) (doze)
utsurautsura (suru)
f. -'5
-5 oi»
075* D (T5) ((be) ofi'
off guard)
ukkari (suru)
g. -5 0 3
-3 & D (T5) ((be) enchanted)
uttori (suru)
h. 5
-'5 I5 (é§U<‘
(é_<U¢ l,v\)
l_,v\) (somewhat (lonely))
ura (sabish/7)
(sabish/'1)
i-i. 5/V50
-3/taro (+25)
(1-1:») ((be) fed up with)
unzari (suru)
(I) Vowel—o
Back V0wel—0
The back vowel [o] tends to represent something basically negative with
regard to human psychology.
a. j$';‘jB';‘(l,'Cv\25)
is-<;‘:51‘(l,'cv\z,) ((be) nervous and timid)
ozuozu (shite iru)
CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 55
S5
b.
b- $5 EB
I5 E36 E ( I/C
L/C I05)
W5) ((be) very nervous)
odoodo (shite iru)
6-
¢- B6B6('J'Z>)
366BF5('§‘Z>) ((be) in a dither)
orooro (suru)
d. j=57‘:BT:.('§'Z>)
1$7‘.‘.§$7C.('§"?5) (don’t know what to do)
otaota (suru)
e. $520153) ( 3 Iii
j=_;a5j5ab(& 7‘;-Ii é_<;h,Z>)
éné) ((be deceived) in a shameless manner)
omeome (to damasareru)
(J) Front Vowel—e
The front vowel [e] tends to represent something vulgar.
a. '\/<11.H'(l; 23:5)
/\/<11,l1(l:f;5) ((become) dead drunk)
hebereke (ni naru)
b. '\ 5 /\ 5 (( 5; ) % 5)
~15/\|5((<\;)%5) ((laugh) meaninglessly when embarrassed)
((to) warau)
herahera ((t0)
c. ‘C
'c at Ia 66%»)
I51’ 15 ()'E',Zp) (be glossy)
tera tera (hikaru)
d. &')%U>%((&)i5I<)
&b%&‘>%((&)ifi<) ($01))
(sob)
mesomeso ((to) naku)
In addition to the regular sound symbolisms there are some basic words that
can be explained in terms of (B) and (E) above. Consider the following se-
mantically similar words that are indispensable in Japanese grammar.
Velars N asals
is
/i< ‘D
‘”
I10
93
Q5 . .,
- (subject marker in I'6l3tlV€
relative
(Sub-lea marker)
(subject and nominalized clauses)
fa‘ 65
15‘ 0'6
0)‘? I/ =6
in 0)
kara node / mono
(because) (because)
1a\B(E5)
1>\F>(E5) |:(H5)
l:(H5)
kara (morau) ni (morau)
((receive) from) ((receive) from)
S6
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
75‘
fJ\ 0)
ka no
(or) (a particle for combining nouns)
l'l'1l'b E / bi
l‘H’LE 0)l:
(DI:
keredo / ga noni
(although / but) (although)
C. 2:
C k 0)
koto no
(nominalizer) (nominalizer)
Ck
-I J: in 0)
=60)
koto mono
(an intangible thing) (a tangible thing)
The words with the nasal [n] sound more personal, subjective and speaker-
oriented than their counterparts with the velar [k] or [g].
It is also to be noted that (C) above would tend to explain why i-type
adjectives that end in -shi
-sh/' as in kanashii ‘ sad
sad’,’, sabishi/'
sabishii ‘lonely ’, tanoshi/'
tanoshii ‘ en-
joyable’, ureshi/'
uresh/'1' ‘ happy ’ represent human emotive psychological states.
Also note that the glottal stop is often used to create more emphatic and /
or more emotive versions of a given sound, as in pitari vs. pittari ‘tightly’, ya-
expected ’, bakari vs. bakkari ‘ only’,
hari vs. yappari ‘ as expected’, only ’, yohodo vs. yoppodo
rte ‘that’, i-type adj. stem+kute (e.g., sabishikute
‘to a great extent’, to vs. tte
‘ be lonely and ~ ’) vs. i-type adj. stem+kutte (e.g., sabishikutte), etc.
It is important for students of Japanese to learn basic sound symbolisms,
(especially, phenomimes and psychomimes) relatively early in their Japanese
language study. These words are an indispensable part of the basic vocabulary
of any adult speaker. More importantly, the acquisition, use and understanding
ofJapanese sound symbolisms allow the student to appreciate the keen sensibility
of Japanese language and culture toward directly perceptible objects.
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS or
OF JAPANESE
JAPANESE GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR S7
9. Viewpoint
There is more than one way to describe a state or an event, and the choice
of expressions depends, in part, on the viewpoint from which the state or event
is described. To illustrate this, let us suppose that a person A hit a person B.
This event can be expressed by either (la) or (lb).
(1) a. A hit B.
b. B was hit by A.
Both (la) and (lb) state the same fact, but the speaker’s (or writer’s)
writer's) viewpoint
is different. That is, when (la) is chosen, the speaker is describing the event
from A’s point of view or a neutral viewpoint, and when (lb) is used, the speaker’s
description is from B’s
B's point of view.
There are several principles and rules concerning viewpoint; some are
universal and others are specific to Japanese. The following are rather universal
principles:
(A) Within a single sentence (excluding coordinate sentences) the viewpoint
should be consistent.
(B) When a sentence includes the structure A’s B, (e.g., John’s wife) the
speaker is taking A’s viewpoint rather than B’s.
(C) When the speaker (or writer) empathizes with someone, the speaker tends
to take that person's
person’s viewpoint.
(D) The speaker usually describes a situation or an event from his own view-
point rather than from others’ when he is involved in the situation or the
event.
(E) It is easier for the speaker to take the viewpoint of the person in a sen-
tence subject position than to take the viewpoint of a person in other
positions.
(F) It is easier for the speaker to take the viewpoint of the person who has
been established as a discourse topic than to take the viewpoint of some-
one who has just been introduced in the discourse.
(G) Under normal circumstances the speaker cannot take the viewpoint of a
dead person.
Although many of the grammatical principles concerning viewpoint are rather
universal, as seen above, there are a number of viewpoint-related expressions
which are important and specific to Japanese. Some rules concerning these
S8 CHARACTERISTICS or
OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
expressions are listed below:
(H) The following giving / receiving verbs require the viewpoints shown
in (2).
(2) a. -‘Q-">5,
K125, zlblfzp,
&;tfZ,, ;_’-5_l_,;;>lj’Z>
$,l,&;tfZ> (give): the giver’s or a neutral viewpoint
yaru ageru sashiageru (when they are used as auxiliary verbs,
only the giver’s viewpoint)
b. ;h,5,
< “,5, < 753 25
5 (give): the receiver's
receiver’s viewpoint
kureru kudasaru
c. '(,
i, F,
15 5, I/\T:_T5
v\7‘;7;'<< (get; receive): the receiver’s viewpoint
morau itadaku
(H), together with (A) and (D), explains the unacceptability of the following
sentences. (Q
(=> ageru‘»2;
agerultz; kurerulii;
kurerub”; moraubi)
morau‘»2)
(3) a-
3- *-—EI§l:tiL|:»<“/2fi>|~ff:.,
*-E[SliiFLlZ/it/235!-l‘f:.,
"‘/chiro wa watashi ni pan 0o ageta.
*/chiro
(Ichiro gave me some bread.)
b- *iL|:l:fn%l:/<‘/2
*¥LliiFn%i:.'<*/*2 < 11.t:..,
11.12.,
*Watashi wa Kazuo ni pen o0 kureta.
(I gave Kazuo a pen.)
c. *TE'¥‘Ii*1\I:*_/I/{fi’)&:b 5 5 1’:.,
C-*E¥fiflEibU0&£Boh°
*Hanako wa watashi ni enpitsu o0 moratta.
(Hanako received a pencil from me.)
(I) The passive construction, whether direct or indirect, requires the view-
point of the referent of the subject. (Cp. (E))
Together with (A), (B) and (D), this explains the unnaturalness of sentences like
(4). (=>
(=:> rarerul)
(4) a- *fi.oti-+.:t:tfi.i.: l,7)>I5z”LT:.°
u)a.*flon+:uflccmenn.
*Watashi no musuko wa watashi ni shikarareta.
(My son was scolded by me.)
b- *?L¢>"ai‘<‘l*Jli?Ll:iZ-§§E¢>$»’rti&§%§11.f:.
*$l~¢>'¢i'<'l*1liTLl.:iEZ~§¥E<1>$>i=l£’.»l".=i.5.§-’r1.f:..
warashi ni himitsu no tegami
*Watashi no kanai wa watashi regami o yomareta.
(My wife had her secret letter read by me.)
(J) When the verb kuru ‘come’ is used, the speaker’s viewpoint is some-
where close to the arrival point. When kuru is used as an auxiliary verb,
the viewpoint is the point to which an action is directed or a change
proceeds.
CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 59
S9
(K) When the verb iku ‘ go’ is used, the speaker’s viewpoint is somewhere
close to the departure point. When iku is used as an auxiliary verb,
the viewpoint is the point from which an action is directed or a change
proceeds.
(J) and (K) explain the unacceptability of the sentences in (S)
(5) and (6) under the
given conditions. (Q iku'»”;
(=> ikubz; kuru'»2)
kuru'>2)
(5) a. [The speaker is in Japan.]
*flu%¢7xuw~%§?.
*flu%¢7xvn~%§T.
*Watashi wa rainen Amerika e kimasu.
(I will come to America next year.)
b. [The speaker is in America.]
*fifi£$TfUfi~fi%$Lt°
*fiu%$vxvn~fi%$ch.
*Watashi wa kyonen Amerika e ikimashita.
*Watash/'
(I went to America last year.)
(6) 8-
=1. "‘$Lli Ebli
*iFLti 2:’!-'>li55 l:$$%l/\2b~7b~o'C'5E1’:.,
l-:=*<=%v\:a=n=-->'c§&f;.
*Watashi wa dorobo ni osoikakatte kita. kite.
(Lit. I came to attack the robber.)
b- **J:'Z>li5l:t$Ll:2~$%l/\n=-75>o'CfioT:°
<‘:'E>l£5 t1fiLt::‘<;%v\r)=r)=»s'tfi¢ 1':.,
*Dorobo wa watashi ni osoikakatte itta.
*Dor0b6
(Lit. The robber went to attack me.)
(L) ureshii ‘‘happy’
When adjectives like hoshii ‘ want’ (lit. desirable), uresh//' happy’ and
kanashii ‘sad’ which describe one’s personal feelings are used with the
third person subject, the speaker empathizes with that person, which
usually implies that the speaker is taking the viewpoint of that person.
wad»
(CP- ((3))
Thus, if the subject is someone the speaker is unable to empathize with, the
adjectives mentioned in (L) cannot be used, as in (7). (Q
(=> garu; hoshii; tai)
tar’)
w)a-*fiflamA#nu:#&Lu.
(7) a- *E5H162nAn1f.:&:£:n1§kLt\.,
*M/"sh/'ranu hito ga tabako ga hoshii.
*M/‘sh/'ranu
(A stranger wants a cigarette.)
b-*fiv#nvoA#5ncu.
b- *iE D 73231» D ¢))\7)3511 l,L\.,
*T6rigakari no hito ga ureshii.
(A passerby is happy.)
(M) Kinship terms can be used for the first person and (less commonly) the
second person. In this case the proper kinship term for the first person
(or the second person) is selected from the viewpoint of someone X with
whom the speaker empathizes. The person X is usually lower in status
than the person for whom a kinship term is used. (e.g., one’s little
brother) (Cp. 4. Personal Pronouns)
(8) a. [From an elder brother to his younger brother]
Réhmfitrtebo
R'éA1lL'.E'E."CZ'.'F;/vs
Ni-san ni misete goran.
(Let me see it.)
b. [From an uncle to his niece]
§$lIF5An)¥l/C2l?>lf.J: 5°
1’5ll'$/vffil/C&>U’.J.; '50
0/'i-san ga shite
Oji-san shire ageyo.
ageyd.
(I’ll do it for you.)
c. [Spoken by a mother to her daughter Yoshiko from the viewpoint
of the daughter's
daughter’s little brother Hiroshi]
Bf:1i*;'>\=/v,
1‘3illli'5‘P/v, U6LlC§L'C3?>lf>’:F§.<l/‘O
U~E>LlC.§L'C3’olf7.£‘él/‘Q
0-né-chan, Hiroshi ni kashite agenasai.
agenasa/'.
(Yoshiko, let Hiroshi have it.)
(N) When a reflexive pronoun jibun ‘self’ is used, the speaker tends to em-
pathize with the referent of jibun, which implies that the speaker’s view-
point is that of the referent. (Eb jibun‘)
/'ibun')
In (9) the referent of jibun is Hanako and the speaker is taking Hanako’s
viewpoint.
M %¥ut%#Efi2fiLrwa&€urwk,
(9) ?E¥liJl<EI§2b§E6§&§ L T I/‘E: é:lT%‘IL'Cv\f:;.>
Hanako wa Taro ga jibun 0o a/‘shite
aishite iru to shinjite ita.
(Hanako believed that Taro loved her.)
(10) is unnatural because the viewpoint is inconsistent.
Hm*%mflfi§fi&%v$§LTw5&€BTw6.
(10) *§ti?Li1§E55‘2'-‘-”*,‘C‘i>§L'Cv\Z> kfgr/'Cll\5o
*Tsuma wa watashi ga jibun o ima /‘ma demo aishite
a/‘shite iru to shin/Yte
shinjite iru.
(My wife believes that I still love her.)
A DICTIONARY
OF
BASIC
BNHC
JAPANESE
JARANESE
GRAMMAR
(Main Entries)
Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui
E1l§§§E2l§'>'ZEi¥£5!-
E7l§§§E2l§SZi£i¥£H!
ageru‘ 63
Z E
agerul 5625
ageru‘ 5H5 v. (Gr. 2) M
/\/\/\/\
E5 S.o. gives s.t. to a person who is not give

3 a member of the giver’s in-group but (morau1)]
[REL. kureru‘ (morau‘)]
5 .
32 whose status is about equal to that
of the giver.
l
§Key Sentence
Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object
n11“. 5 Flu ea
W. ~+i gm Ft.
m gs:5* sun/snack.
Zlblfffi /$01’? LT._,,,
Watashr
Watashi§ wa YOS/7!/<0
Yoshiko ' ni
arr ana
:-hana o0 ageta
'i
/ agemashita
ageta/agemashita.
(I gave Yoshiko flowers.)
M
M fifiénumisnnxeenn.
w kflshumfisnmxaenn.
Ono-san wa Yamamoto-san ni hon o0 ageta.
(Ms. Ono gave Mr. Yamamoto a book.)
(m;€u7vmm&%HiLtm.
(b) E117 ‘/l:(iI2 kdfi Liar)»,
Kimi
Kim! wa An I7!
ni nan:
nani 0 agemashita ka.
(What did you give to Ann?)
I
Notes
1. Ageru is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs; the meaning is

‘ give ’. However, ageru cannot be used when the indirect object is the
first person (i.e., I or we) or a person with whom the speaker em-
pathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (la) and
(lb) are ungrammatical.
(1) a.
3- *?E¥i1$Li:2l=&t>ifr=.
*TE¥i1iFLl:1li2fi>l*l’f:..
*Hanako wa watashi ni hon o0 ageta.
(Hanako gave me a book.)
b-*w¥ufiwG¢:c$2&wt.
b-*m¥unoo¢:e¢aswn.
*Hanako wa watashi no musuko ni hon o ageta.
(Hanako gave my son a book.)
The reason for this is as follows: Ageru requires the giver’s point of
view or a neutral point of view when describing an event. When an
event involves the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with,
64 agerul
ageru‘
however, the event is normally described from that person’s point of
view. (See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 9. Viewpoint.) There-
fore, if the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is a re-
cipient in ageru-sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences
ungrammatical. The grammatical sentences for (la) and (lb) are (2a)
and (2b), respectively. (=> kureru‘)
(=>kureru1)
m
(2) w
3- %¥ufln$e<nn.
TE¥li#Ll~’l1l§’.»l'(1'I-7‘.-:0
Hanako wa watashi ni hon 0o kureta.
(Hanako gave me a book.)
h E¥ufloUT:n$2<ht.
R E¥ufl®nT:m$&<nt.
Hanako wa watashi no musuko ni hon o kureta.
(Hanako gave my son a book.)
The humble polite version of ageru is sashiageru. Example:
m
(3) flH%$K$EéL5H$Lto
fliifibilclliké Lfibl-fi Lt.
Watashi wa sensei ni hon o0 sashiagemashita.
(I gave my teacher a book.)
The degree of politeness expressed in sashiageru is higher than that
of kudasaru and itadaku, which are the polite versions of kureru and
morau, respectively. (=:>kureru1, REL. II)
(d.>kureru1,
When the giver is in a higher position than the recipient or the recipient
is a person very close to the speaker, yaru is used instead of ageru.
Examples:
m
(4) w
3- flu%m$&v¢t.
ifl-ii%lC7l5’i"’P*.>T:o
Watashi wa ototo ni hon o yatta.
(I gave my little brother a book.)
b-
b. U6 Lliifill
Liilfil-Z i*3. 11/9
ll/7 ’.5_"\’-‘ofza
E'\'°oT:.,
Hiroshi wa neko ni miruku 0o yatta.
(Hiroshi gave milk to the cat.)
c. [Tom is the speaker’s intimate friend.]
iFLi:.t
Hit l~l~1-l-:#~—*\~’i"\5")$
-l=~lC'7~—*r 2&5‘) i Lfzo
Watashi wa Tomu ni kéki
keki o0 yarimashita.
(I gave a cake to Tom.)
ageru’ 65
ageruz
aggrull
agerua 5(j’5
5115 aux. v.
iv. (Gr. 2)
wA \AAA
S.o. gives some action as a favor to do s.t. for s.o.; do s.o. a favor
a person who is not a member of the by doing s.t.
giver’s in-group but whose status is [REL. kureru’ (morau2)]
< about equal to that of the giver.
\._/,\'/r.\",/.¢\/'/".~r4\.r\/.
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vie

Vte
n § nii €%éA»§K
(E;-‘%é/V *aa4§s:E¢r
ll: P?-76"/f, awn/snack.
E.-:>'C $>U’f /hifibfc
Watashz wa
Watashij Nobuo-san; ni
Nobuo-sanfi nekutai§ 0 katte
nekutaii ageta/
agetal agemashita
agemashita.
II
O.
(I bought a tie for Nobuo.)
cu:>
(E
/'\
/\
pi
-.
Topic (subject) Direct Object i~=ei+
Vte
C‘ -
e
\-/
\-/% 5 niii’- nest
%¥éh gt2- meant
&<éwr
I IO
IIIOI<
~
awn/snack.
eon/edict ‘I
O‘I
Boku wa Haruko - sang

Haruko-sang 0o nagusamete agetal ' .
ageta / agemashita.
agemashzta
(I consoled Haruko.)
EHHEB
Vie
Vte b Zn
29> U’ 6
ageru
Efil/C
EELT Zblfzg
$65 (talk for s.o.’s sake)
hanashite ageru
Q/<'C
fi'<'C 25,0175
§>l)"Z> (eat for s.o.’s sake)
tabete ageru
nmsfishcmzcrenscnm.
@ nnsfiénumeurnnitnw.
o-ké-san ni nani 0o shite agemashita ka.
Kimi wa 0-ké-san
(What did you do for your mother?)
w E$éhuzixébn$2ELT&Uk.
(b) B3433 /1/U12 5'. 2 é /vl-‘lllifitfil/C'$>U"7“:°
Tanaka-san wa Sumisu-san ni hon o0 kashite ageta.
(Mr. Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith.)
66 ageruz
1. Ageru is used as an auxiliary verb with the te-form of verbs. The

l.
meaning of Vie
Vte ageru is ‘do s.t. for s.o.’ or ‘do s.o. a favor by doing
s.t.’ The restriction which applies to agerul
ageru‘ also applies to ageruz.
ageru”.
Namely, sentences with VteVie ageru are descriptions from the viewpoint
of the benefactor (i.e., the person in subject position); therefore, the
indirect object must not be the first person or a person the speaker
(Q ageru',
empathizes with. (=> ageru‘, Note 1) Thus, (la) and (lb) are ungram-
matical.
(1) 8- *?E¥i1$L|:B1l§1%2fii:?.'C§s|-ffzo
*?E-?‘liiLlZB2l§%Efi;?.'C3>l‘l’f:°
*Hanako wa
we watashi ni nihongo o oshiete ageta.
(Hanako taught me Japanese.)
b.*x7v—nHwcTwc&veE¢rnHt.
b. *2‘ 7' ‘J -—iiH-0>d;:‘4'&>i:-<‘/EE'>'C3>l-)’f:..
*Meari we
wa watashi no musume ni pen o0 katte ageta.
(Mary bought a pen for my daughter.)
The grammatical sentences for (_1a)
(_la) and (lb) are (2a) and (2b), respectively.
(=> kureru’)
(=:> kureru”)
m
(2) A
8- %¥ufinB$%&fi2r<nt.
7ll5¥:ti$LlCB1l§%Etfi:?_'C (him.
Hanako we wa watashi ni nihongo 0 oshiete kureta.
h x7u—nfionTwn&v2E¢r<nt.
6 x?v—uflonTwmsv2fiQr<nh.
Meari we
Mean" wa watashi no musume ni pen o0 katte kureta.
22. As in KS (B), if the person receiving the benefit is the direct object of
the sentence, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b)
are ungrammatical.
w)a-*%n%¥ehc%¥sp2&¢éwr&Hn.
oia-*%u%¥énn%¥sn2e¢swreHn.
*Boku wa Haruko-san ni Haruko-san o nagusamete ageta.
b-*%u§¥$&co¢éwrewn.
b-*%m§¥é&c&¢éwr&Wn.
*Boku wa Haruko-san ni nagusamete ageta.
3. When the main verb is intransitive, ageru is not used along with ni.
The following sentence is ungrammatical,
*$Li%t1~‘/‘ 3a ~/I:@l1v\"c2F>|~)’f:.
(4) *$Li§li9’ ‘/l:lfiljv\'C§>l-J’1'.:.,
*Watashitachi wa Jon ni hataraite ageta.
(We worked for John.)
In this case, no tame ni ‘ for the sake of’ is used, as in (5). (=> tame(ni))
tame (ni))
M-
ageruz / aida (ni) 67

agerui
W nfiuvavonwnnwn.
(5) $1-i§li~‘/’ a ‘/0)f:8')lZl§lJI/\T.:a
Watashirachi
Watashitachi wa Jon no tame ni hataraita.
(We worked for John’s sake.)
4. The humble polite version of Vte ageru is Vte sashiageru. Example:
W flu%Em€7/&owréL&H$Lt.
flm%$nE7/Euwrébnfiibto
Watashi wa sensei ni piano o h/‘ire
hiite sashiagemashita.
(I played the piano for my teacher.)
The degree of politeness expressed in Vie
Vte sashiageru is higher than that
of Vie Vie itadaku, which are the polite versions of Vie
Vte kudasaru and Vte Vte
kureru and Vte
Vie morau, respectively. (=>
(=:> kureru‘, REL. II)
S.
5. When the benefactor is in a higher position than the recipient or is of
equal status and his relationship to the recipient-is close, Vie
Vte yaru is used
instead of Vte
Vie ageru. Examples:
(7) 8-
3- $Lti!1ilil.:i/:-—
$1-itllililil-I i/:1-— FEE->"C’<5-sf:.,
FE§O'C"(5o1':a
Watashi wa imoto ni rekodo 0o katte yatta.
(I bought my little sister a record.)
b. I;o>/viiifii-';%>&lfiv\'t‘\'=-;>f:.
Ilisbfi/ti2‘§lCfiiEl;%'Bv\'C‘\5-sfza
Jun wa neko ni sakana 0o yaite yatta.
(Jun roasted fish for his cat.)
c. [John is the speaker’s close friend.]
iFLl:.’t*‘/" a ‘/ll?
$Lti~‘/’ ‘/l-15*‘./"7l'Et§L’C'\’°")
~‘/’7i'2§l/C‘\5") i 35 L120
Lf:o
Watashi wa Jon ni rajio raj/'0 0o kashite yarimashira.
yarimashita.
(I lent John my radio.)
Fa?! (lc)
aida (ni) Fa‘ (la) Pl"-
Pf"-
jvithe WNWWMM?
jvvtihe space between twoAMNWNWINWQ
temporal or g2 during (the time when); while
gj physical points e, [REL. nagara; uchi ni]
,
I g\A/\/vVw
\/\/\/\I\JQ\J \ \
68 aida (ni)
§Key Sentences
(A)
Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vte
fl. hi
$1‘ vi‘; can 2
Cfili E’ fi'\"'C we
fi’\"C W6 F-El
Fa’) Lllliflé/v
Lllflilé/V ii
li 5"!/1:"
7‘!/1:’ 2
Watashi
Watashr ga gohan o0 tabete iru aida Yamada-San wa terebi 0
Yamada-san
Eff
RT WT; / (ni Lfco
I/*7‘;/I/‘ibis
mite ita //imashita.
imashita.
(While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada was watching TV.)
(B)
Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
#1.
$1. 1)‘7)‘; rttz
QI
V
ma 2 Ext
Vte
[9
we F-'rs1 Z»;
gs-c l/*6 ii; tutti:/V
iuifié/so 7>1§Er;/
vi‘; §Ef.:/
Watashi ga gohan o0 tabete iru aida —
ni Yamada-san ga kita /
Q
I
I
3l'é
§E i i L
L 7:0
Q Q
2 7’-‘.10
kimashita.
(While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada came in.)
M
Vie
(i) Vte FE]
W5 Fae) (i.:)
(ii)
iru aida (ni)
3;§[,*C
'35-[,'C I/\Z>
i/\5 FE]
P5] (lg) (while s.o. is talking)
hanashite iru aida (ni)
Q/\“'C (M5
Q/<1 I05 FE] (lg)
(L1) (while s.o. is eating)
tabete iru aida (ni)
Adi (1') F:F=-‘-'1i (ll)
(ii) Adj (I-1)
aida (ni)
fé-,]v\
Te]!/\ F51
Ff] ([1)
(iii) (while s.t. is expensive)
takai aida (ni)
(iii) Adj (na) stem 2‘; F5
2*; F-F] ([1)
(lit)
ha
na aida (ni)
aida (ni)
aide 69
§‘%/pf;
5*‘~¥~7pf; [15
[LE1 (lg) (while s.t. is quiet)
shizukene aide
shizukana aida (ni)
IV) N
(iv) u) FR‘
"J Péi) (l;)
((-1)
no aida
aide (ni)
E(;|<.7,t
E(?l<-7+ 0)
<1) [hi (ig)
l'i=i"l ((-1) (during the
(during the summer
summer vacation)
vacation)
netsuyesumi no eide
natsuyasumi aida (ni)
(8) 2izébmB$uw6%%%2fiiTwiLk°
zizéhfiH$KW5%¥%2fiiTwiLka
Sumisu-sen wa
Sumisu-san we Nihon ni iru aide
aida eigo 0o oshiete imeshite.
imashita.
(Mr. Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in
Japan.)
¥%%#?v€eRrwe%fiu$&%pcwaen.
(b) ¥fiEfi%vE&%Tw5%fiu$2%newiLn.
Kodomotechi ge
Kodomotachi ga terebi o0 mite iru aide weteshi we
aida watashi wa hon o yonde ima-
shira.
shite.
(I was reading a book (all during the time) while my children were
watching TV.)
(6) %§éwm7%Uhmw6%tfiw72%iiLk,
Féifié /vii?’ >1 U 11 i.:.v\5F-‘iic; :1’/l/7 rgfiii 1,7,-;,
Tekeheshi-sen we
Takahashi-san Amerike ni iru aida
wa Amerika eide ni gorufu 0o oboemeshite.
oboemashita.
(Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he was in America.)
(d) '=PJIlé A/0) isiiié /vii '1P)Ilé /-.nb‘1»<'U is; ",¥{'il,'Cv\ 5F-Eli: alfiiic; tr ') i L
$Méu@fiEébm¢mém#fiUu%$LTw6%nfi%m@91¢
Tc...
7.2.,
Nekegewe-sen
Nakagawa-san no o-ke-sen
o-ké-san we Nekegewe-sen ge
wa Nakagawa-san ga Peri
Pari ni ryiigekushire
rydgakushite
iru aide
aida ni byoki
byéki ni nerimeshite.
narimashita.
(Mr. Nakagawa’s mother became ill while he was studying in Paris.)
(B) #')<¥t1¥{;iez)§v\f.cv\F§ll:I4I2§%ti-.,
i)<¥ii¥l¥2n‘iv\f.i:v\F'a‘ii-r.1l>Yi’&i';5'a"’ci;r.,
Akiko wa
we kodomo ge
ga inai aida ni hon o yomu.
inei eide
(Akiko reads books while her children are not at home.)
1 The subjects for the eide-clause

aida-clause (=subordinate clause) and the main
clause can be different
difl'erent as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e) or can be the same as
in Exs. (a) and (c). When the subjects are different,
diflerent, the subject in the
aide-clause is marked not by we
aida-clause wa but by ge.
ga.
2 The verb before eide
aida is normally nonpast Vie
Vte iru or iru, regardless of
the tense of the main clause.
70
'70 aide
aida (ni)
3. Aida,
Aide, if followed by ni, a particle of specific time point, means that
the time span of an event identified by the main clause falls within
the time span of an event identified by the eide-clause,
aida-clause, as in Exs. (c),
Aide without ni, as in Exs. (a) and (b), indicates that the
(d) and (e). Aida
two events are assumed to cover the same span of time. Thus, if the
main verb is a punctual verb, aida
eide should be used with ni. The fol-
lowing sentence, therefore, is ungrammatical.
(1) *lLlEE é /1/75';/3
*llll35l Z‘ /V7):/3 U l;€£’iL
l;%#l/Ci/\ E>Fe‘J2‘sE.l:é bhiifiiilcfg
TV‘ éfaiisfité /wb?ii?’ii.l:.>t,¢ 5
O T.-;,,
Tc,
*Yemede-sen ge
*Yamada-san ga Pen’ ryiigekushite iru aide
Pari ni rytigakushite aida o-ke-sen
o-ka-san ge
ga byoki
nerre.
ni natta.
(*Mr. Yamada’s mother became ill (all during the time) while he
was studying in Paris.)
The diflerence
difference between aide
aida ni and aida
aide can be diagrammed as follows:
,§ Event 1 E.
E (main clause) §
aida ni §' E§
5§ Event 2 §5
|1
(subordinate clause)
§' Event 1 §
( |
D
E (main clause) 5
aide
aida § 5
I Event 2 3
4-i—-—-5->
( P
; (subordinate clause) 5
4. A noun or an adjective can be used before aide.
aida.
M HW#®fivXb§V?7wfi4b&LiLko
§Wh®Hvxb5v?7wfi4b2LiLt.
Netsuyesumi aide resutoran
Natsuyasumi no aida resutoren de erubeito
arubaito o shimeshite.
shimashita.
(During the summer vacation I worked part time at a restaurant.)
m EWnwmcn—»7v>F#m%1Ln.
(3) ‘§.’l'l\'=71'-(7)l'|a’ll-17'1"--/I/7 I/.‘/ Fniitiaiei L7‘;->
Netsuyesumi aide ni gerufurendo
Natsuyasumi no aida ge dekimeshiie.
garufurendo ga dekimashita.
(During the summer vacation I found a girl friend.)
(4) £év\|’a1fili;$i'&>$;%v\'Cv~i-Ii-/vs
iév\Fe1fi1l.:$>iiE&%v\'cv\i1i-/6.,
Negei
Nagai aide
aida hehe
haha ni tegami
tegemi 0 keite
kaite imesen.
imasen.
(I haven’t written to my mother for a long time.)
W %wmc¢emRaeen<aAeeeew.
%wmc¢2m%aenn<sn%aasw.
Wekei aida ni hon 0o dekiru dake
Wakai deke tekusen
takusan yominesei.
yominasai.
(Read as many books as you can while you are young.)
aida (ni)
eide 71
S.
5. The non-temporal aidaaide which means ‘space between’ or ‘ relationship’
is used in the structure A to B (to) no eide
aida ‘ between A and B ’ as in:
(6) Bier/ununwncnmtmmw.
m Hater; u 1: (t)a)fB1(:liifi(/i)‘7’.£l/‘o
Nihon to Amerika
Amerike (to) no aida ni we
wa umi shike
shika nei.
nai.
(There is only ocean between Japan and America.)
(7) LUIII efi(&)0>r-‘Ji1e&i,'c%
lllll <':%(t) ®fia1lii9&l/T;§t;.<< i.cv\.
icy‘.
Yamaguchi to boku (to) no aida wa
we kesshite werukunei.
warukunai.
(The relationship between Yamaguchi and me is not bad at all.)
The usage of aida
eide meaning ‘relationship’ in (7) is a metaphorical ex-
tension of physical space between two persons.
6. The verb iru ‘(an animate object) exists
exists’’ can be used by itself, as in
Ex. (c), due to its stative nature. Some adjectives such as tekei
takai ‘ expen-
sive ’, yasui
yesui ‘ cheap ’, etetekei
atatakai ‘ warm ’, suzushii ‘ cool’,
cool ’, wekei
wakai ‘ young’
young ’
can also be used in this way, as follows:
W %WHtz£—VEW6w6Lkfifiww?T°
(8) %v\|’e'i|l:;<rJ€—-W 21/\5v\5 L2‘.:7ir)‘ivw\ '61‘.
Wekei aida ni supotsu o iroiro shite
Wakai shita ho ge
ga iidesu.
(It’s better to do various sports while you are young.)
These adjectives, however, sound a little more natural with uchi n1
ni
while’.’.
‘ while (=:>
(=> uchi ni)
[Related Expression]
If the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are identical and if the
verbs are action verbs, eide
aida can be replaced by negare,
nagara, but with different
meaning.
M
[1] %¥u€fiefi~rwafiivB2%rwn.
’§¥ii ::"Eli'&'fi*<T\/‘ Z>l’a'l-7‘ 1/ 1:“ EEICI/\i.:..
Yukiko we
wa gohan 0o tebete
tabete iru aida
aide terebi 0o mire
mite ire.
ita.
(Yukiko was watching TV while she was eating her meal.)
m §%n:fi2fl*m#5ivE2Erwn.
[2] ‘S?-ii Cifili’-i'fi'<7.iIibil5-‘i" v 1:“’<T:E.'Cv\T:.°
Yukiko we
wa gohan 0 tebenagere
tabenagara terebi o mite ire.
ita.
(Lit. Yukiko was primarily watching TV, although simultaneously she
was eating her meal. (=Yukiko was eating her meal while watching
TV.))
[1] and [2] focus on ‘ duration of some action/state ’ and ‘ accompanying minor
action ’, respectively. (=> nagara)
ill
72 amari
Zi-ii
i-iii
iii
M
- in
-
- G
- _
n _
_
_
amari 35$
25$ D adv-
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/-\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
/\/\ \
\/\/\J\/\
j The degree of s.t. is not great. j3 (not) very much; (not) very
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Topic (subject) Predicate (negative)

1
co
._.v> $
Iii 5 u sen
$> H- t<aw/i<avaen.
.1:<f.cv*/J:<e»9iii-/V
_\3
Kono hon 5-+
wa amari
amen yokunai / yokuer/mesen
yokune// yokuarimasen.
(This book is not very good.)
good -'_/
w %*spmne9n&¢w.
@ %*ehuea9fi~ew.
Suzuki-san we
wa amari tebenei.
tabenai.
(Miss Suzuki does not eat much.)
m fln&ivfi<tn2en.
M flmei9E<finsen.
Weteshi
Watashi we
wa amari heyeku heshiremesen.
hayaku hashiremasen.
(I cannot run very fast.)
1. The adverb amari usually occurs in negative sentences, meaning ‘ not very
Ameri is one of a group of adverbs which co-occur with nega-
(much)’. Amari
tive predicates. They include:
(l)
(1) zenzen ‘(not) at all’; metreni
mettani ‘‘rarely,
rarely, seldom’; kesshite ‘ never,
by no means’; sappari
sepperi ‘(not) at all’; sukoshimo ‘(not) a bit’;
chittomo ‘ (not) a bit’
2. Anmeri
Anmari is a phonological variant of amari and usually used in conversation.
3. In limited situations, amari can be used in affirmative
aflirmative sentences, too. In
this case, it means ‘ very; too’ with a negative implication. Examples:
m
(2) a
a. znvb#$iU%%&:&&§5®?%U—m%¢T%oTL
znwifinivkneza&§5@e#v—u%er%eru
0 7:0
i '2 TC,
ge amari shitsureina
Sukotto ga shitsureine koto o iu node Sari we
wa okotte
keette sh/"metre.
kaette shimatta.
(Since Scott was very rude (lit. said very rude things), Sally
got mad and went home.)
b #iébm$IUfi&flhE@TfiiK#ok.
U #iébu&$Ufi&fibfi®ffiit&ok,
we amari sake o nonda
/noue-san wa nonde node byoki ni nerre.
natta.
iii-
emeri
amari / aru‘ 73
M
in. j
W
in j
j
in i
in?“ i
_i
iq %
1
W
.-_-Q i
%
in 1
W 1-
(Mr. Inoue drank too much and became ill.)

Q %nu£h$UTT.
6- %1h.li3>/vi ‘J ‘GT0
Sore we
wa anmari desu.
(You're (lit. That’s) too cruel.)
(You’re
aru! 55
arul 355 '0. (Gr. 1)
lE An inanimate thing exists. i( be; exist; have

—\/\/\ \/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\I /\/'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ J I n
[REL. iru‘;
/ru‘; moire /ru]
iru]
-'\/\/\ \/w /\/ /\/'\/"‘\/'\/\./'\./\./\../\I'\/'\./\./"* J 0 0
§Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (location) Subject Quantifier
co WT
CV3 wr §(l-’;)i;t
(ll l;t fie:
% »=753 2:/>
E’) ea/ease.
29>?-.5 / 29:9 3E'§‘°
Kono machi
IT78C/7/ (ni) wa
we deigeku = ga
daigaku mittsu aru / arimasu.
In this town are three universities. (=There are three universities
(Lit. _In
in this town.))
(B)
Topic (subject) Noun (location)
:1: ‘Y 7111/tiIII
I~77;=1l/i§ ti /<1)
1*‘) (C
is: E9>Z>/2¥>9E'§‘°
I $3 9 ii‘;-‘o
Efferuto we
_wa Peri
Pari ni aru / arimasu.
Eiffel Tower is in Paris.)
(The Eiflel
M
®
(8-) flo7fi—tGUu¥vH#:fina.
2-‘L07/<~— l~ (l-Z) (155 1/ l:"'n'i:'.{5'&;5.,
Weteshi no apéto
Watashi epéto (ni) wa
we rerebi
terebi ge
ga nidei
nidai aru.
(There are two TV sets in my apartment.)
w ¥bP4bfiiVfiVNK%9iT°
M ¥be4buivfivMm5Di+°
we Mishigen-shii
Detoroito wa Mishigan-shti ni arimasu.
(Detroit is in the State of Michigan.)
%; 74 aru‘
; (0)
(G) aims/.,¢>=) *>(lC)l;t7-7—7)3>’.itv\,,
fllllilil 3 /V0) 5 5 ((-1) (19 "- '7'"-7)37Jf(r\°
Wade
Wada-san
sen no uchi (ni) we
wa kure
kora ga
ge nei.
nai.
(There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada’s.)
(Notes
l.
1. Aru expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things
including abstract things such as events and problems. Thus, (1) is
ungrammatical.
u)*:ommuB$Ame5.
(1) *C<'>iRTl:t:tEIl§)\r)§3>%>..
*Kono machi ni we
wa nihon/‘in
nihonjin ga aru.
(There are Japanese in this town.)
For animate things, iru‘ is used. (=9 iru‘)
(=>
2. The negative informal form of aru is not erenei
aranai but nai.
3. Two sentence patterns can be used with aru. The KS (A) pattern is
used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what exists is
under focus. In this pattern, the location marker ni can optionally drop.
The KS (B) pattern is used when something which exists is presented as
a topic. In this case, where it exists is under focus. Compare the two
patterns in (2).
m A=ifimk#m2:me9e+m.
A=$fiEk#mE:m&DiT#°
Wesede Daigaku wa
Waseda we doko ni erimesu
arimasu ke.
ka.
(Where is Waseda University?)
BB=$mmA$efiRmeve+.
= $i‘i3H-IU<#(ifi7r*IlC&> 9 E1‘.
Wesede Daigaku we
Waseda wa Tokyo ni arimasu.
erimesu.
(Waseda University is in Tokyo.)
A: fifii:i1$*aEB17<#1.»=as 9 air/Va».
A=fifinu$fimk#Lmevsenm.
Tokyo ni wa
we Waseda shika erimasen
Wesede Daigaku shike arimasen ka.
(Lit. Are there no universities in Tokyo but Waseda Uni-
versity? (=Is Waseda University the only university in To-
Md»
B : vW\i-
B: vw\>‘c. Eii'il:t11<#2§§2‘;< 3/ea) D ii‘.-
§)'i*l'l-Zl;‘t7<$n§i:. < e/be E1‘.
ie. Tokyo ni wa
/e. we daigaku
daigeku ge
ga tekusen
takusan erimesu.
arimasu.
(No, there are many universities in Tokyo.)
4. A thing (whether animate or inanimate) can also occur in the location
position of KS (A). In this case, the sentence expresses possession rather
than existence. Examples:
aru‘ 75
(3) a. -.'.0>§(|:)l:tn-—
;0>$(l:)l:.t71—- - 2-?
z-7*wr2b§§>%>.,
wt-n'=1&5%>..
Kono kurume we ko
kuruma (ni) wa ka sutereo ge
ga aru.
(Lit. There is a car stereo in this car. (=This car has a car
stereo.))
b- iL(i:)|:t$»§as%>.
if!-(l:)l;,i;$n§$5%>..
Watashi (ni) wa
Weteshi kuruma ga aru.
we kurume
(Lit. There is a car with me. (=I
(=1 have a car.))
Note that even if aru expresses the idea of possession, possessed things
are marked not by 0o but by ga.
ge. This is because aru
eru essentially indicates
existence.
eru is used to express the idea of having and the object is animate,
When aru
that object must be someone who maintains a very close relationship
with the possessor, such as a family member, a relative or a friend.
Thus, (4) is acceptable, but (5) is odd.
(4) iii
(4) %L((~1)i1¥()tn§:-'.)(e>z>.
((=1) ti¥(4§2b§E-IA 3) 25°
Watashi
Weteshi (ni) wa we kodomo ga ge sennin
sannin aru.
(I have three children.)
??iL(i~1)i1Et;&$n§e>z>.
(5) ??iF1.(i:)i1fifi%n§a>a.
??Watashi
??Weteshi (ni) we
wa untenshu ga
ge aru.
chauffeur.)
(I have a chaufl'eur.)
Since aru in this usage is a possessive expression, it cannot be used in
situations where the idea indicates existence. Thus, (6) is unacceptable.
(6)
(6) *%L(i-1) (132534)
*?L(lC) iifihib 5 29>
39 D9 35%/vs
e-e/V.
*Watashi
*Wateshi (ni) wa
we haha
hehe gage mo arimasen.
erimesen.
(I don’t have my mother now.)
In this case, iru must be used.
When aru is used for events such as parties and concerts, the particle
marking locations must be de as in (7). (=> de‘; ni“)
(7) 4.-*ni)-M)
Q-Ei ~w-<0 5 we /I *i:»<—='r
*i:»<’—--"i- 4 -—r>§a>a.
-1)‘-e>2.'>.
Semu no uchi del
Kyo Samu *m' péti
de/ *ni pet/' ga
ge aru.
Sam’s today.)
(There is a party at Sam's
[Related Expressions]
I There is another possessive expression, motte iru, which is the te-form

re-form
of motsu ‘hold’ followed by the auxiliary verb iru. However, moiremotte
iru is used only when the possessor is animate and the possessed thing
M
76 eru1
aru‘ / aru’
erui
iii
M
M
nniuiin
-1-.
is inanimate. Thus, [1] is acceptable, but [2] and [3] are not.
M
[1] vavowwiefiatub.
a ‘/(ii/‘Pi’-2i§o'C(.\%>.,
Jon we
wa ii kurume
kuruma o0 motte iru.
(John has a good car.)
[fl*vevu%efietu5.
[2] *1‘/I a T/iii]/i5Ei§1>'CL\5°
*Jon we imoio o0 motte iru.
wa imoto
(John has a younger sister.)
[M*:®$ma—5—&fietu5.
[q*:®$ua—7—&§otu6.
kuruma we
*Kono kurume wa kure
koré o motte
matte iru.
(This car has an air-conditioner.)
Groups and organizations of people such as political parties, countries,
institutions and companies can also be possessors in sentences with moiie
motte
iru, as in [4].
W C®k$mww@%fi&§oTM6.
cokeuwwfiefieeetue.
Kono deigeku we ii toshokan
daigaku wa ioshoken 0o matte
motte iru.
(This university has a good library.)
II. /ru'
/rul is also used to express existence. However, iru‘ is used only for
animate objects. (See Note 1.)
aru“
aru? 55
355 aux. v. (Gr. 1)
S.t. has been done to s.t. and the i have been done; be done
resultant state of that action remains. >P [REL. iru2;
iru’; oku]
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Topic <s"bi"i> --
Topic (subject) Vte
an
en § tita ~‘/'a‘/ll
u b5:hm/K tact
en: as/anew.
ea/ease.
Sore we
wa mo Jon ni heneshite
hanashite aru //arimasu.
erimesu.
(It's
(It’s been told to John already.)
aruz 77
aru’
M
M
M M
_ M'
M
M M
M
M M
=
M M
M
M M
M
___ M
M
iiiflil
_ M
Vie
Vte 5
as Z5
6
eru
aru
Z=fi I,
35 L/C"C e, 25
§; 5 (has been told)
hanashite
henesh/ie aru
Q A ‘C $25
5&1‘ $5 (has been eaten)
iebeie aru
tabete
(HERE!
w &A%us5E¢T&9i+.
@ fi$%Ub5§¢Tb9E?s
Nomimono we
wa mo keiie
katte erimesu.
arimasu.
(Drinks have already been bought.)
(b) efimnrna.
M .-"er.r>§Bei~)-ce>e.
Medo ga
Mado ge akete
ekeie aru.
(The window has been open / is open.)
l. Aru is used with Vte

1. Vie as an auxiliary verb. Two points are indicated by
Vie aru expression:
the Vte
(A) Someone did something to X. (Thus, Vte
Vie is usually a transitive
verb.)
(B) X is still in that state.
X is most frequently marked by the topic marker wa we or the subject
ge; occasionally it is marked by the direct object marker 0.
marker ga;
2. The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or
obvious.
Vie aru, namely, Vte
There are expressions similar to Vte Vie iru and Vte
Vie oku. Let
us compare [1] and [2] with Ex. (b).
M
[1] emmwrue.
a%I>b§F-%v~'ci.\%>.
Medo ga
Mado ge aite
eiie iru.
(The window is open.)
m flu%e%nrs<.
B1flu§e%arB<.
Watashi
Weieshi wa
we mado
medo o akete
ekeie oku.
open] will open the window (in advance).)
(I open/
78 aru’
aru“ / ato de
[1] simply means that the window is open. It doesn’t imply that someone
opened it. Aite, the re-form of aku ‘ open ’, is an intransitive verb. As seen
in [2], Vte oku means ‘ do s.t. in advance for future convenience
convenience’.’. An im-
difference between Vte aru and Vte oku is that the former expresses a
portant diflerence
state, while the latter expresses an action. Note that in Vte oku sentences,
the agent is not omitted unless it is known.
ato de 352;?
33¢‘? conj-
wni
g Some state or action takes place at a after
time (not always immediately) after [REL. tara; re kara]
another state or action has taken 5E (ANT. mae ni)
place. \
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Subordinate Clause
Topic (subject) Predicate
Vinf- past
-
x»rv~/5/V
><»rv~/3/V :1
li E12tr~
H2I:~ i=';¢r=
ii-sf; M;
52¢‘: ''0c= ilfiilci
iii l: r..¢@r¢./
r_,¢->r¢/
Meison-san wa Nihon e itta ato de bydki ni
byoki nattal
natra/
§5 enact.
&9iLko
narimashita.
ill after he went to Japan.)
(Mr. Mason became il.
(B)
I Topic (subject) Noun (event)
-
n
#1.
$1. :1lzt #&¥
Ei <0to ma -<=
at "G mafia cc‘C fi'0TC./
fT07C/
Watashi wa /'ugy5
jugyo no ato de toshokan ni itta//
itta
Z fiaacn.
fi%iLk°
ikimashita.
ikimash/‘ta.
(After the class I went to the library.)
—1-in
ato de 79
iii-
in
iii
iii
_ -—-
T -__'
_
in i
-__
i #-
iib Z
i in
_ -_'
ip T
i- __-
T __-
m
-_-iii
_
KS(A):
Vinf-past 35}; '6
3;}; ‘G
ato de
Efibfc
EELT: §) <2
Kb 2; ‘G (after s.o. has talked/had talked)
hanashiza ato de
hanashita
EKT: bk
fi¢<7‘: 3;}; ‘G (after s.o. has eaten/had eaten)
zabeta
tabeta ato de
KS(B):
co as; '6-
N ®&¢'?
no ato de
%§§i
%§fii 0) 29>};
(D 5)}; ‘G (after study)
benkyo no ato de
(a) €fiEfi&k&&(@T¢%%LiLt.
@ ::fi1i&fi¢<r;a><2('c=~)*r<*fl11z6z'a1,x we.
Gohan o0 tabeta ato (de) sugu benkyoshimashita.
(I studied right after I had eaten my meal.)
l-l-llflé/vii
(b) I-UB3 e'-/1/2%:/vr£a,<&2: (1)951
F5 /vii 1:’-11/’.3_*fik/v7‘.:’29> ('c=->51 Li
l/207:0
07:,
Yamada-san wa biru 0o nonda ato (de) nete
Yamada-sah here shimatta.
(Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.)
(0) l‘¢&§w>*t’.<io-sites
(8) Ex???-i‘~‘.-éb QT:-.$> <2<‘: ("c)§J‘ati.:
('<‘)fifii: 1.ll) 2
E92 we.
i Lie.
Senso ga owatta ato (de) Tokyo ni modorimashita.
(I went back to Tokyo after the war ended.)
fi$@&&?7=XELk,
(d) fi$0)$> J: '67‘; X E bk,
Shokuji no ato de tenisu o shita.
shira.
(I played tennis after my meal.)
The particle de may be omitted in informal speech.
I. Vinf- past ato de is crucially difl'erent from Vte kara in two respects: Vte
Vinf-past
kara is very awkward if the main clause expresses something beyond
the control of the subject or the speaker of the sentence. Vinf-past ato
de is free from such restriction.
i-ii
i-ii
mini
i-ii
80 ato de
25;
iii
- i-
1 T
—
%1.>o§5a~4%or=asav
[1] 33L7)§5 / ??? hi’-r5‘CfJ‘Ev|'§l§|'7)3%->T:,,
*6’\h?-t'>T:$3t1:'C‘/??? li?I'>'CfJ\'5Fl§7)'5-l%'>T:s
Watashi ga uchi e kaerta
kaetta ato de / ???kaette kara ame ga futta.
(It rained after I came home.)
Secondly, Vte kara indicates ‘the space of time following after’, but
Vinf-past ato de indicates ‘ any space of time after’. Thus,
[2] EI7lI*\§l€'Ch\6
B2l§*\5lE'C75\'5 /*§lEf:o3t‘C*1'fl4FlCf.c
/*§lET:o5<':'E'fiI5F-lC.7’.¢ 9D i'§‘7)=,,,
are-..
kara / *kita ato de nannen ni narimasu ka?
Nihon e kite kara]
(How many years have passed since you came to Japan?)
(=> kara?)
kara”)
II. Vinf-past ato de can be replaced by Vinf-past ra when the latter is used
with a purely temporal meaning (i.e., ‘after’,
‘ after ’, ‘‘when’).
when ’). Thus, Exs.
(a), (b) and (c) can be rephrased as [3a], [3b] and [3c], respectively.
W 8
W a dfiefistamcfifiuxun.
Cfi&fi&t5T¢%%LiLk.
Gohan o tabetara sugu benkyoshimashira.
benkyoshimashita.
h mménuH—»&&nfiB€rux¢n.
b mménue—»&&mE5ErLi¢n,
Yamada-san
Yamada-sah wa biru o0 nondara nete shimatta.
o
C. %%#%bot5§fiKhEDiLk°
$JZ%7)§i‘§.{~:l9'>1':I5fi)'r*Il~1 ‘b E D i Lfco
Senso ga owattara Tokyo ni modorimashita.
However, if Vinf-past ra has a non-temporal meaning (i.e., ‘ if’), it can-
not be replaced by Vinf-past ato de, as illustrated by [4].
Hla8-
[4] El2l‘i*\1"1">f:E>/*fi'oT:3><‘:'C‘l/\\r\'C‘l,J:
l37l5I'\i‘f¢T:5 /*fi">T:§JC'C‘V‘i/"(‘l/.1: '50 5°
Nihon e ittaral
ittara / *itta
*irta ato de ii desho.
(Lit. It would be nice if you go to Japan. (=You should
go to ]apan.))
J apan.))
b
b. C1h.2§ic’A/f:'*5 /*%/i/f:'35t'C‘E 5 'C“'i‘7§>.-.
~.’;1l'L&§i/vT.:“":'>/*%/v1'.'§oS¢‘:'C‘E 'C"§'7)*a
Kore o yondaral *yonda ato de do desuka.
(Lit. How would it be if you read this. (=Why don’t you
read this?))
(=>
(=9 tara)
ba 81
ba [1
1' conj.
con] it-in-I
—
-
mum
mini
in--jg
input-
_ -1-.
in-i
\/\J\/\/ /\/\/\ in--1-
in-—i_
in--i
i -i—
ii-
— -1-
a conjunction which indicates that

i —
Q1. i
i
,-.5-no r-01
u-0-, = -i
-
--iii
the preceding clause expresses a con- [REL. tara (nara, to‘)]

§ dition
K A/V\
/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\.r‘\/*\/'\r‘ ‘ ~ vA/vw
‘- fi,‘vv‘v \./'-/\./'\./'\.¢
/\ /\ /'\.//\.‘/\\./_\/\ _.“\ /' . ~
Q§Key
Key Sentence
O
Subordinate Clause (condition) Main Clause
:0
(1 3 %
W Efikab
P?“ Q 51 ti’ J:<
1< >‘.¢Z>/>‘.cDi')'..
as/apex
Kono kusuri
kusun o nome
name 3'5;
ba yoku naru/ narimasu.
naru I nanmasu O.
you ll get well)

(If you take this medicine, you'll well.) II
0 .
Gr 1lve
(i) Gr. bs
verbs ii’
Vcond ti’
be
ba
Efitlf
ififilf (if s.o. talks)
hanaseba
(ii)
ll GI‘.
Gr 22 verbs
verbs Vstem ih,&f
ntf
reba
3/<i}1,ijf'
gxnlf (if s.o. eats)
rabereba
tabereba
(iii)
iii Irr.
Irr verbs:
verbs EIEZ-> —>
BE?» —>9léh.&:.f
semi (if s.o. comes)
kuru kureba
1'15
'5‘ 25 —>
-> '§‘rwf
'i‘1h.&:;LF (if s.o. does)
suru sureba
(iv)
iv Adjs
Adjs (z).-
(1) Adj (i) stem mmi
i‘J;h,&:,f
kereba
'|'é]l7‘1l1.lf
iéilihlf (if s.t. is expensive)
takakereba
(v)
v Adjs
Adjs (na):
(na) lit6(l:.f) I 'c= Zfifbifl
Adi (na) stem l>’.tF>(l:f)/‘C: email
(nara(ba)/ de areba]
{nara(ba)/
{€iw>f.:I=>(&;t')
[%7)=?’.¢ Ev (if) /%r>='c=~
/riy§7)='C* emf}
Efiflifj (if s.t.
(if s-t- is quiet)
[sh/'zukanara(ba) / shizukade areba}
[shizukanara(ba)
(vi)
vi N+cop.:
N+cop N [7.iIl':>(tf)/
{#.:¢>(i£)/ -ct‘c amiztl
amizrl
{nara(ba)
(nara(ba) / de areba}
82 ba
(95;
liliji fg I5
it 5 (hf)
(tf)// 96$
95$ ‘G Zbfblzf}
'6‘ ksnljfj (if s.o. is a teacher)
{sensei nara(ba) / sensei de areba}
5
§
E
it
m
M
w cnnwifiiufiunfimvet.
@ :num$%$n%ufifimvx+.
Kore wa Matsumoto-sensei ni kikeba wakarimasu.
(You’ll understand it if you ask Prof. Matsumoto.)
(You'll
M %oWm$vfiow3+fivfioa.
W %oMnEcfinn:+%vfina.
Sono machi wa kuruma de ikeba sanjuppun de ikeru.
(You can get to that town in thirty minutes if you go by car.)
@ £l)‘hlfEy\i1‘.,
frJ‘i1.l:.‘t"Ev\i'J‘.,
Yasukereba kaimasu.
(I’llll buy it if it’s
(I it's cheap. /I would buy it if it were cheap.)
W Bi-"flh’lh§2§>htffi€|§'\
fi%%%flfififl~bfi%tw. 'lsi‘?%f;v\,
Jikan ga areba Kyoto e mo ikitai.
J/kan
(If I have time, I want to go to Kyoto, too. / If I had time, I would want
to go to Kyoto, too.)
nnonnnasw.
@ E1: U fblffifi 8 I/‘O
Mitakereba minasai.
(If you want to see it, see it.)
M w%nn:nteor<nsw.
w%n&:nt@@r<fiéw.
Dekireba kore mo yatte kudasai.
(Please do this, too, if you can.)
I
Notes
11. “ S1 ba S2 ” basically expresses a general conditional relationship between

the two propositions represented by S1 and S2. S1 represents a condition
and S2 a proposition which holds or will hold true under the condition.
(Ba is, in fact, the origin of the topic marker wa.)
2. S2 can be a statement of the speaker’s volition or hope, as in Exs. (c)
and (d). (Q
(Eb to‘)
3. S2 can be a command, a request or a suggestion, as in Exs. (e) and (f).
In this case, however, S1 cannot be an action. Thus, in (1) and (2) ba
is ungrammatical. (=>
(Q nara; tara)
m w$éb#%t6V¥hfl%B%T<fiéw°
(1) lilllié /wb‘§5Ef:. 6 /*5E1h.li§H1 6-er < rié in.
Yamamoto-san ga kitara / *kureba shirasete kudasai.
(If Mr. Yamamoto comes in, please let me know.)
ba 83
m vnfl~fi<wnnafifinmfizcfianezfivtw.
vnfl~fi<wnt6PfiHwfixcfiQneE5v+m. j
1
$
-1
i
iii-
Shikago e iku (no) nara / *ikeba basu de ittara do desu ka.

i
_.i i.
@-
i —-1
—i —-1
—i
_-1 —i
1-—
i II-'1
__- —i
i
-_- —--—
—-—
—-1 —i
(If you go to Chicago, why don’t you go by bus?)

i =-1
ii
—-ii
iii
iii
iii
4. S1 can express both factual and counterfactual conditions. Thus, Exs.

(c) and (d) can be either factual or counterfactual statements.
(Q ba yokatta)
5 S1 can be a state or an event in the past if it is counterfactual or habitual.
Examples:
(3) ‘ii‘L 0
o Jzfififl/l:‘CEv\i
l:fl‘H1.li’Ev\i Lfco
L710
Motto yasukereba kaimashita.
(I would have bought it if it had been much cheaper.)
m Ffii)§%fltfJ:
(4) fifl%nfi;<%c$2%kfitoE.
< '%<"C'7l§E§i'E/i/T:I is @750
Ame ga fureba yoku ie de hon 0 yonda mono da.
(When it rained, I often read at home.)
However, S1 cannot be a single factual event in the past even if it rep-
resents a condition, as seen in (5). (=> tara)
(Eb
W
(5) ElB$~fiot6VfiHflH$%fli$K&ok°
7l53’\i'T5 T: *5 /*fiI‘H:-I El1l§§§h3_biFiCf.i: 0 to
Nihon e ittara / *ikeba nihongo ga jozuni natta.
(I became good at Japanese when I went to Japan.)
6 “ S1 ba S2 ” does not mean more than a conditional relationship; therefore,
6.
this construction cannot be used when the speaker wants to suggest some
thing by a conditional sentence. For example, (6) does not suggest that
one should not approach the cage. It is acceptable only when it means,
as a mere conditional statement, that one is in danger under the condition
that one gets close to the cage.
W eonvufidnnasawvtt.
%o£9tfidHfi&$ewc+:.
Sono ori
Soho or/' ni chikazukeba abunaidesu yo.
(It is dangerous if you get close to the cage.)
(In order to suggest that one should not approach the cage, chikazuku to
or chikazuitara is used instead of chikazukeba.)
7 There are some idiomatic expressions which utilize the “ S1 ba S2”
7.
construction. (==> ba yokatta; nakereba naranai; to ieba)
(=>
84 bakari
L3
p
p
lit?-
bakari I1'b\D
l:i'1J\D P"-
Pt!-
1
--
--
/\./\/\./\/\/\ r\/\/\./'\/\/\/\
/\/\/\/\./\/\ /\/“ -— ,-
a particle which indicates that s.t. is 4( only; just; be ready to do s.t.;

g
the only thing or state which exists, have just done s.t. ; just did s.t.;
or the only action s.o. will take, takes, be just doing s.t.; about
is taking or took [REL. hodo (kurai); shika
-'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘\./\./\/\/\/'\/\/\/'\/\/-../\
-*'\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\./\ »r
/v~ -
\.. 2
(dake);
(dake), tokoro dag]
0
da]
¢Key Sentences
oKey
(A)
To P ic (subject)
Topic (subJ ect ) non P ast
Vinf nonpast
Vinf-
7-''7’-b“'--l~
—I~ ti E46
EA75 if»-99
tin li: f.co'C
ta-st W25
we vwad".
Dezato
Dezoto wa taberu bakan
bakari n1
ni natte IfU
iru /masu
imasu.
(Lit The only thing left to do with the dessert is to eat it.
(Lit. it (=The
eat ))
dessert is ready to eat.))
(B)
Topic (subject) Vtee
71‘? (1 E/we
/we i1‘n=D
tin D v\?5/vii".
we / in
Tomoko wa asonde bakan
bakari /ru
iru //zmasu
imasu.
0 .fi'
(Lit The only thing Tomoko is doing is playing.

(Lit. playing (=Tomoko is doing
nothing but playing.))
playing ))
(C)
Topic (subject) Vinf past
Vinf-past
\.-fi
Eiffiii
‘QO
E '\ :
£41’: iii)
li'7b*DD T ‘C
7:1/'C'1‘°
9*
. av
Watashz
Watashi wa h/rugohan o
hirugohan tabeta bakan
bakari da / desu
da/desu.
(Lit I had my lunch and haven’t
(Lit. havent done anything else since then.
lunch ))
have just eaten my lunch.))
then ~2 . :5~
(=I
(D)
Topic (subject)
finfir.
grac-. Adj-9=.
Z515-
E}
C:21¢)
,, 0').3 vxl~5:/
I/2 I~ 5 ‘/ ii it»
l.\ two
l 20 9 T5/'61‘.
T ‘C
~I*,;+
.
E
. H ‘ it
1-. .r‘
'
Kono resutoran wa yasu:

yasui bakan
bakari da / desu.
desu
(Litst.
it.,,.___H.The
.. only meritoEa ii - .2
~_; .M _ H- _
(Lit. .ofoI this
ami_of
(=This restaurant is just cheap.))
restaurant is that the food is inexpensive.
cheap ))
inexpensive
bakari 85
(E) -
-
-
-
-
L -1|
ti i
ti i
ti i
-1-n i
ti i
To P ic (subject)
Topic (subJ ect) Noun
i i
ii T
?_ i
S i
-1-
i i
i i
__.
A __.
ii-
L-
A-I
ii---1
ii---1
=f=;<
-7-':=-x ti 15-»
— \- [:1'
tin2b~D9 at/ire
EX/wt we/v\a—r.,
we / v id"
Denzsu
Denisu wa bI!U
biru bakan
bakari nonde IfU / /masu
iru /imasu.
(Dennis is drinking only beer.)
beer)
(F)
'55T5
Q1
Q1’
Topic (subject) Quantifier
$1. Ea.ti
....' Utfi
U115 lib
lfh*9D /4" I I/‘TC!
/:9 W7‘'rt /VIlvii I/filo
Tl‘._,,
.H .1
_° _(_
l/l/6f8S/7!
Watashi 5"
Q’
wa hIl'Of$U/(I
hito
l
R
tsuki bakan
bakari Pan
Pari I7!
.
ni zta
Cg
ita //mashzta
/imashita.
_ P
month)
(I was in Paris for about a month.)
trim D9
( i ) Vinf-nonpast tin»
bakari
E31’
55'?” lIl'2b~
li'2b> D (be ready to talk)
hanasu bakari
hahasu
also Jim
QM5 time9 (be ready to eat)
taberu bakari
(ii) Vte lfh*9
lrfn>D
bakari
331,1
%Lr t;,t‘;a> 9
Hmb (be just talking)
hanashite bakari
gt;/<-c mam
fit-<1 t1"'z,= 9 (be just
just eating)
eating)
tabete bakari
(iii) Vinf-past
Vinf- past [fflx
tfyyip9
bakari
'56 L T:
ESLTQ If 25* D
l:.t'7)= (have just talked)
hanashita bakari
Q/<1; tin»
Q/<7‘: (£7); Di) (have just eaten)
tabeta bakari
tabete
[Adj (1')
(iv) {Adj (i) inf-nonpast / Adj (na) stem fg}
fig] [fflsy
j;t'z;=p
na bakari
86 bakari
Ev tin“)
E!/\ l7I'70*') (just expensive)
takai bakari
§'¥nb~7.£
fiibfliif lf2b= D
iii» (just quiet)
3/7/'Zu/(3178
Shizukana bakari
(v)N
W) own')
N ti?»
bakari
95$ li'7b= D‘J
(i'Z>> (only teachers)
bakari
sensei b8/<8fI'
(vi) N Prt li'7§*')

i2f7)*')
bakari
‘iii;
‘ii l; ii'Z)*99
ll’. lib‘ (only to students)
gakusei ni bakari
(vii) Quantifier t:f2b>D
l:l:'h*D
bakari
—lk-’iF§]
—-H;-"§Fa'i (ft?
lib‘ 9D (about an hour)
1'ch/jikan b8/<8f/'
ichi/'ikan bakari
ififlflfli
w :ov£—tu&&%%&€<&#Dfi.
@ :ov£—tu&&%%&%<fimDfi.
Kono repoto wa ato ketsuron o0 kaku bakari da.
(The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.)
M 5§i11lii’.i'Ly\'Clf7)*
W fiflmmwrwmvwrmtfiefiatew. 9 wcf=YIt.§£Yc 5 .2 1,>::v\.
Harue wa naite bakari ite nanimo hanaso to shinai.
(I-Iarue is just crying and won’t talk about anything.)
(Harue
@ mmspnevwdm%wnn»nvr.
M &ménuevndm%wnwm9v+.
Matsuyama-san wa ima Shikago ni tsuita bakari desu.
(Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.)
w :w&$mwAE5k&mDT&iDtémviems
W eoaeuwtaaewmvvaevtownie».
we mendona bakari de amari mokarimasen.
Kono shigoto wa
(This job is just troublesome and doesn’t bring us big profits.)
@ :ofinEpvweou%¥#iwm9fi.
:@§m&mvw5@u%¥#iwm9fi.
Kono ryo ni sunde iru no wa danshi gakusei bakari da.
Who are living in this dorm are all boys.)
(The students who
M 74vvi—%$mU#kHmD%LTw5.
74wv+—%im9#tH»DfiLTw5.
Fissho-sensei wa Risa to bakari hanashite iru.
Fissha-sensei
(Prof. Fisher is talking only with Lisa.)
bakari / ba yokatta 87
® +AHm9wfifim$E@r<niLk.
+Awm9ofi%#$Eor<naLk. H-
H-
Jonin bakari no tomodachi ga tetsudatte kuremashita.

Jdnin ii
-—
i
___
__
__
i
2
2
—
—
i
—
—
=-
_.
__ i
i
(About ten friends helped me.) 3

ii-_
ii-_
i
l. The basic idea which bakari expresses is that there is nothing except
what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast precedes bakari, the whole expres-
sion means there is nothing left to do (to complete something) but what
is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast bakari means
that someone does nothing but what is stated. Example:
&m%5mmUvmtfi%Lr<new.
m &n§5mmUvMtfi%tr<nnw.
Kare wa warau bakari de nanimo setsumeishite kurenai.
(He just laughs and doesn’t explain anything to me.)
2. When Vinf-past
Vinf- past precedes bakari, the whole expression means that there
has been almost no time for anything to happen since what is stated
took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just
done something.
3. When bakari follows “ N ga ” or “ N o0 ”, ga or o drops. The directional
e and ni may be either deleted or retained. Other case particles do not
drop when they are followed by bakari.
4. Bakari in classical Japanese expressed the speaker’s conjecture and this
usa 8e is still seen in the “Quantifier bakari” P attern 2 where bakari
means ‘ about ’.
Ii .i:n~->1;
ba yokatta l:fJ:h\->7‘: N"-
Phr-
L... /J
\ /\ _/\ /é
a phrase which expresses the speak- I wish ~ had done s.t.
er’s
ers regret [REL. te yokatta]
Q§Key
Key Sentence
Subordinate Clause (condition) Main Clause
9'6
96$ I
(C
if:
.
tilt ti’
H111 of J:2b=of:;/ .tn=Qr¢.'c=1-.
..t;>~-,r;/ .117)»->T.:'C"§'a
Sense: ni
Sensei I7! klke ba
kike yokatta]
yokattal yokattadesu.
W_
(II wish I had asked my teacher.)
teacher)
88 ba yokatta
(i) Gr. 1 verbs: Vcond J;;b>@T:,

if J12»-sf;
ba yokatta
‘iii-Ii‘
I133-Ii" J27§>oT:.
if .1Z7)~/)7’: (I wish s.o. had talked)
hanase ba yokatta
(ii) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem ittf J17§*0TC.
{iii _,1;7)>/2?;
reba yokatta
Q/411,51‘ .127)‘/>7‘;
fi’<1Llf ,,);i5>/>7‘: (I wish
(I wish s.o.
s.o. had
had eaten)
eaten)
tabereba yokatta
(iii) Irr. verbs: ;léZ5 —>§lE1l’l.li'
5&5 —>§|E1h.lf .l:h=->7‘;
.1:>o=Qr; (I wish s.o. had come)
kuru kureba yokatta
1-2;,
‘TE; -»
—> -;—;]1,]_1'
'§"1l‘Lli' j;i;>o7‘;
J:i1>oT: (I wish s.o. had done)
suru sureba yokatta
eotefiwfirmen.
@ 5)7)7l§(i_’g3%5(Jii’.lZ7)*oTC°
W
Ano hon o0 yomeba yokatta.
(I wish I had read that book.)
M n;»xspnB$~finwrmonn.
vL»xétmH$~fiow;m@tn.
Ueruzu-san wa Nihon e ikeba yokatta ne.
(I wish Mr. Wells had gone to Japan, don’t you?)
a@,to&%fi&%%Lrxnd1mokn&.
M &&.t@&§%&%%Lrsow;mOneo.
Z. motto eigo 0 benkyoshite okeba yokatta no.
A.
(Oh, I wish I had studied English harder!)
Notes
1 Vcond ba yokatta is an idiomatic expression which means ‘ I wish ~ had

done s.t.’ It consists of a conditional clause with ba and yokatta ‘' was
good ’ and literally means ‘ It would have been good if ~ had done s.t.’
2 When there is no subject in a ba-clause sentence, the first person is
the implicit subject.
3 This expression is often used with exclamatory words such as 5.5 ‘ oh
oh’’
and the sentence-final particle of exclamation no, as in Ex. (c).
4 “ S.o. (other than the first person) wishes ~ had done s.t.” is expressed
4.
using this phrase and the verb omou ‘think’, as in (1).
(Q iruz,
iru2, Note 4; to3)
to’)
ba yokatta 89
m
(1) E»nB$~fio&1wokaE¢rwa.
1:’/i/tiEl2l§’\fit)‘t:.1i'.1:iJ>Qt;2;.'§.¢'Cv\Z5.
Biru wa Nihon e ikeba yokatta to omotte iru. ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
i-—i
ii-
L-__
(Lit. Bill thinks that it would have been good if he had gone
i.-.___
ii- ._?
1:-1-is-u
1:-1-is-u
to Japan. (=Bill wishes he had gone to Japan.))

]apan.))
yakatta”, Vcond ba expresses a counterfactual action or

In “Vcond ba yakatta",
state in the past. In a similar expression “ Vte yokatta”, Vte expresses a
factual action or state in the past. Compare [1] with Ex. (a).
m e@$2%hv;mon,
noiefipvtmok,
Ano hon 0o yonde yokatta.
(Lit. It was good that I read that book. (=I’m glad I read that book.))
90 dai
dai T.-in
7‘.-1(.\ P"-
prt.
\§/\/\/\@é/\/\/\/\/Q\/\@
I\/\/\pX/\/\/\/\/\/\
32 a sentence-final particle which indi- i [REL. kaz; kai]

ka/1
M
i cates a WH-question in informal male
i
5
E i
E
uni
= 2
speech
_/\ /\ /\
_/“\/"\Z\./'\.a"\
¢Key
O Key Sentences
(A)
Subject
Adi <"<'*> “em/N —
Adj (na) stem / N
<‘:..
E:
“*' , 753
75>" mi
fit» 7;’!/\,,
T.-’|,\ O
Doko§ ga
Dokoi shizuka dai.
(What place is quiet?)
(B)
S:""""= <i"‘°"m'>* —
Sentence (informal)]
r.-in 293
ran 793 fi'(
'"
1-r< /V
lb z rs» ‘O
tit»,
Dare ga iku n dai.
(Who is going?)
TDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

W
M
(i)
(i) {Adj
[Adj (na) stem / N} fail/\
2‘;'v\
dai
$7» 2‘;-It/\
Ti!/\ (s.t. is quiet?)
shizuka dai
Fifi; f;'v\
filifi-E Til/\ (s.o. is a teacher?)
sensei dai
(ii)
(ii) /v 7‘:Iv\
[V/Adj (i)} inf lo 7;’!/\
n dai
(33?
i331" /E5!/fa}
/iiol./f:.} /v 7‘.-II/\
2‘.-.5v\ (s.o. talks / talked?)
{hanasu / hanashita} n dai
{hanasul
{Ev /%2§>->71}
/%i7fPoTC.} /v 7‘;’y\
I'.f\r\ (s.t. is / was expensive?)
{takail takakatta} n dai
(iii)
(iii) {Adj (na) stem/N} {fir
[tr /7.507;]
/T;-IQT;-_} /u
/V 2‘.:'v\
f.;'v\
[na /datta}
{na n dai
dai 91
(fii)=>'.:
l?#h>f.c /’i='i%79*7.-I07‘:l
/t'¥vfi~r.s/srsl /v raw
/V T:I'\r\ (s-t- is I/ was quiet?)
[shizukana //shizukadana]
{shizukana shizukadazta} n dai
lélééii
(9%: in /96$
11: /fitbi 7.591;} /V Tit»
7;’-37;] fivs (s.o. is / was a teacher?)
ii-1
{sensei
I86’/1861' na I/$9/R96’/'
sensei datta}
datta] n dai
jiiii
ii 1
ii -I
ii 1
i I
E 1
-n
@
(a) fiuwflinzofiw.
%Tl,v\{;i:-*£ti E 5 2*.-ivy,
Atarashii shigoto wa do dai.
(How’s your new job?)
(b) §>®)\t:.tf:‘i"tf:‘v\,
§>0>)\(iT;'i1.T;'v\,,
Ano hito wa dare dai.
(<>)
(0) firaiisnstvi/sr:v\.
1'iI7)3J‘<5 73> L Ir‘/v r..-1».
Nani ga okashii n dai.
(What’s funny?)
w EoAfiE%%$etfiw.
@ E®AflEE%Ekhfiw,
Dono hito ga Sato-sensei na n dai.
(Which person is Prof. Sato?)
1. Dai can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in boys’
l.
speech, as in (1)
(1) 8-
a. :nt1%v>t;'v\,
Z2h.li%<7)T.-I!/\,
Kore wa boku no dai.
(This is mine.)
h
8 %£fi<bfiw,
%bfi<hfiw,
Boku mo iku n dai.
(I will go, too.)
2. When dai is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be
WH-questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.
(2) a. *$></>)u195E2‘.:’v\.,
*b®}kt:t5'&if.;'v\,
*Ano hito wa sensei dai.
(Is that person a teacher?)
b. *t~t&I
*i’"l'l33éA/‘i>i‘T'(
2-s /V tfi < hrs»,
/stew.
*Murata-san mo iku n dai.
(Is Mr. Murata going, too?)
For yes-no questions, kai is used. (==> kai)
92 dai
3. Questions with dai, as in KS (A), and those with n dai, as in KS (B), cor-
respond to questions without no desu and those with no desu in formal
speech, respectively. (Q
(=> no da)
-ii-K
xii;
1-ii
iii-H
p K
- 1-1-
.-
4. Dai actually consists of the copula da and the particle i. Thus, it can
n 1-1-
--.
I-|-in
--.
I -5
--.
.: _-_-'
--.
follow only na-type adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents. The
following sentences are ungrammatical because dai follows a verb or an
i-type adjective.
(3) 8- *r:m)§fi< 2‘.:'v\,,
a. *f:'Il’L7§3fi"< rim,
*Dare ga iku dai.
(Who is going?)
b. *2'm>§:rs
h it 1,at-r.-:‘t~.
*EhwH6hL6y¢H%
*Dare ga omoshiroi dai.
*Dore
(Which one is interesting?)
N dai can follow verbs and i-type adjectives, as in KS (B) and Ex. (c),
because n is a nominalizer (the colloquial form of nos)
no“) and it changes the
preceding sentence into a noun equivalent.
5. In informal male speech, questions as in (3) are expressed as in (4), with
rising intonation.
(M m
8 fin#fi<?
Dare ga iku?
(Who is going?)
b
b- Enmnttaw?
Enrmet. L6)/\?
Dore ga omoshiroi?
(Which one is interesting?)
6. The past form of dai is dattai, but it is not frequently used. The
more frequently used past form of dai is datta with rising intonation,
as seen in (5).
(5)
(5) 8-
3- %‘iLl/‘(:l:$li E
%i'l,l/“fiI$i2l1 E 5 7507:?
5 If oil?
Atarashii shigoto wa do datta?
(How was your new job?)
l).
b- E I'_ 7§§§§‘7)>T.:".>
EC. h3fifi>T50T:? TC?
Doko ga shizukadatta?
(What place was quiet?)
In informal speech, the question marker ka (i.e., ka2)

kaz) is not usually used.
dai / dake 93
The following chart summarizes the endings for informal questions.
Formal Male, informal Female,

informal Note {K1-uni
{K-uni
iii
-_|- 1-
.-,_-, 1-
i
-__-, 1-
i
i
-__-, I-
I-
--,
.-,_-, Z
Sinf 1)=v\;
7)»!/\; Sinf
1-_ i
yes-no Sinf Da after Adj (na) .-,_-,

¢__
L
1-_-,
¢__
i
in
in
in
in
1-
i
i
1-
1-
i
-lint
question kai stem and N drops.

yes-no Sinf 0) 7)=y\;
25>!/\; Sinf 0)
0') Sinf 0) Da after Adj (na)
question no kai no no stem and N changes
with no desu to na.
I0 /76.
WH-question Sinf; Sinf Da after Adj (na)

{Adj (na)stem/N}
(na)stem / N} 7.51»
f;’\/\ stem and N drops.
dai
WH-question Sinf /u
/o 7:’!/\;
T1"!/\; Sinf 0) Sinf 0) Da after Adj (na)
with no desu n dai no no stem and N changes
to
IO na.
I78.
Sinf ka is used in very informal speech or in vulgar speech. Female informal

endings can also be used by male speakers
speakers.
dake 7.-I
T;-I I)‘ pri-
I r /\/"A 2 /\/ /\
/".""‘.' ""‘...
2j a particle which expresses a limit im- only; just; alone; merely; that’s
that's
posed upon something that is grow- \.\/v\4v\/\ all
N j i
;> ing and expanding Q [REL. shika (bakar/')]

)1“
) I‘ /\/ I /\r"\/“\/‘\
/\ /\4\/'\
K
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Subject Predicate
22 zzk.
2 2-.5/4,
III ran‘ (1);)
to‘ (1))
"5 star; //attic...
slat
fi flea we.
Sumrsu san
Sumisu-san I
dake (ga) k/ta
kita I/ k/mash/ta
kimashita.
wi~ -
(Only Mr.
Mr Smith came)
came.)
vs,
94 dake
(B)
Number
N Counter
umber-Counter
i
M
W?
1-
1-
1-
1-
H ti 57$
ti It/\’\ —l?_
—' rr
fit)‘ or-. "3 Tu /nest.
4557:/fiéibfcs -. fu-
1-
Bi
L1
"
-K-Z
Watashz wa Nihon
Watashi NI/70/7 e IChIdO
ichido dake /tta
itta / /k/mashita
ikimashita.1~
(I went to Japan only once)
once.)
(C)
Sentence Vinf
‘Ti? é/v <‘ii;: ti
'§¥<'5/u (1 5'-'—
5"'— l“ l./T:.. fTit)‘
D‘ TTi /'C"i‘s
Yukiko-san
Yuk/ko san to wa shita
déto shtta desu.
dake da / desu
-3-H
.
(I just dated Yukiko thats all)
Yukiko, that’s all.) . @T
. ‘
(D)
Sentence Adj (,')
(1) inf
:0 % ti
to %' :1 ice!»
2': L\ rTil)‘
h‘ r1;’/1")‘.
.'
[M
§\+' Ii1"
ft,
Kono ie
/e wa okii
oku dake da /desu
/ desu. f‘.
"O
qt2
(This house is big thats all)

big, that’s all.)
E@
'6
F11
(E)
Sentence Adi()
na stem
(na) stern
Vrtbu</>ts%¥t1@a
:0)
"’rt Bi? (1 E. r)= int»
anti
E
''Q."_
fis
"' 9-. tor
“Jr
Infin‘
"'.
o\
~~-i1-
75/‘cf.
fr,‘
O-k6S/7! wa iro
Kono o-kashi /ro ga /(IIGI
kirei na dake da / desu.
desu
.Q m. WwO
I ‘
.
O.
(This cake has pretty colors, that

that’ss all)
all.) f‘~§u_
0
i) N ran‘
(i) fol)‘ (r)=)/(2)
(ni)/(2)
dake (ga)
(Q<9)// (0)
96$ f.:'l7‘
fit)‘ (7)3)/
(7J3)/ (2)
(>Z) (the teacher alone (subject)/ (direct object))
sensei dake (ga) / (o)
(ii)
( ii) N {7_-ft)‘
{f_-ft)‘ Prt / Prt fjfi}
f.;"H'} (where Prt=particles other than ga, 0,
o, and
{dake Prt / Prtdake}
Prt dake} wa)
9555
5'65 [755
lf.:'D‘ t;
IE. / tr,
(Z. 755}
7‘._-EH} (only to the teacher] to the teacher alone)
sensei {dake
[dake ni/
nil ni dake}
dake 95
mn{vumnmim
(iii) note/ea}
{V/Adj (i)} inf Til)‘ {T5 /'C**J‘}
dake {da / desu}
{E3-f
{iii /3-,‘31,T;}
/331,72} fit)’ {ff /'6-J-}
rib‘ /'C**;*} (s.o. talks / talked, that’s all)
.i__
Z
==_ 5g
(hanasu// hanshita} dake {da /desu]
{hanasu /desu} _._
_
¢-_
i
¢-.
-
I
-
-
-
-
¢-_
i -I
q
—_-.
_._-. -
-
K--ii-i
ii-Z
[IE]!/\
{fE.‘§!/\ / fé]2b=oT.:}
‘éwafcl Til)‘ {ff
[T5 / 'C"J‘]
VT} (s.t. is / was expensive, that's
that’s all) K-iii-i
-K1?
_-K-—
{takail
ltakail takakatta} dake {da /desu}
/desu]
(iv) Adj (na) stem {tr
{ts /T5071} fin‘ {ii/'c~r}
/fiofa} 7..-ED‘ {ff /'C‘*J"]
{na //datta}
datta] dake {da //desu}
desu]
{§¥w)=>‘:
{€%7)=?£ / 5*%ZJ>T;'of:}
§%)0>f:E'oT:.} Til)‘ {T5 /'C'*)‘}
/'C"J“} (s.t. is / was quiet, that’s
{shizukana / shizukadatta} dake [da
{da /desu} all)
W
@ &fié@nww%%%mmicn.
Efishfiowo%%mwibn.
Sato-san dake (ga) kaigi ni demashiza.
Said-san demash/"ta.
(Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.)
(b) /bé I/\fufi$¥£hr;'n‘
M v‘fl1§€3*i'-*fiT;“l)‘ (2)Ev\§
(2)Ev\i we.
I./7:0
(o) kaimash/‘ta.
Chisai waeijiten dake (0) kaimashita.
(I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.)
(0) filcfin‘
M &t:.rt-to / 7:011:33
r:m:%a1;cTé in.
LTT3 I/\,
dake] dake ni hanashite kudasai.
Boku ni dakel
(Please tell it only to me / to me alone.)
(<1) C.1: <D§li71l/=1
W 0)$li'7'1l/I-1-ll/'6‘f;i'U’/f.fl7"C‘§lJ€i'i‘o
—1l/'C*T;'D‘ / T.:'l)"C*§lJ‘é' ETO
arukoru de dake/
Kono kuruma wa arukdru dake] dake de ugok/masu.
ugokimasu.
(This car runs only on alcohol (and on nothing else) / on alcohol alone
(so it needs nothing else).)
(e) bo%imu—fifiu%wiun.
@ $)0)§*Eil1'.li--l§f.:I‘l)‘€’=‘v\iL7‘:o
Ano sensei ni wa ichido dake aimashita.
(I met that professor only once.)
W %u=—e—2—%&nfiuv+.
M @H=—t—2—%&UfiHTT°
kohi 0o ippai nomu dake desu.
Asa wa kdhi
(In the morning I just drink a cup of coffee, that’s all.)
® :o$uawfiwvn$La<mw.
:@$u§wfiH?£bL5<&w.
Kono hon wa takai dake de omoshirokunai.
(This book is just expensive and is not interesting.)
m ?=xufi%&fiH?L$t¢&w.
® a=zufl%&fioeL$ueew.
jozuja nai.
Tenisu wa sukina dake de jdzuja
(I just like tennis, and I’m not good at it.)
96 dake
(I) "€'1l’l»li’iif£l)‘<7)/i~—7‘ 4 *-f:Z'o Ta,
’E'i'bli'if-'lE‘.T:'U'V)/3*-'7‘»f"‘7';"J7'~1°
Sore wa gakusei dake no péti
pat/' datta.
(It was a party for students only.)
iii
K1
in-K
fi%6EH@o<D%LTTéw°
lIlIl§l€?57’:5’l7‘V>1>o < 9 %%1xcTév~.
Dekiru dake yukkuri hanashite kudasai.
(Please speak as slowly as possible.)
When dake modifies a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c), and (d),
the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after
dake, except for the particles ga, o0 and wa, which can be optionally
used only after dake.
The optional positionings of the particles other than ga, o0 and wa create
a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is placed on the
particle, yielding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N N+Prt+
+Prt+
dake. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N N+dake
+dake
+Prt.
If dake is used in:
Ad‘
Ad' ' '‘ff
~ (ni9)(/siierlr? {na/datta}l+dake
(I7j9)(,S)iCflIll {na/datta}l+c/aka {CW desu}
{da/desu}
as illustrated by KSs (C), (D) and (E), dake modifies the entire pre-
ceding part and means ‘ ~, that’s all.’
Compare (la) and (lb) below:
(1)
(ll a.8- fif.-.’l‘l'(?5_')fi'<7’~:.o
@r5|1<2>a/<r¢.,
Sakana dake (0) tabeta.
(I ate only fish.)
b. fi2fi/<7‘:f:'l'l'f;'°
fi>.»‘;fi/<T:T:'|‘l'2‘.:’o
Sakana o0 tabeta dake da.
(I ate fish, that’s all.)
In (la) dake modifies only the preceding noun sakana ‘fish’, while
in (lb) dake modifies the entire preceding part of the sentence sakana
0o tabeta ‘I ate fish.’
V(Potential)+dake as in Ex. (j) means ‘‘as
as much as one can ~ ’.
M
(2) m fidbnéfifififitwo
8- fi*<Ewl1.E>1’:'I'l'fi*<7‘.‘:v\.,
Taberareru dake tabetai.
(I'd like to eat as much as I can (eat).)
(I’d
dake / dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) 97
b
b. %nefiw%a5.
Efi1ltE>7":'l'l'E§65o
Odoreru dake odoro.
odord.
(Let’s dance as much as we can (dance).)
aim
its
ml
-_-iii-
L
K
-I
-
i- —
1-1-. —
-,_|_ —
-1-— -
_ :
_
i -I
-__¢ —
-—-@ -
— -
— —
1-Q _
1-; _
i
-11-Iti-
iii-
Zipl-
dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) 7.-Ib"C‘(|;t)f£<

Til)"C‘(l:.t)12i.‘< ~(¥>)
~(€>) Phr-
not only X but also Y, where X and not only ~ but also ~
Y can be either a noun, a verb, an [REL. bakari de (wa) naku ~
adjective (mo)]
(m0)]
\A
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (subject) Vinf
aw A §e1
bo.A Er: r<
:< mars
nave no v(u)e<
fin v(u)&< ;<
:<
Ano hito wa yoku benkyosuru
benky6suru dake de (wa) naku yoku
iZ fix/fiusr.
Es/fives.
asobu / asobimasu.
(He not only studies hard, but also plays a lot.)
Lot.)
(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (i) inf
bo.A
&o_A Q1 E
fi ti
»= um
nu no v(u)&<
v(m)o< :< on
%%
Ano hito gwa atama ga ii dake de (wa) naku yoku benkyo
5i (5)15/tar.
Ho-ta/tat.
5 (mo) suru / shimasu.
sh/‘masu.
(He is not only smart; he studies hard, too.)
98 dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo)
(C)
I Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem
E :</> 52
:0 -as Ii
li énu
=ém\ tr
ti: rsu 1* (ct)
rib‘ (:1) tc<
>t¢< art
art.
i
=1 Kono uchi wa kirei na
I18 dake de (wa) naku totemo
‘ iv) (‘ca-).
iv‘ (T1).
, yasui (desu).
(This house is not only beautiful but it is also inexpensive.)
(D)
/'\
Subject .
Predicate
Noun Noun
S7=23
-../3/
\
2 I
for
(‘Q li >t:<
rm '6 (ii) .:< 5
/""\- Q! .
‘$- x7u-
><7'J- 4,
an ale?/Heat).
alere/aleiwe,
fi
'‘I
Jon dake de (wa) naku Mean
Me ari m
mo k/ta
kita I/ k/mash/ta
kimashita. O.
(Not only John but also Mary came here)

here.) .
Formation
(V/Adj (1'
(i) {V/Adi (/)1)) inf rear
ran 1*
'0 (:1) f.:<
>‘.c< (not only ~)
dake de (wa) naku
loo?‘
liifii‘ /Efibfc}
/§i§LT:} Til)‘ ‘G (ii)
(ti) 2*;
f;<< (s.o. not only speaks]
[hanasu / hanashite}
hanashita] dake de (wa) naku spoke ~)
l%'l/‘ /%i7)>0TC.}
liéil/‘ /Em-st;-.} Til)‘ '6‘
T‘ (ti)
(Ii) 2‘,;:<
7‘;< (s.t. is I was not only
is/was
{taka/'/
[takai/ takakatta} dake de (wa) naku expensive ~)
(ii) Adi (na) stem licl

{M f;'»»7‘:l rm '-cc=- (:1)
r.:».r.:l Til)‘ >*.¢<
(ti) f.:< (nor only ~)
{naI
{na/ datta}
datta] dake de (wa) naku
[g"%7)=f.ir
lfiiwtc /§§h~f;’07‘.:}
/§%7J~f;’o7‘:.} Til)‘ '6‘
‘G (Ii) 2*; <
(ii) f.;:< (s.t. is I/ was not only
[shizukana /I shizukadatta} dake de (wa) naku quiet ~)
(iii) N i¢/fifofll
{til 75:072.] Til)‘
raw -e'c=~ (:1) tc<
r.¢< (not only ~)
{o
[0 I/ datta}
datta] dake de (wa) naku
55$
WEE /§i5f_:|5
/96$ ffoffl} T507‘
f:'07‘r.} fit)‘ 1*
“G (ti)
(ii) f,;<
2‘;:< (not
(not only
only teachers
teachers /not
/not
{sense/'I sensei datta}
{senseil dake de (wa) naku only s.o. was a teacher)
dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) 99
%®AHlfiE%UfiHTm&<%$iT°
@ %oAumfi2%nnuvum<%%a+.
Ano hito wa shosetsu 0o yomu dake de wa naku kakimasu. ii
_.i.._i-i
L-"'
i Z
-_-
(He not only reads novels but also writes them.)

___i
----
.—__i
i
ii
ii
--i
ii
ii
_n=
i—
ii
: i
iii
K
N.-
iii-_
7§7VébHB$“fiotfiH?fi&<Ebfi:tb%9iT°
M 777VébUB$"fiokfiUTdk<EhfiCt$&DiT°
.
iii-1
Buraun-san wa Nihon e itta dake de wa naku sunda koto mo arimasu.

(Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has also lived there.)
m
@ :®7fi—bm%wEHT&<fi§RWFT.
:o7»—tugwfiove<fi§fiwv+.
Kono apéto
apoto wa takai dake de naku taihen
ta/‘hen semaidesu.
(This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.)
m
W $¥ufi#;m@nfiuvum<.arsfiwven.
$¥ufi#xmonfioeue<.arsfiwebno
Sachiko wa azama
atama ga yokatta dake de wa naku. totemo shinsetsu-
deshita.
(Sachiko was not only bright but was also very kind.)
o :@fiu%nw&fiuvna<.:<fivi+.
@ :o$uanwennvue<.x<i9a+.
Kono kuruma wa kireina dake de wa naku.
naku, yoku hashirimasu.
(This car is not only pretty but also runs well.)
(U B$Afifi?&<7iUfiA$l<®%iT.
H$Afio?o<7xvnAb;<%si+.
Nihonjin dake de naku amerikajin mo yoku hatarakimasu.
Nihon/‘in
(Not only Japanese but also Americans work hard.)
® $HéAu7%Uh%a—wvfifiHTm&<fifi797nbl<wfiLi
wfiémuxxvn¢a—wvflfiuvu&<Efi7v7mn:<wfiui
To
12.
Nakamura-san wa Amerika ya Yéroppa
Yoroppa dake de wa naku Tonan
Tdnan Ajia
ni mo yoku shutchoshimasu.
shutchdshimasu.
(Mr. Nakamura makes a business trip not only to America and Europe
but also to Southeast Asia.)
(11) vsvvvéhnH$%finvun<$@%t%%i¢.
M vsvvvamuH$%fiuvum<¢@%s%ui+.
Jonson-san wa nihongo dake de wa naku chogokugo
chdgokugo mo hanasemasu.
(Mr. Johnson can speak not only Japanese but also Chinese.)
In “ Noun ~ dake de (wa) naku Noun ~ mo”, the two nouns can be fol-
lowed by various particles.
$fimKEM%ofioeme<%i#6t%itt.
m $flmEEm%nfifivum<%&m6t%iek.
Tegami wa tomodachi (kara) dake de wa naku sensei kara mo
kimashita.
(Letters came not only from my friends but also from my teachers.)
100 dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) /I dard
daro
(2) $%ufi§flnfinvnm<%$cs%%aLn.
m $%Et:.t7;Zi§(I:) f£h"C‘l1 fa? < 55%|: 1.3% a we.
Tegami wa tomodachi (m') dake de wa naku sensei m’
ni mo kakimashita.
(I wrote letters not only to my friends, but also to my teachers.)
Innini-3
iii
iii
M;
u -—-@
1-1-
[Related Ex pression]
Expression]
1-@
p 1-1-
» 1-Q
s 1-1-
iii
iii
M
In the majority of cases dake can be replaced by bakari. When one needs
iii
iii
to define limitation in a rigid way, however, dake is preferable. For example:

[1] [Teacher to his student.]
a>1,r;a'c+t:+fit£I+ 1?? |:.fi'ri~¢J'c=~1*.¢<+-w.9a%s1xci=sa=*.:sv~.
&Ln§vu+%EH/Hw#Uv&<+—%s@%Lrn%&éw.
Ashita made ni jukka dake /I ??
P? bakari de naku joikka
jfiikka mo benkyo-
okinasai.
shite okinasa/'.
(Study not only Lesson 10 but also Lesson ll
11 by tomorrow.)
(\=> dake)
(Q
darfi
d3l'5 T55
Ti 5 5 aux.
/\/\/\/\/\/\ /\/\/\/\/'\ /\/T/\/\I /\/\/\/\/\/\7
g an auxiliary indicating the speaker’s gi) probably

conjecture which is not based on any [REL. kamoshirenai (ni chi-
particular information or evidence ,
( gainai); y6da (rash/'i, soda2)]
yoda (rashii. s6da2)]
/\¢\,~
I\I"\I"‘ /
I /~
/'~ \f\/\
'\/\/\ \I\/\/\/\4\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘\r~
\/\/\/\/\J\/\ \
§Key
Q Key Sentence
(ll'lf0l'fI'l3l)'l'
Sentence (informal)T
6
7:/6"—-V‘/3/V
T/9-//3/vii
4
li 4
Elli '5 fi<
*\i".f< f;'Z>5 /'C'l,J:'5..
T69/‘(Lav
ft,
I
0
1
O
I I
Andason san
Andéson-san N/hon e iku
wa Nihon daro
dard /I desho.
desho
I
I
(Ms Anderson will probably go to Japan.)

(Ms. Japan)
‘ I
I I
TDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

daro 101
Formation
(U W/A&UMhfi fiafi
(i)UWAfi(miM fiéfi
dard
daro ai-
i -|
ii -1
1-¢ -I
— -I
{;?;£<;~
[35-5" / 33
E5 1,113}
l,7‘;} 7515
T35 5-‘j (s.o. will probably talk //probably
probably talked)
1-¢ -
-__-, —I
i 1
ii ‘—
i -
i 1
j -
1-¢ -
-,_-, -
i -
-,_|_ 1
-
.-ii
daro
1-ii
{hanasu / hanashite} dard

-ii
ta
lféil/\
lféjl/\ /',§‘,7;>,,7;}
/fé}’b>¢f;-_} 755
155 -5~‘j (s.t. is / was probably expensive)
{takai
{takai// takakatta} daré
daro
(fi)iMfiwwswm/Nlio/nan}
(ii) {Adi (na) stem/N} {¢/ 1501.1} was
1555
{0}
{ 0 / datta} dard
l5"'£‘79*
ififi‘ fifi‘ 7;’/27:]
/ $71‘ T30 7:} T56 5-5
T55 (s.t. is / was probably quiet)
{shizuka
[shizuka / shizukadazta}
shizuka datta} daro
dard
[5555
BEE /555$
I 95$ 7‘;’@7‘;_}
f;i‘»;f;} 755 5-5
735 (s.o. is / was probably a teacher)
[sensei / sensei datta]
{sensei datta} daro
dard
(a) $07/*—
&>0>7'/4- l~l:t'|'é.5"I/\'C'L,..l:
I~li'§v\'c L: 5..
Ano apéto wa takai desho.
(That apartment is probably expensive.)
(b) I1n "‘./"—\"-li7<iF~—7J3“_l:$7‘;'5
"’/‘i-\*"-li2iF~—7)5“_l:$ff?> 5.,
5°
R0/'5 wa ski ga jdzu daré. daro.
(Roger is probably good at skiing.)
@ @@Au¢@Afia5.
awAu¢@Afia5.
Ano hito wa chdgokujin dard.
chtigokujin daro.
(That man is probably Chinese.)
Dard is originally the informal conjecture form of the copula da, but it
1. Daré
is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. The formal version is desho.
tabun, osoraku and kino
2. Probability adverbs such as zabun, kitto are sometimes
daro or desho. The speaker’s conjecture sounds more certain
used with daré
with tabun or osoraku, and even more certain with kitto. Examples:
m 7vF—vvéhmt$hB$~fi<fi65.
7v#—vvéwuh$~H$~fi<fia5.
Andéson-san wa tabun Nihon e iku daro.
dard.
(Ms. Anderson will most probably go to Japan.)
m 7v¥—vvébm%otB$~fi<fi65.
7v¥—vvéwm%¢&B$~fi<fia5.
Andéson-san wa kitto Nihon
N/'hon e iku dard.
daro.
(I'm almost certain that Ms. Anderson will go to Japan.)
102 daro
dard / ~dasu
3. Darél deshé with the question marker ka makes questions softer or
Dar6/ desho
less direct. Compare (3) and (4).
I
$
T
m kuafiscfm.
fiD15&fT#.
Dai/'6bu desu ka.
Da//'6bu
| >-
n
i
i1
i1
i1
:
r i1
r m
u m
u jg
u i
I m
n i
(Is it all right?)

iii
ii
Ii
Im-
m kB:5£cL:5#O
W fiuxfisrusiw.
Daijdbu desh6
Da/jébu desho’ ka.
(I wonder if it’s
it's all right.)
4. S dardl desho with rising intonation asks for the hearer’s agreement
dar6/ des/76
(5) 3-
1- E"¥.>i“'1"<7‘.-E325?
€i>fi<f:'7.>5?
Kimi mo iku dar6?
(You will go too, (am I) right?)
h :n.%nw?Lx5?
:n.anwcL:5?
Kore, kirei desh6?
Kore. desho?
(Isn’t this pretty?)
The sentence-final particle ne also asks for the hearer’s agreement, but
S dar6/ deshd
desho with rising intonation is softer or less direct (Q(=> ne)
Compare (Sa)
(5a) with (6).
(6) E4.>i“T<12s
(6) €'i>fi<1a.
Kimi mo iku ne.
(You will go too, won’t you?)
~d35u
~da$|,| ~}jj'§"
~fl;,"§' aux. v. (Gr. 1)
32 S.t. that has been latent is realized. ig out; begin to; start to
[REL. ~hajimeru]
~/vajimerul
(ANT.
(AN T. ~ owaru)
~dasu 103
§Key Sentence
Subject Vmasu
A...
E
L 1I
E 2'23
E5- E fill‘
Eb? ttl L T / Hj L i L to
ttibfc/lililbibfco =
__
i
__
Z
53
,1
.
-
:
. f‘ i . i
ii
Z
_i.__-
:
Kuruma g Q;vs
ga ugokr
ugoki dash/ta / dashimashita.
dash/'ta dash/mash/ta ii
move)
(The car started to move.)
Vmasu Hid‘
Hi?"
dasu
35-l,flj-jr
"g‘fil_,fij-Jr (s.o. starts to talk)
hanashidasu
g.<tg~;—
fififij-j“ (s.o. starts to eat)
tabedasu
(®1%Kfifi%9wLk.
@ ewmfiwvmen.
Kydni ame ga furidashita.
(Suddenly it began to rain.)
M
(b) —§u&orwwr$%mLn.
—*filC?.rto’C¥7J&>’C$€*tH Lfco
/ssai ni natte hajimete arukidashita.
(Lit. He started to walk only after he became a year old. (=He didn’t
start to walk until he was a year old.))
M
W %@74¥47fifih#%i&LkbT?W°
%@v4¥47unnfi%2mLn@v+m.
Sono aidia wa dare ga kangaedashita n desu ka.
(Who thought out that idea?)
W '-'B#|‘§l
id) —%%¢6wmUT&5&5%@$§&fiLwLk.
<' 6!/\7)=U'C E '5 k 5 %¢)7l‘i§Ei?v'3l/llil I./7:0
/ch/jikan
/chzjikan gurai kakete t6t6
tdté sono hon-ya 0 sagashidashita.
(After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.)
1. Dasu in Vmasu+dasu is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is used as

a full verb, it means ‘ cause something to become visible’.
2. Vmasu+dasu is normally ambiguous; one meaning is ‘~ out’ and the
‘ begin to ~’. Thus, tsukuridasu means ‘turn out’ or ‘begin
other is ‘begin
to make’.
104 ~dasu
3. Vmasu+dasu conjugates as a Gr. 1 Verb.
515?; tn
’ gig!» (inf, neg, nonpast)
M
Iii
jg
sanai
jg
m
jg
jg
—
jg
Li-j~'
Li-f (fml, nonpast)
_
_
jg
_
i_
ni
-ii-Z
shimasu
-1-
1- (inf, nonpast)
Is"’£Lti:l-
331' Llii- 3”
-Q-{f
hanashida- < -Q-if (conditional)
sw-
figtfl- seba
tabeda- :5 55
% (volitional)
so
L ‘C
I/C (te-form)
shite
L, 7‘;
L (inf, past)
\ shita
~ing ’ is an antonym of Vmasu+dasu / hajimaru.
4. Vmasu+0waru ‘ finish ~ing’ hajimeru.
~dasu in the sense of ‘begin to ~’ is different from ~/wajimeru
~hajimeru in that
the former indicates a non-volitional and abrupt beginning while the latter
is more broadly used. Thus,
%a%a$a!r'aa*>$ 1,:
[11 %z>%z>$st'aw§ 1.; -3-'5 /*z&=sd:
/Watla usL35 1. J: 57>».
-31>».
arukihajimemashci / *arukidashimash6 ka.
Sorosoro arukihajimemashél
(It’s getting late. Shall we begin to walk?)
[2] flE%$%fibt/$%$Lt§WE%fi%k°
M 5FLi§7)3$%iI‘68‘J1':/*i'%l'li l..T:B#lllEli£7)'='-§lE7‘;o
Watashitachi ga arukihajimetal arukidashita toki Yamada-tachi ga
kita.
(When we started to walk, Yamada and his company came.)
[3] E 5'5 L'C7b*5}7)>F.>P’£75"J
L‘C2b>5;‘r2b>6Y‘.£ 20>/17:753. %&i%.lC'.d=$ C. I»)'-J H5
717')‘. %li%~lI-$32 Hi LT;
LT: /?? 3'5
BC C. |-JU ir‘a8>f:.,
§‘68'>1':.
Ddshite ka wakaranakatta ga, otoko wa kydni okoridashital ??0kori- ??0k0ri-
hajimeta.
(I don’t know why, but the man suddenly started to get angry.)
de‘
del 105
del ‘C
'C‘ Pri-
P"-
a particle which indicates location, at; in; on
except for location of existence [REL. ni‘; nifi;
ni°; 02] arm
M
==..__
E :3
1
Q§Key
Key Sentence
Topic (subject) Noun (location) (non existential)

Predicate (non-existential)
we
.LE
.:,+\ ii
EC é->?§JE§
at-:>3‘§J'5
I -c’
T :1—-1:-— 2 sitnrs/flwsere.
Ll — ~—*&flt/of/%!1>~iL..
_l'T
fu, ‘if
‘o
Watashrtachr
Watashitachi wa kissaten d
de kc3h/
kéhi 0 nonda /nomimash/ta.
/nom/mash/ta
shop)
(We drank coffee at a coffee shop.)
(.,D
(8-) Kb
(8) K) D¥li‘7"/*'—
9¥i1=i-"»~=— l~'f'El1\/"fl/‘i'i‘..
I~'c1‘;£Piv\'Cv\i'§'.,
Yuriko wa depéto de hataraite imasu.
(Yuriko is working at a department store.)
M
(b) %—zb?U7cm+:HmEfi,
73‘-1 |~ 5 U 7"(‘li~l*_'l‘.Fll:l:E7‘;’.,
tjsutoraria de wa /un/gatsu
Osutorar/a /Unigatsu wa natsu da.
(In Australia it is summer in December.)
%%s@mB$cm%ivcn.
@ %%ébmB$ffifii?Lk°
Shimazaki-san wa Nihon de wa genkideshita.
genkidesh/ta.
(Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.)
w
w ~vvmmwr%fiv$Qk,
~vVflMbT%fiTWok°
Heren wa hajimete butai de utatta.
(Helen sang on the stage for the first time.)
De‘ cannot be used to indicate location of existence. (Q(=> ni°)

ni“) However, if
the existential verb aru ‘(inanimate things) exist’ occurs with an event, de
is used, as in (1).
in
(1) m
3- swvnoie/fl:H—r4—#nvi+.
'9fB9d*‘/"l»~<'>%"C‘ / *lZ./*'~’~—'7‘»r -7332?) 9 $11
Konban Jimu no ie de/ *ni péti ga arimasu.
(There’s a party at Jim’s tonight.)
(There's
b. soézowée/fl:¢§4z%i@$fi#n¢n.
h aw) 5 :¢>%[$§'c / *|:.7°§»f ><5'a$<1>$fir)§z§>».~r:,
de / *ni Puraisu-sensei no kéen
Kind kono heya de/ kden ga atta.
Price's lecture in this room yesterday.)
(We had Prof. Price’s
106 dez
de2
‘C
de’ 'C‘ P"-
Pfi-
Zm . . - I/\/\/\/\/\/\/~/\r\/-\.
? . . . ."N"’“””"""'
éE a particle which indicates the use o -PHv~i by; for; from; in; on; using;
it
ism
i
jg
—
i
_
—
s.t. for doing s.t. with
i
i
—
/\{\¢\r\'r
'\_
/\;,/\/\!'
[REL. 0 tsukatte]
m
-i
i
i
m
ii
M
Iii
inti-
Q Key Sentence
Topic <S~1*>r"> ——
Topic (subject) Noun (means)
em»
gas:/V
'*’ Zia:1 an
ea /<2
rt z ea '\?’r</fiéidn.
-c~ 43.-11: ~ i~r<
“ /has)-.
“
Miyamoto-san wa mainichi basu de kaisha e iku/ikimasu.
iku/ ikimasu.
(Mr. Miyamoto goes to his company by bus everyday.)
M
m
H$Ammcc:fi&fi&&.
@ B$AumLe:fi&fi~e.
Nihon/‘in wa hashi de gohan 0 taberu.
N/honjin
(Japanese people eat rice with chopsticks.)
m
M fl§uB$%r%Lk.
fl§mH$%c%Ln.
Watashitachi wa nihongo de hanashita.
hanashite.
(We talked in Japanese.)
(c)
M iFLl1%<f>B§&EE=i-
flm%@%E&%vEcRiLkOv l:"C‘E.i Lt’...
Watashi wa sono eiga 0 terebi de mimashita.
(I saw the movie on TV.)
w &5&mfiETWDiT.
W afisukficwvar.
Tofu wa daizu de tsukurimasu.
(We make tofu from soybeans.)
@
(9) §u—u:ow+2+Fw?E@n.
7 ‘J '-l1Z'.(/)\/\'§'E"l“ F/I/(‘E’) 7:20
Ran‘
Rari wa kono isu 0o jddoru
jiidoru de katta.
(Larry bought this chair for ten dollars.)
m
(f) ~ww4—m%@v£—i2—Bc%wn%5fi.
“<9 ‘7 4 —li%¢J I/ri%’— I~ ‘.5:--El'C'%\/\7‘:.% 5 T50
Bettsi wa sono repoto 0o ichinichi de kaita soda.
(I heard that Betsy wrote the report in one day.)
1. In general, dez indicates something which is used when someone or

something does something. Typically, it indicates means and instruments
as in KS and Exs. (a) — (c).
dez / de3
dei des 107
2. Since de also indicates reason and cause, the phrase nan de, which con-
‘ what’ and de, is ambiguous: One meaning is ‘by means
sists of nan ‘what’
of what (=how)
(=how)’’ and the other is ‘ for what reason (=why) ’. Thus, (1)
M
can be interpreted in two ways. :__

L
r_
1
1
Z
i
I
§
g
E
1
W 5
i
=:
Z :
5
m $53
(ll $ms»mmvkW~fi§»v+m.
é /i/lif'TI'C'7<l3!i’\i‘T < /v'C‘*§'n~..
M.
Honda-san wa nan de Gsaka Osaka e iku n desu ka.

(How / Why is Mr. Honda going to Osaka?)
De’
Dez can be used instead of the phrase ~ 0o tsukatte ‘by using ~’, except
when the preceding noun refers to a human being. Examples:
m
W fi§uaav—§E¢r/exxen.
flEmaav—EE¢r/cxack.
o tsukatte / de kimashita.
Watashitachi wa takushi 0
(We came by taxi.)
M
[2] flu¥#EE¢rJ*e%fi2%mLn.
%1.i1—?flt=&{E~>"c/*'c=~%’E.&aJ1r>=1,r.:.
o tsukattel *de kagu 0o ugokashita.
Watashi wa kodomo 0
(Lit. I moved the furniture using my children.)
de’ ‘C
de=' Pri-
a particle (apparently derived from E1 and; because of; due to;
the te-form of desu) that indicates g because
a weak causal relationship j [REL. kara“; node]
\/'\/\.
Q Key Sentence
—I—
Noun (cause)
mus»
mnéa liii fifi -e
"v fifi
$WE&2 Wnfi/W#iLk.
Wbfi/Whiuko
Yamaguchi-san wa by6ki de gakko o0 yasundal
yasunda / yasumimashita.
(Lit. Mr. Yamaguchi was ill and absented himself from school. (=Be-
cause Mr. Yamaguchi was ill, he didn’t come to school.))
m
M
W bLku%*fi&rfi%v+.
@ %Lkm%iRfick%cT°
kimatsush/‘ken de ta/‘hen
Ashita wa kimatsushiken ta/"hen desu.
(I’m having an awful time because of tomorrow's
(I'm tomorrow’s final exam.)
108 de”
de“
M fimvfifizbnn.
fimf%fi:bnto
Game de hashi ga kowareta.
5ame
(Lit. Because of heavy rain the bridge broke down. (=Heavy rain
M
ii
destroyed the bridge.))
M
M %@5u&!&$T&T%finko
%®5H&,fl$T&Tbfiflk,
Kino wa yoru. shigoto de totemo tsukareta.
Kind
(Lit. Because of my work I got very tired last night. (=1
(=I worked so
hard last night that I got very tired.))
(d)
W 5Cli=Zi§$i!;Q'C‘)\lY;i3LiLf:.,
QU§fi$&?l%LiLk°
Chichi wa kdtsdjiko
kotsiijiko de nydinshimashita.
(My father was hospitalized due to a traffic
trafiic accident.)
1. Some of the uses of de3

dei‘ (such as KS and Ex. (a)) are very close to the
te-form
re-form of desu. For example, KS can be paraphrased into two sentences
(la) and (lb):
(ll
M a.
m iii Ill 2‘-S hlilfiif Lfco
mfléhflfiifbks
byoki deshita.
Yamaguchi-san wa byéki
(Mr. Yamaguchi was ill.)
h mnsnu$&2w#aLn.
musumfifiawaack.
Yamaguchi-san wa gakko o0 yasum/‘mash/ta.
yasumirnashita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi was absent from school.)
And KS can be considered to be the result of combining the two sen-
tences using the te-form of desu which basically means ‘ be ~ and’.
2. A noun that precedes de3 expresses something that is beyond human
control (such as illness, flood, accident, rain, and fire). It is also to be
noted that dei‘
de3 co-occurs with any noun, if a predicate expresses some-
thing that is beyond human control. If the co-occurring predicate
expresses something that is controllable, the particle de is no longer
dei‘;
dea; it is de2 of means. (Q(==> de2)
dei) Compare (2a) and (Zb)
(2b) below:
(2) a. 5Iil'C*7’
95?? i/11/1?-l.:>'.rZ>..
i/11/it-’-i.:r'.cZ>..
Tamago de arerugi ni naru.
(Lit. Eggs cause me allergy. (=I’m allergic to eggs.))
b fiffinvvifiéo
%c¢Avw&Wé°
Tamago de omuretsu 0o tsukuru.
zsukuru.
(I make an omelette with eggs.)
des / de‘ 109
de3
(2a) and (Zb) contain a noncontrollable predicate arerugi ni naru ‘‘be-
be-
come allergic’ and a controllable predicate omuretsu 0 tsukuru ‘ make
an omelette ’, respectively. Therefore, de in (2a) and (Zb) are de3 and
-
dez, respectively. __
{i
__
__
__
1;
__
__
__
il
Z
i
__
i
1
€
__
1- __
1
i
__- i
-
__
i -
-
i -
[Related Expression] 1?.____-—-
{-
{-
Zi-
M-.-Z
dei is a very loose marker of cause due to its origin; in contrast,

The particle dei‘
kara3
kara?’ and node are clear subordinate conjunctions of cause / reason.
(=:>
(Q kara“;
kara”; node)
de‘ ‘Q
dg4 T P"-
prt.
— r\/\/\/\/\r\/\/\»\/\/
" I'\./\/‘\/\./\/‘\/‘\/'\.l'\/\/' /\A»\_/\/~/
/\/\/\./\/-/ »
1‘ \/ /\/\/\/\/
\./ /\/\/\/\_f
a particle which indicates the time

\.r\
at; on; in
‘\,\./\./\
when s.t. terminates or the amount [REL. n/'1]

of time a period of activity has taken
\\/\/\/\/
\/\/\r\
/\4\/\4
"\ Ix \A/W\A
'\r\ vvVV\ AI
/v- v\A/vv /'\_/\ ’"\/\/'
/A/vv /\/\, \r-
\\/
/\/\¢\/\/'\1'\/\.z/\/
Q Key Sentence
§Key
Topic (subject) Noun (time)

11'.
aaa
%¥—% in anH +5
+5 '0 i‘?§ioE>/»i%bDi'i‘°
ff“:bZ> /i“‘:bDi*J'
I. I.
Harugakki 5,51
gwa gogatsu t6ka de
d 0waru/ owar/masu
owarul owarimasu.O-
‘|iK||lHi|HH
(The spring term ends on May 10)
10.)
M
(8-) :0:v#—bu+%T%bDiT.
C. 0): ‘/'5'"-' I‘ li-l"B-'<’i='C‘¥§:b D iii,
konsato wa jdji
Kono konséto /'0/'i de owarimasu.
(This concert will be over at ten o’clock.)
o'clock.)
M fl@»z£—rnfiHrane.
fl@»z£—rufiHvana.
Watashi no pasupo to wa rokugatsu de kireru.
pasupéto
(My passport expires in June.)
(0) 72' ‘J i:i:5l€'C2b=64-*,*EI'c3—'_’=?Iil:f.:Z>.,
M 7xUfit¥Tm6%H?E$t&6.
Amerika ni kite kara kyo
ky6 de sannen ni naru.
(It’s been three years since I came to America.)
110 de‘
1.
l. In general, X de‘ indicates that something lasts for a period of time up
to X.
M
ii
5
E E‘
Z:
2. When X in X de refers to a duration of time, as in (1), it is the de
___. of means rather than the de of termination time. (=> de2)
(Q
m
M wEénu—fi%?%@v£—b&%wk.
mEéAfi—fi%?%®v£—b&%Wto
Yamada-san wa isshdkan
isshiikan de sono repoto 0o ka/ta.
kaita.
(Mr. Yamada wrote the report in a week (lit. using a week).)
N1" can be used in place of de‘
Ni‘ de4 in KS and Exs. (a) and (b), as in [1].
M %$%H£fi+HT/E%b&°
W %#%u£H+He/cfiba.
Harugakki wa gogatsu toka
tdka de/ ni owaru.
(The spring term ends on May 10.)
When de is used, the nuance is that the spring term lasts up to May 10.
When ni is used, however, the sentence simply indicates the time when the
spring term ends.
-A-Semantic Derivations of De
< Instrument > de2:

"~’)
"/I 23 ?/ii’$'C“’/ 7.7 -'-'1’/\fi'o
ViZl£$'C"f/71 3f'\*fi‘0 T110
T10
H Jon wa kuruma de Shikago e itta.
(John went to Chicago by car.)
< Means > de2:

-->
%L5§li%§§'C*%€
H52 7:...
li§€§§'C‘§3 L Tao
Watashitachi wa eigo de hanashita.
(We talked
(We in English.)
talked in English.)
< Cause > de3:
%®%mfiH?:bnk°
%®%flfi@fCbhk°
Sono ie wa ta/fr)
ta/f0 de kowareta.
(That house collapsed due to the typhoon.)
< Reason > de3:

dea:
filifififfiii P’;
%li?'$&!fi'C*1‘"'fl)‘ Y’: 29>
75> o Tc,
fr...
Boku wa shiken de ikenakatta.
(I couldn’t go (there) because of the exam.)
de‘ / demo 111
< Material > de2:

flu%%e<oT2&nfi.
flm%%e<oT&anfi.
T Watashi wa keito de kutsushita 0o anda.
(I knit socks with wool.) i
1;
1—
-1—
_1-
1;
i
-1—
1-
-1—
i1-1—
-
ii
_
L1
—
< Place
Place)> de':
_ E?-limo i>lZl%fi'§'C‘%5'fi'§"Zao
E-'1’:-iii/\'>'l>lZl%fi'é“C‘§fl5‘§*l‘Z>..
Mich/'ko wa itsumo toshokan de benkyosuru.
Michiko
(Michiko usually studies at the library.)
< Required time

(Required time>> de2:
Q *HéhuEBf:0v£—b&%wk.
*HéwuEHc:0v£—bE%wk°
Kimura-san wa mikka de kono repoto o kaita.
(Mr. Kimura wrote this report in three days.)
Time)> de4:
< Time de‘:
&$m£fic%bva+.
fiI$l:.t3-ilB#'C‘iE‘.-Fb D iii.
Shigoto wa goji de owarimasu.
(My work ends at five o’clock.)
cost)> de2:
< Required cost
—>
flu:@$2+FwtE@t.
flit: 0112+ F11/Gfiofco
Watashi wa kono hon o0 jiidoru
jddoru de katta.
(I bought this book for ten dollars.)
demo ‘ct,
‘("5 Pri-
P"-
5
j the te-form of desu plus mo ‘even’ Ej
I\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\_/\/\/\/\, \/\/\./\
even
112 demo
§Key Sentences
(A)
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
T Subject Predicate
L
L
L
L
L
L
9&5 -vi. ism

ibnifi //ibnii/\i1‘..
_
L
$1529»/\i1“
L
-L
L
Sense:
Sensei demo mach/gau
machigau// machigaimasu.
mach/ga/masu
(Even a teacher makes mistakes.)
mistakes)
(B)
T Topic (subject) Direct Object Verb
a. in saw
fibu 41$ irei.
Tb *1-z>/L11“.
Ta/Lam
Watashz
Watashi §i+
o
wa muzukashu
muzukashii shigoto Zdemo
demo suru / sh/masu
suru/ shimasu
‘Q
:1“. - . . .'. . . . I
(I will even do a difiicult

difficult job)
job.)
fa
a
(C)
Noun
1- Prt
, . vi. gill! >b= R25/Exam.
:1 #6 75 b ‘Eb Eilil 733 E235/iii‘?
Koko kara demo Fu//‘san ga mieru/
Fu/isan m/'eru/ m/emasu
m/emasu.
Ié
E(Even
A Even Mt Fuji.)
from here you can see Mt. Fuji) .H:_ ‘W*' - .
M
i) N
(i) ‘Eb
'C'i>
demo
95$
5'51-13 101
bi (subject)—> 515$ ‘G 1, (even a teacher)
sensei ga sensei demo
5'51‘-E
95$ Q
2 (object)—>
(object)-—> 515515
5'55 ‘Ci,
‘G4, (even a teacher)
sensei 0 sensei demo
(ii)
ii) N +Pi't -c-1,
N+Prt ‘G 1,
demo
95$
9151-’5_ J;
1; ‘G4,
"G4, (even with a teacher)
sensei to demo
ii;-PI
fijj-5 79:15
7b>i5 ‘G1,
'61, (even from Tokyo)
Tokyo kara demo
demo 113
M
@ %&vs%na:&u%wvi+;.
¥%vs%na:au%mve+x.
Kodomo demo sonna koto wa wakarimasu
wakar/masu yo. M
.
LL
LL
¢
(Even a child can understand that sort of thing.) L= 2

L L
L -i
L -i
L wi
L L
L L
L
L ‘Ii
L --I-I
L L
L ‘i
in;
L
L
L
L
‘Ii
--I
M x§wLkwnc+#.B@Br$wsw1aA#.
B%wLkwAc+fl.B@Hc£miwifib#.
LL
_
LL
LL
LL
O-ai shitai n desu ga, nichiyobi demo kamaimasen ka.

(I'd like to see you, but is it all right to see you even on Sunday?)
@
M aoAu%v$Wv$a~i+.
noAn%rtmrsfi~a+.
Ano hito wa sakana demo niku demo tabemasu.
(Lit. He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat. (=He eats both
fish and meat.))
M
1. WH-word+demo yields the following meaning depending on which WH-
word is used.
T;’i'u'C*{i
Tcfih/'6‘ ‘B dare demo (no matter who it is; anyone)
fife
Met nan demo (no matter what it is; anything)
I/\0'E~ =5
1/\0'C*=b itsu demo (no matter when; any time)
Ecct
Ezra doko demo (no matter where it is; any place)
<\;';h,'&=E,
En‘C'£- dore demo (no matter which it is)
m ao@%fiufinvsAns+.
M ao@%fiufinv$Ana+.
Ano toshokan wa dare demo hairemasu.
(Anyone can enter that library.)
(2) v\'>'Ei>z’2~iv\i’ct/i/J:.,
\r\’>'C‘i>n=iv\i‘l't/VJIO
/tsu demo kamaimasen yo.
(Any time will be fine.)
2. The particle demo should not be confused with the particle combination
de+mo, as in (1) below where de is a particle of location (=de‘), and
in (2) where de is a particle of means (=de2).
(U
(1) Wtf£4y7v#fi%&%%t&¢Tw5.
B1l§'C‘=b4 ‘/7 i/>b§7<€.*f.cFl=-"lEi.:f.co'cv\Z.'>.,
Nihon de mo /nfure
N/hon infure ga okina mondai ni natte iru.
(In Japan, too, inflation is a big problem.)
m ecmfizeefinamw.
M ecufizvbfinamno
Soko wa basu de mo ikemasu ka.
(Can you also get there by bus?)
(=i>
(Q de‘
de' ; dei)
de2)
IH
114 w
do
d6£5
d6 E5 adv.
/'\/\/'\/'\/ »\/'\/\r\/\/\/\/\/\/\//\/~/\/~/\/\/\/\/\/\_/\/\/\/\/'\/\/
an interrogative adverb which asks how; in what way

M
1*?
5 =i
in: about the state of s.o. /s.t. or the
En:
j< way of doing s.t.
I \/'/. \',\._,\
//\.\.p‘/\r/-I \
-\/\/\,_/\/\../\.. A \/\"\ "\/‘\/‘\/~./‘\/'\/
¢Key
§Key Sentence
Topic (subject)
ans»
a an gm E o 25(v+»m
£5(r+a)
O-ké-san
0-ké-san 5;:
wa do (desu ka)
ka).
(Hows
(How’s your mother?)
L
M
(a)
(H-) §’aTLv\7'/*’-— I~l;tE
%TL\r\7'/f— l~ ii E 5 'C"§“r>=..
'C“§“7b*o
Atarashii apato
apéto wa do desu ka.
(How’s your new apartment?)
M =—t—mE5TT#o
:—t—fiE5TT#o
Kohi wa do desu ka.
(How is the coffee? / Would you like coffee? / How about coffee?)
(d.i@HuE5?
M ififluao?
Doyobi wa do?
(How about Saturday?)
1. The polite version of do is ikaga. In very informal speech desu ka

is omitted after do or ikaga.
2. Do and ikaga are also used to offer or suggest something, as in Exs.
(b) and (c). In this case, do or ikaga
/kaga are asking about the state of the
hearer’s mind regarding the offer or suggestion rather than about the
state of what is being offered or suggested.
3. Do is also used to ask the way of doing something. In this case, ikaga
is usually not used. Example:
m :®€¥mE5%A1+w.
M :o§%mE5%aaTm.
Kono kotoba wa do yomimasu
yom/masu ka.
(How do you read this word?)
do 115
4. The idiomatic expression do shite ‘lit. doing what’ is used to ask
manners, reasons or causes. Examples:
(2) E 5 1,1 E12l=§%9'.a6§L-cv~2s/.."c"M>.
m E5LTB$%2%fiLTw5A?TWO Li
i
L-L-L-Ii
L
=L
L
L
Do shite nihongo o benkyoshite

benkyoshire iru n desuka.
Li?-
__;L
iL
L:
L
ZZL
ZZL
iL
LL
LL-
.-i_L
_ii_
LL
#-
(How (=In what way) are you studying Japanese? / Why are you
L-
i
LL
LL
L-
studying Japanese?)
m :®*dE5LTfihkhTT#°
M :®*mE5LTfinkb?TWo
karera n desu ka.
Kono ki wa do shite kareta
(Why did this tree die?)
As seen in (2), unless the context is clear, do shite is sometimes am-
biguous. (The interrogative adverb naze ‘why’ is unambiguous but
less colloquial than do shite.)
116 e
9
Q /\
/\ prt.
pff.
/~/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
\.r‘\/\ I‘ I“\.I\I‘_\f'\I4\I‘\/‘
a particle that indicates the direction to; towards

toward which some directional move- [REL. made; ni‘; niij
nii]
2§ ment or action proceeds
_/'\I‘\-/'\.I“\-/\./\/(
c
Q Key Sentence
§Key
— New <'°e*i~"> — Noun (location)
$1. l 1 5'5
ti 5'2 -: B
3+2?-‘
a=%l3 §~
2 /~ ititfi
an'- ii:s: 11fiat‘;/i?€\'iL7‘:.>
"'oTc/fi'%’5'iLT:.,
Watashi wa sensho Kyoto e ryoko ni itta / ik/mashita.
ikimashita.
(I went on a trip to Kyoto last week.)
L
(a) %Lt;t$L'l1i®
(8) i1='Lii1FL'l1%® 5 B*\?lEfi%'C'li?w
'6'\¥f%fii%§'E‘l%»> fa.
Tao
Watashi wa Sapporo no uchi e hikoki de kaerta.
kaetta.
(I went back home to Sapporo by plane.)
fli1.§T.fo7‘c0)'(‘v\*'E'y\'G'5"i~*\l:ljT:..,
(b) iii‘.ET:'o7‘.:v)'C*\i\%v\'C'5’l~'\l:i17‘:.,
Jishin datta node isoide soto e deta.
(It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.)
®~$fiEMLkfl.ififi$#%&Wo
@ Q~$flE$Lk#.ififi$#%kw,
dashira ga.
Chichi e tegami o dashita ga, mada henji ga konai.
(I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.)
I. The particles e, made, and n/'7 focus on direction, course (up to ~)

and point of contact, respectively. Thus,
[1] iiaifafifii-e
iiaiiaiiata-e / ?|:
2|: / P'\§Er:..
r»\;ier;.,
Harubaru Tokyo made] ?m'
?ni / ?e kita.
(I came all the way to Tokyo.)
[21 iii:
is-:1: / ~
'\ / *i-c~+:B%*i¢%y\t:..
*av+:.ia=i:a~\r:.
Tokyo ni / e/ joniji ni tsuita.
e / *made jiiniji
(I arrived in Tokyo at 12:00 o’clock.)
[31
[3] -‘=1:-H--7'\/i'C‘/*|:v)fElii> ow ii-r/V.
-==-—-2-"1~—¢'~/i-c /*|Z0)f§iii> 5&9 as/...
e / made / *ni no bin wa mo arimasen.
Nyoyoku e/
(There isn’t any flight
flight to / as far as New York any more.)
e 117
Hlczav/”\Hnofiu%manvc;5.
W zcif/“W*u@fiu%m¢kvLx5.
Koko made / *e / *ni no michi wa warukazta
warukatta desho.
(Your way here must have been rough.)
In actuality, native speakers use e and n/'7
ni7 (of point of contact) almost
interchangeably except in the case of [3] (i.e., ni cannot be followed by LL
LL
LL
LL
no).
LL
L —-
-I
L
J5
L E
Even the ni‘ of direct contact meaning ‘into; onto’ can be replaced by
L
M
e as in:
[5] BHEIZ
iilfigll / ’\)\'->710
’\)\'> T10
nil e haitta.
0-furo ni/
(Lit. I entered into a bath. (=I took a bath.))
[6] 1§l.®_l:l:/'\%'>T:..
lfW)_f:l-‘I’. / ’\%"-77‘:-o
nil e notta.
Tsukue no ue ni/
(I got onto the table.)
M %i5ilZ
[7] fifit/~&$2%wk.
/ '\i§$E%\/‘Tc.
nil/ e kanji o kaita.
Kokuban ni
(I wrote kanji on the blackboard.)
gal
118 ga‘
gal jjt
i/‘
>
\
-"\
jyt
/\/\/\/\,\/\/\/\/\,
/\/\/\/\/\
..
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\}\
prt.
/-\/\/\/\
..
/\ /\/\/\
a particle which indicates the subject

/\r\
..
\/\/\/\/\./\/
..
/\/\ \,/'\/'\_/'\/'\/\/
\/\/\
i
\/\/\/\/~/\/\/\/\,
'\./‘\-/'\
\I\f\Z
..
\/\/\//~.
I
v\-\\
[REL. wa‘ ((1))
(ti)]
Q Key Sentence
Subject Predicate
(U-\'\
»=
B- lr$
iawrwa/i~s-r.
%oT\ea/vim.
In
in
L
L
L
L
L
Ame
Ame; ga futte iru/imasu.
iru/ imasu.
L
L-L 'llll n
I 0 I 0 0 0
(Lit Rain is falling (=It’s

(Lit. 0 (=Its raining.))
raining )) 0
0
L
@ fl®%§cmz%va#&9i+.
M fi®%§muzavafiaDi+.
Watashi no heya ni wa sutereo ga arimasu.
(There is a stereo in my room.)
® %,®9¥#ioTW6°
M a.ov%#fi@rwa.
A. Noriko ga hashitte iru.
(Oh, Noriko is running.)
(c) A:
A 1 :0 vz
1/2 I~b 5
7 ‘/l1fiI7b3;*5v\
‘/iifFIrb1:‘<5y\ L\r\'C'*i"Z)*°
l,y\'C"J‘2b>.,
Kono resutoran wa nani ga oishiidesu ka.
(What is good in this restaurant?)
B:zi—#wwn~Lw?T.
B: X7-—iHb§f5y\ 1,!/\'6"§'.,
Sutéki ga oishiidesu.
(Steak is good.)
1. Ga marks the subject of a sentence when the information expressed by

l.
the subject is first introduced in a discourse. When the subject is
presented as the topic (that is, the information has already been intro-
duced into the discourse), however, the topic marker wa replaces ga.
(==:> we‘ (|j:))
(Q ((1)) Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in
folktales, which illustrates the difl'erent
different uses of ga and wa.
M
m %e—A®BBwémfiEb?wiLk.fitwéhfitfbfiif
%~—Aosuwau#EuvwaLk.zcwaumartfiiv
Lia,
L7‘.:.,
Mukashimukashi hitori no o-ji-san ga sunde imashita.
/‘mash/"ta. O-ji-san
wa totemo binbodeshita.
(Once upon a time there lived an old man. He (lit. the old man)
was very poor.)
gal 119
In the first sentence, o-ji-san
0-ji-san ‘ old man ’ appears for the first time in the
discourse; 0-ji-san
o-ji-san is the subject but not the topic in this sentence. There-
fore, it is marked by ga. The second sentence tells something about
the old man introduced in the first sentence. 0-ji-san
O-ji-san is now the topic;
therefore, it is marked by wa rather than ga. Note the parallelism here
between ga and wa in Japanese and a and the in English.
Ga is also replaced by wa if the subject is in contrast with another
element. For example, in Ex. (c), B could also say:
z-7---=Hi$sv\Lv\'G*;‘.,
(2) z-7-—fli—i:.t:‘<:y\l,v\'C"J‘..
Sutéki wa oishiidesu.
(Stéak is good (but other food is not). / (I don’t know about other
food but at least) Stéak is good.)
Here, sutéki ‘ steak
steak’’ is newly introduced in the discourse and is not the
topic; yet it is marked by wa. This is because sutéki, in this case, is
being contrasted with other food.
Since WH-words like nani ‘ what’, dare ‘ who’ and doko ‘ what place
place’’
can never be topics, they are never marked by wa, as in (3).
(3) '9;B5i1f;'il'i.7‘Ji
@;Bie2‘;'n1a< / *|i§lEi*J“2b>..
*|i§l€i‘i'7)=..
Konban dare ga / *wa kimasu ka.
(Who is coming tonight?)
The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by ga unless it is a con-

trasted element, as seen in (4).
(4) a. %1.i1=7-’i:'—n< / H1757 ~/z-\fi<
5FlJ:1I5"’l:'-75f/*li7 .: .2J: E9El167£70=~oTc:.,,
‘/x/\fi< :1 E%1Ibf4:7)~o7‘.:.,
Watashi wa Debi ga / *wa Furansu e iku koto o shiranakatta.
(I didn’t know that Debbie was going to France.)
b. ~‘/"-—‘/li%75§
~‘/’-—‘/lifihi / *|i7’/i-
*lI-I7/*’— l~ EH:iTcB#ii.£'E'C
’5:tHfcBi*i=i7‘:'iE'C y\7‘.:.,
\i\7‘.:.,
Jin wa boku ga gal/ *wa apato o deta toki mada nete ita.
(Gene was still in bed when I left my apartment.)
0-
¢- $1.75‘/*|2lI€<¢)
$105‘ / *li‘é'0) 5 Rfcflkfili ‘7¢)B9&Ei'7‘;’->7‘.:.,
E.T::.55k@li F4 ‘7@55kf§iT:">T;o
Watashi gal
ga/ *wa kino mita eiga wa Doitsu no eiga datta.
(The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.)
Note that topics are not presented in subordinate clauses.
5 In relative clauses, the subject may be marked by no, as in (5).

(=>
(Q Relative Clause, Note 3)
120 gal /gaz
M
(5) flw%@5Ekm@uF4v0mEfi@k,
fL0)=é'<0 5 Rfcfljlefili F4 ‘70)B5k@T;'o7‘::.,
Watashi no kino mira
mita eiga wa Doitsu no eiga datta.
(The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.)
6. In some expressions, elements which are considered to be direct objects
are presented as subjects and are marked by ga. (==:>
(Q ~ wa ~ ga)
w
(6) L
3- %ux£—vn—fi&Lw,
i%li7<7li'-‘77’J'-7§ii§kLl/‘O
Boku wa supotsuka
supotsuké ga hoshii.
(I want a sports car. (Lit. To me, a sports car is desirable.))
h
b- §¥uzs4v%m9ma.
%¥i1></<4‘/;%‘a1a%\r>=%>.
Haruko wa supeingo ga wakaru.
(Haruko understands Spanish. (Lit. To Haruko, Spanish is
understandable.))
7. To sum up the important rules concerning ga,
(A) Ga marks the subject when it is newly introduced in a discourse.
(B) Wa replaces ga when the subject is a topic or a contrasted element.
(C) WH-words are always marked by ga when they are the subject of
a sentence.
(D) The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by ga unless it is
a contrasted element.
(E) When predicates are transitive adjectives or stative transitive verbs,
the elements which correspond to the direct object in English are
marked by ga.
The topic marker wa is often mistaken for a subject marker. It appears

to be a subject marker because it often replaces ga. (See Notes 1 and 2,
and Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 2. Topic.)
ofJapanese (r::>
(Q wal ((1))
gal fjt
ga2 jjt conj.
) "\/'\,/'\
'\/'\/\
)
g a disjunctive coordinate conjunction gi but
l, that combines two sentences 2 [REL. daga; dakedo; demo;
’ ' V’ ’ W N M’ 'W“'
MN” keredomo;shikash/'1
keredomo; shikashi]
ga2 121
gal
QKey
§Key Sentence
S*"“*"°*1
Sentence,
I
Sentence;
vaviixk/xabn
a 3/ ti 5157‘: / fiéi L7: 7)?I fl 27) I l ;iE?.ir7b=-J7‘:
2‘ 7 ') -11
_- ma1 7‘ k/Xithvbko
75‘? / §iEit*:/i/'C'L7‘.:.,
\-
Jon wa kita / kimashita ga Mean" wa konakatta / kimasendeshita.

Meari
(John came but Mary didn’t (come).)
L
LL
LL
L L
L =
L
L 11
L
L
_ L
%
L =
L
i -I
L
753 S2
S1 793 L
Li“
‘LL
LL-L
LL
L
1
-1
ga
i<E[$
iifili ti
ii ia<w:
$i<l/‘T5 as mi: 11ii §si<r>=r.¢»»ar;.,
753 HQEB $}<7b‘$f;;§=¢f;o (Taro
(Taro swam
swam but Jiro didn’t
but Jiro didn’t
Taro wa oyoida ga Jiro wa oyoganakatta. swim.)
M
(a) flmE—wm&U#fim&imw,
fit:1:‘-/1/i:.t%tti>vb§i§iiflKif.cv\.
Watashi wa biru wa nomu ga sake wa nomanai.
(I drink beer but don’t drink sake.)
(b) 7iKfi2Lf.:v~7firs§n§>*.rv\,
ifitfi£'l,f.:v\>0‘i2‘<s'firb§f.i:y\..
Ryoko 0o shitai ga o-kane ga nai.
(I want to travel but I don’t have money.)
Gal, like but in English, combines two sentences which express contrastive
1. Ga”,
ideas. However, ga is much weaker than but in that it is sometimes
used simply to combine two sentences for stylistic reasons even if those
two sentences do not represent contrastive ideas. For example, the ga
in (1) is used simply as a transition word to connect two sentences.
m
(1) a
3- R—%4—&LiT#%iabm.
/4"-'7‘»f-E L‘i'l“fJi5lEi-1'2.‘/o7§>o
Pati o shimasu ga kimasen ka.
(We’ll have a party. Wouldn’t you like to come?)
E¢ébmfl®5Bmb%#%iT#BbL6WA?Tho
h mmanufloobubfikmimflnsLawA?Tn.
Tanaka-san wa watashi no uchi ni mo tokidoki kimasu ga
omoshiroi hito
hizo desu ne.
(Mr. Tanaka sometimes comes to my place, too. He is an
interesting person, isn’t he?)
Gaz makes a sentence unit with the preceding sentence, not with the
2. Ga?
following sentence. Thus, it is wrong to place a comma before ga or to
start a sentence with ga, as in (2) and (3).
gai
122 gaz
u)*v3vemn,#x7u—mme»an.
(2) *~‘/' a ‘/li§iE7‘.:, 7332' 7' ‘J —l:I;iE>’.it7)=¢7‘.:.,
*Jon wa kita. ga Mean‘ Meari wa konakatta.
(John came, but Mary didn’t come.)
(3) *~‘/’
*9" a3 ‘/li;lEf.:., 733;! 7'
‘/&:I§IE7’.:., 7532' 7’ ‘J ~—&i;Ef.c2b=»>f.:.,
—-li§ié>’.iI7)=¢7‘.:.,
*Jon wa kita. Ga Mean’ Meari wa konakatta.
(John came. But Mary didn’t come.)
3. S1 and S2 in “ S1 ga S2"
S2 ” must be in the same form whether formal or
informal, because they are both independent clauses. (4) and (S) are
G1
ii
stylistically awkward. (II)
(Q keredomo)
M
(4) wxaaaaatnnaaaamamat.
??:£cEm1i»i<€$l.r=r>*i9<EI§a1i=1<n<f;r»~».>r=.
??Tar6 wa oyogimashita ga Jiro wa oyoganakatta.
??Taro
(Taro swam but Jiro didn’t (swim).)
?i<E|§&;tii]<L\f£rb§‘¢<El$&:.tiil<€$fl'A/'C‘ Lt.
(5) ?i<Erii1iiki\r£w>¥3<Erii1ifi<=é'§*¢/we1.1;.
?Taro
?Tar6 wa oyoida ga Jiro wa oyogimasendeshita.
(Taro swam but Jiro didn’t (swim).)
4. S2 in “ S;
S1 ga S2”
S2 ” is often omitted when it is understandable from the
context and / or the situation, or when the speaker doesn’t want to con-
tinue for some reason (e.g., the sentence is too direct, impolite, embar-
rassing, etc.). Examples:
W kl;
(6) kUx5&fi&EwiT#.
J: ").5!f;’&.%.'.v\i-;"rb‘=1.,
Dai/'obuda to omoimasu ga.
Dai/'6buda
(I think it’s all right but. . .)
m iAux<@%+anv+#.
bAu;<@%Ta@c+%.
Tomu wa yoku benkyosuru
benkyésuru n desu ga.
(Tom studies hard but. . .)
5. When “ S;S1 ga S2” expresses contrastive ideas, the contrastive wa typi-
cally appears in S,
S1 and S2, as in KS and Ex. (a). (Q wal
wa‘ ((1))
Daga, dakedo, demo, shikashi and keredomo express the same idea as ga.
However, the first four cannot make compound sentences like ga does; they
must occur at the beginning of a sentence, as in [1]. (See Note 2.)
3. S1 Q8 S2.
S3.
b. *S2 daga / dakedol

*S1 dakedo/ demo
demo// shikashi S2.
c. S1. Daga/ Dakedo/ Dem0/
Demo] Shikashi S2.
Keredomo differs from ga in that keredomo is a subordinate conjunction
ga2// ~garu
gaz 123
meaning ‘although’. That is, in ““S,
S1 keredomo S2 ”, S1 keredomo is a
subordinate clause and S2 is a main clause. In “ S1 ga S2 ”, on the other
S2”,
hand, both S1 and S2 are independent clauses.
~7§\’5
~garu ~1_)\'5 aux. v. (Gr. 1)
-ii
-in
in
-in
i 2
an auxiliary verb attached to a psy-

_ 1
show signs of ~
11
11 Q
Q
11 1
111-
i 1
Q
11 =
chological / physiological adjective

meaning a person other than the
'"\\/\'/\.’/\.4¢/,\‘v\/ _\/. '\/'\/
speaker shows signs of ~
\.»/¢\/\¢./\.¢/\'.1¢\//\¢\/\-4-
\(\¢'
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\,\ /\/'\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/
§Key
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (subject) ObJ ect
Direct Object AdJ (i)
Adj ()1 stem
—-%
-‘ EH 2rJ=—-‘777—-
Z'2l"*-/77*-' 2 §iti,7)¥-)2‘;/»§9il,7.:.,
Q C" 7)*0T~_/1) Uibfc.
Kazuo wa su dtsuké
supotsuka 0 hoshigatta / gar/mas/ma
garimashita.
(Lit. Kazuo showed signs of wanting a sports car. (=Kazuo wanted a
sports car.))
(B)
_ _ (i) stem
Adj (1')
Topic (subject) Direct Object
Vmas
Vmasu
has/..
5/ I C :1 7»fJ<§‘)"-J»
v'4za'J——A§ 2 as);
'\._ 713071/7)39iLf:,,
i
J")?-/739iLT-2
\ Q
Ueda-san 5
1::9?
wa a/sukunmu
aisukurimu Po
0T‘ tabe ta gatta ' iI
gatta// gar/mash/ta
garimashita,O.
. ~
(Lit. Mr. Ueda

Ueda_ showed signs of wanting to eat ice cream. (=Mr. Ueda
wanted to eat ice cream.))
m
Adj (i/ na) stem fJ'§Z>
7532.3
garu
51l‘bI.,7)3Z>
51l1.L7)3Z> (s.o. shows signs of being glad)
ureshigaru
ab/VE
to/VE 5 7336
7536 (s.o. shows signs of being bothered)
menddgaru
mendogaru
124 ~garu
M
(a) x—%vu—ATfiL#@Twi+.
M 7."-'9"‘/l;‘t—*A'C‘i$1iL7)'$o'C\r\i'§‘<,
Sfizan wa hitori de sabishigatte imasu.
Suzan
(Susan feels lonely by herself.)
m ¥{#§7)§flET.:7)§o'Cv\6.,
¥%#fin#Qrwa.
Kodomo ga nemutagatte iru.
(My child wants to go to sleep.)
1. There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense, usually re-

quires the first person (or a person with whom the speaker can empathize)
as subject. If the subject of a sentence in which these adjectives occur
is not the first person (or one with whom the speaker can empathize),
then garu is attached to the adjective. Observe the accompanying change
of particles from ga into 0.
(1) a. %i1fib<:.2~>v~.
%l:.t7€1.)<C.b\i\..
Boku wa inu ga kowai.
(Lit. To me dogs are scary. (=I am scared of dogs.))
h fiménufiacbmarwa.
wifié/v&i7%’&:b2b§@Tv\Z5o
Fukada-san wa inu 0 kowagatte iru.
(Mr. Fukada fears dogs.)
(2) a. ’%l1:<:i%’~—~y1a-—2'J<%§<Lv\..
%li;<ri?-‘77J—1)<?iKL\i\s
Boku wa supotsuka
supotsuké ga hoshii.
(I want a sports car.)
b. —%uz£—wfi—E&L#¢Tw5.
—-%li;<rJ%'—-‘V11-"¢'-1’-ikL7J3-3'C\i\Z.'>.,
supotsu/<5 0 hoshigatte iru.
Kazuo wa supotsuka
(Kazuo wants a sports car.)
If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a nominalized
clause), the garu attachment is unnecessary even if the tense is nonpast
and the subject is a person with whom the speaker cannot empathize.
Thus,
(3) a.
8- 1&5!
%l5-H é?
5 /vlifi7)‘3-.'.'.bl.\
/vlij¢7b'3C'.19L\ <‘<‘:?-5-;‘oT;.,
: E‘/J to
Fukada-san wa inu ga kowai to itta.
(Mr. Fukada said that he is scared of dogs.)
M —%uz£—vw—#&Lu%5fi.
—%ux£—ww—#&Lu%5fi.
supdtsuké ga hoshii soda.
Kazuo wa supotsuka
(I heard that Kazuo wants a sports car.)
(=:>hoshii1,
(Q hoshii‘, Note 3)
~garu 125
2. Garu conjugates as a Gr. 1 verb. Thus,
’ I5F, fa
2*; v‘
tn (inf, neg, nonpast)
ranai
9&1‘
Di?‘ (fml, nonpast)
rimasu
fIm8SU
5
6 (inf, nonpast)
ru
-
I'U
iii-
-
-
iii-
ii —1
—
—1
(condition
(conditional)
al)
ii ti
'?=?kLr)‘i
?i7<L7)§-- < ibli
ii 1-—
ilwlzf
*1 in
i —1
-
-
mini
iii-i
ii-i
hoshiga- reba
65 (volitional)
(volitional )
rd
ro
0T
'2 (te-form)
tte
H6’
-9 TC.
'2 (inf, past)
U18
U6
3. The following psychological and physiological adjectives are commonly

used with garu.
Psychology Physiology
(Adi (1'))
(Adj (1)) (Adi (1))
(1'))
v‘
tit L ii‘ (want)—>& LiJ<
(want)-'§k Lib< 6 an
lilo (painful)—>1z§;b<
(painful)—>;§;']< 5
25
hoshii hoshigaru itai itagaru
5 in L in (hamr>y)—> 5 in 1.11‘
(haPPy)—> Lifi 6 %l/v‘
% Ll/‘ (painful)—>%‘
(painful)->% [_,7)< 5
[,;b< Z;
ureshii ureshigaru kurushii kurushigaru
its
at L v\
in (l0flely)—>i"H< [,;§<
(lonely)->§:|:i: L25‘ Z,
6 7)» to in
i):}§)\(\ (it¢hy)—>
(itchy)—> r>=
r)= PW?"
on‘ 6
sabishii sabishigaru ka yui
kayui ka yugaru
Aw
aw I] \
V
(want
(W811! w)—>~f;iJ<6
t0)—> ~ Tc. bf Z.» 9'6“
is v\ (¢0ld)—>’%2':<
(Cold)-'%7'J‘ 6
~ tai ~ tagaru samui
sannui samugaru
I. ab
C Ib li\
V‘ (s¢ary)—> C.: bi)‘
bib‘ 6 -2 in
-2!/‘ (h0t)*’%J'J‘ 6
(ho!)-'%h*
kowai
ko wai kowagaru atsui atsugaru
% L '1‘
fit‘/‘ (envious)—>fi Lifi
I,;b< 6
25 Ti 6 V)
ii w <languid)—» r.~:zsn<6
(languid)—> Tc’ 5 75‘ 6
ura yamashii ura yamashigaru darui darugaru
is isL L 6
its 5 V‘ (8ml1$ifl8)—'$5
(amus-ing)—>is ‘B1. L 6:b<6
671%’) < -2“ 6 7:!/‘
1‘ <' '2 f:.v~ (ticklish)-'
(ticklish)—> < ‘T
1- <-'<’ 6v 7:75‘/I5
r.:i;<6
omoshiroi omoshirogaru kusuguttai kusuguttagaru
126 ~garu / goro
(Adi (na))
(Adj
i$,F,_3§7;‘
fi,F,_3_§7‘;f (troublesome)—»i1,%,F,_$_§i]<5
(troublesome)—>%,B,_$;§<Z;
meiwakuda meiwakugaru
iMer.;‘
w<=r;' (dislike)—>vw<@i;<25
(dislike)—w\&>;j<25
iyada iyagaru
/yagaru
4. A limited number of ~garu forms have derived noun forms. The form
= 11
-
-
—
—
8
-
-1
_
Z
_
-._
1-
i
1_.'1
—
-
i
i
i
i
is ~gari (ya), meaning ‘ a person who shows signs of being ~ ’.
Z i
-, i
L.-_—,
i
L.-_—,
(=> -vs)
-Y8)
ii9FFLrb§
>H<m,»¥ 0 (E)
(5)
sabishigari (ya)
(a person who always feels lonely)
cbrbi 9 (E)
:io>b§D (5)
kowagari (ya)
(a person who is easily frightened)
%a=
$215 D9 (5)
(E)
samugari (ya)
(a person who is sensitive to cold)
%»= 9 (E)
21$
atsugari (ya)
(a person who is sensitive to heat)
goro 1'5
2'6 Suf-
mf-
- /v\AA /\,
A/\A£ /'\_, \/\¢
\/\1 /\/\/\/\
/\_/\/'\/\ /\./\/\/
/\_/'\/'\/
approximately (with a specific point g5 about; around

of time) § [REL. kurai / gurai]
\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\_/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
/ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\_ \/\I\_/'\,_,f\_/ \/\r\r\/\/ .
\
Q Key Sentence
Topic (subject) oun (time)
Noun Predicate
£%*é/U
§% é/V gr:
FI- Q -l:Bi-*r :5 95'e&flia/flirt.
B *5: lil6 / H111‘
Suzuki-san
(Mr91...
(Mr.
wa
Ii ll EI
asa
. Suzuki leaves home at about 77:00 (1,.
00 o’clock
ocloc
fl‘
- E I_
$hlChl]I
shichiji
ar- in the morning)
morning.)
goro uchz
uchi 0 deru / demasu
deru/demasu.
goro 127
1%
N (time) 1'6
:.">.'> (lc)
(la)
goro (ni)
E-IE1;
EB? C6 1'6 (ll) (at about 3 o’clock)
sanji goro (ni)
m
<8»)
(a) A: ~~/>:'a4m¢:fiaa+>>~.
A: v\O‘C.'6Zll§7'i1'lCfi"% i'§‘75=<,
/tsu goro Pekin ni ikimasu ka.
(About when are you going to Beijing?)
Brfifiofifidéfiaifo
B=%$@fiB:6fi%iT.
Rainen no rokugatsu goro ikimasu.
(I’m going there around June of next year.)
M
(b) A=%%umfi:aav§rwaenm.
Ar ’-1‘$HlilFI@i'=‘:.'Z'>i'C‘E'Cv\i Lr;-.1».
Kesa wa.nanji goro made nete imashita ka.
(Until about what time were you asleep this morning?)
B: +B#2’II'7.’>3=.'C*E'Cv\3i Lfco
B:+fi§6iTfiTWiLk°
J0/'1' goro made nete imashita.
J0/'i
(I was asleep until about 10 o’clock.)
@ Eif50)*9,\Z'P5li7<§"C*
W £$®%C6fifi§TLkh° Lfcho
dyuki deshita ne.
Kyonen no ima goro wa éyuki
(About this time last year it snowed heavily, didn’t it?)
1. Goro is used with a specific point of time. Thus, the following sentence
is unacceptable.
U)*&C6?vE%ETwiLt°
(1) *&C.'Z>'7- 1/1:’?»‘_*R'cv~i Lfco
*Y0ru goro terebi 0 mite imashita.
*Yoru
(*I was watching TV about at night.)
2. Depending on the speaker’s perspective, time expressions other than

exact time expressions can be perceived as points in time. Thus, in Ex.
(a), the month of June is a point in time from the speaker’s viewpoint.
In these cases, goro seems easier to use grammatically if there is some
distance between the time of the event and the time of speech, as seen
in the following examples.
128 goro / goto ni
m
(2) N¥$®H:6w¢éLm%wiT
N%$mE:6w$énm%wi?
??/-?ainen no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimasu.
??Rainen
(*I will see Mr. Yamanaka around next summer.)
(*1
(3) fi%$0E:6m¢éAm%wi+
fi%¢@E:6m¢énm%w&+
Sarainen no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimasu.
(I will see Mr. Yamanaka in the summer in a couple of years)
M(4))??£$®§d6m¢éLw%wiLt.
??£$@EC6m¢énK%wiLk°
I.
-
-
... __
__
__
-__
__
__
??Kyonen no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimashita.
..-. __
__
__
-M __
ii.
M
ii (*I met Mr. Yamanaka around the summer of last year)
(5) $5 <22: <‘:<‘: L0)EZ'_'?>lll'1P
l,r7>EC6ll1FP éS /vl:§2<~\/\§ Lfco
é /vlcé-?;v\i Lt,
Ototoshi no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimashita.
(I met Mr. Yamanaka sometime during the summer of the year
before last.)
Goro is different from kurai

kurai// gurai ‘about’
‘ about’ in that the latter is used with
specific quantity expressions. Thus,
U1%u5fi:5mEaLn.
Mi%u3fi:6mEiLt.
B oku wa sanji goro ni nemashita.
Boku
(I went to sleep at about 3 o’clock.)
lfi‘%UE%fi€BUEiLko
M %uz%%¢5uEaLn.
B oku wa sanjikan gurai nemashita.
Boku
(I slept about three hours.)
goto ni .:‘¢|;
Ctt pri-
PM
)> S.t. takes place regularly in succession every
after a certain temporal or spatial [REL. mai; oki ni]
interval
interval.
I
/-y\, /\, /\ ./
"\\-
I\/\.r'\-I”\i/\/
v\A
\/\/\ A
A \/
\./ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/c/\/c/\/\/\/e/\,
/'\/\./'\/‘\/'\-’\-/"\-/\-/‘\-/'\/'-/"\/"\/\1\-"\-'
goto ni 129
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (subject) N
Number Counter
umber-Counter
H §u zfifiEn
E.
=§. rem
"' PC‘
FT_
% 6:5!/V7‘
§ anew/knack.
/fik7>'~il/T.
['4
W6f88/7!
Watashi wa san I[I/(8!I
san-jikan goto m
ni kusun
kusuri 0o nonda / flOI77Il778S/7lf8
nomimashita.
(I took medicine every three hours
hours.)
(m
3*
CU \-/\./
/"\
I“"'\
Topic (subject) Noun

l
ii‘
F~l- .
EB E I gm i rec:
fl, fifi
F'il’1~
Zr
efira/irifo
5: IIT6 /1'I1'C3E'§‘
(
FT
L» _
Shogatsu wa ie goto I7!
ni kadomatsu 0o tateru / tatemasu
tatemasu.°0.
.§i+ 'PF‘
(They put up pine tree decorations at every house on New Year’s
Year s Day.)
Day) ‘OQ
IEZEEI
M
(a)
(H-) —-fi.‘;'.1;l:i;§t!fi2b§$>Zs.,
--fi‘C.'<‘:l:%‘ifi%75'5ZE~?.5a
/kka goto ni shiken ga aru.
(There is a test after every lesson.)
#¥Jl.:"&l~’:5'&irb'irb~b6.
(b) $%.:'.1;lC5'i&7)§7)>b6.,
Gakki goto ni sensei ga kawaru.
(Every semester teachers change.)
@
W *Hénu§5A:ac&wurwa.
*Hsnn%5A:&u%wLrw6.
Kimura-san wa au hito goto ni aisatsushite iru.
(Mr. Kimura greets every one he meets.)
EBr&m%=z2Lrwi¢.
w EB:&K?;X&LTwiTo
Mikka goto ni tenisu o shite imasu.
(I’m playing tennis every third day.)
Oki ni indicates that something is repeated at certain intervals. Although its

usage is comparable to goto ni, note the distinct difference in meanings in ex-
amples [la] and [lb].
M m
6 zoiiuzmsaumia.
:o%$n:%Bacmi6.
futa eki oki ni tomaru.
Kono densha wa fuza
(This train stops at every third station.)
130 goto ni
h :o%$u:%:&cma6.
cmiiuzfidtcmiéo
Kono densha wa futa eki goto ni tomaru.
(This train stops at every other station.)
When a time expression precedes oki ni or goto ni, there is no difference
difierence
in meaning, if an event takes place at one point in time as in [2a]. But
there is difference in meaning, if an event takes place within a certain
period of time as in [2b].
[Zb].
M 8-
[2] m %$l:t3~£6H5%I:/.'_’é:|:H:lZ>.,
fifiuifinac/racma.
Densha wa gofun oki nilni / goto ni deru.
(The train leaves every five minutes.)
h fluzflsac/:ec%¥e%@rwa.
b- 5FLlil'El1’$%lZ/C;‘£:l:3lE¥<‘:§?-.=‘o'Cv\6o
Watashi wa futsuka oki ni / goto ni Hanako to atte iru.
(I'm seeing Hanako every third day]
day/every
every other day.)
~hajimeru 131
~hajimeru ~l:.t
~11 Dbbé
U606 "W v-
“W "- (G'-
(GK 3)
2)
_4'\_4'\.
g S.o. /s.t. begins to do s.t. or begins g§ begin to

8S to be in some state. (< [REL. ~dasu; kuru?)
kuru’)
‘M"’”‘”""""""""”""""""’”‘”“‘M’”‘”M
‘M'“M'“N““”“NV‘MNvWVW“NW“”” (ANT. ~owaru)
~0waru)
QKey
Q Key Sentence
—_
Vmasu
$;LT:. we i/a%'~—|~ 2
&Ltn%>v£—b§: %=é
5% lilL6b6/lilLbbi'§‘o
aiuwe/uuwif.
Ashita kara repo to
repoto o0 kaki
keki hajimeru / hajimemasu. __
___
__
___
i
__
i
..__
i
i
_..
_.
._.
_.
__.
__.
__
_..
__.
__.
__.
._
E
__ __.
__
i __.
_.____i;
____i
_____i;
(I’ll begin to write my paper tomorrow.) ii.
ii.
m
Vmasu Ii
lat I;
IL ab
bb Z5
6
hajimeru
3'5 Lg;
% L, )1 1;
me;ab 5
25 (s.o. begins to talk)
hanashihajimeru
E Ali 1; 5525
gm; 355 (s.o. begins to eat)
tabehajimeru
@ flfiAHW%fiE%%&%huDwiLt°
finAHmafiR%%2fiAnuwaLn.
Watashi wa hachigatsu kara Genjimonogatari 0o yomihajimemashita.
(I began to read The Tale of Genji in August.)
(b)
M EI1lW>’&%§i1
Elidivffiifilzt 1964 £’;3<7J§I'i12|‘
fiioifivr vU ‘/l:°~y
‘/t:°-2 a
9 oz:
V): 2aa=¢>*;a<
67)*i55'fi< tr
it 99&1
01 ems.
llbbfco
Nihon no keizai
N/hon ke/zai wa sen-kydh
sen-kyoh yaku-roku/':Jy0(n)nen
yaku-roku/'0yo(n)nen no Tokyo Orinpikku no
koro kara tsuyoku narihajimeta.
(The Japanese economy began to strengthen about the time of the 1964
Tokyo Olympics.)
@ A=wo»ew$e%wuuwnnr+».
M A:w0#Bw¥£%wuUwthTT#°
/tsu kara kitte o atsumehajimeta n desu ka.
(When did you start to collect stamps?)
B : ¥(;i;0)B#7)*
B: ¥{1,U;®B#fl= Bfibbli
lbfibbli Ubbi
Ilbbi L720
Lfca
Kodomo no toki kara arsume
atsume hajimemashita.
hajimemash/‘ta.
(I started to collect them when (lit. since) I was a child.)
132 ~ha/'/meru
~hajimeru
1. Vmasu+hajimeru conjugates exactly like the Gr. 2 Verb hajimeru.

' 2";
f;\/\
In (inf, neg, nonpast)
nai
i-2“
32 '3" (fml, nonpast)
masu
Z5
25 (inf, nonpast)
E3 L ti 1;
3% I; ab
to - ru
hanashihajime- zltlf
hlzf (conditional)
fix
fix ,1 I;
E ab _
w _ i reba
tabehajime- J: 5 (volitional)
yo
‘C (re-form)
(te-form)
I8
I6
7‘;
7: (inf, past)
( I8
2. For the sentence (1) below, there are two honorific versions, depending
on which part of Vmasu+hajimeru is changed into an honorific form; if
the Vmasu is changed into an honorific form, it will become (2a) and if
Vmasu+haj'imeru is changed into an honorific form, it will be-
the entire Vmasu+ha;'imeru
come (2b).
m %im$2%%uuwt.
%aa¢a%amuwn.
Sense/' wa hon o kakihajimeta.
Sensei kakihaiimeta.
(The teacher began to write a book.)
m
(2) w
=1- %im:$aa§auuouuwn.
5'&ili:"."1lI?i'B%%l:f.:OIil;&‘>f:.
Sensei wa go-hon 0o 0-kaki ni narihajimeta.
h
5 %$m:$2a%%uuwcu¢n.
%ia:$2a%auuwma¢n.
Sensei wa go-hon 0 0-kakihajime ni natta.
(=> 0 ~ ni naru)
3. ~hajimeru is normally attached to a non-punctual verb (such as yomu

‘ read ’, kaku ‘ write’
write ’ and miru ‘see
‘ see ’). If the subject is plural, however,
the verb can be a punctual verb (such as tsuku ‘ arrive’, kuru ‘ come come’’
and shinu ‘ die’). (=>(=i> Appendix 2D) Thus,
~haj/meru / hazu 133
~hajimeru
m Lma6u%%a%#uuwaLn.
(3) JLB3 3 A/li¥diF§l 23%-71-li Ebb i L711,
Ueda-san wa shinbun o0 yomihajimemashita.
(Mr. Ueda began to read a newspaper.)
(4) A/I
A/1 /*?E%n<%%l:%%l1
/*?E%I:<¢.=%lc%%i1 llbbi 1.1:.
Rabi 1.1;.
Hitobirol
Hitobito / *Hanako ga kai/'6
kaijo ni tsukihajimemashira.
tsukihajimemashita.
(People / *Hanako began to arrive at the meeting room.)
i cI—|
i -I1!
i "1'
i -1|
hazu lat?‘ "-

i "1'
i -1'
i Ii
-1|
M
i
i
-Q
i i
-
—
i-ii
iii
-
/\/\/\ /\/\,
.,\¢
v\v
a dependent noun which expresses“Ai
expresses I expect that ~; It is expected
the speaker’s expectation that s.t. will that ~ ; ~ is expected to; I am
take place or took place or that s.o. / fairly certain that ~; should;
s.t. is or was in some state ought to; It is natural that ~;
%££./\ /'\ ./'\ /\,
-/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/
-/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/~./\/\/\/\/ A/\/\/\/\/\/\
/\/\./‘\./\./\/\/\-
No wonder ~
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Sentence (informal)’r
06-9:/.1
“--
\l
Q’ :1 /\~—5"
é/vii »<'—-a'~4—-
Q’ ~—-Ill fi<
"'
'—\
‘-l /\
.r‘l ,-n
arr’ r:/'c~*r.,
lid"? ~\. ‘C ‘°l'
' - san wa
Kuraku
Kuréku-san '
pat:
péti I7! IkU
ni iku hazu da / desudesu.o_
(I expect that Mr.
Mr Clark will go to the party)
party.)
.H‘
TDa after Adj (na) and N changes to na and no, respectively.
M
(i) {V/Adj
{V/Adj (1'
(i)])) inf
inf lid‘
:11“ 7;‘
rs
hazu da
{E5-T
{Eff / 33 bf;-_]
35 1,f;] :11‘
U;-3‘ ff (It is expected that s.o. will talk /talked.)
/ talked.)
hanashite] hazu da
{hanasu / hanashita]
{féjtn / '[§,‘7;~-sf;-_]
{%\.\ fé"§7;~/J 7;] (1-J‘ T5
(1-f 7;,’ (It is expected that s.t. is / was expensive.)
{takai / takakatta} hazu da
{takai/
(ii) Adj
(ii) Adj (na)
(na) stem
stem lit/7507:] :11‘ Ti
{fat / T5071] li'§" rs
{na / datta}
[na/datta} hazu da
{,%+7)>f2:
{fiflxfg /?'£i75=7‘.fof:,]
/?§7b1f;’o7‘;} ii-J‘ T.-E
£11‘ ff (It is expected that s.t. is / was
{shizukana / sh/zukadatta}
{sh/zukana shizukadatta} hazu da quiet.)
134 hazu
(iii) N {VJ} 7507:] ii‘);
[0)/ 7‘.:'o7‘:.} I13“ Ti
{no / datta}
[no hazu da
{§E§5_
[9553 0) / 515$
QEEE T50 7;]
7;} lid‘
I11‘ Ti (It is expected that s.o. is / was a
[sensei no/
{sensei no] sensei datta} hazu da teacher.)
j<¥f9'Eil:t'B' 2/
(8') j<¥f§lf:$l:l:*)'
(8) ‘/ F7
F =7 ’<fi<i1-.>'cv\6li*J"6~*J".
&93Do'Cv\Z>li*§"C*'i‘°
Ono-sensei
Gno-sensei wa Sandora o shine
shitte iru hazu desu.
(I expect that Prof. Ono knows Sandra.)
ii
iii
—
I
P
r
I
i
i
i
i
i
i
(b)
(b) E><7)2lIl1Ei7)=of:l11‘T5.,
3b7)7l51lZl1§j75> <2 TC'.lZlI'§:T..'§‘<>
Ano hon wa takakatta hazu da.
i
I i
I i
I i
n
E 2
N
i
i
(I expect that book was expensive.)
(0) %7»*’~—- l~l1%nv\f.:l11"c1".,
(6) 1:0)?/<’—— l~&1€=nv\f.cli*J"6"l".
Sono apéro
apéto wa kireina hazu desu.
(I expect that apartment is clean.)
m a—»vva6m%%ifianuffi.
w w—wvvémm%%ifi¢nmffi.
Koruson-san wa mukashi sensei datta
Kéruson-san darta hazu da.
(I’m fairly sure that Ms. Carlson was a teacher before.)
(I'm
11. “S
“ S hazu ” expresses the speaker’s expectation, not in the sense of hoping
or looking forward to something, but in the sense that the proposition
expressed by S should be true or come true. Thus, when the speaker
uses hazu, he is not merely guessing, but stating a proposition based on
reliable information or knowledge. (=> dar6; rashii; s5da2;
s6da2; y5da)
y6da)
2. Hazu is a dependent noun and cannot be used alone. It is always
modified by a sentence or a demonstrative such as sono ‘that’ and
konna ‘like this’. “Demonstrative
“ Demonstrative hazu” is used when a proposition
is known to the hearer from the context, as in (1).
(1) Ar
AI -='~—*H>5léi*J‘v5~..
'<'-*fls5lEi‘§"7)*.,
Mose
Mésa mo kimasu ka.
(Is Martha coming, too?)
B: liw,
lit/\, %0)Ii?"c‘*J".
-t-0)l:-t?"C-<;~.,
Hai. sono hazu desu.
(Yes, I expect so.)
3. Negative expectations can be expressed in two ways:
(A) S (negative) hazu da
hazu / hodo 135
(2) 9a 9-7 min’-~7~ 4 —-l:firb>f.tL\li?'T:f<,

-7~—-a é /oli/4’--7* -l:i‘"'i2b>f.;l.\l1?’f;’°
Kuréku-san wa péti ni ikanai hazu da.
(Lit. I expect that Mr. Clark is not going to the party.
(=I don’t expect that Mr. Clark is going to the party.))
(B) S hazu wa / ga nai
m 95-9
(3) a§—¢é6ufi—a4—mfi<m?m/flaw.
é</./l:t/<’—--7-4-—l:fi'<l;1:=4’ld:/1JV.:v\,
Kuréku-san wa péti ni iku hazu wa / ga nai.
(Lit. I have no expectation that Mr. Clark is going to the party.
(=It is improbable that Mr. Clark_ will go to the party.))
i __.
The assertion in (3) is stronger than that in (2). i
1
Z
i
i
i
M
__.
E‘
Z
€—l
._
__.
1-n
1
3 =
i
=._._.:
z_.._.__._i
i__..i
i__..i
4. “ S hazu”
hazu ” can also be used(when the speaker has discovered the reason
for an event or a state. In this case, hazu means “ It is natural that
~.” or “ No wonder ~.” and can be paraphrased as “ S wake da.” (i=:>
(Q
wake da) Example:
(4) Fem/\|1*4‘r.:t. Citlififio
w %wuffi.:nuQfi.
Takai hazu da. Kore wa kin da.
(No wonder this is expensive. It’s gold.)
S. When “ S hazu ” modifies a noun, that is, when “ S hazu” is a relative
clause, no follows, as in (5). (=i>
(=> Relative Clause)
m mnénmmenufw$fi#%m%erwn.
mnénmmunmawifimmmnarwn.
Yamaguchi-san ni dashira
dashita hazu no regami
tegami ga yuka ni ochite /‘ta.
ita.
(I found the letter I thought I had sent to Mr. Yamaguchi on the
fioor.)
floor.)
hodo I15
lit’ P"-
a particle which indicates an extent to the extent of; to the extent
or a degree to which s.o. /s.t. does that ~; (not as) ~ as ~; about
s.t. or is in some state [REL. bakari; kurai]
v
.1 \/\/\/\/\/\/\/
136 hodo
QKey Sentences
§Key
M)
Topic (subject) Noun Predicate (negative)
H gt: vu/ n2
1 %<mw/%<&vien.0
%<tw/%<%Di%b
Watash:
Watashi gwa Ken hodo tsuyokunai / tsuyokuanmasen
rsuyokuarimasen.
I
(Lit I'm
(Lit. Im not strong to Kens
Ken's extent
extent. (=1 m not as strong as Ken
(=I’m ))
Ken.))
(M
A Topic (subject) Sentence (informal)’r
(informal) Predicate
co
@ &$
fi%I §m
u %%
¥fi <u.wxa oz
<w.mxa eéew/eéewvf
aa meow/réuwrm
' —+
Kono shigoto gwa
wa kodomo demo d6kI!’U
dekiru hodo yasashu
yasashii / yasashudesu
yasashi/‘desu.
. .0
E3 (Lit
5’(1(Lit.
- P‘
.0'
0
This job is easy to the extent
I.I
that even a child can do it
it. (=This
job
]0l) is so easy that even a child can do it.))it ))
TDa
1'Da after Adj(na) and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.
(i)N as
m2
hodo
fi I12 (as you)
kimi hodo
(ii) Demonstrative i1,l;’
I12
hodo
{-31 ;1,\;'
{-31, {if (to that extent)
sore hodo
(iii) Sinf I18
:13
hodo
gjz 7);
52 75‘; {£11115 11);’
|1£ (to the extent that houses would fall down)
ie ga taoreru hodo
M
&u%a£E<$naen.
@ &m£n£E<$nien.
Boku wa kimi hodo hayaku arukemasen.
(I can’t
can't walk as fast as you can.)
hodo 137
M
(b) 9=:71—&El<fl%T6$$nw&w,
27:: :1 7 7 -Ii E J: < @5'§'i"?a’iili lnttl/\,,
Jenifé hodo yoku benkyosuru
benkydsuru gakusei wa inai.
(There is no student who studies as hard as Jennifer.)
M
(0) finfiménmennzerxnoneenebawen.
iL&:.t@l5I:1 é /.,a‘§§>n|1 E l:°'7'/ zbivh‘ 5 J: li.%'.bf.crb>».>f;.,
Watashi wa Nishida-san ga are hodo piano ga hikeru to wa 0mowana-
omowana-
katta.
(I didn’t think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano that well (lit. to
that extent).)
»4z5mmH$%mxm%is%@Afi&idmamQnuEiicm.
w W4ZéhwB$%fiKE%ib%@Afiti5#K#ok&Ei$TT°
Ruisu-san no nihongo wa Gta-sensei
Ota-sensei mo gaikokujin da to kizukanakarra
kizukanakatta
hodo jdzudesu.
jozudesu. T
i
ii
Z-ii
i
in
1-n
‘ii
(Mr. Lewis’s
Lewis's Japanese is so good that even Prof. Ota didn’t notice he
was a foreigner.)
1. When hodo is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative, as

in KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b). The following sentences are ungrammatical.
(1) *5?!-Jijlqfilili E5’§v\<.
*?Liii<El§liE5'§v\.-,
*Watashi wa Taro hodo tsuyoi.
rsuyoi.
(I am as strong as Taro.)
(2) *7? |~r1'~?~—-ll/liEIl“6i> L75!/‘Z15’-—-‘7lif:<

*7‘? l~fi$-/I/liE1F5‘{> LZ5\/\7.ri?--‘7liT:'.< 3/oibéo
5/v$;?5<,
*Futt0bc5ru hodo omoshiroi supétsu
*Futtobo'ru supotsu wa takusan aru.
(There are many sports which are as interesting as football.)
If a sentence or a demonstrative modifies hodo, however, the predicate
of the main clause can be either affirmative
afiirmative or negative, as in KS(B),
Ex. (d) and (3).
(3) 'Z'0){:l:$li%1h.liER°é< l,v\/1/'C"§"7b>.,

%¢)(;l:$li%>h.liE*<°é Ll/\/o'C‘1"2b>.,
Sono shigoto
shigoro wa sore hodo yasashii n desu ka.
(Is that job that easy (lit. easy to that extent)?)
2. When hodo is used with a quantifier, it means ‘ about’. Example:
(4) l:"--11/’i'I-l-‘.?l§liEfi5'+iL7‘:<.
15*-ll/Eillili 5%-71~E L710
Biru o0 sanbon hodo nomimashita.
(I drank about three bottles of beer.)
Bakari and kurai also mean ‘ about

about’’ when they are used with a number and
a counter. The difference
difi'erence among the three is that bakari and hodo can be
138 hodo //ho"
ho ga ii
used with an exact number or amount of something, whereas kurai cannot,

as seen in [1].
[11 ‘E0 /-/1'5:-'1'-’Jl2l3fJ\U/liE/*<
7:0) 0 /U:&:‘Qiib\LJ 5u< ream.-.
I 1:8 / *< ~51.\< rs-aw.
futatsu bakari / hodo / *kurai kudasai.
Sono ringo o furatsu
(Please give me two of those apples.)
In the situation in [1] the speaker does not want about two apples but
exactly two apples, and, in this case, kurai cannot be used. It is a very
common practice in Japanese to avoid asking for exact numbers or amounts,
and the practice comes from the idea that being straightforward or direct is
impolite. This can be observed in many verbal and nonverbal expressions
' Z
_____==
ii
_.._i
_i in Japanese and also in the manners of the Japanese people.
h6 ga ii li52b<l.\l.\
ho |§;5;§<t\l.\ phr.
/\/\./\/\/'\./\/\./\ /'\/\/\./\/'\/'\/\ /'\/\./
It is strongly suggested that s.o. do had better do s.t.

s.t. [REL. tara d6 desu ka]
/\,\//'/\/\
-\_r\/\/\/\/\/\/V
Q Key Sentence
Vinf past
Vinf-past
/'\/'\I
/'/'\-/T '
E1111“ <7)
® IF741 2
*5: 2*
§~ ~\-: I19 793
Y5 I/‘I/‘/‘/‘"‘T'1"°
'/"/‘/'/‘\*‘T \nl..‘
Q
EUFEE §%’.A.T:'
E
0 I35 U5
O
Nihongo no hon 0o yonda ho ga 1/ii /iidesu.

/udesu '5.
(You d better read Japanese books)

(You'd ‘ UH
books.)
Vinf-past I1’) 713w!/\

I15 753 vw\
ho ga ii
ESL)‘;
331,7: :15
I35 73$ wn
153 vw\ (had better talk)
hanashita /16
hanashira g8
ho ga ii
Q/if;
fix)‘; i15
I315 251
293 wn
I/W\ (had better eat)
tabera /15
tabeta /16 98 '7
Q8 /7
ho ga ii 139
I39
¥f¥Fbfi*<T.:l1
§f§’ié'{>fi*<7;l1 5 rb‘ivw\.l:.,
rbiw/\J:.,
Yasai mo tabeta
rabeta ho ga ii yo.
(You'd
(You’d better eat vegetables, too.)
sfinonaémwwvxwo
) tananeamwwvrw.
kaetra ho ga iidesu ka.
Mo kaetta
(Had I better go home now?)
w%uso&%%2%%Lnu5#wwn.
W¥dL0&¥%E%%Lk&5#WWh°
Kazuko wa motto eigo 0o benkyoshita
benkyoshira ho ga ii ne.
-
(Kazuko had better study English harder.)

i in
_-
i
i
i -1|
i ‘Ii
i 1
i cI—|
i c-—|
——1 -—I
i -1|
EH2
W
——|_
Qi
1
i
-1|
—
-_
Vinf-past ho ga ii is an idiomatic expression of the comparative structure

and expresses a strong suggestion. (=> ~ h6 ga ~ yori)
(Q
The second person subject in declarative sentences and the first person
subject in interrogative sentences are usually omitted. (KS and Exs.
(a) and (b)) When the subject is the third person, it is not omitted
unless it can be clearly understood from the context. In this case,_the
speaker is telling the hearer what the speaker suggests for the third
person. (Ex. (c))
Vinf-nonpast can be substituted for Vinf-past, as in (1).
(I).
m H7l§%§®1l<E’%%t:li
(1) H$%@$2%tn5#ww. 5 rbin/~v\..
Nihongo no hon o yomu ho ga ii.
(You’d better read Japanese books.)
The meaning of Vinf-nonpast ho ga ii is almost the same as that of
Vinf-past ho ga ii if it is used in situations of suggestion. However,
Vinf-past ho ga ii may express a stronger suggestion than Vinf-nonpast
ho ga ii. For instance, in the following example, Vinf-past ho ga ii is
more appropriate.
m Rm.:or6fi%&¢¢re%5fin.enatomwt/Hm»
am.;@:an%2eQra%5fia.enmtwmwn/nmw
Z5 l1
6 I1 '3'3 ia1u\v\-11“.
n1vw\+f.,
Omae, konogoro mayaku o yatteru
yarteru so da na. Sonna mono ya-
meta/ ??yameru ho ga ii ze.
(I heard you are taking drugs these days. You’d better stop such
things, I tell you.)
4 “ Had better not do s.t.” is expressed by Vneg nai ho ga ii. Example:
140 ho ga ii / ~ho
~h6 ga ~yori
~yon'
m
(3) =—e—2&§tu&5#ww.
:1 ~—— I: ~—- ’i*fi§Ta'l'l.\l1 5 2b‘=‘~vw\,
Kohi o0 nomanai ho ga ii.
(You’d better not drink coffee.)
Note that the verb must be in the nonpast negative form in this expression.
The following is ungrammatical.
M)*=—e—2&§u#etm5#ww.
(4) *:1 ~—- I: -— 2fit§t;t'fa\-a fzli 5 n‘=1vw\.,
*Kohi 0o nomanakatta ho ga ii.
(You’d better not drink cofi'ee.)
coffee.)
~h6 ea ~y0ri ~11-31:<~.l:b

~|a5n<~..t0 Phr-
$ In comparing two entities, one is in ~ be more (Adj.) than ~; ~
i some state or does s.t. more than the do s.t. more (Adv.) than ~ do
other. [REL. yori]
'\’\/\/\' /\/\/\/\
QKey
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Nounl
—I1 N OUI12 Predicate
Efléh
Efiéh 0 mob;1
afin $1.
fl J:lb9 % w / % wc '5".
%w/%WTT.
Ishida-san no ho ga watashi
wa tashi yori wakai / wakaidesu.
(Mr. Ishida is younger than I am.)
$1. o
<0 ta
Ii’)5 niv?1 L EH3/V
_l;EEIé/v l'
J: )D J: < Q
J:< ~5
fifio‘ /a ~":1".
/fi*<i'a“..
Watashi no ho ga Ueda-san yori yoku taberu / tabemasu.
(I eat more than Ms. Ueda does.)
(B)
(E
Sentence;
_Sentence1
(int-orrnaln,
_Sentence2
Sentence2 -
Pl'edIC3Ie
(informal)1'
E -c~
fii<fi< :25 153
I35 7)? /<2
Hz '‘G
c* fi<
fi( to
4:0 in/fiver.
it»/fiv~'c-<4".
K uruma d
Kuruma 'k u
dee Iiku h'
o ga
ho basu
b dee Iiku
asu d 'k u yori'
yon yasui'// yasul
yasul yasuidesu.
'desu.
(Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.)
TDa
’rDa after Adj(na) and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.
~ho ga ~yori 141
~h6
W
M
KS(A):
N <0 Ii") 25$
0) I15 29$ N J:D
J; D
no ho ga yori
515513
95$ 0) Ii 5 753
<7) I1 hi $53
ii J: D
.1: (Teachers are more ~ than students.)
sensei no ho ga gakusei yori
KS(B):
(i)
( I ) {V/Adj
IV / Adj (i)}
(/)} inf
inf I35
I1 5 753;
753; {V/Adj
{V / Adj (i)}
(i)} inf-nonpast
inf-nonpast J;
J; DD
ho
/76 ga yori it-i
it-i
g-ii
it-i
i
i
-
i
i
__|_
i
i
i
i —1
—_|_ i
i i
i i
i i
i i
E51" /331,713} I1 55 753

7)‘3 (Talking
(Talking // Having
Having talked
talked is
is more
more ~);
~);
H 1-1
-1
I35?" /351,71} I3:

W
i i
j
i #1
—
i
i
i
i
{hanasu / hanashite}
hanashita} ho ga
llfl <( J; D
flfi (than hearing)
kiku yori
{fi'<>5
{fi~'*‘%’> /fiflfcl
/fi’<T:l I3;
I1 5 75'
713; (Eating / Having eaten is more ~);
{taberu/ tabeta} ho ga
SE25
E25 J: D (than sleeping)
neru yon’
yori
{Ev /3%-,";§=¢,7_;} Ii
{'|*"'.%.;"\¢\ /?é1"n>of;} I1 5 7)?
7)§ (Being/Having
(Being / Having been expensive is more ~);
{rakai/ takakatta} ho ga
{takail
fl/\
film J: 9 (than being cheap)
yasui yori
(ii)
(ii) Adj
Adi (na)
(/76) stem
Stem [ni/
{fail 7507:}
fiafcl I15
I15 f)3;
753; Adj (na) stem
Adj (na) stem 2*; J: I)I)
f; J;
{na/ datta} ho ga na yori
{fih~>’.£
{€iHb= it /fin»
/ fi*7)= 7‘.:'o
Tia 7:}Tc} Ii 5 #3
I1 7)? (Being / Having been quiet is more
{shizukana/ shizukadatta} ho ga ~);
gum»
5'2ILb\ 2*;
2'; J; D (than being pretty)
kirei na yori
(iii) N In
Iv $5/fiafcl
$6/fiofcl I25
as 1:1;
#1; N '0 he xv
1» ms .1:v
{de aru
lde aru]/ datta]
datta} ho ga de aru yori
liiiéli
{iii I‘
‘F 29223/5’f;£l5_
F'>Z>/5lE:£l?. 7‘.:'o7‘:} I35
I15 75?
753 (Being / Having been a
{sensei de aru /sensei datta} ho ga teacher is more ~);
$53 ‘G
'6' 2525
5)?) J;
.1: D (than being a student)
gakusei de aru yori
142 ~h6 ga ~yori
~ho ~yon'
m
M
o :onx5on5%&@ax5:vfi%v+.
:@wx5om5m&@nx5;9fi%v+.
yon’ sukidesu.
Kono kamera no ho ga ano kamera yori
(I like this camera better than that camera.)
v=7@n5nn;v&<fina.
§I7@&5fifl;DE<£n5°
Jefu no ho ga watashi yori hayaku hashireru.
hash/reru.
(Jeff can run faster than I can.)
>FL2b‘i%‘£';-I1 5 nifiniéfirrl
iFL7§3§fi'i'Ii nifiniéfiml D 11*!/\’(‘
vwvc L .1.1: 5 0O
M
Warashi ga hanasu ho ga kimi ga hanasu yon‘
Watashi yori ii desho.
5
E
_E
-
5
=
Z:
__
Z
__—-
i
(It’s probably better for me to talk than for you to talk.)
=
g_
==ii -
i
=_
__
tean.%w&5#%wxv5newv+.
W
_i..____
1. ea/V. it/\t1 5 :t‘=1'%v~.1: 9 5 nt,t~'c=--9“.
Mochiron, yasui ho ga rakai
takai yori ureshiidesu.
(Of course, I’m
I'm happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.)
¥fltIi7T:i>‘.cI& 5 n§%5n>f.c
¥Iii=.I:.ti5‘§"i\>’.cIi >b§%‘%>§>>‘.r .1:
J: D %E.~f:E<.
%E.~f;'..
Kodomo wa genkina ho ga shizukana yori anshinda.
(Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than
when they are quiet.)
flfi#T%%&5#%T%5l9¥LwtE5°
fln#v&e&5#%v&a19%Lw&%5.
Warashi
Watashi wa onna de aru ho ga otoko de aru yori
yon‘ ranoshii
tanoshii to omou.
(I think it’s more enjoyable to be a woman than to be a man.)
1. In Japanese there are no comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs.

The idea of comparison is expressed by the “X no ho ga Y yori”
pattern. Y yori may be omitted if it is clear from the context or the
situation. Example:
(1) A: l~i=~<‘:~‘/"st
AI l~.b.¢‘:~‘/"a 2/2: E*>6r>§5‘fiv\'c=1“r)>.
‘/<‘: E*>1a:t§€§t\'c='M>.,
Tomu to Jon to dochira ga rsuyoidesu
tsuyoidesu ka.
(Who is stronger, Tom or John?)
B=+Ao&5nH§3v:9)%wT+.
B:tA@n5a%§3v;vNfiwc¢.
Tomu no ho ga (Jon yon’)
yori) rsuyoidesu.
tsuyoidesu.
(Tom is stronger (than John).)
In the “ S1 ho ga S2 yori” pattern (KS(B)), S1 can be either nonpast or
past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of S; S1 and
the main clause. There are two cases in which S; is past. First, S1 S;
can be past when the whole sentence is about a present or future action
or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. Example:
~h6
~ho ga ~yori
-yon’ 143
(2) iF.L7)§§Z'L1':IZ£ 7)§E'2b§§fi'TJ: 9 vwvc

ttaiéi LT:Ii 5 aifiaizaa-1 .t 5 O
I/W\'C" L J:
Watashi ga hanashite ho ga kimi ga hanasu yori ii desho.
(It would probably be better if I talk rather than if you talk.)
S1 can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state.
In this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example:
Hzfiiii LT: I1 5 2b'iErb‘iE%'§"J:
(3) $Lz‘:§§Z" 7)3E7)3§fi'§'J: 9D .l:2b><>T.:.,
J:7)>~>7‘:.,
Warashi
Watashi ga hanashita
hanashite ho ga kimi ga hanasu yori yokatta.
(It would have been better if I had talked rather than you.)
3. Y yori can precede X (no) /76
ho ga, as in (4). mum
1i—u-Ii
ii-in-_
-
ii-iii
_ i
_ i
_ i
_ i
_ i
m aoax5:v;owx5oa5#fiae+.
&0wx5:9:mfix5o&5#fi%v+.
in
,-i i
i
_ i
_ i
__i i
__1 i
i
W
—
1
i
— in
-
ii
ii
it
Ano kamera yori kono kamera no ho ga sukidesu.

.
(I like this camera better than that camera.)

4. X no ho is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an
indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than
the subject, the “Y yori
yon’ X no ho (0, ni, etc.)”
etc.) ” order is preferable.
Examples:
W L fluE—w1Dfion5&x<&n.
flmE—w;9fio&52;<&n,
Warashi wa biru yon‘
Watashi yori sake no ho o yoku nomu.
(I drink sake more than beer.)
h
5- $$uMw%§xv*H%io&5n:<E%Kfi<.
"—ii‘iI:1JllB'5l5'EiJ: 9 7l<i"I'5lEE0)Ii 5 ICJ: < §E=-‘iIl'-fi"< O
Gakusei wa Kawada-sensei yon’
yori Kimura-sensei no ho ni yoku
shirsumon ni iku.
shitsumon
(Students go to Prof. Kimura to ask questions more often
than to Prof. Kawada.)
The idea of comparison can be expressed by the “ X wa Y yori” pattern, too.

(=5
(Eb yori)
yon’) However, when this pattern is used, X must have already been
established as a topic. Thus, in a context like [1], the “ X wa Y yori” pat-
tern cannot be used.
U1A=taevava2ae#%we+m.
M A=bA&§av&EB5fi%wfiT#.
Tomu to Jon to dochira ga tsuyoidesu ka.
(Who is stronger, Tom or John?)
B 1: I~A0)li5:b<
|~z.0>Ii-31$ / * I~AIi(~=/“
I~.L\li(~‘/' 3 ~/.t 9)5'§wc~1-.,
‘/J: 9)5'av\'c=1".,
Tomu no ho
h6 gal
ga / *Tomu we
wa (Jon yori) tsuyoidesu.
(Tom is stronger (than John).)
14-4
144 ~hd ga ~yori/hoshi/'1
~ho ~yori / hoshii‘
On the other hand, in a context like [2], the “ X wa Y yori” pattern is pref-
erable, because X has already been established in the previous sentence.
m
[2] iauertfiwvfofin/nfi®E5#§av:9%wvT.
|~ .L».I?l 2: ‘C *I>5fit\'c=-1'. filztl ??fi0>|i5ib<~‘/“ 3 ‘/J: 9 éfiwcin.
Tomu wa totemo tsuyoidesu. Kare we / ??Kare no h6
ho ga Jon yori
yon
rsu yoidesu.
tsuyoidesu.
(Tom is very strong. He is stronger than John.)
L13
iii
L
L
iii
- i
-_1
. 1-
' i
. —
-. j.-
X
.. —
—
X
p —
.. W
j.-
hoshii‘ Ii Ll»
- —
iii
iii
-ii
it
LIA
s’/\'\'\/\/:'\/\/~/\/./~/\/\’~’/\/\/\/\/\/\/\'\/‘/\'\r
$'/\’\/\/'\-/':"’“‘/“/‘/L/"/*/*"’/\/\/\/\1’\/\/\'\/‘/“-'\' '*"\/\/\/
'*'\/\/\/é
; S.t. is
IS desired by the speaker. , want (s.t.)
f
L
-~. \ //\/ »\/\,\/\/\/\/V
I\I\r-./\./\/\/\/
"’“' M '’ ’' ‘“"'""’i

"AN ‘“""’“( [REL. tai]
Q§Key
Key Sentences
(M
Topic (experiencer) Desired Object
$1. I1 i
+E+
. rbi I11.»/\/I1I,v\'C"§‘.,
I3: LIN I I1 LI/\'C
Watashi wa kuruma ga 5".
hoshii / hoshndesu
/7OS/7II/ hoshiidesu.
car)
(I want a car.)
E
(B).3
Topic (experiencer)
. Q_ Desired Object
e8*
..i, Ii QFEE o0) Bfii a Iil.,7)§o'CI/‘Zn/I/‘i'T°
iabrbwr v\%.'>/t 9-it
Ototo
' “'wa
S It“’ boku no jitensha§
/irensha eoQa hoshigatte
hoshtgatre ;+»
iru// imasu.
IfU imasu
(My little brother wants my bike)
bike.) iii.
' ‘8
ea
@
(8) nnH$A@§§#mew.
flu H1l§)W>7ii£n‘=1i& LI/M.
Wa tashi wa nihonjin no tomodachi ga hoshii.
Watashi
(I want a Japanese friend.)
(b) §>?.tT:Ii'9,*fiI2b'iI1Lv\'C"§'n>.,
29>f.cf:t:t»9,~{iI2b§IiLv\'c-fr)».
Anata wa ima nani ga hoshiidesu ka.
(What do you want now?)
hoshii‘ 145
(0) »<'.L.t12-7
/4’-L-I:I7<-'2‘ vzl-2I1Lr>¥¢'Cv~Z>.,
I/2I"5:Ii I..2b§o'Cv\Z>.,
Pemu wa
Pamu we sutereo o hoshigatte
hoshigerte iru.
(Pam wants a stereo.)
1. The i-type adjective hoshii expresses a person’s desire for some object.
Like other stative transitive adjectives, hoshii takes the we-ge
wa-ga con-
struction, where the experiencer is marked by we wa and the desired
object by ga. (In subordinate clauses the experiencer is also marked
ga.)
by ge.) (Eb ~ we ~ ge)
(=:> ga) —
_
in
_
_
—
_
_
1
Z
I
i
—-I
I
ii I
— i
_ I
W 1-
?-. 1
__—. I
ii
2. Since hoshii expresses a very personal feeling, the experiencer is usually

iii
iii
Z-ii
i—
the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in inter-
rogative sentences, as in KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b). The third person’s
desire is usually expressed by hoshigatte iru ‘ Lit. be showing the sign
of wanting (s.t.)’, as in KS(B) and Ex. (c). (:>
(=5 geru)
garu) It is noted that
when hoshigatte iru is used, the desired object is marked by o.
3. It is, however, acceptable to use hoshii in connection with the third

person experiencer in the following situations:
(1) In the past tense

%—— ‘J 2t:1vw\x-'i- 1/71-white Lib\-:7‘.-:0
%—U2mwwx5v¢#&L#ot°
Morisu we
wa ii sutereo ge hoshikette.
ga hoshikatta.
(Maurice wanted a good stereo set.)
(2) In indirect /semi-direct speech
3- if
7‘/i 2 4
/f ‘BI1 LI/‘I:'§-.“o'CI.\35<,
’i>l1l/I/‘f:',"—?'a'Cl'\Z>°
Joi mo hoshii to itte iru.
(Joy says she wants it, too.)
b. >I‘7<7J~—‘l>I1LI/‘{"5T:'°
7I‘7<7J'-‘islil./I/“'E"5I'.‘§o
Osuké mo hoshii s6de. soda.
(I heard that Oscar wants it, too.)
(3) In explanatory situations

/if §Ii/I
5I:I/f "V
'\’ ‘JU ‘/7'7b§I1
‘/9'7)3I1 I.,I/\A1'C"§'°
LI/\Ai'C"§"°
Pemere wa
Pamera we iyaringu ga hoshii n desu.
((The explanation is that) Pamela wants a pair of earrings.)
(=>
(Q no de)
da)
14-6
146 hoshii‘ / hoshi/'2
(4) In conjecture expressions

a
a. 75vvzn5c%%#&LwBLu.
7 5 ‘/~=/xii 5 'c%'%'+2b§ii Li/~15 l,I.\.,
Furanshisu wa
we udedokei ge
ga hoshii reshii.
rashii.
(It seems that Francis wants a wrist watch.)
b.
b- :1 -'=—I:t}Uf97b§Ii
=1 r-"-~—I:.t)UI2r)§I1 1,v\J:
Li/~J: 5-'3 15,
ti.
Koni wa
we ningyo ge
ga hoshii yoda.
y6de.
(It appears that Connie wants a doll.)
_
up
- W
W
- *-
-
i X
L-__
-uii.
it
hoshii’ [,=1[_,(,\
hoshii” [1 [_,(,\ aux. adj. (i)
\ \/ \:\#\¢%’-v-;¥\; \n_/\Q/
want s.o. (who is not higher in status want (s.o.) to do (s.t.)

than the speaker) to do s.t. [REL. moreitei;
moraitai; tei]
tai]
"\/\r\
"'\./\'\. \./\./\/\,
\./\/\/\..-
¢Key
Q Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) Indirect Object Vte
$1. _E ii
Ii a 1*fat’;
Eb sf.cr , II’:1- n= E
ates
%Z§ 2 #5!
flit it I1I.,v\/lib!/\'C"§‘.,
I1 Lin! ta i,we—;-.
Wereshi
Watashi we
wa enete
anata ni eigo o oshiete hoshii]
hoshii/ hoshiidesu.
hoshiidesu
(I want you to teach me English.)
Vte Ii LI/\
I1Lv\
hoshii
f';§l/C
tii§I.,’C 1_,v\
I1 Ll/\ (want (s.o.) to talk)
hanashite hoshii
Q/<1 I1 [,u\
Q/<'C 1,!/\ (want (s.o.) to eat)
tabete hoshii
e flu¥%Enfl&—%KEmv&Lw.
@ flu¥fiEmfl&—%mEncncw.
Wereshi we kodomotechi
Watashi wa kodomorachi ni watashi
wereshi to isshoni sunde hoshii.
(I want my children to live together with me.)
hoshii’ 147
hoshii”
(b) Zb?‘.t:7‘:Ii7‘.:'fLI¢'.§IE'CIiI,Ir\'C"§‘7b>..
$;Y'.tT:Iif.fi’l.I:‘.§lE‘CIiI.,l/\'C"§'7)>.,
Anata we
Anete wa dare ni kite hoshiidesu ke. ka.
(Who do you want to come?)
1. Hoshii is used as an auxiliary with Vte to mean ‘ want (s.o.) to do (s.t.) ’.

When the experiencer wants a person X to do something, X is marked
by ni. Hoshii is not used if X has a higher status than the experiencer.
Thus, the following sentence is not appropriate when the speaker is a
student of Prof. Yoshida’s. (See Related Expression, [2] for the correct -
-
-
-
—
sentence in that situation.)

_ i
— i
EH5
in
—
j
i
-
i
Inifiuemfiinkrnbw.
m fln€H%$K%r&Lw.
-
~
ii.-ima
Watashi
Weteshi wa
we Yoshida-sensei ni kite hoshii.
(I want Prof. Yoshida to come.)
2. When Vte hoshii is used, the experiencer is usually the first person in
declarative sentences (KS, Ex. (a)) and the second person in interrogative
sentences (Ex. (b)). If the experiencer is the third person, Vte moreite-
moraita-
gette iru ‘(lit.) be showing the sign of wanting to receive the favor
gatte
of doing s.t. from s.o.’ is used, as in (2). (Q moreuz;
morau”; tei;
tai; geru)
garu)
I2) 7§"A2 5/M175 ‘/='/:<I.:r_e>{:I:$=& I/C I, 6v\r::b1°-¢'tv~%.'>.,
M 79Azébu75vvxm:®&§2LT$ewtfierwéo
Adamusu-san
Ademusu-sen wa
we Furanshisu
Furenshisu ni kono shigoto o shite moreite-
moraita-
gette iru.
gatte
(Mr. Adams wants Francis to do this job.)
Ex pression]
The same idea can also be expressed by Vte moreitei.

moraitai. (Q
(wt moreuz;
morau”; tei)
tai) Ex-
ample:
W flHhHkK§%&fizrs6wtw.
M naaanufieefizrtewnw.
Watashi
Weteshi we
wa enete
anata ni eigo o oshiete moraitai.
moreitei.
(I want you to teach me English.)
This pattern can be used when the experiencer wants someone who has
higher status to do something. In this case, itedeku,
itadaku, the humble version of
morau, is used instead of morau.
moreu. Example:
M flm%H%iu%rwnfi%kw.
flu€E%$m%rwkfi%kw.
Weteshi we
Watashi wa Yoshide-sensei itedekitei.
Yoshida-sensei ni kite itadakitai.
(I would like Prof. Yoshida to come.)
ichiben
148 ichiban
ichiban
ichiben —§ adv-
-'*'\/'\/\./'\./\/\./\/\/\/-/~. A»
—'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ /\/ /\/'\/\/'\./\/\./\/'\./\_/\/'\_/'\
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ \ I‘\./‘-./\
A/\/\ I\./'\/\./'\/
'\/\/\/\/
g a superlative marker jg most
Q Key Sentence
O
Noun
ii Subject Adjective
aaa
751 <(</>41)
0 41> -c
‘Ct knléh
kills/V »=a= a
-a<
— a
Eas as' rm,.
mvw\
Kuresu
Kurasu neke) de
(no naka) Okewe-sen
Okawa-san ge
ga ichiben
ichiban eteme ge
atama ga ii.
(Mr. Okawa is the brightest in the class.)
ii
W
i *-
i *-
1
__.
__
—
__.
__.
1
__.
_—.
i“
___
__@
in
*-
in
‘
in
‘
in
((i) —-%
i ) —§ Adj
Adj (i(1/na)
/ na)
__.
__. i-
‘
i —
M
ichiban
-K
it-X
Q
ichiben
—e
—-§ {féiln /gr)»->11}
{;é;v\ /E2b>o7‘.:} (s.t. is / was the highest)
ichiben {tekeil takakatta}
ichiban {takail tekekette}
-a
—-§ {fimra
{§’%7§>i.:' / §%2b>f;f<> Tc}
/g”¥r2b»f;'->72] (s.t. is / was the most quiet)
ichiben {shizukede / shizukadatta}
ichiban {shizukada shizukedette}
NU
(ii) —-§ {Adj (i) stem < /Adj (na) stem Ic}
I11}
ichiben
ichiban ku ni
—-§ '|‘é,"<<
7;; (most highly)
ichiben takaku
ichiban tekeku
—e
—-§ %h>IC‘.
fi7)>IC (most quietly)
ichiben shizukani
ichiban shizukeni
M
@ A::o¢vEo%E#—§ntLawc+#.
A=:o¢cEomE#—fiBbLawc+w.
neke de dono eige
Kono naka ge ichiban
eiga ga ichiben omoshiroidesu ke.
ka.
(Among these, which movie is the most interesting?)
B::0B$®%ETLx5°
B : :oH$omEcc;5.
Kono Nihon no eiga desho.
(This Japanese movie, I guess.)
M A=1a:2I=é.<
(b) A:mfienammsnaemenowemuwheflx<mflwww»
/v !:i‘I1‘J.IB as /v atama /.,</>sI='c', r.-::w=—§(.1: <)ttI§Ex~r»>.
Matsumoto-sen to /keda-san
Matsumoto-san Ikeda-sen to Shimizu-sen neke de,
Shimizu-san no naka de. dare
dere ge
ga
ichiben (yoku) dekimesu
ichiban ke.
dekimasu ka.
(Among Mr. Matsumoto, Mr. Ikeda and Mr. Shimizu, who is the
best student (lit. can do best)?)
ichiban / iku‘
ichiben 149
B=mmsav+.
Brflméwer.
Ikeda-sen desu.
/keda-san
(Mr. Ikeda is.)
M H$v—%%nwamm2:v+m.
H$c—%enwefiuE:c¢m.
ichiban kireine
Nihon de ichiben kireina tokoro we
wa doko desu ke.
ka.
(Lit. Where is the most scenic place in Japan? (=Which place is the
most scenic in Japan?))
ichiban
/chiben cannot be affixed directly to a noun as in *ichiben
*ichiban sensei, meaning
‘the best teacher’. It should precede an adjective, as in ichiben
ichiban ii sensei.
If the meaning is predictable, however, the adverbial form of adjectives,
esp. yoku ‘ well, frequently’, may be omitted, as in Ex. (b). 5
i
W
iku‘ fi(
il(U’ fi'( v. (GK
(Gr. 1)
) g\ S
))§
S.o. or s.t. moves in a direction away gE go; come

from the speaker or the speaker’s 1 [REL. kuru‘)
1
/\/~/ \_/\ /\ /\-
viewpoint.
view P oint.
/\./‘M\/\/“
./\./\ /\-P
/'\/\./\/\/\/\/\./'s./ /
1 I\/\/'\
A/\A
(
/ I\/\'\/\/\r
/\/\'\/\/\4
§Key Sentences
QKey
(M
M)
Topic (subject) - Noun (direction)
(direction)
mesa
E “P an trm as
ate 721')?!
7 )<J7J
I '\/I;
~/we fi<
tt< /near.
“ /tweet.
“
Teneke-sen
Tanaka-san we
wa reishii
raishti Amerike
Amerika e /ni iku /ikimasu.
(Mr. Tanaka is going to America next week.)
150 iku‘
(B)
- - N N N
Top“: (sub-lea) (location) (location) (means)
$1. §I1
Ii fiiii
$335.1 #6
h=F> fltllii
ifii ET:
if /<2 fivicl
'6' fioicl
Weteshi
Watashi we
wa T6ky6
Tokyo kere
kara Gseke mede
Gsaka made besu
basu de itte/
ittal
5_ fi%iLk°
ikimashita..
ikimeshite
(I went from Tokyo to Osaka by bus.)
M
W
1-iiiit
iii
—
— in
‘
ifkiiififi/\Bi-'"i=Ic:€=‘Ij:Ic:fi < O..
(a) $LIi4’.r?=EJl/\Bi-";I:§%¥j;I:1"r
- T-'
—
—
3
=
-
—
an
—
—
‘
ii
"-
W‘
1
—
—
i-
_
Weteshi we
Watashi wa meiese
maiasa hechiji
hachiji ni keishe
kaisha ni iku.
iii-H
ii
(I go to work (lit. my company) at eight every morning.)
A %%fl®5bcfi—¥4—&LiTfi%iuh#.
M A=%mflo5ev»—+4—2Lx+#%aenw.
watashi no uchi de peti
Konban weteshi poo‘ o shimasu ge
ga kimesen
kimasen ke.
ka.
(We are going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn’t you
like to come?)
B:
Bi Iiln, fi"=é'i'j',,
Ilil/‘r Ti.-~%_i-to
Hei, ikimasu.
Hai,
I’ll come (lit. go).)
(Yes, I'll
M nanmteoneenfiextnm.
b&kKb%@fl5tnfi%iLk#°
Anete ni mo sono shirese
Anata shirase we
wa ikimeshite
ikimashita ke.
ka.
(Lit. Did the notice go to you, too? (=Did you get the notice, too?))
m
(d) eofimtflxufiorwa.
%0'>HICI,1<7<Iii"'f'>'Cv\Z>°
Sono mura
mure ni mo besu
basu we
wa itte iru.
(The bus goes to the village, too.)
Notes
1. /ku'
iku‘ is used when someone or something moves in a direction away from
the speaker or in a direction away from the speaker’s viewpoint, which
is not necessarily the speaker’s position. (Q kuru‘) For example, in
the following situation, iku is used when the speaker (point C) places
his viewpoint near point A.
(1) X
(1) X ISA/Ii
3/on B Ilfiofz.
Icfiore. B
B
X-sen wa
X-san we B ni itte.
itta.
(Mr. Xx went
(Mr. to B.)
went to B.) Mr. X%
Mr. xi /
/ c
C
A)
A1>
iku‘ // iku’
iku‘ iku’ 151
151
2. When someone goes to his own “ home base ” (e.g., uchi ‘ home ’), uchi
ni iku is ungrammatical. In this case, kaeru
keeru ‘return’ is used as in
uchi ni keeru
kaeru ‘ go home ’.
There are cases where both kuru and iku can be used with different shades
of meaning. Examples:
M
(2) EW5bKE¥%¥itAcLt/fiéifihcbtms
EV) 5 B ICE.-?‘7)§5l€i't!'A.'C‘ LT: / ‘Ff? EEAIC‘ l/T:7)‘<>
Kimi no uchi ni musuko ga kimasendeshita / ikimasendeshita
ge kimesendeshite ikimesendeshite
ke.
ka.
(Didn’t my son go to your house?)
(Didn't
(3) [The speaker lives in San Francisco and is calling his friend in
New York who is coming to Los Angeles.] M
zi2é&u%Hnz7v§;wxm¥%/fi<%5c+h.
xizébu%fiwz7v§=w2K¥6/fi<%5v+h. 1
E :
Sumisu-sen wa
Sumisu-san we raigetsu
reigetsu Rosuanjerusu ni kuru / iku sodesu ne. Q
(Mr. Smith, I was told that you’re coming to Los Angeles next
month.)
In (2), when the speaker uses kuru, he is putting himself psychologi-
cally in the addressee’s location; when he uses iku, he is not. In (3),
kuru is more appropriate than iku because, in general, a speaker is
more empathetic with a location close to his own. The choice of iku
here definitely implies that the speaker is unusually unempathetic with
his neighboring location.
ikui
ikuz fi-(
fi( aux. v. (Gr. 1)
Some action or state keeps chang- go on ~ing; continue; grow;

ing from the point in time at which become
the speaker first describes the action. [REL. kuru”)
kuru’)
\_r\/\
\/\/\ \/\."\
\/\./'*
152 iku’
QKey
§Key Sentence
—‘—
Vte
:nnw>u
:nn%>m %< net
U¢T fi</fi%a+.n
fi</fi%iT.L
kere wa
Kore kara we semuku
samuku natte iku //ikimasu
ikimasu yo.
(It will get colder (and continue to be that way) from now on.)
Formation
fi<
Vte fi"<
iku
331,1‘
331,1 fi'-<
fi( (s.o. continues to talk)
hanashite iku
_.
gaf f{T<
Q/<1 fi"< (s.o. continues to eat)
tabete iku
@
M :nmsufiH$2—%%ncfi<otvc+.
:nm6ufiH$&—%%mcfi<ot9c+.
kere wa
Kore kara we mainichi
meinichi hon o issatsu
issetsu yonde iku tsumori desu.
(I intend to keep reading one book a day from now on.)
M :nmeu%#<a¢rfi%i+;.
:nmea%m<aerfiei+;.
kere wa
Kore kara we atatakaku
etetekeku natte
nette ikimasu yo.
(It will grow warmer (and continue in that way) from now on.)
%o@meH$o&%a%<aerfiek.
M %®@#8B$®E%H%<HoTfioka
kere Nihon no keizai
Sono koro kara keizei wa
we tsuyoku natte itta.
itte.
(The Japanese economy grew stronger (and continued to grow that way)
from that time on.)
w
(d) amaawcee/—rm%wrfi¢k.
§)n>61Zcv\;: .1: 2/ ~— l~ I:.gi/"Cfi->t‘:..,
Wekerenei koto o noto ni kaite
Wakaranai keite itte.
itta.
(I went on taking notes on things I didn’t understand.)
1. The point in time at which the action starts is the present time in
Exs. (a) and (b) and the past in Exs. (c) and (d), respectively.
2. The following examples use iku as a full verb meaning ‘to go
go’,’, and
are not the usage of iku”.
iku’.
M EH4.-<*ii:l:/<2
(1) fiH%&mAxm%¢Tfi<.IC%o'Ci“?< ..
Meinichi kaisha
Mainichi keishe ni basu
besu ni notte iku.
iku” / iru‘ 153
(Lit. I ride a bus every day and go to my company. (=I go to
work every day by bus.))
m b0vxt5vc:—e—&flbTfi%iLr5.
M &®v2b5vc=—t—2&hcfi%iLx5s
resutoren de kohi o nonde ikimesho.
Ano resutoran ikimasho.
(Lit. Let’s drink coffee at that restaurant and go. (=Let’s drink
coffee at that restaurant and then continue on our way.))
When a change of state is expressed by iku2,

ikuz, as in Exs. (b) and (c), iku” can
be replaced by kuru”,
kuru’, as in [la] and [lb] below.
M
[1] m
8. :nm&u§#<&QT%iTl.
;’.'.1I"w0>l’oIi%h><7’.co'('5lEi'I‘..)I.,
kere wa
Kore kara we etetekeku
atatakaku nette
natte kimesu
kimasu yo. ii
Ni
‘ii
1-; -
(It will grow warmer from now on.)

i .
1-; -
i I
-1-an :
1;
_-1 I
-1—|n I
_-Q at
_-1 I
i q
1-; -
_i_
1-;
Ni
-
b
b- %®fim6H$0&%d%<&oT%t°
%@@75*F> El7lW3'&%§Ii5'§ < >2: o'C5i€7~’-O
Ni
Kimi
kere Nihon no keizai

Sono koro kara keizei wa
we tsuyoku natte kite.
kita.
(The Japanese economy grew stronger from that time on.)
The iku’ versions here are more impersonal and objective than the kuru’ ver-
sions. The latter versions stress that some change is going to involve or has
involved the speaker himself, while the former versions are impersonal state-
ments.
irul (A5
U5 v.
'0. (Gr. 2)
v&\\
\J\J\w\a
%g An animate thing exists. é be; exist; stay

"""""""W """'W""‘
MANN” """'WW‘M""""""
“WV“M AMNWWWNVW‘ [REL. eru‘)
aru‘)
oKey Sentences
QKey
M)
Topic (location) Subject Quantifier
:0
;:a> my
wt §(m)n
(I21) :1 axi §a=733
EIIIKJK n<sa
re-.<.-5/V we/wit
Ir‘Za/I/‘B5'i"°
Kono machi we
(ni) wa nihon/"in
nihonjin ge
ga tekusen
takusan iru / imesu.
iru/imasu.
(Lit. In this town are many Japanese. (=There are many Japanese in
this town.))
154 iru
iru‘I
(B)
/'\ \-/
Topic (subJ ect)

(subject) Noun (location)
w
u-
u— Ii co sir
5-B_ I: we/t~a<;—
r\z./we-r,
Ri
Hi we
wa kono ryo ni
E. I!'U
iru// I!T78$U
imasu.
(Lee is in this dorm.)
dorm)
W
M 11: ¢>§i14h@I:l1»<’
(*1) ®5)i45i@i:.i;.t,< ~/aw‘-‘=v~i*J".
~/#a=~~s~r.
Kono dobutsuen ni wa
we panda ge imesu.
ga imasu.
(There are pandas in this zoo.)
(b) X‘)-~—7'liI/\in 1:“/07'/4’-— lI~~ I¢.’.v\Z>..
7~‘i-—7'I:.*l/‘iii 1:“:/or/4’-— I:v\z>,,
1;
i.
i.
ii
i
it
ii
it
Q
i.
i
i
Suchibu wewa ima Robin no epeto

apoto ni iru.
i
i
L-_
mi
(Steve is in Robin’s apartment now.)
11.. /ru‘
/rul expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for
plant life or inanimate things. Thus, the following sentence is ungram-
matical.
*;:e>it— —v~v *//<’xI:I17I<>b§2‘.:

(1) *:a># ‘//*’7~I:.i17I<rb§2‘i: < :55/vL\%>.
/ano.
kyenpesu ni wa
*Kono kyanpasu we ki ga
ge takusan
tekusen iru.
(There are many trees on this campus.)
For plants and inanimate things, aru is used. eru‘)
(Q aru‘)
2. Two sentence patterns can be used with iru‘. In the KS(A) pattern,
a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus.
In this pattern the location marker ni can optionally drop. In the KS(B)
pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and
where it exists is under focus. (Q aru‘,
eru‘, Note 3)
3. An animate thing or a group or organization of animate things such as
a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2).
afootball
fl.(i:.)ti%Ii'en§E-‘.)\v\Zs.
(2) a. %L(I::)I1¥I;tz:§3Av\5.,
Weteshi (ni) wa
Watashi we kodomo ge
ga sannin iru.
(Lit. There are three children with me. (=I have three
children.))
b.
bi C. 03%-—l=.
Z 0)‘!-'-1* (I81)
(I1) I;II\rW\9
I11/‘I/)9 ?I'~—
7l'~—96' -—/f
-1‘ ‘7
'2 9 7);!/\Z>.,
waive.
Kono chimu (ni) wa we ii kuotabakku
kuotebekku ge ga iru.
l!'U’
iru‘ I/ I!'U2
iru’ 155
(Lit. There is a good quarterback in this team

(Lit team. (=This team
has a good quarterback ))
quarterback.))
||'u2 I,\5
iru? U5 aux '0 (Gr
aux. v. (Gr. 2)
S o or s.t.
§ S.o. s t is doing ss.t.
t he or it started bbe ~ing
~ing; have done (s t)
(s.t.)
(
some time ago, or is in a state created [REL
[RE L. eru?)
aru?) ii
ii
¢
é by an action he or it took some time i

i
i
i
1
1
1
i
-_-it-
aago.
o \.4\./\
\_;\, '\/\'\/‘~ gim-
gim-
&A/VV \,"\;\,_,
-vx,
\,\/\ .-\./~\/\/~
OKey
0 Key Senten
Sentence
TOPIC <s"b1@“> -—
Topic (subject) Vte
Ii/=vI<e<i.,
/11 BS £1 /V Ii in 2E
IE fix/we
fiha we/wast.
II \70 / I1
Sasaki-sen
Sasaki-san we
wa sake o nonde I II'U/ IIT76SU
iru/imasu.
(Mr Sasaki is drinking sake.)
(Mr. sake)
Vte I/\Z>
iruu
=§1,"c
361,1 we
oz, (be talking)
hanashite /ru
iru
1';/\*'C
1%/\'C' I/‘Z;
I/\Z> (be eating)
tabete iru
H'U
M
@ fiflnnmzfincwa.
$l12flIIi%‘?fi=Fi"i'%/o'Cv\z>
Kezue wa
Kazue we shinbun o yonde I!'U
iru.
(Kazue is reading a newspaper.)
newspaper)
M
b :o9m:u<é¢rw5.
(1)0/o"'Ii<é=->'Cv\%»
nngo wa
Kono ringo we kusatte
kusette iru.
I!'U
(This apple is rotten)
rotten.)
156 iru’
(C) 7I<>b'iI§Iltt'Cv\5.
I/‘5o
Ki ge
ga teorere
taorete iru.
(A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).)
fianfienenarwaro
W flmfifiéneflarwir.
Weteshi
Watashi we
wa Suzuki-sen
Suzuki-san o shitte imesu.
imasu.
(I know Miss Suzuki.)
1. /ru
lru is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte and expresses the continua-
tion of an action or state. In general, if Vte expresses an action which
can continue or be repeated, Vte iru expresses the continuation of the
action. If Vte is a verb indicating a momentary action which cannot
be repeated, Vte iru expresses the idea that something happened to X
and X maintains the state which was created by that event. KS and
Ex. (a) are examples of the first usage and Exs. (b), (c) and (d) are ex-
amples of the second usage. Note in Ex. (d) that shiru, the dictionary
form of shitte, means ‘to get to know’ and shitte iru expresses the
continuation of the state after the speaker got to know Miss Suzuki,
which is expressed by know in English. It is also noted, however,
that ‘ not to know’ is not shitte inai,
inei, but shirenei.
shiranai. (Q shiru)
2. Vte iru also expresses a habitual action, which is a special sort of re-
peated action. Example:
fliififi re/f
(1) iFLlifiEilE'?/f /vi->'Cl.\é.
/l/fio'CL\%»°
Weteshi wa
Watashi we mainichi
meinichi yonmairu
yonmeiru hashitte
heshitte iru.
(I run four miles every day.)
3. When Vte is a motion verb such as iku ‘go’, kuru ‘come’ and keerukaeru
‘ return
return’,’, the meaning of Vte iru is not ‘be ~ing’. For example, itte
iru means ‘to have gone to some place and to still be there ’. The
sentences in (2) provide examples.
(2)
(2) a.
a. ucfiiinvx ‘JI) 7JlCfio'CL\?5.,
I¢(El§Ii7'2‘ mcfi->'ct\%>.
Jiro" wa
Jiro we Amerika
Amerike ni itte iru.
(Jiro has gone to America and is there.)
b
b- &va$put5in%¢ru§?.
“<9 7 5/I/Ii Ii) '5%'ICI'§'=i'J"CI,\'i'§'o
Bekku-sen wa
Bekku-san we mo ie ni keette imesu.
kaette imasu.
(Mr. Beck has already returned home and is there.)
4. The verb sumu ‘live’ requires the “Vte iru” pattern if the sentence ex-
iru’ / iru3
iru“ 157
presses a present state. Also, verbs like iu ‘say’ and omou ‘think’
with a third person subject require the “ Vte iru ” pattern if the sentence
expresses a present state. Examples:
(3) -1-a- 5fLIi§I'?1I:{I/\i'C*L\6/*i¥33°
i1.t:t%%";I1II/V-c=-t\e/*I$t:.
Wetashi-we Tokyo
Watashi-wa T5ky6 ni sunde iru
iru// *sumu.
(I live in Tokyo.)
'71 z r|~ 5/on

b. ~71 a</on H7l§§§Ii"€°é t,v~e.e.-.rt\Z> /*5.-5.
aieewee I.v\&.§.»>'ct\Zs /*,*e.5.
Uesuto-sen wa
Uesuto-san we nihongo wa
we yasashii
yeseshii to omotte iru / *omou.
(Mr. West thinks that Japanese is easy.)
ii--Q
M-M
ii:-Q
ii —i
ii -in
i M
(A5
iru“ (x5 v. (Gr. 1)
\/\ /\/\./\./\/
I\/\/\/\/ \/\-
\/\_
% S.o. or s.t. needs s.t. gj need
§Key Sentence
QKey
Topic (experiencer) Necessary Object
am
fi 7‘c B Ii 3€iFl1r?¥331
semen
"P iniii tv~z>/was-r.
‘ el in 0 at-.
Kimitechi
Kimitachi ,
we
wa eiwe -jiten
eiwa-jiten u
ge
ga iru/ irimesu.
irimasu.
Y
(You need an English-Japanese dictionary.)
(a) ?LIi/-fl~:t5$n‘i\wZ.>..
?LI1é,“~tsfi>b§v~Z>.
Weteshi we ima
Watashi wa ime o-kane ge
ga iru.
(I need money now.)
(b) fFI:0=iEE<>b‘iv~
fiIn=fiRib§v\ D9 ea-e=.
i1'z‘i=.
Nenike do'gu
Nanika ge irimesu
dogu ga ke.
irimasu ka.
(Do you need some tools?)
(c) :'_0)$Ii7‘.i7 ‘J I/7)§T:<
Zwitiify ‘/viii: < -‘S/vi/\Z'a..
7-l<io\i\Z>.>
Kono kurume
kuruma we
wa gesorin ge tekusen
gasorin ga takusan iru.
(This car needs a lot of gas.)
1. /ru ‘need’ takes the we-ge

wa-ga construction, where the experiencer (that
158 iru3
iru“
is, the person or thing that needs something) is followed by we
wa and
ge.
the necessary object by ga. (Q ~ wa
we ~ ge)
ga)
2. /ru ‘ need’ is a Gr. 1 verb; thus, the negative form is irenei,
iranai, the polite
form is irimesu
irimasu and the re-form
te-form is itte-
itte. (Cp. iru‘; iru”)
iru?)
3. The experiencer can also take the particle ni, as in (1).
(1) a. ;:0>¥|:Iiv\v\%'Jgfit"-i1ir)'iv\Z>.,
:‘.¢>¥I:Iiv\v\%';Efi§1i>b§v\%>.,
we ii kateikyoshi
Kono ko ni wa keteikyoshi ga
ge iru.
(This child needs a good tutor. (Lit. For this child, a good
tutor is necessary.))
b. ~5/*1 9 I~f I:I1}k
: 07°11 ~11 lztilk &fir)‘iv\5.
tfin‘iv\6..
Kono purojekuto ni we kene ga
wa hito to kane ge iru.
(This project needs people and money. (Lit. For this project
people and money are necessary.))
4. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is followed by either gega or ni,
as in (2), unless the sentence is contrastive. (In that case, we
wa follows.)
(==> (I;t))
(Q we‘ (li))
(2) cwifi/cfivvv#k<éhwacktflorwibtmo
M coiffi / lzfiv I) ~/mt. < é /I/I/‘Z; :1 t &§H1o'Cv\i l,f.:e=.
Kono kurume ge / ni gesorin
kuruma ga gasorin ge
ga tekusen
takusan iru koto o shitte ima-
shite ke.
shita ka.
(Did you know that this car needs a lot of gas?)
flbunl
jibun‘ 159
159
jibun‘ 56}
E9 P10-
pro-
»
\’AAAAA/\AAAAAA/\
i\/\/\ /\J\
a reflexive pronoun that refers (back) ~self; own

to a human subject with whom the [REL. jibun?)
§ speaker is empathizing ig
'\/\/\.//'\/\/\/\./\/\//\/\/\/\/\/\/\ /\/\/\/\/\/\
§Key Sentences
(M
(A)
TOP“ <s"bi*=¢*> 2-—

‘Topic (subject)
:I;B1
iflil Ii at-as i=as an
n ere ea ea at.-c
at-r we .1-.2;
:9; 25H1l5>*.c2b>oT;/
2%1IF>1‘.:ib>o7‘:/
Tsuch/'de§ wa
Tsuchidai we Sachiko
Sechiko ga
ge jibun o eishite
aishite iru koto o shirenekettel
shiranakattal
‘' nvaenvcn.
fl9i%h?Lka
, shirimesendeshite.
shirimasendeshita. .
M-Q-ii
iii;
iii
ii
ii
1-ii _
ii
i.-ii
M-ii _
_
__i1.;_
—.—
(Tsuchida didn’t
didnt know that Sachiko loved him (lit
(lit. himself))
himself).) ii
iii
iii?-
iii
(E
Sentence;
Sentencel
own u
I5>2b=D $ém#e iii
Ii $*é=?‘.cn36 Wk,
%i'_'C I/\T:..,
Yukeri we erukinegere
Yukari wa arukinagara kengeete
kangaete ite.
ita.
(Yukari was walking while thinking.
thinking
Sentence;
%—
—- Ii ea
$ M $%
5’: Eli n fliétc fl%a,efia5a»
/V f 6 9 U-
(‘Q
1
V
_fi
Ken IC/‘H we
Ken'ichi wa
Im_
//bun
jibun ge
ga honto ni
_Ti'
I7! suk/ne
sukina n daro keka. 'O
E
'
(lit 'LIE:myself)?)
Does Kenichi really love me (lit.
@ Wmuénfifikmxneefiarwnman.
M Wmaenmfificxneefierwameno
Nekegewe we jibun ge
Nakagawa wa ga Kyodei
Kyodai ni haireru
heireru to omotte inekette.
inakatta.
(Nakagawa didn’t think that he (lit. himself) could enter Kyoto Uni-
Uni
versity.)
M —%u%¥#Efim%ww%k%5emwamek.
(b) —EI§Ii4§¥i)§E6)l~’-él/‘IF-5l€T:I%515I:v\f.:2b>oi:.,
Ichiro we Fuyuko ge
/chiro wa ga jibun ni ei
ai ni kite
kita toki uchi ni inekette.
inakatta.
(Ichiro wasn’t at home when Fuyuko came to see him (lit. himself).)
160 jibun‘
M fi¥fi—%KE%®$Tfi#%ks
E¥li—-%I; E§}r7)§'C'j‘?7b*-t1:7‘:,,
Michiko we
wa Kazuo ni jibun no kurume
kuruma de ikesete.
ikaseta.
(Michiko made Kazuo go there in his / her own car.)
vayuxru—o:e2Earwn.fi#ne9e%%Lr<nepma
M §evm;7U—®:&2E¢Twk.fi#uEfi&%%LT<n6wfi6
5m.én2%rr,a7e%%+epna5m.
5n.en2%rr,ei&%%+enna5m.
we Meari
Jon wa Meeri no koto o omotte ite.
ita. Kenojo
Kanojo we
wa jibun to kekkonshite
kureru n daro
dero ka.
ke. Jibun o sutete. Bobu to kekkonsuru n daro"
daro ke.
ka.
(John was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me (lit. myself)? Is
she going to leave me (lit. myself) and marry Bob?)
1 Jibun‘ is an empathy marker that normally refers back to the subject of

the main clause as in KS(A), Exs. (a), (b) and (c), or to the discourse
topic as in KS(B) and Ex. (d).
-iti--i-M.
it-1-i-iii
2
iii
iii
M
__
i
1-.
1-.
i
i
_
—
i
_.—
M
*-
_.—
M
M
When jibun is an empathy marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the
i M
sentence) is normally a passive experiencer. In other words, the referent

_;'
_1 M
M
_ M
_1 M
i
i.i__—_—.
iii
iii
ulj
i—-ii;
is not an agent (i.e., someone who initiates and]

and/ or completes an action).
(Q jibun”)
3 Ex. (c) is an ambiguous sentence, because jibun can refer to either the
main subject Michiko or to Kazuo.
Kezuo. Jibun’s reference to Kazuo is not
a counterexample of jibun’s strong tendency to refer to the subject,
however, because Kazuo is semantically the subject of the verb iku ‘ go’.
go ’.
Also to be noted is that Michiko is an agent of the causative action, but
Kazuo is a passive experiencer of the causative action. Indeed, it is
easier to look at Kazuo as the object of the speaker’s empathy, because
he is a passive experiencer. It is very likely that jibun is not an empathy
marker but a contrastive marker when it refers to an agent Michiko.
Other similar ambiguous sentences follow:
m w fi¥u—%mEfi@$efi¢rtean.
(1) 3- 55-'t'*Ii—'9'::IICE5')@3$'C‘fi">'CI>l5oTC.s
Michiko we kuruma de itte morette.
moratta.
(Lit. Michiko received from Kazuo a favor of going there in
her / his own car. (=Michiko had Kazuo go there in her /
his own car.))
b fi%n—%ma9o$efi#nn.
B fi¥n—%n§9o$vfimnn.
Michiko we
kuruma de ikerete.
ikareta.
(Lit. Michiko is annoyed by the fact that Kazuo went there
by her / his own car. (=Michiko had Kazuo go there in her /
his own car.))
jibun‘ / jibun?
jibun” 161
Note that jibun in (la, b) is an empathy marker when it refers to Michiko

and is a contrastive marker when it refers to Kazuo. (Q jibun”)
jibun?)
4. The referent of jibun in a complex sentence has to be conscious of the
situation expressed in the main clause. Compare (2a) and (2b):
(2) a. 7,<z¥I;t§5)2b§§EtIa|'%iTlI:Ii’—{J=;n§7k#I::)\-JTc...
K-'1-'-Ii §$)7J§9l.’.b?;t'r?1iIlC¥-(J§7§3j<#lC)\-J 7:,
we jibun ga
Tomoko wa ge shinu mee
mae ni kodomo ga
ge daigaku
deigeku ni
haitta.
heitte.
(Lit. Speaking of Tomoko, before she (lit. herself) died, her
chjld entered college. (= Before Tomoko died, her child entered
child
college.))
b-*K¥a§QmRnfiaev¥%#k$mAen.
b-*E¥uafi#%pfieac¥%#k¥mAat.
*Tomoko wa
we jibun ga
ge shinda
shinde ato
eto de kodomo ga
ge deigeku
daigaku ni
heitte.
haitta.
—
(Lit. Speaking of Tomoko, after she (lit. herself) had died, her
i
_
i
iii-ii
M 1.-Z
i.
i M
ii.
M =
i. M
child entered college. (=After Tomoko died, her child entered Z

Z
i
ii-i1
.
-M
M
_
it-1-1-11
M--1-Z-11
1-K
college.))
(2b) is ungrammatical because one can hardly empathize
The sentence (Zb)
with a dead person.
jibun” E5}
jibun“ Pm-
P"?-
i a reflexive pronoun that refers (back) Eg ~self; own

)g to a human subject, the referent of [REL. jibun‘)
€g which is contrasted with s.o. else i
\/\.
\/\
jibun’
162 jibunz
§Key
Q K ey Sentences
M)
(A)
Topic <S"b1@"> -—
Topic (subject)
EIIIIA
EIIIIA IiIi ea
E6) o<0 E51IE 0)e BZIIG
ram *2a :1--=--9
=1-=~—a Tc?7;’ k21%‘.->1
.%'.o'C
Nihonjin we
wa jibun no kuni no bunke
bunka o yuniku de
da to omotte
we / war.
err.
/imesu.
iru /imasu.
<
country s culture is unique)

(The Japanese think that their country's unique.)
(W
agent
Topic (subject, agent)
I
n
x7u—
179- gt: an
ea 1 m at To/ear.
1‘M'rs
‘U
T6/Li?
‘U
Mean
Meari wa //bun
jibun de nan
nen demo suru I/ shimasu.
shimasu
(Mary does everything by herself.)
herself)
N)
EB
’“ Q\-/
Topic (subject)
—%
"-‘ § u 5A~ .EM)
E1)“
$1~
22' fiibk./Wibibko ' i-
Ifibibf /Ifibibibice
rt. O .
Kazuo wa
HII I I I I I I ]IbUf7
jibun hegemeshite /hagemashimashita.
o hagemashita /hegemeshimeshite
himself)
(Kazuo braced himself.)
\i
M
M E9&%o:k#—§%Lw.
@ Efi&fle:&%—§%Lw.
ge ichiban
Jibun o shiru koto ga ichiben muzukashii.
muzukeshii.
(To know yourself is the hardest.)
(b) v49uwo$Efio§o%§c%fiLrw5.
M 1'4 ? Iiii\0 ‘b E6)~0)fi®‘§l$§'C‘@5'fil.,'Cii\?5.,
Meiku wa
Maiku we itsumo jibun no ryo no heya de benkyoshite
benkydshite iru.
(Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.)
(<1) /l\19l<Ii
M /I~it1I<ii EE5)» 6 Liz!»
6})?» F; LT:ii\ 2:A; 1%‘->
iv 7:,
Kobayashi
Kobeyeshi wa
we jibun kara
kere shitai
shitei to itta.
itte.
(Kobayashi voluntarily (lit. from himself) said that he wanted to do it.)
M %iuCE%®%TflK%¢TTé¢t.
@ %£n:E%®%cflm%orTeet.
we go-jibun no ie de watashi
Sensei wa weteshi ni atte
ette kudasatta.
kudesette.
(The professor kindly met me at his own house.)
jibun”
jibun“ 163
Note
Jibun is a contrastive marker if at least one of the following three conditions

is met: (1) its referent is an agent (as in KSs (B), (C), Exs. (b), (c) and (d)).
(2) the subject is generic (as in KS(A) and Ex. (a)). (3) jibun cannot be
replaced by an implicit third person pronoun (o) or by an explicit third person
pronoun (such as kare ‘ he ’ and kanojo
kano/'0 ‘ she ’). KS(C) satisfies the condition
(3), because if jibun is replaced by 0 or kare ‘he ‘he’,’, the meaning of the
sentence changes into ‘ Kazuo encouraged him.’
Jibun is jibun‘ if the referent does not satisfy any of the three conditions
given in Note; if it satisfies at least one of them it is jibunz.
jibun’.
iii
-1
1
»
——
iii
i
%
1
164 ka‘
kal jgx
in prt.
§'\/\./'-./\/\..
g-\/\./\/\/\. /\_/\/'\/'\/\/\/'\/\/\/'\./*~/\/\/‘\;‘\./
/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/ /\/\/‘\/\/\/‘\/\/\/\/~/\-/)
/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/~/\./)
5 a particle which marks an alterna- (either) ~ or ~

él IIVC
tive §( soretomo]
[REL. soretomol
/—/\/'\/'\./\./ /\
/*/\/\/\/\//\ /'\./‘\*'\./\/\/\.."\/‘\ \./'\/\/\/\
/\/\"\./\/\/\.'\/\ \_/\/\_/\_/\ ~./-\/
\/'\/ /\
/\ (
§Key
Q Key Sentences
Z5-5
(A)
(SUb_]CCt)
Topic (subject) Noun,
Noun; N ounz
oun2 Predicate
fl.
-xii
. Ii M +s+
QE in "Z
/<2 (W) '6
\
i“?< /fiésif‘
t’f< /fi"‘Z< we
Watashr
Watashi 5,
at
wa densha ka
ElIifilH. basu (ka)
a) de iku / /krmasu
/ku ~;+
ikimasu.
(I will go either by train or by bus.)
bus.
(B)
_Sentence1
Sentence, _Sentence2
Sentenceg
(1nformal)T
(mformal)T (1nformal)T
(mformal)T
iii;
in
i-ii
ii;
- i
l~A
l>A iJ<fi<
bi i".r< 75> >¢7'J—1Ji fi<
>¢7'J- 1Jifi< 73*
a» <1:'BF>7)~ 7:5/'C"i'°
EBl?>7)> 7;’/‘C"l‘.,
Tomu ga iku ka Meari ga iku ka dochiraka da / desu.
(Either Tom will go or Mary will go.)
TDa after Adj(na) stem and N drops.
m
M
KS(A):
70> N2 (7%)
N1 75* (79>)
ka (ka)
95$ 70>
7)* ‘ii
‘$5 (7§>)
(7%) (either a teacher or a student)
sensei ka gakusei (ka)
KS(B):
( i) {V / Adj (i)]
(i)} inf 7)~
73>
ka
(E3?
lid?‘ /§£I,7‘;}
/331,72} 71*
75> (either s.o. talks /talked or)
hanashite} ka
{hanasu / hanashita}
{féjln /‘|é'§z)>-;7‘;}
{EM /fé;"7b>Q7‘;} in75> (either s.t. is / was expensive or)
{takai / takakatta} ka
(ii) {Adi
(ii) {Adj (Ha)
(na) Stem
stem // N}
N} {o // 75°71]
{'5 7.507;] 7)‘
79>
{ti /datta}
{Ii ka
ka‘ 165
[§§7’J>
{§¥ri)> /§’#7’J>f;'o7‘.:}
/ §§'r7)>f.;'of.:} 79> (either s.t. is / was quiet or)
{shizuka / shizukadatta} ka
Hléi
liiii /§l5$
/96515 Ti‘-o7‘.:l 29*
Tiofcl 7§> (either s.o. is / was a teacher or)
{sensei / sensei datta} ka
W
M
@ flmfi@§=—x#iW9E&U.
flfifi%§=—2miw7E&Uo
Watashi wa maiasa jzisu
jtisu ka miruku 0o nomu.
(I drink either juice or milk every morning.)
(b)
(bl %>I1.I;tr.I¥7'2)>-v-—9i)§Li'i‘..
*'€'7l”bli7fi'7'7b>-1-—77b'>Li'§'o
Sore wa Bobu ka Méku
Maku ga shimasu.
(As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.)
(0) P'ri~1r>*' |*.ii>)»-sr;>>=—EI§w>=rE1r>§=&~*
$]7b3?.?.' —]'7b>-o7*.:7b>—-E[$7b>|°/'5J7b'>£< 6)/\7;‘of.:>b=EB laws.
F; v>T.i‘of.:7b>EB I‘97b>T.i‘.,
Niku ga takakatta ka Ichiro ga niku ga kiraidatta ka doch/raka
dochiraka da.
(Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn’t like meat.)
w
(d) $%2%<»%%amnew2bewur<fisw.
$7'fsEE% < 7b>%§3’$_’7b>l7‘%’>7b><‘:"6 E>7b> I/C < 7.58 W0 imp?
11-iii
i--i—._
A-Q-ii-
Tegami 0o kaku ka denwa o kakeru ka dochiraka shite kudasai.

A-Q
1.1 _—_
i-
11 ___
_—_
1.1
1.1 -—n
___
1.1
11 -—n
_—_
W
i "—'
1
— 1
ii ___
(Either write a letter or make a call, please.) —

—
i
1
-i
i-Q---i-_
@ fi*é#%+mEaawmLnsw.
fis6#%+mEee#mLnsw.
Taberu ka hanasu ka dochiraka ni shinasai.
(Lit. Decide on either eating or talking. (=Just do one thing, eat or
talk.))
W
1. The basic function of ka is to mark an alternative. It can mark either
nouns or sentences. When it marks nouns, the final ka is usually omitted.
When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that
is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker wa must not
be used.
2. Ka cannot be used to connect two questions. Thus, the following sen-
tences are ungrammatical.
ula-*:nu%&toe+m.#fl®c¢m.
(1) 3- *;';7l*Lli§)7’.:T:0)'C"§‘7b>., lJ‘5l5.l\0)'C“'§‘79>°
*Kore wa anata no desuka. Ka watashi no desu ka.
(Is this yours or mine?)
b.*ne—%m%a+m.m:;mws+m.
b-*fi&—%m%i+#.#::nwi+m.
*Watashi to isshoni kimasu ka. Ka koko ni imasu ka.
(Will you come with me? Or will you stay here?)
In this case, soretomo is used instead of ka. (==t>
(Q soretomo)
1166
66 ka‘ //kai’
kaz
Soretomo is also used with alternatives. However, the function of soretomo

is to connect two alternatives, not to mark an alternative. Thus, soretomo
appears with ka, not in place of ka. Examples:
|'i‘,l753_|§§75>0TCfi‘. %1'Lt
[1] |i=]2)3'|'é§2b>¢i.:2§>. "€'#1.<‘:=Ei-—-El§7b‘>|7'~fl7b>%’F_>v>7‘.£o7*.:7b><‘:’BF;7b>f.f.,
=b—-El$7§3fi~fl>b3'Z< Fol/\T;"J 7’:n~EB 6>)~7‘.:’.,
Niku ga takakatta ka. soretomo Ichiro ga niku ga kiraidatta ka
dochiraka da.
(Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn’t like meat.)
[2] %Lk-—-KrEll§l€i'J'7b>..
fL.1:—ir%IC§lEi'9“>b=.. -Hm‘:
fht =5 r;
: .1:
: l:.v\i'i-77>,
I1:/\i-rib»,
Watashi to isshoni kimasu ka. Soretomo koko ni imasuka.
(Will you come with me? Or will you stay here?)
Soretomo is optional in [1], but not in [2].
ka’ 13>
1.)) Prt-
Pri-
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\./\/\/
/'\/\/\/\/\/‘\.I'~./\./\/\./
a sentence-final particle which indi- whether; if

cates that the preceding sentence is [REL. dai (ka7')]
(kai)]
interrogative "/\/\l ."-\./\/\
/-~_/\~/'\ /*./\ .» ~'/\*.¢\".\/ \

1%
flw / I /K
QKey
O Key Sentences
(A)
/\ 11> \. ./
SentenceT
Sentence)‘
11,? I1
.1:1,¥ :1 firIE /\
1:’? A fi<
\
/nee-r
/asst niv».
\-
Yoshiko wa daigaku e
YOS/7!/(O iku/ /k/masu
I/(U/ ikimasu ka.'o
(Is Yoshiko going to college?)
Tln informal speech, da after Adj (na) stem and N drops.
fln
m=1w
ka2 167
(E
(W
—-I- Sentence (informal)T
fi
ii. I159—I:
ii -7")-— tr: +vv—n§H$*\fi<
'1"/~‘/~— 753 E11!‘-I '\ i"i< m
70> kt Hwtl
Bfilofcl
Watashi wa Teri ni Nanshi ga Nihon e iku ka to kiital
kiiza /
W%iLto
fiéibko
kikimashita.
(I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to Japan.)
M
(i)HWA&UH
(U WiAfiUH W
ka
{Eff
[331 / E5
E6 Li-H
L3-11'} 2!)»
70> (Will (or Does) s.o. talk? (informal / formal))
{hanasu / hanashimasu} ka
{EM /fé]Ii\'C"i‘}
{',é,“v\ /féil/>'G'§'} 70>
79> (Is s.t. expensive? (informal / formal)) ii
-
c1
z
aiui M
i
ii
ii-
iii
__—
1-
—
iii
ii-
{takail/ takaidesu} ka
{takai ii-
1.1?
¢._.__-
2K3
=
11E:
1.1.___
it?
11?;
1.1-i_1--1-.
—
-M--—
M1
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {a / '61‘)

{o ‘GT1 7)~
70>
{o / desu} ka
{ffim
{if¥*70> /§§;§>'C*1'}
/ff¥r70>'C"'i‘] 29>
70> (Is s.t. quiet? (informal / formal))
shizukadesu} ka
{shizuka / shizukadesu]
{filfii
(55355 /95$
/filfifii 'C"'§'} 70>
'C"§‘} 75* (Is s.o. a teacher? (informal / formal))
{sensei / sensei desu} ka
@
(8-) htkdiiffwo
§)7’.t7‘:Ii$f—lE'C"i‘7)=..
Anata wa gakusei desu ka.
(Are you a student?)
cnuficrwo
M cnuficfm.
Kore wa nan desu ka.
(What is this?)
(0) 7‘;Zi§Iii§$2b§§Lv\2b><1:F§1\i\i:.,
(o) 7ii§l1i£"-i’-7b>%l,v\7b>&fi.fiv\7:.,
Tomodachi wa kanji ga muzukashii ka to kiita.
diFficult.)
(My friend asked if kanji is difficult.)
w fiuvrvmfinfifinwanfnn.
@ flm§+vmfinfi%tmtkfnt,
Watashi wa Jan ni dare ga kita ka to tazuneta.
J an who had come.)
(I asked Jan
168 kaz
ka2 / ka (dd
(do ka)
@ %um%%$#so5me§anoEnrcaan.
%um%%$mao5m2§Qn»EnrLa@n.
Boku wa Yamazaki-sensei ga kino
kind nani 0o itta ka wasurete shimatta.
(I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said yesterday.)
iLti%:i::Ps&’.3':§Lf.:7b>E
(f) %LI1I¢:I::ts&&EL7‘.:r)> E 5 2b=,@y\tIjii-f.cv~,,
7b>.%.v\fij*¢7*.cv~.,
Watashi wa Kenji ni o-kane o kashita ka do ka omoidasenai.
(I cannot remember if I lent Kenji some money.)
1. The question marker ka is a special use of the ka which marks an alter-

native (i.e., kal). For example, KS(A) came from (1), with the paren-
thesized part omitted. (=>
(=:> kal)
kai)
m ;L¥ufi#~fi%a+#.%m¢sfi%aenwJ
u)xL¥ufi#~fi%a+m.%m¢tfisiep#J
Yoshiko wa daigaku e ikimasu ka. (Soretomo ikimasen ka.)
(Is Yoshiko going to college? (Or is she not?))
2. Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by ka
whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. (Q(=t> dai; kai) Note
that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as
that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative
sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no
question or a WH-question.
3. Ka remains in indirect questions as in KS(B), Exs. (c) and (d).
4. When the informal forms of na-type adjectives and the copula precede
the question marker ka, da drops. A possible reason is that da, the
informal form of desu, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts
conflicts with
the question marker ka, which expresses the speaker’s uncertainty about
something. (=> kai; kamoshirenai; kashira)
(Q
ka (do
(d6 ka) iJ$&:'5h$
fJ\(E5lJ>) P"-
5 a marker for an embedded yes-no é whether or not; if (~ or not)
question
/\/\/\./\./'\./'\/~./'\.//~
\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/-\/ /~
(do ka)
ka (dd 169
QKey
§Key Sentence
E mbedde(dnK)esnalpT
b d Y -N Question ' Verb (cognmon)
. .
m e de((i1nfo£:na]§)T Questwn Verb (cognition)
nisn
P
§117l<é/u
70
I l 107.70 (E5 70)(l;lZ) §l1¢.>7:£\(‘/§l1ni‘l:l.'/v
m ififil:Aana-ufi>»Mu)neaw/nose».
'vi \
.f‘
SUZU/(I san ga daigaku ni
Suzuki-san n1 hama
haitta ka (dd
(do ka) (wa) S/7II'8!78I
shiranai / shzr/masen
shirimasen.
(I dont
don’t know whether or not Mr.
"
I
Mr Suzuki entered college)
college.)
M
(flivlmfiwlminweazw
U)lV/Afififlim #(E5 w)
ka (dd ka)
li,-iii‘
l§3'l" /331,71}
/EELTIL} 71* 75*)
70> (E 5 70>) (whether or not s.o. talks /talked)
{hanasu /hanashital ka (dd
{hanasu/hanashital (do ka)
[Ev /'|é]2b>o7‘.:}
{Ev / ,%,“;o=¢ 7;} 70>
29> (E 5 70>)
25>) (whether or not s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} ka (dd
(do ka) -iii
-iii
‘iii-
M-_-____-.
Q-1?;
_.1_-1
iii
iii
_.1_-1
{Adi (na)
UU {Adj
(ii) (na) stem/N}
stem / N] (5/7507;}
{a 1» (E5
/ f.:'oT:.'.] i7> ii»)
(E 5 70>)
_.1_-1
_.1_-1
iii
ii
i--_-,
11
ii
ii
{es //datta}
datta} ka (dd
(do ka)
1-ii
1-ii
{§¥>70>
[§§\'*7J> /§‘§n>fiaT:}
/§‘%iJ*f.:'o7:} 70> (E 5 70>)
7)‘ 71*) (whether or not s.t. is / was
{shizukal
[shizuka / shizukadatta} ka (do ka) quiet)
{filgi
{#1353 /§E$
/52$ 7597;}
7;’->711} 79>
29> (E 5 75>)
25>) (whether or not s.o. is / was a
{senseil/ sensei datta}
{sensei ka (dd
(do ka) teacher)
M
(a)
@ /Mil 3 /.m§t<;1,=i§I,rv\z>>b=E 5 ib>%1¢*Cv\i'i‘>)=..
mmén#%%LrwamE5m%¢rwa+m.
Ogawa-san ga kekkonshite iru ka do ka shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know if Mr. Ogawa is married or not?)
(b) 7a—9+—®¢fi#BbL6wmE5mfl6tw.
M 7 71-~— 9 1--0)/l>is"5é7b>;*s is LZ>v\7b> E 5 7b>9H1 E»73:v>..
Fékuné no shdsetsu
Fokuné shosetsu ga omoshiroi ka do ka shiranai.
(I don’t know if Faulkner’s novels are interesting.)
M MD%i#%iimE5#fiUi%h.
@ mnfiimsiimzfimfiuaan.
Yamaguchi-sensei
Yamaguch/'-sensei ga 0-genki
o-genki ka do ka zonjimasen.
(I don’t know if Prof. Yamaguchi is healthy.)
1. When the optional dodd ka is used, the embedded question has to be a

yes-no question. If it is not used, then the question can be either a
yes-no question or a WH-question.
(dd ka) / kai
170 ka (do
In
(1) vxb5vvfi&fi~taM*wE5#fiirwi+w.
I/74 I~ 5 3/"5“l5l’5_"§’<TC.70‘ / *1§>E -'3 7b>fi>-'1-c v\i's“7b>..
Resutoran de nani o0 tabeta ka
kal/ *ka d6
do ka oboete imasu ka.
(Do you remember what you ate at the restaurant?)
(2) ’c</>I1¥"rf:'t1.<l:—i%I.:v\2‘.:1J\/*1J\E5h\%i'Cv\i'a“i:~..
»’¢a>I1@'“;=7‘.'£11.&—-fr=%i.:v>7*.:rs\ / *1» t‘-32'a>fi:‘%_'c unis;-75>.
Sono toki dare to isshoni ita ka
ka/I *ka d6
do ka oboere
oboete imasu ka.
(Do you remember who you were with at that time?)
2. Typical final verbs include, among others, verbs of knowing, examining,
understanding, asking, remembering, and deciding.
3. Sinf ka (dd
(do ka) can be used as a noun phrase that takes particles such
as ga and 0.
m fiiaewawaomfifimfian.
&$e@waoE5w#%%fi¢n,
Shigoto 0o yameru ka do ka ga mondai datta.
(Whether or not to quit the job was the question.)
m
(4) k#%mfi<mE5m&%%irwi+,
7<’%'-‘|5f';lCfi"< 70>E 5 70>2'9;%7"<.'Cv>i'§’.,
Daigakuin ni iku ka do ka 0o ima kangaete imasu.
— —.1
(I’m now thinking about whether or not I will go to graduate

_ it
1 —.1
_
- it
i
1 i
_ Z
1
1 i
_.—
1 _.—
1 ——-'-'
1 _.1
school)
school.)
Mi
M
b>l.\
kai h\I\ Pri-
PTL
'\/'\ /\/\/\/\
l a sentence-final particle which marks [REL. dai (ka2)]

yes-no questions in informal male
5l speech
\/\@&f\O¢\
.e//\'\./'v"\\/.'/ \r/\/.\/\/-‘
§Key
Q Key Sentences
(M\..v
E
(ll'1fOI'fI'l3l)'l'
Bi“U Ii
E1133
UlM §$=bL6L‘
ascau
0
av~
11*)/‘O
v
N/h ongo wa omoshiroi

Nihongo O!770$hI!’OI I Q
ka \-.
kai. I
(Is Japanese interesting?)

kai 171
(B)
/\ @
(inf0rmal)1'
112%/V
Vh—5/V :1
ti 1; 91: /\
71977
“E “H fi<
~1’r<
\.
<0 wvwx,
>b=v>
Ueno-san
Ueno I san wa Amerika
Amer/ka e iku
Ikll no
3 kai.
a
7? -I O
(Is Mr
Mr. Ueno going to America?)
KS(A):
{V / Adj (i)} inf
(i) {V/Adj /Mn
/1~L\
kai
i’
lid?‘ ~+ /Efibfg}
/Efibfcl 2§>\/\
70>\7> (Does (or Will) / Did s.o. talk?)
>24.
{hanasu
anasu / hanashita}
hanashite} kai
{El/>
['|%§\/\ /'%70>o7‘:_'.]
/_lé1‘7§*0TC.l 70>!/>
75>!» (Is / Was s.t. expensive?)
iii-
{rakai
[takai / takakatta} kai
-.--M-.
i
M
_._
_._
__
_._
8
3
i
i .
i -
i ‘
(ii)
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {a/ 7‘.:’o7:.] 7)w\
{al 7307;} 70>!/> i
_._
ii. -
—ii—-ii
—ii—-ii
{a
{0 / datta} kai
{gs/J»
5111/1» /i!;$7;=7_;“»;7*;}
/fi‘§71~7;'o7‘:} 2b=v>
71*!/\ (Is / Was s.t. quiet?)
[shizuka / shizukadatta} kai
‘{shizuka
Wei
196$ /512$
/95$ 7‘.:'of.Zl 7»!/\
rififl} 7>>v> (Is / Was s.o. a teacher?)
{sensei
[sensei / sensei datta} kai
KS(B):
(i) {V/Adj
{V /Adj (i)} inf 0) 70>!»
79*!/\
no kai
'l}ii‘§“§‘
l'i%i5'*l‘ /Efibfcl
/E‘1'i§l,7*:l ®
0') PM‘
75>‘/‘ (Docs (or Will) / Did s.o. talk?)
(Does
{hanasu /hanashita}
-{hanasu /hanashite} no kai
{EM /E791»
{El/\ /E7)», f;}
7:} 0) 70>!/>
<1) 7»!/\ (Is / Was s.t. expensive?)
[takai / takakatta} no kai
{takai
(ii)
(ii) -{Adj
{Adj (na) stem/N} {fgl
{fail f;'»;7:_}
7307;] 0) <1) n>v\
7»!/\
[na/datta}
[na/ datta} no kai
[§%70>7‘s2
-{|%7§*7‘£ /%70>f.i'oT:.'.]
/§’§7)‘T.fo7';] 0) 70>!/>
(7) 25>!/\ (Isl
(Is / Was s.t. quiet?)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} no kai
{sh/zukana
lfilfii 73? 95$
7; / FEE T.:I'oT.‘.'.] V)
7507:} 0) 70>v>
2§=!/\ (Is / Was s.o. a teacher?)
{sensei na/sensei
-{sensei na / sensei datta} no kai
172 kai
m
M
@
@ B$%2%%T5WW.
B$%&%fi+amw.
Nihongo o0 benkyosuru
benkyésuru kai.
(Will you study Japanese?)
(b) :7'»<’—l~e:.*§%7b-1)»!/\.,
C.®'i’/>'~—l>l:t§%70>70>\r>.,
apéto wa shizuka kai.
Kono apa'to
(Is this apartment quiet?)
(0) Eiilifiirbwx.
Ei£li$£7b>v>.
Kimitachi wa gakusei kai.
(Are you students?)
(d) %<7>2lIti%1,v><7>n>v\,,
%<7)2l§lifiLv\(7)7)W\,,
.S‘ono
Sono hon wa muzukashii no kai.
(Is the book difiicult?)
(e) a*or7>)\i:.’r5E$7‘.c<7>7b>v>.,
a>a>)u;.+9a$z¢<1>7>~»\,
Ano hito wa sensei na no kai.
1. Since kai is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in

the informal form. The following sentences are unacceptable.
(1) a-
a. *E11I1%§e1ts=t,
*B2|:§§i:ra‘s=b l,z>u-c**r(<1>)rb~v\.
LZ>t\'c*-!'(<1>)70>v>.
*Nihongo wa omoshiroidesu (no) kai.
b.
b- *1;¥?>e< /M172‘ 9U 7'7/\fi%$T(</>)70>v>..
*J:¥¥<'§/vii'7’2* 11'\fi=éi*-!"(</>)vb~v\..
*Ueno-san wa Amerika e ikimasu (no) kai.
(Is Mr. Ueno going to America?)
2. Kai is used only for yes-no questions. Thus, the following sentences
are ungrammatical.
(21 a- *E:~fi<(<1>)rb=v\.
Ola-*E:~fi<w»#w.
*Doko e iku (no) kai.
(Where are you going?)
b. *$<7>)\i:rf.:’h.(7‘.c<7>)7b=v>.
*&>oAm:n(f.:a>)m~.
*Ano hito wa dare (na no) kai.
(In these sentences, dai is used. (=9
(Q dai))
kai I/ kamoshirenai 173
3. Questions in the KS(A) pattern and those in the KS(B) pattern cor-
respond to questions without no desu and those with no desu in formal
speech, respectively. (=t>
(Q no da)
4. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping kai in
male informal questions and using rising intonation. Examples:
(3) a. Ellli;-’§iits'£>is I,
l32l§§§li;*5 LZ>v\(<7>)?
5 I1‘ (7))?
Nihongo wa omoshiroi (no)?
b. _J.‘.§I§/1/i172‘
112?:/czar; u 1:~fi< (<0)?
71/\fi< (<77)?
Ueno-san wa Amerika e iku (no)?
(Is Mr. Ueno going to America?)
$><7>)\l:.t5E£(7*.c<7>)?
c. &>Mi5EE(tc)?
Ano hito wa sensei (na no)?
For a summary of the endings for informal questions, see dai, Related -
-
-
-
iii-1
i
Expression.
i
70>=£> Lflf.iI.\
kamoshirenai 7J\=b Lt1.f.i(.> awn
aw¢- adj (1')
\ /\/\/\/\ \/\/\/\/\/\./\/\
can’t tell
5 cant tell ifif ~~
Y
i5 might
might
)'\/\/\./
"“"“'W“M"M""N"‘““’”‘M”"
'\N“'v\MN‘~VvV“N\MNvVmN ”
N N 5“ (REL.
[REL. daro ; ni chigainai;
chigainai ; sdde-72]
soda’)
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Vinf
¢&
111% \\
m bi
:1
n 0 U‘
as
E5 mtcnaw/msunaan.
mi, 1,n>&:v~/wt. Lni-11-/().,
Gogo ame ga furu kamoshirenai /I kamoshiremasen.
(It might rain in the afternoon.)
174 kamoshirenai
(i) inf
Adj (1)
no %i o
&M>%i &¥ H
@%&¥ I
°i6uu
viunu wtunnw/manage».
nscnnw/mscnaen
Ano sense: /ugyo wa
sensei no jugyo tsumaranai
tsumaranar kamoshirena//
kamoshirena/'I kamosh/remasen.
kamoshiremasen
(That teacher
teacher'ss class might be dull)
dull.)
/""~
/-\ OW
\./\,,/
Adj (na) stem
T?
4' Q
0) ll}:
<7) Eé ii
Ii E7’
ET’ 5 #I_L\
{
u
%#l.L\ fly 70 ‘bL7l’b7*.Cl/‘/70
71% U U
‘bl/7l"bi-Ii‘/o
L1h.>‘.t‘/‘/ 7b=‘l.> Lfbfli-It/V,0o
Kydto
Kyoto no sakura wa mada krrer
kirei kamoshzrenaz
kamoshirenailI kamosh/remasen
kamosh/remasen.
. . I0
(The cherry blossoms in Kyoto might still be beautiful)
beautiful.)
M
W
WIAflUHhfl mscnnw
(U WJAfiUHfifi mhbnkw
MM
M-QM
-
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
kamoshirenai
M
M M
M
M
{gg<;—
[331 /I 331,713}
§§[,f;} 79>
7)» i{, 1,31,r;v\
1, 1,;h,f;_~v\ (s.o. might talk I/ might have talked)
1 M
M
M M
M M
3 i.-M
M M
M
M
M
{hanasu
[hanasu /I hanashite}
hanashita] kamoshirenai
{'|é'jI/> I/Ezra
{Em "|é]'7b>o7‘.:]
7;} 70%,
7j=!(_, 1,;h,f;\7>
1_,;h,f;v\ (s.t. might be high I/ might have been
{takai I/ takakatta} kamoshirenai high)
UU {Adj (na) stem I/ N} {ol f.;'<>f:;}
UH riofz} mi, iv!» l,11,r;v\
l,n>tcv\
{o I/ datta}
{0 datta] kamoshirenai
{§§'17)>
{§%70> I/ §%r1=r.:>>r.:}
fim=r;'~>r.;} 79* ‘ls
n= 1.» L7lL?.i2I/>
l,1hJ‘.c w (s.t. might be quiet I/ might have
{shizuka /I shizukadatta} kamoshirenai
kamosh/renai been quiet)
[5035
I965 /FEE
/iii 7.507;]
T;'a7‘;} 70%,
1;>q_, l_,;h,7f;v>
1,,h,r;v\ (s.o. might be a teacher I/ might
{sensei I/ sensei datta} kamoshirenai have been a teacher)
M
W
%$oauk%%<uamtLnaan.
@ %$@%uk§%<&amsLn:gn.
Kotoshi no fuyu wa ta/‘hen
taihen samuku naru kamoshiremasen.
(It might be very cold this winter.)
M b®Am%B®fi—?4—®:&&Entm$LnE%A.
aoAu%Bofi—r4—o:e&Ennmsunit».
péti no koto 0o wasureta kamoshiremasen.
Ano hito wa kyo no pa'ti
(He might have forgotten about today’s party.)
M :®%@ub&kmmoi6&wm$Lnith.
:@%Eu&&kKfiOiB&w#$Lnitho
Kono eiga wa anata ni wa tsumaranai kamoshiremasen.
(This movie might be uninteresting for you.)
kamoshirenai 175
W ¢@%®i%fiB$%®i&lD%¥#$Ln#W°
w ¢@%@i&uH$%®I&:v%$mtcnaw.
Chdgokugo no bunpo wa nihongo no bunpo yori kantan kamoshirena/.
kamoshirenai.
(Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.)
(6) $>m1£%7l<5’é£lz2MsLnf:v\.t.
$>n&i£%1<5E$>b=i>Lnf.cv\.k..
Suzuk/'—sensei kamoshirenai yo.
Are wa Suzuki-sensei
(That might be Prof. Suzuki.)
(Related
I. The probability of accuracy predicted by a kamoshirenai sentence is lower
than that of a daro sentence and much lower than that of a ni chigainai
sentence as diagrammed below:
low probability <-ii-ii»
< > high probability
kamoshirenai < daro < ni chigainai
The Japanese weatherman on radio or TV, for example, employs desho
(the formal version of daro) in his forecasts as in the following:
M %fiwfi.%Tm¢m#—B¢%6?L:5.
U]%fififi.%Tm¢fi#—B$%6TL:5° Q
Z
Z I
1
Kanto-ch/"ho.
Kanto-ch/‘ho. asu wa kosame ga ichinichi/'0
/'chinich//'0 furu desh6.
i
i
i
ii
i
iii
a
in
(Tomorrow, in the Kanto area it will probably be drizzling all

in
day long.)
II. Vmasu / Adj (i / na) stem soda is used when the speaker’s conjecture is
based primarily on visual or other perceptual evidence, but kamoshirenai
is not; rather the latter is used when that conjecture is based on logical
reasoning. Thus,
Blew»
[2] Ibo! :®7—#Ufl£wL%5T?h°
21(1)’/‘—9'\-(l:k):*5v\Li"3'C"§'h°
A! Kono kéki (wa) oish/'s6desu ne.
(Look, this cake looks good, doesn’t it?)
[3] *&¢!
[3] :</>v—=¥(&1)tsv~1,w:\=b Lttiri/via.
*2F>'>! ::'r—#-(l1)$sv\1,wb\t, Lhifihha
*A! Kono kéki (wa) oishii kamoshiremasen ne.
(*Lool<,
(*Look, this cake might be good, might it not?)
(Q y6da)
(=>
176 kara‘
kara‘ 1b\I5
DH?» P"-
/'\./\/'\/'\./\ \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
\.v'
a Pparticle
article which indicates a starting E from; since; out of
point or a source g5 [REL. m'3;
nia; 03]
/\/\/\/\~/\/\/\/“/\/\/\¢'\/\/\/\/\/\/\: ‘\-/‘
Q§Key
Key Sentence
»<‘—--'f4—-in
K-9 4 -5E u /we
iku?!’ we
7??) ism/iaavsw.
A 5 /fipiDi'§'.=
flni L
Péti
Pari wa hachiji kara hajimaru I/hajimarimasu.
hajimarimasu.
(The party starts at (lit. from) eight o’clock.)
W
m
%Bo§¥m—%me3fiivc+.
@ %Bo§¥u—%ma2fiivc+.
Kyo no jugyo wa ichi/'i
ich/ji kara sanji made desu.
(Today’s class is from one o’clock
0’clock till three o’clock.)
(b) :o»xu==-a—ame%n.
@ ::.»<7<l:.t:.=,.—a—92b>F>5lEf:°
Kono basu wa Nydyoku kara kita.
(ThlS bus came from New York.)
(This
@
(<1) zzwagimfiazax.
::'.'.2b>6E:l:lJJ>b § E.x.Z.>.l:
" .
Koko kara Fujisan
Fu//san ga mieru
m/eru yo.
yo
Mt Fuji
(You can see Mt. F11]! from here.)
w %@a4¢§4¢—mrnae%9n@c¢m.
(d) %oa47a4a—mfinwe%vnnc+#.
5 =
.S‘ono taipura/‘ta
Sono f8IpUf8II6 wa dare kara kar/‘ta
karita n desu ka.
Clld you borrow the typewriter from?)
(Who did
@
(6) fiu%maWa.
lfiiivlfiib
‘ = ef’Fz> .
Sake wa kome kara tsukuru.
(Sake is made out of rice.)
(f) oi l5f.cv\::
F>tcv\:. <‘5:: 75-15))‘/w§~l.:r‘.c'>2‘;..,
a~F>n‘/v:b=i:f.c¢>f:..
Tsumaranai koto kara kenka ni natta.
(Lit. It became a quarrel from a trifle. (=We started to quarrel over
trifle ))
a trifle.))
GED
Kara basically indicates a temporal or spatial starting point (Exs. (a), (b) and
(c)) or a source (Exs. (d), (e) and (f)). As seen in Exs. (d), (e) and (f), a source
can be a person, material, a cause or a reason.
kara’
kara? 177
kara?
kara" 7f)\
7§\ 5 conj.
after / since a point in time at which gj after; having done s.t.; since
s.t. takes place § (time)
'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/v\/vx/\)
'“’W""""""""W‘ [REL. ato de; te-form of verb]
09 Key Sentence
—_— V I8
2%-ii mrm 2
Z? Ii mam g~r
ast fl%>REF:fiok/fi%iLt,
meumnzfizn/fiéicn,
Yuk/ko wa bangohan 0o tabete kara eiga ni
nr itta
ma / ikimashita.
zkimashita.
(After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.)
movie)
Formation
Vte 25> fig
25* 6
kara
E3
3% I/‘C
LT 75* 6
75> (after talking)
hanashite kara
'_§¢<‘(' 75:5
fix-c mt, (after eating)
tabete kara
@ flu£%m%fitrma5§ewn.
w flmfifimfificrmeoaewn.
Watashi wa tomodachi ni denwashite kara uchi 0o deta.
(I left home after making a call to my friend.)
@
(b) va—v%énnwo$v+v—&wUrmeEi+.
a --I/2'3 A/livva ‘bf/-v 7'-’i'l5't‘(F'('75>F>Ei'i‘.,
Jonzu-san wa itsumo shawé
shawa o abite
abize kara nemasu.
(Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.)
M flEm:@%&Eormes5+$m&a.
flE#:®%&E@T#5%5+$K&6.
Watashitachi ga kono ie 0 katte
kaite kara mo jdnen
jzinen ni naru.
(It’s already been ten years since we bought this house.)
w :$%n§fi$&&E:crme.i§—éuu$m%e&w:5mLrw
:$%m§fi$&&E:LTm%,i§—éAm$t%&twi5KLTw
i'§‘<.~.
$11»
N/nen mae ni kotsfijiko
Ninen kotsijjiko o0 okoshite kara, Mira-san
Miré-san wa kuruma ni noranai
yon/' shite imasu.
(Since he caused a trafiic
traflic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been
trying not to drive a car.)
178 kara”
karaz
1. Vte kara S means ‘' S after doing s.t.’ or ‘ S since ~ did s.t.’ The usage
karaz is an extended use of kara‘.
of kara?
2. Te kara is not to be confused with ta kara in which kara is used as a
conjunction of cause / reason. (=t>
(Q kara3)
karaa)
M m
& §a¥v¢ELTbBv+U—&$Uk°
§a¥V7ELT#BVYV-EWUKO
Jogingu o0 shite kara shawa
shawé o0 abita.
(After jogging, I took a shower.)
b. ‘J a 5?‘/7'2
:7 ¥‘/9'? l,1':7'J\E>~‘/-Y
I./T:75\E>°/-Y '7-&i~?:‘PUi7‘.:<,
V-'&Ti9P(J¢T:a
Jogingu o0 shita kara shawa'
shawé 0 abita.
(Because I jogged, I took a shower.)
(Related
Kara in Vte kara can be omitted if the main verb does not indicate a high
degree of volitional control on the part of the speaker as in the cases of a
strong suggestion, determination or a command. Thus, in KS and Exs. (a),
(b) and (c) kara can drop, but in Ex. (d), [la] and [2a] it cannot.
[1] 8- %§§7)3K:‘§b'2'C7‘J"?>"7"-‘=74
%5'§7b§f|‘!%b0'CiI‘E>'“i"=Z E *5: LE L:
LJ: 5°
Benkyo ga owatte kara tenisu o0 shimasho.
(Let’s play tennis after we've
we’ve finished studying.)
b. *%5‘§7)§i((%b'>'C. =7-:=7<?5_’ L32
*@§§2b3i'f%b'>'C, 5'*:r->'<’i' 1,: 5°
LE L4: '50
*Benky6 ga owatte.
*Benkyc5 owatte, tenisu o0 shimasho.
(*We’ve finished studying, and let’s play tennis.)
[2]
[2] a.
3- @§§zb§ii.4§b@'C7§\5fi(J<f.cé<v\,,
@g§b;%%boTb\BfiUf£év\O
Benkyo
Benkyd ga owatte kara asobinasai.
(Play after you’ve
you've finished studying.)
b.
b- *@5‘fi7)§§’i‘§z‘9o'CiE()W£é<v\,,
*§'il§§75§l~d§Il3 0'CIEU{7J? é l/‘o
*Benky6 ga owatte asobinasai.
(*You’ve finished studying, and play.)
difference between re
The difierence te kara and te is that the former focuses more on
chronological order and volitional planning than the latter does.
kara“
karaa 179
kara3
kara“ bug
1j\ 5 conj.
< /\/\/\/'\/\/'\/'\/'\./\/* /'\./\/\/\/\/\ /\/'\/'\/'\,'\/'\ '\/\/\/\/'\ /'\/\/'
'\/\/\/'\/\/\"\/\/\/\'\’\'\/'
l a subordinate conjunction which ex- so; since; because

presses a reason
PTCSSBS 3 or 3a cause
T688011 OI‘ CHUSC [REL. node]
\,\\/\/\
‘-\ /\/\/'\/\/\/\./'\/\/\f\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\
-\ /\ /\/\/\&§f\/\/\ /\ "\/'\/\/\"\./\/\/\ '\.,'/\\//*~
"\/'\/\/'\'\/\I\/\ X/\/\
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Subordinate
S b d' t Cl Clause -
(reason / cause )
u(re)ai-stiiia/ecausieglse Mam Clause
%
9&4?-FR’ B111
Eilli ~
A fi<
"<
.3
we
H5 axis 2E %§§L.'c
EIIFFE fimatr in?»/v
ms»/v~1*J"..
$1‘
Ra/nen N/hon
Rainen Nihon e /ku
iku kara nihongo o benkyosh/re
benkyoshite rru
iru //masu
/ imasu.
i
(I m studying Japanese U‘because
(I’m ecause I'm
Im going to Japan next year
year.)
(B)
“’-as
A: is
____i
E5 1,1
-b 1'
3:9 B2113?I1 2F: fifllifibf
LT Ellie“ fiaéaur I/\Za
was /U
‘Bi {rs/-ea“ 79}
/ulf/T1‘ 7)*}., f
‘Q
1 U
: K;
2
.
T
D6 shite nihongo o0 benkyoshite

Do benkyosh/te /ru
iru n {da /desu ka]
ka]. 'O
(Why are you studying Japanese?)
B Sentence (informal)
B:
éiéfli
-FR’ Elli
.93
*\fi<
53$ ’\ ‘Ii-'< >’i=»3
El- ‘b
I
rs/-ca".
TIn ‘--_ T?“
‘I
Ra/nen N/hon
Rainen Nihon e iku kara da //desu.
desu0.
I
(It s because I’m

(It’sT
Im going to Japan next year)

Q
year.) I
1%
KS(B):
Sinf in
755 5
F)
kara
I381‘
I331" //331,72}
E3 bk} in F,
71*») (because s.o. (will) talk //talked)
talked)
[hanasu
[hanasu / hanashita}
hanashite} kara
{Féjl/\
Iiéil/\ /'|‘é]2b>of:}
/f;=I.’1'“7)~':7‘:] 20>?)
inf; (because s.t. is / was expensive)
[takai /I takakatta} kara
{§§7b>T;’
i[§§7b=7‘;' §§2b>T;’o 7;}
/ §%7)~T;'c7‘:} 26>
71* I5 (because s.t. is /was quiet)
[shizukada / shizukadatta} kara
180 kara’
karaa
GEE
I965 ff / 5'55
7;’ 96$ ff 07:} 7b~l5
7;’ o7‘;} #15 (because s.o. is /was a teacher)
{sensei da / sensei datta} kara
%¥u+tfime§finfi&&wuw.
%-_1‘li+'|:7‘.f2b>E»iTi;*5iE’.£'fi7(bbf.t\r‘.,
Haruko wa jdshichi da kara mada 0-sake
o-sake o0 nomenai.
(Haruko is seventeen, so she can't
can’t drink sake yet.)
%BmfiLwFTm5bLk%T<fiéwo
’9fl3 (ill: L)/\'C"§"7§* 53> L7‘.:§i€'C < T53 l/‘s
Kyo wa isogashii desu kara ashita
ash/‘ta kite kudasai.
(Please come tomorrow because I’m
I'm busy today.)
o A:25ur%o5#&&Wnfinc+#.
A zéursoofifiewufiwciw.
D6 shite kino gakko o0 yasunda n desu ka.
Do
(Why were you absent from school yesterday?)
B: 5'Er)‘i;$2b=o7‘:.2b=F>'C“'§‘o
B1§§7.i§7§75=oT.:7f2~F>'C‘*i‘°
Atama ga itakatta kara desu.
(It was because I had a headache.)
-A
-A
A
A
A
A
__. A
A
A
A A
A
A
A A
A
A
A A
A
% A
A
__ A
A
1 A
A
A A
A
A
S kara represents a reason or a cause. Thus, S1 S; kara S2 corresponds to
because/since
‘ S2 because /since S1’, ‘ Because / since S1, S2 ’, or ‘S1,
‘ S1, so S2’. Note
that the order of S1 and S2 is not always the same in English, while
in Japanese kara clauses (i.e., S1)
Si) always precede main clauses (i.e., S2).
In subordinate clauses predicates are usually in the informal form. How-
ever, since the degree of subordination or dependency of S1 S; in “ S1 kara
S2 ” is rather low, S1
S2 may be in the formal form in very formal speech,
as in Ex. (b).
When a main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the KS(B)
pattern is used. In this case, the kara clause must be in the informal
form. The following sentence is unacceptable.
u)*%$B$~fi%iTm&fi/ff.
(1) *5lE5FEi2l§*\fi'%i1‘7b>F>7‘;' / '61‘.
*Rainen Nihon e ikimasu kara da /desu.
(It’s because I’m going to Japan next year.)
(It's
In question-and-answer situations as in KS(B) and Ex. (c), abbreviated
forms are occasionally used. For example, speaker B may say (2) in
the KS(B) situation.
m %$B$~fi%i¢m6°
(2) X55? Ei7l53’\fi% E??? 5.-,
Rainen Nihon e ikimasu kara.
(Because I’m going to Japan next year.)
kara“ I kashira
kara” 181
In this sentence, the main clause nihongo 0o benkyo shite imasu ‘I'm
‘I’m
studying Japanese ’ has been omitted.
kashira 1J\L,5
h\ L 6 P"-
"\ '\/\/\/\.’\./\’\/\/\’\/\/\./\’\’\./\/\/\/\f\/\/\/\/\/\'\/\/\'\ "\ '\/\ ,
a sentence-final particle which ex- Iwonder

presses the idea that the female '
speaker wonders about s.t. §I
~Z\I /\ Z\ /'\r
~.I'\/\/\/\./\/'\/'\/'\_y’
-\/-\r\ /\'\/\’\/\./\:
/\"\/'\"\./'\/'\»
Q Key Sentence
QKey
112$:/V
-hrA "Pf3/v ii av?»
51225 ii-us.
20 L60
Matsumoto-san
Matsumoto san wa kuru kashira.
/(68/7If8
Mr Matsumoto will come.)
(I wonder if Mr. come)
A
Q
{V/Adj <0} inf 2b=l,l3
(i) {V/Adi(/)1 awrs
kashira
(33-J"
{E5-§" /I 35
33 l,T;}
(,7;-_] 7;»
31 1, 15
£5 (I wonder s.o. (will) talk /I talked)
{hanasu
(hanasu /I hanashita]
hanashite] kashira
{gip /%‘;b>»;7’;}
fF;'-,‘v\ /",§,‘;§=,,f;] 75> 1, r_-,
;b>1,t3 (I wonder s.t. is /I was expensive)
{takai /I takakatta} kashira
(takai
(ii)
(ii) [Adj
{Adj (na)
(na) stem /N] {ol
stem/N} 7507:} 7)=Lb
Iv/1:21;} M»;
{o /I datta} kashira
{gags
{€§7§> /§§;)>7;'¢,7‘;}
/€$h~T5o7‘:] 73>],
75> L 5
F; (I wonder s.t.
(I wonder s.t. is
is I/ was quiet)
was quiet)
({shizuka
{shizuka I shizukadatta} kashira
([955
{$55 /955
/913$ 7597;}
f;'=_)f;"_] 75.1,
75>}, r,
1‘, (I wonder s.o. is /I was a teacher)
(sensei
{sensei /I sensei datta} kashira
182 kashira
W
A
@ h®%$0§¥nB$L5w#L&°
%®%$®E¥uBtL6wmL6.
Ano sensei no jugyo wa omoshiroi kashira.
(I wonder if that teacher’s
teacher's class is interesting.)
$¥s@um#fismLe.
$¥anum#fiawca.
Sachiko-san wa nani ga suki kashira.
(I wonder what Sachiko likes.)
aoxufinmce.
§>®A(i T:’a‘t2b= L 15°
Ano hito wa dare kashira.
(I wonder who that person is.)
Etymologically, kashira comes from ka shiranai ‘I don’t

don't know (if) ~’,
wonder”.
but now expresses the idea “I wonder ”.
Kashira is usually used by female speakers in rather informal speech.
The male version is kana',
kané, which is used only in fairly informal situations.
The formation rules of kana'
kané are exactly the same as those for kashira.
Sfml kashira is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Example:
(1)
(1) -'cr;&ififa\'c*1'r)>L¢>.
*'€‘.’l(i§7‘J\'C"§'7§=l/foo
Soko wa shizukadesu kashira.
(I wonder if that place is quiet.)
kané mean ‘I wonder’ (present tense), they cannot
Since kashira and kana'
be used for expressions like “ I wondered
wondered”” and “ Mr. Smith wondered ”.
For such expressions, “A wa Sinf kashira I kana kané to omou” is used.
Here, A is the person who wonders; to omou literally means ‘think
that
that’.’. Examples:
m
(2) a
3- flmm$énm%a#LBaE¢t.
?Llil"1§2'i§3 /vl:lI§lEZ>fJ‘ L '5 6: E-2 Tzo
Watashi wa Matsumoto-san wa kuru kashira to omotta.
(I wondered if Mr. Matsumoto would come.)
W$$hfl¢m3bfi%E#LBbEoE2
h w$ébfi¢Nébfi%i#L5t%ot°
Yamamoto-san wa Ogawa-san wa sensei kashira to omo-
tta.
(Ms. Yamamoto wondered if Mr. Ogawa was a teacher.)
-kata 183
.kat3
-kata jg"
ii suf.
sqfi
-~ '\/\/\/\/\/\'\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\.f\/\/\/\/\/\./\./\./\/\"\/\/\
'\/\/\/\./\/\I\/\/\/\/\./\I\/\/\'\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\v\/\/\ I\./\/\/\/\"\;
A/\/\/\I'\"§
a noun-forming suffix that indicates a way of; a manner of; how to

a way or a manner in which one [REL. h6h6]
hohdl
s. t.
does s.t.
\/\/\-
\/\/\ \/VWY
\/\/\/\I \1,\I-1/\1/“./‘¢\r/\/\/.\
9
Q Key Sentence
j——
/r—-at
7—#¢> co ('F97‘i
Vmasu
E flier <r;'év\..
v f'F9?3‘ Erfiif (T53 ‘O
Kéki no tsukun kara
tsukunkata 0 oshiete kudasai.
(Please show me how to make a cake.)
A
75
Vmasu 7'5‘
kara AA
Ab
A-Ali
A-Ali
A
A
A
A
3
A =
—- A
331,
33!, 15
ji (way I manner of speaking)
B =
A I
A -
A A
AAA-I
i
hanashikara
hanashikata
fix
Q 7'5‘
jj-j (way I manner of eating)
tabekata
‘
W C®@$®%%fi#fiW9ifih.
C ®¥§$®§€=7i7)§§3‘h> D E-t~:l:A/O
Kono kanp
kanji no kakikata ga wakarimasen.
(I don’t know how to write this kanji.)
M
m &@Ao$%fiu£sL5wc?n.
aoAo$éfiuatLawc+n.
Ano h/to aruk/‘kara wa omoshiroidesu ne.
hito no arukikata
(His manner of walking is amusing, isn’t it?)
M
(c ) B$%®%%®flfi&fiiT<fiéw.
B$%®@fi®flfi2fiiT<fiéw°
N/hongo no benkyo no shikata 0 oshiete kudasai.
Nihongo
(Please teach me how to study Japanese language.)
I
Notes
1. Vmasu+kata is in itself ambiguous, meaning either ‘way ’ or ‘ manner ’.

Thus,
m &hfififi$?T°
M &efifik$c+.
Nomikata ga dai/idesu.
dai/'idesu.
184 -kata I kawari ni
is ambiguous: it means either ‘The way of drinking is important’ or
‘ The manner in which one drinks is important.’ The separate meanings
become clearer in an extended context:
m
M :o%u&afi#k$c+.%+a%m&nv<nsw.
:o%m&afi#k$c+.%ffi%w&uv<fiéw.
Kono kusuri wa nomikata ga dai/'idesu. Kanarazu shokuzen ni
nonde kudasai.
(It’s important to know how to take this medicine. Be sure to
take it before every meal.)
m z—7fl&hfi#k$TT.
W x—¢m&afi#k$c+.
Sfipu wa nomikata
Sdpu nom/"kara ga dai/'/desu.
da/jidesu.
(In eating soup the manner (in which one eats it) is important.)
2. Sino-J apanese suru-verbs such as benkyo-suru ‘ study ’, denwa-suru ‘ tele-
phone ’, ryori-suru ‘ cook ’, setsumei-suru ‘explain
‘ explain ’ and sodan-suru ‘ con-
sult ’ need the particle no before shikata as in:
QA
—-A
I-A
W %fi/3%/HE/fi%®fifi
@%/%%/flfi/fi%®&fi
benkyo I denwa I ryori I setsumei no shikata
(a way I manner of studying I telephoning I cooking I explanation)
Kata can be replaced by hoho but only when karakata means ‘‘aa way of doing
Hohd roughly corresponds to the English word ‘method’; it means
s.t.’ Hoho
a relatively complicated way of doing s.t. Ex. (c) can be rewritten as [1].
M H$%o%%ofi$afizr<fiéw.
Hla¢%oa%ofim2aar<naw.
Nihongo no benkyo no h6h6 o0 oshiete kudasai.
(Please teach me a method for studying Japanese.)
kawari ni h\bDl:
7J\bDl: Phr-
)S.t. (including an action) replaces lg in place of ~; instead of; to
s.t. else. s5 make up for ~; although; but
MMNMN“MMM'M“AM'”NvWWN“
MMMMM"“M“M’““M’M”v““M'“ [REL. keredo(m0);
keredo(mo); shikashi]
kawari
ka wari ni 185
Q¢Key
Key Sentences
(M
11>
/-\ \./
Noun Noun Predicate
5'55
I-‘F I-Pr 0) S‘ b9D (1
<1) nub H 7)733as fix?
flit:ft /fizibfco
/iii Lfcs
Ti_ 1_ I’ _ \ .
Sense:
Sensei no kawan n1
kawari ni watashx
watashi ga osh/eta
oshieta I osh/emash/ta
oshiemashita.
(I taught in place of my teacher)
teacher.) .
(B)
zlflfl iv: fi:$

Ilifilil ll ii$ 2 "H5
T6 Mob
#159 tr:
(C Hfifl
3&5 ti
(1 {Mil
f7|<U/
Doyobi ni sh/‘goto
shigoto 0 suru kawari ni gersuyobi
getsuyobi wa yasumul
yasumuI
(*1) 1
{?|<?+ i 1'.
T.
yasumimasu.
(To make up for working on Saturdays, I take Mondays off.)
TDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and no, respectively.
A
M
U)N¢>#bDK
(i) N 0) 7)*1bD t:
no kawari
ka wari ni
95$ 0) 7b>b D II.
(D rbwb ll’. (in place of the teacher)
sensei no kawari ni
(ii) {V/Adj (1')) inf mbvm

(fi)W/Mfiwnm who ta:
kawari
ka wari ni
l§5"i'
iii?" /Z-"E‘LT:.}
/EELTC} 70>}; D ll
75*}; (C. (instead of talking I talked but)
{hanasu
hanasu I hanashita} kawari ni
gxzg /g¢<T:}
{QA5 /gxfc} 7b=b
inb D (C.
IC. (instead of eating I ate but)
[taberu I tabeta} kawari ni
ftaberu
['f%‘v\ I%2b~>7‘:}
ff,%.'§\i\ I'1.§.=}‘h=oT:} 7)*b
75=b D ll (s.t. is I was expensive but ~)
{takai I takakatta} kawari ni
[takai
{it /f.:'o7‘:}
(iii) Adj (na) stem {fit /fiofc} 7b>ibD
7)>bD I:
tr;
{na I datta} kawari ni
[na
{fih>?£
[§$2b"'.£ Ifiub>T;'oT:.}
I2”§r7b~7‘;'o7‘:} 7b>:b D ll’.
nab (C. (s.t. is I was quiet but ~)
{shizukana I shizukadatta} kawari ni
186 ka wari ni
A
M
(a) 1:‘--1w>rb=b 9D t.:i§*£~:Ev~i
(a.) 1:'—-/W)7)=b lrlifiérfilni Lt.
L72,
Biru no kawari ni sake 0o kaimashita.
(I bought sake instead of beer.)
M
(b) bkbmmbvmkfifiofhwwciw,
bf: I,e>2b>b D tcfifiififi--»'C il, vw\'C"§"2b=.,
Warashi no kawari ni chichi ga itte mo iidesu ka.
Watashi
(Can my father go there in place of me?)
@ QBm&B%<iT%5mbDt%Lkn—B*@%LiT,
eBm&a%<ac%ambvnaLnm—H¢%fiLa+.
Kyo wa yoru osoku made odoru kawari ni ash/‘ta
ashita wa ichinichi/'0 benkyo-
shimasu.
(I'll
(I’ll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing until late tonight.)
w $Earbwamb9nflaer<fisw1.
(d) -’=F'-‘[f:0'C€l'DlfZ>7)>b 9 lcfii-t?:'C < T53 to J10
Tersudarte ageru kawari ni nomasete kudasai yo.
Tetsudatte
(I’ll help you, so (to make up for it) please (lit. let me drink) buy me
a drink, OK?)
(e) fir/>7’/*’—
Q0)?’/4- I~ i1Z<(Ef.cr)=b
ti7F~fEf.i:r)>b D9 l~’.'.?'J<’E2b§$E\i\.,
tC'5i<’Erb§i'i\o.,
A
-Iii}
A
Kimi
A-
A
A
Boku no apato
aparo wa fubenna kawari ni yachin ga yasui.
Q
(My apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.)

m fifiafizrafinmbnmflifiafiaragak,
%%2fiiraHkmbvnfiifiefiirtaano
Eigo 0o oshiete ageta kawari ni nihongo o0 oshiete moratta.
(I taught him Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.)
® %@$m£mak#b9nl<&fiLk,
(8) %®$tii‘Erb=~->f:.:b=-b D ICJ: < iiklifibfcr...
yasukarra kawari ni yoku koshoshita.
Sono kuruma wa yasukatta
(That car was inexpensive, but it often broke down.)
N1 no kawari ni N2, N2 is regarded as the substitute for N1, which is the

In N2
originally intended item. In S2inf
S1inf kawari ni S2, an action or a state identified
by S2 takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-state represented
III S1.
in S].
Ex pressions]
S1 kawari ni S2, kawari ni can be replaced by keredo(mo) ‘ although ’ or

In S,
shikashi ‘ but’. Note, however, that the converse is not always acceptable.
Thus, keredo(mo) and shikashi in [1] below cannot be replaced by kawari ni,
because the meaning of ‘ making up for ~’ is missing, but the same conjunc-
tions in [2] can be replaced by kawari ni, because the compensative mean-
ing is present there.
kawari
ka wari ni I keredomo 187
[ll %1.i1’a“v~ war:

[1] iFLlil€l'\/‘ 4, oar:-. < s3 /Va-<5
/Va/<25 I-rtiéz‘
|1n£ (ti)/. LI»
um L1, /*ib\1b
/*1M> ‘J*1 l:fit:.t3fi\/*0
|:@li5‘§v\,,
Watashi wa amai mono o rakusan
takusan raberu
taberu keredo(mo) I ..Shikashi
Shikashi I
*kawari ni ha wa tsuyoi.
(Although I eat a lot of sweets, I have strong teeth.)
[21 %1.i1’a*v~i,</>2 r;<
[2] fl.i1’a“v\i.v>>& r.-;< éA,fi'<Z>l1'1'l.é:°(£)/.
3/vfi*<Z>l'l'1'Li*.:‘ (ti)/. I,/M,
LfJ\L / 7'J‘1‘J")|Z@‘5fJZ
ri~b'»J|:a21 <
fin
E < ..
Watashi wa amai mono 0o takusan taberu keredo(mo) I . Shikashi I
kawari ni ha o0 yoku migaku.
(Although I eat a lot of sweets, I brush my teeth well.)
keredomo U116 #6
(1218 =6 “"13
¢°"J'-
a disjunctive subordinate conjunc- although; though
tion that combines two sentences [REL. ga2
gaz (daga, dakedo, A
A
A
A
A
—
A
1
A
A
-
-
A
-
"’\¢,'\/\./\./N\/\-\ A A
-\_/\/\/\./N./\/\/\/\'\/\’\/\/\.'\.’\/\/\/C/‘C/\/\/\/\/\/\/N. /\ A -
demo, shikashi)]
shikash/‘)1
A'
A Z
A
§Key
QKey Sentence
Subordinate Clause (informal) Main Clause
i‘
fit :1 '5-'TJiI7§\0T:
(1 -‘a 3‘ r.,i;5~->1_ ima.
l‘)‘1l’L2:'(> I~J»~
l~J=~ ti 581-rt WT:
li §H1o'C W‘ /it aw...
I li\iLT:°
Watash/ wa iwanakatta
Watashi IW8fl8k8l'l’8 keredomo Tomu wa shitte
shme
.n ‘J
/ta I/ I'm88/7/Ii
ita imash/ta I.‘
‘I
didnt
(Although I didn’t
~11. ‘ IQ
tell him, Tom knew (about it))

it).)
A
m‘1.E*{>
Sinf D‘ 1'1. E ‘L
keredomo
i331’
‘[35’? I/ Efibfcl
33 bk} D‘1h.E 1,
D‘i'L2:' (Although s.o. (will) talk I talked)
{hanasu I hanashita}
fhanasu hanashira} keredomo
{El/\ I Ei>b=»>7‘;}
-[Ev Erhofc} U31, E 1,
Uh, (Although s.t. is I was expensive)
{takai I takakatta} keredomo
-jfirbfii
{fiiPT.i' I fi7)*T;'o7‘:}
fi7b>7.:'oT:.} i‘)‘1l’Lé:'
Uh E ‘b I) (Although s.t. is I was quiet)
{shizukada I shizukadatta} keredomo
fshizukada
{iii
'l5'5€l3 Ii I 9653
T5 96$ 7‘.:"of:.} l“H1.2:'
7‘;'oT:;} mug I) 11, (Although s.o. is I was a teacher)
{sensei da I sensei datta} keredomo
188 keredomo I kikoeru
M
A
(a) :v>2i:t1%‘v\n‘né:'(,v\v\1i<'C'*J".k..
C'.0)2lIti'1é1'\/\t)‘1l’l»&"¥>\(\\(\2l§£'G"*I'.-.12.,
Kono hon wa takai keredomo ii hon desu yo.
(Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.)
(b) finF4v%#aivfleueawnnaaflwuaundaamw.
(Eli F4 ‘7i%75§&> i 9 §5‘€< IL *t>>’.cv\D‘i1/<‘:’ ‘bflfi Lt:h‘:h.t1'f.c F>?.i?\r‘°
Boku wa doitsugo ga amari sukijanai keredomo benkyoshinakereba na
na--
ranai.
(Although I don’t like German very much, I have to study it.)
(6) k%ékuh+fifinnE$&rtiifi.
(G) 7‘€¥l‘é /otiiL+fiT::Tt)‘1l1.I:' ‘L t ‘C ‘(>73§if.:'a
Gno-san wa kytijussai
(jno-san kyfijussai da keredomo totemo genk/"da.
genkida.
(Although Mr. Ono is ninety years old, he is very healthy.)
1. S,
S1 keredomo S2 means ‘Although S1, S2 ’. S, keredomo is a
Here, S1
subordinate clause, therefore it is usually in the informal form. How-
ever, in very polite speech, S1 can be in the formal form, as in (1).
(1) :¢>1i<t;t%l.\‘C'*J'n‘nE(,iw\1l='6*r.t..
I'_0)2l§ti'1§jL\'G"§'t‘J‘i1.E‘(st/\\1\2l§2'C"J'.J:.,
Kono hon wa takaidesu keredomo ii hon desu yo.
(Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.)
2. The informal forms of keredomo (listed from least formal to most
formal) are kedo < kedomo < keredo.
kikoeru Elli?»
Hlié 'v- (Gr- 2)
I\/\
"'\/\ /\/'\I\/\r\"\"\/\./'
/\"\ '\/\’\ '\"\’\./ /\/\/\_/-_/\_/\_r~ /\_/ I
. . ,
S.t. is passively and spontaneously , audible; (can) hear; it sounds
audible. ~; [REL. kikeru]
\A1-/4-*.,_,\'/\/\/\
'\'\/'\'\
"\'\/'\"\ '\'\/\./\'\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘./\'\/\/\./
KA/\\ J\&fiAJ(
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) Audible Object
at
#1. §(i:) ti:1
§(t:) ac v ~-r 0<0 *"’
5<'v\-r F-‘1--a‘ 753131 .r<
J:< F%Fl""i
\.. Z» /fi=FlI;‘i*J'.
Filcza/Fficiisr.
z.
Watashi (ni) wa uguisu no koe ga yoku kikoeru I kikoemasu.
(Lit. To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible. (=I can clearly
hear the cries of a nightingale.))
kikoeru 189
M
@ %@%uméT§T%:zmw.
(3) ‘cf/>‘%ti/l~é 1" i="T|3'@il Z‘. ;2'.f.cv\..
Sono oto wa chisasugite kikoenai.
(That sound is too weak and is not audible.)
fimsko%mkawoc%®%@oAmt:<%:ze.
M fimék0$mk%w0cfio%E®Am$l<%:i5.
Gyama-san no koe wa okii node tonari no heya no hito ni mo yoku
kikoeru.
(Mr. Oyama’s voice is so loud that people in the neighboring rooms
can hear him.)
fimm£%0#nm%#H:ik#.%mmw:i&mak,
M flKfi£%®#n®%fl%:ik#,%Kfl%:i&Wok,
Watashi ni wa 0-tera
o-tera no kane no ne ga kikoeta ga.
ga, ototo ni wa kikoe-
nakatta.
(I could hear the sound of the temple bell, but my younger brother
couldn’t.)
m %—7—éb®¢akim%m%:i5.
w ¥—7—éb0WQkimEm%:i6° A
A
A
A
A A-
Téré-san
Tera san no tsukutta bun wa hen ni kikoeru.
A A
A
A -—-
A
A
A -—-
A
A
A A
A
A
A i
A
A
A A
A A
A-*" Z
(The sentences which Mr. Taylor made sound strange.) A

A
Expression]
Kikoeru is different from the regular potential form of kiku ‘hear’ (i.e.,
kikeru), in that the former indicates a passive, auditory potentiality, whereas
the latter indicates that the speaker (or the subject of sentence) can hear
sound not passively but actively. Thus,
[1] %mE#m:iuvM*HHuu.
W I%i1Hri=|%E1:it:i.\ / *l%El|1>‘.i:t\.
Boku wa mimi ga kikoenail *kikenai.
(I am deaf.)
C./otctc:(£:6lCEZ> at J:.1: < |’=1:i1::u/*|&1i1t;i.\.1:.

[2] r./.,f.ct:i§>5t:F.'§Z> |'i:€l:if.t(.\ I *|'£1|1f.tt.\..):.,
Konna ni ushiro ni suwaru to yoku kikoenail
kikoenai I *kikenai yo.
(If we sit this far back, we won’t be able to hear well.)
[3] vw\2=i- i/71:2?->2‘.:?i= 12> 1/11- Fz‘:§F:fll't%> /*|"a:'lC'.;Tr.%>.=
Q]wwz+v¢&Eakm&v=—F#fiW6Pfizié.
/i sutereo
surereo o katta kara rekodo ga kikeru I *kikoeru.
(I bought a good stereo set, so I can listen to records.)
m %%#5aé<r%#m:iuu/mwuu.
M*%%#5aé<r%#m:iuu/Hutu.
Ongaku ga urusakute hanashi ga kikoenai I kikenai.
(The music is so loud that the conversation is inaudible I we cannot
hear the conversation.)
190 kikoeru I kiraida
Note that in [4] both kikeru and kikoeru are possible, depending on the
speaker’s perception of the situation; if he perceives the situation to be in-
alterable, he uses kikoeru; if not, he uses kikeru.
§5t\7.-5
kiraida éétw‘.-I @411 (na)
s.t. or
or s.o. is what
what s.o.
s.o. does Qfaifé don’t like; dislike
E.
‘ S.t.
(K ike.
s.o. is does
m/\/\/\/\/\/\/\A/\.A/\/\A/\/\/\/\f\*\/\’\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\A/\/\A/»
K/\.A/\A/\/\/\A/\A/\/\/\/\’\/\/\'\.\/\\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
1.
don’t like; dislike
(ANT. sukida)
Q§Key
Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) Disliked Object
fl
.ii § n a—x
as-—>< imO
sewn/sewer.
saw /%F.>v~'c 0
['5
Watashz
Watashi $94.
wa ch/zu
chizu ga
<Qas-
° Q)"
,1
k/ra/da kiraidesu.'~+
kiraida I kzra/desu
(I don’t
don t like cheese)
cheese.)
(a) t%i1¢saisa»~r:.
(5) (%(i4§75§€F>\/‘T11
Boku wa fu yu ga kiraida.
fuyu
(I dislike winter.)
m $74bébm7vb£—wfifi%&w?T,
M $V4b$hm7vbfi—w#fi%&wTT°
Howaito-san wa futroboru
futtoboru ga dai-kiraidesu.
(Mr. White hates football.)
Notes
1. Kiraida is a na-type adjective which requires the “wa-ga construc-

tion ”. (Q
(=> ~ wa ~ ga) The experiencer (i.e., the person who dislikes
some thing) is marked by wa and the disliked object by ga. Note that
the disliked object is marked by ga, not by 0.
2. In subordinate clauses, wa marking the experiencer changes into ga, as
seen in (1).
kiraida I koto‘ 191
iF1.h§=I--—-2’r)'=1€* i5v\f.r::
(1) a. %LfJ<a'——-z°>b§€= F.>v\f.i::<Eii?+/vfrfifiil->'Cv~Z>.,
<‘: tiJ+/vtiréitl->'Cv\Z».,
Watashi ga chizu ga kiraina koto wa minna shitte iru.
(Everybody knows that I don’t like cheese.)
b. aii<aev~i.¢$a"ni1a-c-i.
@152? 6v\t.r$Eiit:ta<'c--1-.,
Boku ga kiraina kisetsu wa fuyu desu.
(The season I don’t like is winter.)
3. “ Dislike a lot”
lot ” is expressed by dai-kiraida, as in Ex. (b).
AA
AA
AA
A-A
AA
A-A
A-A
A-A
A-A
A-A
Aj-
A’?
AA
A-A
'-Q’?
A
AA
AA
AA
koto‘ C
C. <‘:
J; "-
/'\/\/\ ’\’\/\'\/\/\’\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\
g a thing which is intangible thing; what

""‘”""”"
M’ ‘‘I [REL. mono]
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Adj
I
L\L\
t\i.\ ca efiivc
2 fiat a>ifJ:5/aiifauirfi
am’; 5 /Z-btfibx 5.. O
Ii koro
koto o oshiere
oshiete ageyo I agemasho
agemasho.
(Lit I'll
(Lit. Ill tell you a good thing.
thing (=I have a good suggestion for you ))
you.))
32
(B)
Relative Clause
$'__
$1><i
I" EDT:
I2‘. IHt\f..l
_i kaita
. ._
1
Ct N O E Efilxt
33!./C <7 M- li
<7;'év\..
Ronbun m
ni k8Il'8 koto o0 hanashite kudasai
kudasai. .°°/
(Please tell me what you wrote in your thesis.)

thesis)
. ('02’
192 koto‘
W)
(Q
—II— Noun
7'§'7:/at/V ti
7"'i'7‘/3/vii B11:
B21 0) 7:‘?-‘
xi <0 ca
ct 2 .t< in/)1 v\z>/
.1:< 5EI1¢'cv\1:>/
Buraun-san wa Nihon no daigaku no koto 0o yoku shitte iru]
iru/
v\i'§'..
)1‘ i 1‘.
nnasu.
imasu.
(Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese universities.)
m
(i)(V/A&(m
(i) {V/Adj (i)} mf
inf at
Lit
koto
‘[2-15'?‘
i§3'i' I/ iifibfcl
35 L71} Z
C. <‘:
k (what s.o. (will) says /said)
{hanasu Ihanashita}
-{hanasu /hanashite} koto
mi
mi
1
-iii 1
[B ‘b'L6\i\
-[$5 ‘i>‘L6l/\ I/ is
B 1, 1,57»-J
l,67b>-o7‘:_} Z’. 2;
7;} Z; t (what is / was interesting)
i.
i —-_
___
?.
-__.
i.
-__.
?.
Z
5
i
-__
___
___
—-_
___
___
i
___
1-
1-
[omoshiroi /omoshirokatta}
~[omoshiroi koto
% 1-
$-
(ii) Adj (na) stem {:2/1:91;}

{it 5'; <1:b
/ 7;’->711} C
{na I/ datta} koto
{jqifg I/jqi fiofc} :,
jq$ 7;‘-27;} Z‘. I;
t (what is /I was important)
{daijina I/ daijidatta} koto
(iii) N 0) C.
(D Z. t
no koto
5'55};
515$ 60 C.
0) Z’. k
& (things about the teacher)
sensei no koto
M
@ fiiazeutaéwntacn.
M k$&:&m$5£%%LiLk°
Daijina koto wa mo zenbu hanashimashita.
Da/jina
(I already told you everything that’s important.)
M %$#§0KCZE%iTWiT#°
%$fl§¢k:&&%iTwi¢m.
Sensei
Sense/' ga itta koto o0 oboete imasu ka.
(Do you remember what (=the thing which) the teacher said?)
finozausnnéw.
@ fifiwztufintéwo
Shiken no koto wa wasurenasai.
(Forget about the exam.)
koto‘ /I koto” 193
1.
l. Koto means a thing which is intangible. Thus, (1) is ungrammatical.
*1=sv\l,v\:<‘:i1&>
(1) *i‘@‘v\l,v\:t (iii) D in-/v2b>..
3E't3_‘/i/75%,
*0/'shi/' koto wa arimasen ka.
*Oishii
(Lit. Isn't
Isn’t there a delicious thing?)
2. N no koto, whose literal meaning is ‘thing of N’, is often used with
such verbs as shitte iru ‘ know’, hanasu ‘talk ’ and wasureru ‘forget’,
and means ‘ know about N ’, ‘talk about N’, etc.
3. Koto is used as a nominalizer, too. (Q koto’)
koto”) Ex. (b), for instance, is
ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either ‘‘Do Do you
remember the thing which the teacher said?’ or ‘Do you remember
(the fact) that the teacher said (it)? ’
Mono also means ‘‘thing

thing ’, but it means ‘ a tangible thing’. Compare koto
and mono in the following sentences:
[1] %v\=!=.-0)
;%.v~=t.0> I/ *C¢':
*: <2 nifiii
maxi LT.:2b>.,
l,T.:2)=.,
Kuroi mono /I *koto ga miemashita ka.
(Lit. Did you see a black thing?)
[2] tat.
28'!) LZ>v\;<‘:
l,Z>v\:<‘: /*=t,0>2i%t,r
/*=b0)23fil,'C < f:'f.:"év\..-.
¢-"S!/‘O
Omoshiroi koto /I *mon0
*mono 0 hanashite kudasai.
(Please tell us interesting things.)
koto” C; <\;
koto’ A: "Om-
/\/\/\
a nominalizer used to indicate the to ~; ~ing; that

speaker’s relative lack of empathy [REL. n03]
nos]
with the content of the sentence he
is nominalizing
/\vx/\ ./\ ./\',¢\/ \‘v/
194 koto’
koto”
QKey
§Key Sentence
Sentence (informal)1'-‘I’
\I252
/]~;'i‘${',
1 2E: ¥(
E< it
(‘I ti
ii flu»
fit!» (ca->.
(’C"§‘).,
'
Shosetsu o0 kaku koto wa muzukashii (desu).
(Writing a novel IS
is har
hard.)
Q- V
TDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.
1'Da
M
(i)
1 {V/Adj (i)} inf -1'1.‘:
.E
koro
koto
I331‘/Efibfc}
{EST I E3 Liz} 1: kt
C ((the fact) that s.o. talks /I talked)
{hanasu /I hanashita} koto
{féjln /F-,%.';'2§>oT;}
{film I%]2§>oT:} C.
.2 k ((the fact) that s.t. is /I was expensive)
{takai /I takakatta} koto
(ii) Adj (na) stem {it /riot}
{foe /T.:'oT:} C
C. b
<‘;
/ datta}
{na /datta} koto
{§§;b>f;
{fipifg /§%;b>T.;'oT:;}
/§$;b>f;’o7‘;} L’;
Z, bk ((the fact) that s.t. is /I was quiet)
{shizukana Ishizukadatta}
/ shizukadatta} koto
(iii)
111 N {'C' 2916
{'6' /‘C’ 3507:/T;'0T::}
39?;/T‘ 2?)->7: I f;'oT.:] Cb
.1 <‘:
{de aru /de atta /datta} koto
Wei ~t1'= ms
wai / 95$ 'c
ms/52$ 1' nor; /92$ rs/31;}
amt;/§'a& Te’-17;} .:.&
:2; ((the fact) that
{sensei de aru /Isenseide
{senseide sensei do atta / senseidatta}
/sensei datta} koto s.o. is //was
was a
teacher)
m
M
@ %w%twwfi§2W6:tu&T$fi$E.
M %w%KwwEE2W%:&u&T£k$fi.
Wakai toki ni ii tomodachi o0 tsukuru koto wa totemo daijida.
(It is very important to make good friends when one is young.)
M k#@$®%7§vzm%#+a:&2%irwiT.
k$m$®fi7§vzm%$+5:&2%iTwiT.
Daigaku yonen no toki Furansu ni rydgakusuru koto 0o kangaete imasu.
(I am thinking of studying in France during my senior year.)
B$®ik#££L6w:&mfi#5$.1=—9fitfiEbtW.
M B$®iMfiBbL6w:tu9m5#.1=—9fi&uEb&w.
Nihon no bunka ga omoshiroi koto wa wakaru ga, yuniku da to wa
omowanai.
(I know that Japanese culture is interesting, but I don’t think that it is
unique.)
koto’ 195
koto?
w 24
(d) z4xfi%nw&:&m3ET%¢TwiT.
:<2b§€=hv\f.i:: &t13E*C'5a1¢Tv\3i'§'.,
Suisu ga kireina koto wa shashin do
de shitte imasu.
(From pictures I know that Switzerland is beautiful.)
(e)
(6) §)0))\7)3vW‘A'C'2ibZ>
§>®)\:b‘§vw\)\'G&)Z> Z <‘: ti
C. k I17‘: L7)~'C"§‘°
7‘: L7§='C"§'s
Ano hito ga ii hito de aru koto wa tashikadesu.
(Lit. It is certain that he is a good person. (=He is without doubt a
good person.))
The nominalizer koto turns not just a verb or adjective but an entire sen-
tence into a noun phrase. For example, in KS the sentence shosetsu o0
kaku ‘ one writes a novel’ becomes a complex noun phrase. Once a sentence
has become a noun phrase, it can be used anywhere a regular noun phrase
can be used. Thus, it can function as the subject, as in KS or Exs. (a)
and (e), or as the direct object, as in Exs. (b) and (d), and so on.
="— K E-
T N
In contrast to another nominalizer no, koto tends to indicate something the -
speaker does not feel close to. Thus, in KS, the nominalizer koto indicates
that the speaker of the sentence is not personally involved in writing a
novel; in other words, he is stating the sentence in general or objective terms.
The nominalizer no, however, indicates something which the speaker can
directly perceive or empathize with. (Q no”)no?) Therefore, if koto in KS is
replaced by no, the nominalizer now indicates that the speaker of the sen-
tence is somehow personally involved with writing a novel; in short, he is
empathetic with an act of writing a novel. A few typical examples in which
no or koto are unacceptable are given.
[1]
[1] a.
a- %ti§%ZEi)§i9i< ('0) I *-I <‘; &R"cv\1‘.:.,
fiéiifiiiflflifi-i<<'®/*Ct&E.Tv\T:.
Boku wa Shizue ga oyogu no /I *koto o mite /‘ta.
ita.
(I was watching Shizue swim.)
h :‘<.‘Ei‘é/.m¥:/.,f.:t:-E.~§i=1l,'tv\z>0>/
b. sfién#:n&n@mLrwaw/ncamfimgnwor P2: <\;1)§é}z§»i>,1*..:i/W)?
O-ké-san ga konna ni shinpaishite iru no I ??koto ga wakaranai
O-ka-san
no?
(Don’t you understand that I am (lit. your mom is) really worried?)
c. ~21-~/:1 is/w>§i$*a@a“z>a>
I. -— A1 1:’1wb§i‘5E@'i‘Za 0) / *2
*:e<‘: Eilfza
eiti-21:.
Tc.
Jén wa Biru ga sentakusuru no I/ *koto o tetsudatta.
(Jane helped Bill do laundry.)
196 koto”
koto’ I/ koto ga aru‘
d. .:v>lIIT'ct1v\v\=éi"é'i'é2|i-il<
:v>wT'C*iiv\v\%;'i'é£'fi=Fl< It ct /*0>r)§Hj;leZ>.,
/*0)2b'=1H:l§lEZ>.,
Kono machi de wa ii ongaku o kiku koto /I *no ga dekiru.
(I can listen to good music in this town.)
e.
e. ,%z>:<';/*0>i1f€l;z>:t/*wr:.
Rblt /*0)lifi§lLZ>C<‘: /*(DT:'°
Miru koto I/ *no wa shinjiru koto /I *no da.
(To see is to believe.)
Incidentally, the difference between koto and no is apparently due to the dif-
ference in the initial sounds k and n; the velar sound k is used to symbolize
a harsh, metallic, impersonal sound and the nasal sound n is used to symbolize
a soft, warm, personal sound.
(Q Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)
C.<‘:1J<35Zw
koto ga aru‘ C;¢‘;fJ<&36 Phr-
/'\./\/\
!\/'\/\ /\"‘
There was
There was aa time
time when
when ~.
~. §2 S.o. has done
S.o. has done s.t.; S.o. has
s.t.; S.o. has had
had
""N“'
“M” an experience doing s.t.; There
was a time when ~.
Q Key Sentences
Sentence (informal, past)
ii‘
251. 7:1"-F1//"\fi'.>T:
ti El-—¥='~y/i'\fi'>f: 2b‘§§)Z.'>/3bDi'§‘
Ct 7)§ 2!bZ>/2bDi'i‘°
Watashl wa Yoroppa
Watashi e itta koto ga aru /anmasu
I arimasu.
Europe)
(I have been to Europe.)
l/52 iii
l/5'2 X7 art. i51'i)\*JI':
7%'n~->1;
vsE (1 a 79
:2; to =a>z>/mat.
no/ans-r
Retasu ga totemo takakatta koto
koro ga aru /anmasu
I arimasu.. O O
O
(There was a time when lettuce was very expensive.)

expensive)
Sinf-past 3,3 753

1;); bi $22;
$25
koto ga aru
E3 1,2‘:
331,1‘; r.1:. 2;& 25$
bi $25
he (have talked)
hanashite koto ga aru
hanas/vita
koto ga aru‘ 197
f§,"';§>,,7; ; k
'€1'i>>o 7‘; C ,\; 753
:03 3,5
$2; (There was a time when s.t. was expensive.)
takakarta koto ga aru
takakatta
§?H0>f.'_’o7‘;
5"$7)>f.:'/>7; C’; &
Z <‘: 25? $25
753 3525 (There was a time when s.t. was quiet.)
shizukadatta koto ga aru
95$ 7591;
5’EEE 7.507; 5';
C 3 2: 70$ 5,5
75; $6 (There
(There was
was aa time
time when
when s.o.
s.o. was
was aa teacher.)
teacher.)
sensei datta koto ga aru
@ flm¢¥&c¥%&fiik:&#bDi?.
M flu¢#&c%%2fiin:&mz0i+.
Watashi wa chtigakko
chdgakko de eigo o oshieta koto ga arimasu.
(I have taught English at a junior high school.)
M
(b) /l~JlI 3 /villi iii :1’/1/7 E LT: 1:. t :b§f.:v\..
$NébfiififiW7ELt:t#&Ws
Ogawa-san wa mada gorufu 0o shita koto ga nai.
(Mr. Ogawa hasn’t played golf yet.)
M
@ flmB$omfi2;<%nfi:a#za.
fluB$omfi2:<%kfi:e#h&.
Watashi wa Nihon no shosetsu o yoku yonda koto ga aru. __i_
=-_-E1
(There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.) =__ K E

== E
w z—¥vm—%v+x#&<sfl%fiOn:amps.
W z—¥vfi—%§+f#tThfl%fiot:tfihéo
Sdzan wa ichiji jazu ga totemo sukidatta koto ga aru.
(There was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.)
@
(6) flufwfififiifiakcefihvir.
?Ll;’l:7°F1 EIERI-§$T;i0 Tc‘; k 253?) D ET.»
Watashi wa puro-yakyd senshu datta koto ga arimasu.
(There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.)
1l. In general, Sinf-past koto ga aru expresses the idea that there was
a time when someone or something was in some state or did something.
2 More specifically, Sinf-past koto ga aru expresses one’s experience. In
2.
this case, Sinf-past koto ga aru is an extended use of the possession
expression “A wa B ga aru”, where B is a past action rather than a
possessed thing. (Q aru‘, Note 4) This extended use of the expression
of possession for the expression of experience in Japanese is parallel to
that in English. Compare (1) and (2).
(1) [Possession]
Hufifiné.
?L|1$7'J<F>Z>°
Watashi wa kuruma ga aru.
(I have a car.)
198 koto ga aru‘ /I koto ga aru’
(2) [Experience]
flili in “/ 75%’:-'§f@5'§
[I2 7‘/ 7:=%1;'§ffllg§ l/TC’.
L/TC C. E Jpast action fJ{$6s
fJ($6°
Watashi wa [roshiago o0 benkyoshita kotolpast
kotolpm action
g¢(i0n ga aru.
(I have [studied Russian.]p,s¢
Russian.]p,22 action)
,,¢¢i<,,,)
3. In the Sinf-past koto ga aru structure, a past time adverb can be used
in S.
M flu£¢%cH$~fiot:&fi&6.
(3) $.LtiEfiI£i'5fiTIlL'; li"l7l51’\i"'foT: C i‘: fJ§§5%>.,
Watashi wa gonen mae ni Nihon e irta
itta koro
koto ga aru.
(I went to Japan five years ago. (Lit. I have been to Japan five
years ago.))
“I have been to Japan ” and “" It was five years
(3) expresses the ideas “l
ago” at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed
cannot be too close to the present. (4) is unacceptable.
*%1.i1%0>-3 3s 1,¥»2fi/<1;
(4) *%1.i1%<1>5 i,1»2fi¢<t;.:: aifiaszi.
.\;n<as1;>..
mi-
*Watashi wa kin6
kino’ sashimi o tabeta koto ga aru.
ii-
(Lit. I have eaten sashimi yesterday.)
koto ga aru?
aru’ 21¢‘; M5525
-.'.'.é:1J<636 Pl"-
Phr-
I\/\/'\./\'\/\"\/'\/\/\/‘\/\'\/\ /\/\/'\ '\/\r\/\/\/\/\/\/\/~./\
g; There are times when ~. 3 There are times when ~.

\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\l'\"\"\/\
K/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\'\'\’\ '\/'\"\I\/' /'\/\./\/\/\../\/\/\/*
Q0 Key Sentence
nonpast)T
Sentence (informal, nonpast)1‘
1
TL
F‘ iiifiilli-6!
ti WIS-6&1 A6 04 ._&2b$>Zs/§>')i'i‘
lb b§£!i>Z>/8b')i'i‘.>
.f* _>'
Watashi
Watashr wa asa furo I7!
ni halru
hairu koto ga aru / anmasu
koro arimasu..0
(There are times when I take a bath in the morning)
morning.)
TDa after Adj(na) stem and N changes to na and nol
no/ de aru, respectively.
M
m
V / Adj (i) inf-nonpast
(i) V/Adj ;-_ 3
3; I; 3‘; 3,5
7); 3,3,
koto ga aru
koto ga aru” 199
35'?‘
351' Ck2: Z);
793 Z55
$5 (There are times when s.o. talks.)
hanasu koto ga aru
f;E}]t(\
11%.-‘inn ;_
;'_'_ 3
g ;§§
793 35;,
3,5 (There are times when s.t. is expensive.)
takai koto ga aru
(ii)
(ii) Adj
Adj (na)
(na) stem
stem 1*;
in ,1);
:1; 753 $5
:51 no
na koto ga aru
1;',&;b>f,,:
§;)-1:; J; J;
1 3 753
703 3523
3,5 (There are times when s.t. is quiet.)
shizukana koto ga aru
(m)N{o/tam zaaina
(m)N{®/T%6}C&7$&6
{no I/ de
do aru} koto ga aru
{955
(96% 0) /913$
V) /51535 “G Z?)/I5}
‘C’ $95} C :_'_ k
3 793
751 355
$25 (There
(There are times when
are times when s.o.
s.o.
{sensei no
no// sensei do
de aru} koto ga aru is a teacher.)
m
M
m nmLu%:%&fi&fm%&~fi<:&#ba.
M k#unflrfiea~+K#&~fi<:e#na.
Takashi wa asagohan o tabezu
tabozu ni gakko oe iku koto ga aru. Ni
Z
_= 1
E
Z Z.
(There are times when Takashi goes to school without eating breakfast.)
Zti i
2 =-
1 I
iIN
IN
(b) 2: @130) i"3 ll/7

.2 DIED 11/? iif.:ii:'.$v\:.
t1f.:it.:§v\:; t<‘: 2b§&>Z:».,
753256.,
Kono mise no miruku wa tamani furui koto ga aru.
(Occasionally there are times when the milk in this store is old.)
M
@ Y;uneH$~oAew2E5&%n#H$Meaa:a#r<&a.
7%Ufi?B$~®A%HEE5&%n#B$fiT%5:&fil<&5a
Amorika de
Amerika do Nihon eo no miyage
miyago 0o kau to soro
sore ga Nihon-sei
Nihon-soi do
de aru
koto ga yoku aru.
(Often there are times when we find out that a souvenir we’ve
we've bought in
America for someone in Japan is made in Japan.)
w %fi®wb@5B%fi&u$%®E%fi&t¢&w:tfibéa
M fifi@wb¢aB%fimu$%®E%fi&te&w:afihé.
Saikin no iwayuru shizenshokuhin
shizonshokuhin wa honto no shizonshokuhin
shizenshokuhin ja nai
koto ga aru.
(There are times these days when so-called natural foods are not genuine
natural foods.)
1. Sinf-nonpast koto ga aru expresses the idea that something happens

from time to time.
2. Adverbs of frequency such as yoku ‘‘often’,
often’, tokidoki ‘sometimes’ and
tamani ‘occasionally’ are sometimes used with this expression, as in
Exs. (b) and (c).
200 koto ga dekiru
dokiru
koto ga dekiru C'.<‘:7‘J<t.l:i5iE?5

Ctffifliélié Phr-
EX/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ '\"'\ "\’\’\/\/\
é"\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\'\'\'\"\"\/\/\
\
Doing s.t. is possible. gE can; be able to
/\/\./\"\ '\/\/\'\
./\/\
“"’““"““ ‘“"’“”W""WW"‘ [REL. raroruil
rareru2]
-/\./\
Q§Key
Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) - Subject

;
-- Vinf» nonpast Nom
masu
Hzlus/., §e1ii ¢@%
=I=@§§ 2 at
515-4" :¢
:3 gm Hifléé
Hixvsl/
Taguchi-san wa chiigokugo 0o
chdgokugo hanasu koto §ga dekiru /
dokirul
‘i §3 mxaa.
wxifo
dokimasu.
dekimasu.
(Lit. For Mr. Taguchi speaking in Chinese is possible. (=Mr. Ta g uchi'

Taguchi
can speak Chinese.))
mi
iii
GEHHMI
iii
{iii
ii-__—-,
- ti
p -_-—
p in
Vinf-nonpast :3 253
1); bi B35153;
[;lj;l&5
dokiru
koto ga dekiru
331-
331" 1', &
C 3 7);
263 Hjfléé
[;lj;[£5 (s.o. can
(s.o. can talk)
talk)
dokiru
hanasu koto ga dekiru
Q/<5 C
fi*<Z> 3; <‘:
3 713
75‘; HHEZ5
[;lj;[&5 (s.o. can eat)
raboru koto ga dekiru
taberu dokiru
ififlflml
h
w %li§?fil¢'-finlf1<I5!ii'C'EB%-‘"rFa'iT'fi<
(a) %%fim%nnkmavE%%vfi<:&#m%o. : .1; r)§l:l:l§lE?>.,
Shinkansen
Shinkanson ni noreba
noroba Gsaka
Osaka made
mado sanjikan de
do iku koto ga dekiru.
dokiru.
(If you take a bullet train, you can get to Osaka in three hours.)
(b) /l~liElli7‘<'>¢)B#/4
/l*l5Hli‘/*<00)Hi-'j=/< ‘7/‘
~y/\ EU < 1 <1; n§l:l:l§lETc;.,
C. k 2b3l:lIl§lET;°
Oda wa muttsu no toki Bahha 0o hiku koto ga dekita. dokita.
(Oda was able to play Bach at the age of six.)
vavvvénflH$%v%fi2%<:&#m%%.
M §avyvébmH$%T$fiE%<Ct#&%6°
do tegami
Jonson-san wa nihongo de togami 0o kaku koto ga dokiru.
dekiru.
(Mr. Johnson can write letters in Japanese.)
GHQ)
dokiru is a potential form meaning ‘‘can’,
1. Vinf-nonpast koto ga dekiru can ’, or ‘ be
able to ~ ’. This potential form is used in the “ wa-ga construction ”'
”:
dekiru 201
koto ga dokiru
N (animate) wa (~ Vinf-nonpast) koto ga dokiru.
dekiru.
where N is an animate experiencer and the noun phrase ~ Vinf-nonpast
koto is a subject noun phrase nominalized by koto. The meaning of the
structure is ‘ N can V’ (lit. ‘ For N Ving ~ is possible.’).
(@>~
(wt ~ wa ~ ga)
2. If a verb is closely associated with its direct object, as in (1) and (2)
below, o0 V koto can be deleted.
in-+vv—ue7/(§w<:a)#m%a.
(1) '1"/“/~—iil:°7/(€'§¥< :.';):b§Hj;l&z>.,
Nanshi wa piano (o
(0 hiku koto) ga dekiru.
dokiru.
(Nancy can play the piano.)
(2) [H2115
l5"‘l7F<‘§/vlifl =/7%(='&§a'§':t)v§§H:i§Ez>.
/vii w ~'/7%(=&§i?': <‘:)r)§Hi§lE%'>.,
Okamoto-san wa roshiago (0
(o hanasu koto) ga dokiru.
dekiru.
(Mr. Okamoto can speak Russian.)
The 0o V koto deletion is unacceptable in the following sentence, how-
ever, because there is no close association between the verb and its N
i
direct object.
Z 3
=_K=
i Z
i
(3) z
x i2 2 :5$5 /vii Elli?-§®%TEfil’é%%~’.tC it<‘:/*¢}71*l:li§lEE>..
M1 B1l§§*§®%‘iBfilE§?-it:C / *fl} n‘*H:i§E%>. mi
Sumisu-san wa nihongo no shinbun {o yomu koto / *o}

*¢} ga dokiru.
dekiru.
(Mr. Smith can read Japanese newspapers.)
A shorter potential form of verb, i.e., raroru2

rareruz can replace the longer potential
form koto ga dekiru
dokiru without a change in basic meaning. Thus, Exs. (a), (b)
and (c) can be rewritten as [1], [2] and [3], respectively.
M
[1] %#fin%nfikWicE%%vfiH6°
%‘i#ia'i1i:%1rti;f7<I11>ii'c=-E.H%-*rFa'i'efii11£>.
Shinkansen
Shinkanson ni noreba
noroba Gsaka
Osaka made
mado sanjikan de
do ikeru.
ikoru.
M
[2] +mu#ow%fiv»#/zvwt.
/l~B3lli>*<o0)B#/‘i‘7/‘?53/ ’i'Ul'l'f:s
Oda wa muttsu no toki Bahha gal 0o hiketa.
hikota.
m v=yv>éuuB$%v$fl#iw6.
va>v>anuH$%c$fifi%wb.
Jonson-san wa nihongo do
de togami
tegami ga kakeru.
kakoru.
Basically, the difference between the shorter and the longer potential form
is one of style; namely, the shorter version is more colloquial and less formal
than the longer one.
202 koto ni naru
koto ni naru C.é:l:/2:6

C.<‘:l:7Zi:6 P1"-
P7"-
An event takes place as if spontane- it will be decided that ~ ; come
ously, irrespective of the speaker’s about ~; be arranged that ~;
volition. turn out that ~
—\-\/ \/ ,¢\ .¢,\/ \V/ J
[REL. koto ni suru]
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (experiencer) Vinf- nonpast Nom
at
1L § iit alto:
as Jklili
km lr:
K oars
Efita :3
ct l:llkokl
a<.r=/
Watashi wa rainon
rainen Osaka ni tonkinsuru
tenkinsuru koto ni nattal
natral
§5 avabn.
Hflibko
narimashira.
narimashita.
L
(Lit It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka next year
(Lit. year. (=I m
(=I’m
mull
-iiiii-1-uni
i
1-11--in
r 1-Q
| 1-1
..-i
1-
»»
i-
1-
going to be transferred to Osaka next year.))

year ))
*-
I T
—
1-
1-
I I-Q
1-
5-
(B)
Topic (place) Vinf nonpast
Vinf-nonpast
El1l§T'§li
El ‘C aafiozzaue
in 0) ZE I
'2
£6.o
N/hon de
Nihon do 5::
wa kuruma wa ITIIC/7!
michi no hidangawa
hidarigawa o0 h8$hIfU
hashiru
|SiWil
i
Nom
%
. 1
1:3
CZ: la
ll’. f.co'Cv\Z>/Mi
7.;T'>Tl/‘Zr/l/‘i'§'°°9+
koto ni natte iru] imasu..~+
iru/ imasu.
. ‘MI 'Rt
(In Japan cars are supposed to be driven on the left side of the street)
street.)
Vinf-nonpast ‘C. E
C lC. {£3329
2: ll {Q5 / 23:07:}
21;:-.->7’;]
koto ni [naru]
I naru/ natta}
E31‘
33'?‘ C
‘C. <‘:
k lC. {$15
(2335 / fgofc}
fgok} (it will be decided / it has been decided
{naru / natta}
hanasu koto ni {naru/ that s.o. will talk)
Q/<5 3; lz: {fjb
1 3 l: {f;5 / fgofzl
7‘.;2o7'£] (it will be decided / it has been decided
taberu koro
taboru [naru/ nazza}
koto ni {narul natta} that s.o. will eat)
koto ni naru 203
@
(a) flfl¥B#B%&Kfiw6:tm&9iLk°
ii-.li5lEFl 15> 6%~¥ii:.¥Jia> a .: 3 ls: xi: 9 1 Lfcs
Watashi wa raigetsu
raigotsu kara kaisha ni tsutomoru
tsutomeru koto ni narimashita.
(It has been decided that I will be employed at a company beginning
next month.)
M
(b) §9§+vtvéhmB$T%%&fii6:ttkévbx5°
%5}*‘/'-v ‘/-Ir?/é/vliBI$l'C'§§§’$:fiiZ>‘:'. &l:.f.cZ>'C*l,.t "’).,
Tabun Jansen-san wa Nihon do oigo 0o oshioru
de eiga oshieru koto ni naru desho.
(Perhaps it will turn out that Mr. Jansen will teach English in Japan.)
M
(0) %$fiHw%fi+a:anmn1cn.
5lE$7'<Fl l~‘li%ll§'i‘Z> Z‘. 3 ll it 9 i Lfca
Rainon rokugatsu ni kekkonsuru koto ni narimashita.
Rainen
(It’s been arranged that I will get married next June.)
(d) z£2éhuB$T%%&fii6:&mkoTw5,
w 2 -F. 2 £1 /vii B1li't‘9€§§§:fi>‘c5 3; 3 i.:f.c->'Cv\5,,
Sumisu-san wa Nihon do
de eigo
eiga 0o oshioru
oshieru koto ni natte iru.
(Mr. Smith is supposed to teach English in Japan.)
@ %BmH%$n%5:&u&@TwiT.
%BmH%£n§5:&c&arwi+. _-=:- E
Kyo Yamada-sensei
Kyd Yamada-sonsoi ni au koto ni natte imasu. 2
=3
§
'5
== E
(Today (it’s been arranged that) I'm
l’m seeing Prof. Yamada.) ‘K-
i
1. This construction is used when some decision or arrangement is made

by some unspecified agent. Semantically this construction is close to
the passive, because the experiencer has no control over the event.
2. Even when the experiencer himself decides to do s.t., it sounds more
indirect, and therefore, more humble for him to use this construction
rather than to use koto ni suru ‘ decide to do’. (=i>
(=9 koto ni suru)
3. Koto ni natte iru, as in KS(B) and Exs. (d) and (e), indicates that some
decision took place at some point in the past and that the result of
that decision is still in effect, sometimes to the extent that it has become
a rule or a custom.
204 koto ni suru
C.<‘:|:.'§'6
koto ni suru C&l;'§'Zv Phr-
/\/\./\I\"\/\/'\"\/\/'\'\ \/'\./\/\
/\/\/\/\’\/\/'\’\/\/'\’\ ~./\./\/'\ '\/'\./\
"\/\/\ '\/\/\
*\/\/\
s.t. is
A volitional decision to do st e -
\/\
decide to
'\/\/
made. é [REL. koto ni kimoru;
kimeru; koto nr
ni
\-§
\;
\/\/'\./\¢
\-/\1\4\¢\¢\-g \/\/“\_/'\/'\/
/\./\./\/\/\/\/\/\'\/\/\/'\/\/\
-/\/\/\./‘\/\/\/\/\/\ r\/\/'\/\/\./\/\. '\’\/'\/'\"\"\/\/\’\'\/\'\/
'\."\./\/'\"\'\./'\./\"\"\/\/'\/‘ /\/\'\'\/\
/‘\/'\"\.'\/\
naru]
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (agent)
-— Vinf- nonpast Nom
#1.
$1. ii 4-.%¥i
:1 an =2:2
A rawa
“P606 ca
"
Ct 1, /cam.
la: L7‘:/
la 7‘: l/ibfco:
Watashi wa kaisha 0o yameru koto ni shita /shimashita.
/shimashira.
(I decided to quit my company.)
(B)
Topic (agent) nxégggt Nom
#1.
%L gia:1 EH
on 5+3) <*a~~@oia
3+6) T6 ct
<'6v~E§J1 E '4'?» :3 lalC. l,'Cv\Z>/
L/C val
Warashi
Watashi wa mainichisanjuppun gurai undo 0o suru koto nishite
ni shite iru/
err.
bar.
5 imasu.
/masu.
(I make it a rule to exercise for about 30 minutes every day.)
(i) Vinf-nonpast Ck ll
C2: lc. {T6
H-5 / l,f;}
l,7‘;}
koro ni {surul
koto {suru / shita}
33"!"
33*!‘ C. <‘:
C k llll’. {T25
{T5 / Lk}
Lfcl (s.o. decides / has decided to talk)
hanasu koto ni {suru /I shitai
shita}
fi/<25 I.
3.’. 2:
k l:
ll’. {T6
{'J'Z> / L71]
bk} (s.o. decides / has decided to eat)
taboru koto ni [suru
taberu {suru / shita}
@
M %$@Efl%fifi2HfiT6:&mLiLk.
%$®Efi%fiE&fifiT6:3KLiLk.
Kozoshi
Kotoshi no natsu wa Hokkaido 0o ryok0'suru
ryokosuru koto ni shimashita.
(I’ve decided to make a trip in Hokkaido this summer.)
koto ni suru 205
fifiiTfizTfi<:knLiL:5a
M Efiicflzvfi<:&nLiLr5.
Kyoto made basu do iku koto ni shimasho.
de /ku
(Let’s (lit. decide to) go as far as Kyoto by bus.)
@ fiBfi$&+%i6:&mLiLk.
fiB&ia+%za:3mbabn.
Mainichi kanji 0o to oboeru
obooru koro
koto ni shimashita.
shimashira.
(I’ve decided to memorize ten kanji every day.)
w
W flumkbiflfifitwckwbrwao
flmW&&x9fi&ow:&mbrw5.
Watashi wa niku 0o amari tabenai
tabonai koro ni shite iru.
(I make it a rule not to eat very much meat.)
1. If one decides not to do something, the verb before koto ni suru should
be negated as in:
M
(1) E9=v7Kfi:5kEokbfTfi,fibfihlkfibibko
l:°7 -'1 9 9 lcfil 5 &.E§.o7‘:/o'C*'§‘7)§. fi"7§~f£L\Z; t ll Li bk,
omotra n desu ga. ikanai koto
Pikunikku ni iko to omotta koro ni shimashita.
I've decided not to.)
(I thought I would go to the picnic, but I’ve
—
ini-
Kimi
2. Koto ni suru is a more complex version of N ni suru ‘decide on N’,

_
iii-—
in _
11- in
in —
in in
in in
L
-i in
in
N -'
-—
—-- in
—-- _
(Q ~ ni suru) The complexity is due to a noun phrase

‘ make it N ’. (-='>
;-"
—,_-
{ti
L1
—
Zn
nominalized by koto. (Q koto2)

koto’) An example of N ni suru is given below:
in Arfitbifwo
(m A=fim;bx1w%
Nan ni shimasu ka.
(What are you going to have (lit. decide on)?)
BI
B I 1*
/"~ ‘//*-—-7'1’-—-(C.
‘//3'-33"-ll’. l,3i'§‘.,
l,i'§'.,
Hanbaga ni sh/masu.
Hanba'ga' shimasu.
(I'll have (lit. decide on) a hamburger.)
(I’ll
Expressions]
[Related Ex pressions]
I. Koto ni suru indicates someone’s volitional decision

decision, whereas koto ni
Q
naru indicates a non-volitional decision. Therefore, if you perceive a

given decision to be your own decision, you should use koto koro ni suru;
on the other hand, if you don’t perceive a given decision to be your own,
you should use koto ni naru instead. That is why koto ni suru and
koto ni naru are very awkward in [la] and [lb], respectively.
ll] a-3- %Le11<IKiil~1$i’§1rrz> : ak eat:
flilijill/il~’-'-fii!i1J'§‘Z> Z1 (Cf; Hi L1: / ???L§
‘J $ LT: (.12.,
???L$ LT:s
tonkinsuru koto ni narimashita / PP?
Watashi wa Osaka ni tenkinsuru
shimashita.
(Lit. It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka. (=
I’m going to be transferred to Osaka.))
I'm
206 koto ni suru /I koto wa
&e:.tr;i£.: atama
b- fiiircifz *3%>#>z> 1:.: 32: ic.
ac Li LT: I/ mt; ua 1.3.
PPM: Hi l.r=..
Boku wa tabako 0o yameru koto ni shimashita / ???narima-
shita.
(I’ve decided to quit smoking.)
II. Koto ni suru and koto ni kimoru
kimeru ‘determine to do s.t.’ are virtually
identical in meaning. The difierence
difference is that the former is an idiom and,
therefore, frequently used in colloquial speech, while the latter is appro-
priate when the speaker is talking about a relatively important decision
in a rather decisive manner. Also, koto ni suru can be used to mean
‘I hereby decide to ~’ but koto ni kimorukimeru cannot. Thus, [1] below
cannot be rephrased by koto ni kimoru.
kimeru.
ll] $Lli§’=‘ii’<i:"§°¥>Z> Z1: 33: (C. LIT
[1] $Lli%‘ii2’<°bbZ> l,§'§'/I ???aa‘>$1'.
???%6b§T°
Watashi wa kaisha 0o yameru koto
koro ni shimasu / ???kimomasu.
???kimemasu.
(I’ve decided to quit my company.)
iii
L1
'
L-3
it
5-5
. 1-.
0 1-.
' Q“
1-
_
it
—
5-;
5
koto wa C'.<‘:la'
-LL-lat Phr-
Speaking of proposition X, X is cer- indeed one does s.t. alright,
i tainly true. (but ~); indeed ~ (but ~); do
\/“v\-./\/.\/.\/‘\/.‘\/
‘N"W"" ~ (but ~)
§Key
Q Key Sentence ‘
W.
Topic
(SUb_|€Ct) V] in
Predicate;
V2
Predicate;
"“”‘°" --I-
#1.
ri. in 6---z£"§'%>
Ea =1-.-=3 ch =1 -re/ta-r
are :3»: -re/ta-4* »*3$i;e».e»~/3
»= 11%».-»».¢v~/1;
Watash/'§ wa tonisu
Watashi; ten/su o0 suru koto wa suru/shimas
suru/shimasu ga jozujanai //jo-
jo-
§ iueavaan.
icebviem.
zujaarimason.
zujaarimasen.
(I do play tennis, but I am not good at it.)
liflflfll
O
(i)
(I) (Vi
[Vi / Adj (/)1}
(1)1) inf 3-
33 3 (1
ii {V2/Adj (/)2}
koto wa
koto wa (where
(where (v,
{V, // Adj
Adj (1),)
(/)1} ={V2/Adj(i)2})
= [V2 / Adj(i)2})
koto wa 207
331'
33'3" C 2: li
‘C. 3 [1 {EST
{E37 /Efil./i'i‘l
/Eibiil (s.o. does talk)
hanasu koto wa {hanasu /hanashimasu}
EELT’;
EELT: ‘C. 3
C 2: ii {EELTC
{iifibfc /EELE L71}
/Efibi bk} (s.'o. did talk)
{hanashita /I hanashimashita}
hanashita koto wa [hanashiza
E51/~ C2:
El/\ L13 ii §v\("c'-;-)
El/\('G-j-) (s.t. is expensive)
takai koto wa taka/(desu)
fiawofc T.
§]7§>0TC Z13 §;o>/_>7‘;('c~-J-)
k ii E7)>,,7;(-(P;-) (s.t. was expensive)
rakakatta(dosu)
takakatta koto wa rakakazta(desu)
(ii)
(ii) [Adj
{Adj (na)
(na) stem;
stemi 7;
tr CI; 32: /N1}
/Nil ii [Adj (na)
ii {Adi (na) stem; / N2} [Til
stema/Na} '(“§"}
{Ti/1'1“)
na koto wa [da
{da / desu}
(where {Adj
[Adj (na) stem, / N1} = {Adj (na) stemz
stemg / N2})
flip’:
f-#z)>?’.C C
‘C. 2:
3 ii
li i‘§'r7§>
E??? {7‘:'/
{Til 'C"§"}
'C"J'} (s.t. is quiet)
{da / desu}
shizukana koto wa shizuka [da
f/W\
l/W) A ii I/W\ A
)\ [T:f/
{Til '("§‘}
'C"§‘} (s.o. is a good person)
3
ii hito wa ii hito {da / desu}

dosu}
(iii) {Adj
{Adj(na)stemi/Ni}
(/78)St¢mi/Ni} T507"-Z
Tia T: 1:
C k3 ti
ii {Adj(na)stem2/N2}
{Adj (na)stem2/N2} [T.f0T;/
[21-Io kl 'c*l,r;}
‘C’ Lt}
datta koto wa {darta doshna}
[datta / deshita}
N1] = {Adj
(where {Adj (na) stem, / N1} [Adj (na) stemg
stemz / N2})
i’§7b=f.5 ofi.'
i’-¥s7)=f:foT: Z13
C 2: ii §% 20>
$7? { 7L" 0 L' / '6
{fiofc ‘C* L71}
.:
LT} .. was quiet
(st
(s.t. ' )
quiet)
sh/zukadatta koto wa shizuka
shizukadatta sh/zuka [datta
{datta /dosh/ta}
/deshita}
l/W\
I/W) A 7:107:
7307‘: C
L’; k
3 (1
ii vw\
(Mn A Ifiofcl
{ffofcl 'C'L7‘;}
'C'l,7‘.:} (s.o. was a good
hiro datta koto
ii hito koro wa ii hito
hiro {dazia
[datta /deshiia}
/deshita} person)
O
@ 9a—vXéAuH$%&%T:&u%LiTfi,fi¥&:&L#€iit
va—v%ékuB$%3%T:3m%LiT#.%$&:3Lm€i3%
/Vo
loo
Jonzu-san wa nihongo 0o hanasu koto wa hanashimasu ga. kantanna
iomason.
koto shika iemasen.
(Mr. Jones does speak Japanese, but he can say only simple things.)
(b) rriz
IE2 |l~~ v
2/ ~‘/:/7>r:-—</>l;IJ?%’H:.tE:?_r;: M1 Eii Lfcvbi,
~‘/‘/7 >1-I-‘-~—0)’~;'lJi?i‘liE;"r.7.:;: 3&1 Lfcni, 7<%%v\)#.='c*
;kZ~%v\)#'t*
Lice
Lfco
Bosuton Shinfoni no kippu wa kaeta
Bosuzon kaota koto wa kaemashita
kaomashita ga. ta/‘hen
taihon
warui seki
soki deshita.
doshita.
(I could buy a ticket for the Boston Symphony alright, but it was a
very bad seat.)
208 koto wa
M :oEmfiw:&ufiwcTfi.t®#;<&Dita.
W :®Em£w:3u£wTT#.b®#3<3Di%ke
Kono mise wa yasui koto wa yasui desu ga. mono ga yokuarimason.
yokuarimasen.
(This store is inexpensive alright, but its goods are of poor quality.)
W '9,‘
(d) %B®fi§flfiLmok:3fifiLmot#3<m%t°
B rbértfilifi L7b>of:: 2: lifil,7)>o7‘:7b§J: < iIH§lET:°
shikon wa muzukashikazta
Kyo no shiken muzukashikatta koto wa muzukashikazza
muzukashikatta ga yoku
dokita.
dekira.
difficult, but I did well on it.)
(Today’s exam was indeed difificult,
flo7fi—bu§mfi<r@fla:3mfiWhHw%%E#3rb%wc#.
@ flo7fl—buRmfi<rEfia:eufiwhwwxafifiartawvro
apato wa ek/'
Watashi no apa'to eki n/'
ni chikakute benrina
bonrina koto wa benridesu
bonridosu ga,
takaidosu.
yachin ga totemo takaidesu.
(My apartment is close to the station and convenient alright, but the
rent is very high.)
W
M %®fi@¥#fi%fiokCkflfl%TLk#.%EfiL&#okhTT°
%®fi®¥fifi3E@k:3mfl3TLkfi.%EuL&mokk?T.
Sono onna no ko ga sukidatta koto wa sukidoshira ga, kekkon
sukideshita ga. kokkon wa
shinakatza
shinakatra n desu.
(I did like the girl, but I didn’t marry her.)
b®AmwwAuwwAfiokUn3fiEfiokh.
® b®AmwwAmwwAfi@kHnEfi@fiokh,
hiro wa ii hito
Ano hito hiro wa ii hito datta keredo
korodo gankodatta no.
ne.
(He was indeed a good person, but he was stubborn, wasn’t he?)
1. In this construction, when the main verb is in the past tense the tense
of the first verb / adjective can be changed into the nonpast tense.
Thus, Exs. (b) and (d) could be (1) and (2), respectively. The switched
versions are more common in conversation.
m
(1) fizbvvv7¢:—0mfimEi6:aufiiibkfifififiw
nix I~ ‘/ ~‘/ ‘/7 >1-:--<DlflJ¥?Hi EFL6 C. 3 ti E23 l,T:23§7l<’£‘§;v\
$1‘ LT:e
WI‘ LT:°
Bosuton Shinfoni no kippu wa kaoru
kaeru koto wa kaomashira
kaemashiza ga
taihon
ta/hen warui soki doshita.
seki deshita.
m %B®fi§flfiLUCtfl%L#ok#l<$¥t°
aBoa%nfiLu:3u§baan#3<w¥t.
Kyo no shikon
shiken wa muzukashii koto wa muzukashikarta
muzukashikazza ga yoku
dokita.
dekita.
2. The verb
verb// adjectivel
adjective / noun before koto wa is normally marked in the
informal form even if the final predicate is marked in the formal form.
3. Normally this construction is followed by a disjunctive conjunction such
as ga ‘‘but’,
but’, korodo
keredo ‘ but, although ’ and shikashi ‘ but’.
-kudasai
~kudasai 209
~|(ud35ai
~kuda$ai ~ ( f;-:3“
f_-f;§[,\ aux. v. (imperative form)
an auxiliary verb which indicates a please do s.t.

polite request
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/'\/\/
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(M
Vteo
5115135
)’~+ -‘ClE 'C'
‘C
Bull EDT ’s
%l.\'C <<2’7‘;'év\,
fie V o
Nihongo de do kalto
kaite kudasar
kudasai.
(Please write in Japanese)
Japanese.)
E
(B)
Vne 8
Vneg
%% E
fig‘ 3 {Eb
g
. tr!/\ '6‘Gk-
f..cv\ T < Tf;'év\.,
fie 03 v o
E/go
Eigo o0 tsukawa naz do kudasar
m
u .E
nai de kudasai. i
5-
%' 3
N iI
H
(Please dont
don’t use English.)
English)
Vie
(i) Vro < 75$!»
Tzféi/\
kudasai
Efi L/C
'53 l/C < 7;’
7:‘ é M
In (Please talk.)
hanashite kudasai
1%/<1‘
f;{'<'C < 75$
7‘;-fé l/\
I/\ (Please eat.)
tabete kudasai
(ii) Vneg fgl/\ ‘G
74:!/\ "G <Tfél/\
<7;-I3!/\
nai do
de kudasai
E-=,‘33f,;:v\
j-;ggr.;:v\ ‘G
'C' < 7‘;-Iév\
7:13!/\ (Please don’t talk.)
hanasanai do
de kudasai
Q/<f_;:v\ 'C'
fix/;v\ '6 < 725$!/\
fiél/\ (Please don’t eat.)
tabonai
tabenai do
de kudasai
W
(a) :®§%®fi%3fiir<fi3w.
C ®§fi®E$l&&fii'_'C < 7‘.-t 3 in.
Kono kotoba no imi 0o oshiete
oshioto kudasai.
(Please tell me the meaning of this word.)
210 ~ kudasai
M fi£%<%%L&wv<fiéw.
&n%<%%tawc<fisw.
Yoru osoku donwashinai
denwashinai do
de kudasai.
(Please don’t call me late at night.)
1. Kudasai is the polite imperative form of kudasaru, the honorific version

of kureru ‘ give (me)’ and is used as an auxiliary verb with the to-form
te-form
of verbs. (Q
(=> kuroruz)
kureru?)
2. D620
Dozo emphasizes the speaker’s request and makes it more polite.
m
(1) E5¥fiiT<fi3w.
E5%’fi;?.'C < 75$ ll‘o
D520 oshioto kudasai.
Dozo oshiete
(Please tell me.)
3. In very informal speech, kudasai may drop. (This form of request is
often used by female speakers.)
(2) 3- $<§lETe
$< §i€T<,
Ii-H
H-ii-
,.i__i|i
-
-
p
p
I.
ip
i-
i-
ip
1-
Hayaku
Ha yaku kito.
kite.
- i-
- —
'
I
_
-
I
-
—
W
1-.
1-.
1-.
1-.
‘-
(Please come quickly.)
it-1
it-1
b.
b- i2‘;'i%6f..cv\'C'..
if.:’ii%6f..cv\'G..
Mada kaeranai
kaoranai de.
do.
(Please don’t go home yet.)
4. The negative question form, seen in (3), makes a request more polite.
(3) 3) L7‘:/\B€Fl:5lE'C
lb LT:/\B€=l:.5lE'C <( T53 t\§ttAnb\..
I.-\§'l2‘Ai7b‘e
hachiji ni kite kudasaimasen
Ashita hachi/i kudasaimason ka.
(Would you please come at eight o’clock tomorrow?)
S. Kuro,
Kure, the imperative form of kureru, can also be used in place of
kudasai in informal male speech. {Vto
{Vte / Vneg nai do}
de} kuro
kure is the least
polite request form.
(4)
(4) 8- %&'-'i§lC5lE'C<1'l'=>
%3—'irElrI.§lE'f<#1.e
Boku to isshoni kite kure.
(Come with me (please).)
b. 7/<— l~l~ lC.li5lEU.L\'(‘
b. '7/i~— iCl:t5lE7£l.\'C‘ ((ti.
Jl"I..,
Apéto
Apato ni wa konai do
de kure.
(Don’t come to my apartment (please).)
-kun 211
.|(u|1 E
.ku|1 g suf.
'\/'\/\/\/\
’\./'\./\/\/\. /\./\/\./~./\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/'\/'\/'\/'\'\./
/\/\/V\/'\/'\/'\'\-/ é
a sufiix
suffix attached to the first or last % [REL. -sama (-chan; -san)]
name of a male equal or to the first 6
(
or last name of a person whose status §
or rank is lower than the speaker’s Eé
(i) Last Name E’

3
kun
|_|_| EB
ll] [H E
1?; (Mr. Yamada)
Yamada-kun
(ii) First Name E‘
3
kun
Jkfili g
j<E[§ € (Taro)
(Taro)
it
N-
Taro-kun .i._._i_.._
=_-E
1' 1
i___ §
(iii) Last Name First Name E

E-
kun
|_|_|HEl
[LEE] ;l<E|§ g
j<E[$ (Mr. Taro Yamada)
Yamada Taro-kun
O
M
(3) tb.tb,—w3wa+m.
‘b L, ‘B L, —El$€l/‘3i'§‘75*°
Moshi,
Moshi. moshi. /chiro-kun imasu ka.
(Hello, is Ichiro in?)
mnfifixifiwtaaafi.
M mngfififififivaeafi.
rainon kekkonsuru soda.
Taguchi-kun ga rainen
(I heard that Mr. Taguchi will get married next year.)
@
M mn—%fi.fiE£wv&5.
ED—%E-flfi£wo35e
Taguchi /chiro-kun. shoshin omodoto.
omedeto.
(Mr. Ichiro Taguchi, congratulations on your promotion.)
A male may address females of lower rank by -kun. A female student may
address males of equal or lower rank by -kun. Such addresses are com-
monly used in situations such as schools and companies.
212 kurai
kurai <5!»
(Bin Pt!-
Pri-
~
éi approximate quantity or extent éi approximately; about

[REL. goro; hodo (bakar/)1
¢Key Sentence
QKey
Number
N umber-
Counter
ifi
ii we
We *2“/77‘/~‘/2:1
'9"/7-'7"/='/2:1 av fi%fi% '6'
$1‘ fiéfifi -e 11.B%Fa1
11.B#I'E1 < aw >>=>>=z.>
a=a=z> / vb»
Tokyo kara Sanfuranshisuko made hikdki
hikoki de kuiikan
kujikan kurai kakaru /I ka-
:b>
>b> 9D $11,
i To
karimasu.
(It’s about nine hours by plane from Tokyo to San Francisco.)
m
--ii
ti
iii
ti
_..
_.
_-
1-
i
._._
(i
(i) N umber-Counter < F; In
I5!/\
_ i
_
._
_
=3
_
_
=8
__.
j
i
Z
__
_._
_._
_._—'*
_._
kurai
ti
m
i-
EH11‘
IEJH} < I5!/\
BM (about four volumes)
yonsatsu kurai
I-§')\
EA < BM
I5!/\ (about a hundred people)
hyakunin kurai
(ii
(ii) Demonstrative {Pronoun
{Pronoun/Adjective}
/ Adjective} < (5!/\
F)!/\
kurai
{zznl I-<0}
{2;h/ CV9} < an
Bl!‘ (about this much /to about this extent)
{kore / kono} kurai
{en/%@l<ew
{%n/ :60} < Bl!‘ (about that much / to about that extent)
{sore / sono} kurai
{&>:h./ em} << Bi!‘
{$JIi'L/ §)@i aw ((referring to an object that is removed from both
{are /ano} kurai the speaker and the hearer) about that much /
to about that extent)
{Enl
{.En/ Ewl
24>] < an
so (about how much? /to
/ to about what extent?)
{dore / dono]
dono} kurai
(aaa)
(iii Interrogative Pronoun $&:.tv\ < I5 <’ Bl/\'C'
F>v\'c‘ Lien»,
Lf:'.2b>.,
Sono kuruma wa ikura gurai deshita ka.
(About how much was that car?)
B: §EIi+7:7P3
B1 §£+7iP] < F>\r\'(‘ Lfco
I5!/\'C' Lice
Hyakugo/'0man'en kurai deshita.
(It was about 1,500,000 yen.)
(b) x i X é A/l1,"%i£l§(:lE>b=}5]
2 /v&:.tfi%‘lKl:lE2b>-Fl < I5!/\fio'Cy\i
¢,v\fi¢'tv\i 1,721,,
L7‘:..,
Sumisu-san wa Kyoto ni yonkagetsu kurai itte imashita.
(Mr. Smith was in Kyoto for about four months.)
mméu¢ew%%#w%nH§LwvL;5n.
M wEéh¢BW¥%#$%flH¥LwfL;5na
Yamada-san gurai eigo ga dekireba tanoshii desyo ne.
(It must be fun to be able to speak English as well as Mr. Yamada
(lit. to the extent of Mr.Yamada).)
M
(d) flfi¢r%n¢ewo:&u%wvi+:.
TLf.:fo'C%1l1»<" '5!/\0)Z'_ .1; li§3‘70> D ETJZO
Watashi datte sore gurai no koto wa wakarimasu
wakar/masu yo.
(Even I can understand that sort of thing (lit. things of that extent).)
Kurai may be freely replaced by gurai without a change in meaning.
kureru‘ (< 11.5

11,5 v- (Gr- 2)
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\'
S.o. whose status is not higher tha give

the speaker’s gives s.t. to the fir (DI31-r (D morau‘)
[REL. ageru‘; moraull
person or to s.o. with whom the /./\/\/\/'\./\/\/\(
1
I
speaker empathizes. <

/\'\/'\/\/\/\r\/\/\/-\/\/\/\/\/\ '\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\'\/\'\'\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\'
’\/\/\/\/\/\’\/\&f\%/\/\f\/\\/\/\/\/\/\'\’\\’\/\\’\/\’\Q/\/\/\,
§Key
Q Key Sentence
(SUb]8Ct)
Topic (subject) Obj8ClZ
Indirect Object Ol)]CCt
Direct Object
>l- lé/v
7<J|lé</v
\- T- i‘
,‘ I " \-/ . _H_ 2
5: (217 [I /<iL3El,T..s
<21,7‘:/<ibiL7‘:°
'\
Gkawa san wa
Gkawa-sané I
(watashr
(watashi 'n)
ni)
~..FT hon 0.
O kureta /kuremashita.
/ kuremash/ta
(Mr. Okawa gave me a book.)
214 kureru‘
i
W
(a) 1;’/w:.t(€l:)fFI£' hi Li;
If/Hi (EICHFIE < 11$ L7‘:2b~,,
15>.
Biru wa (kimi ni) nani o0 kuremashita ka.
(What did Bill give to you?)
mHéhflfi®UTwKv:—FE<hk°
M mHéAufi®UTwtv:—F&<hk.
Kawamura-san wa watashi no musume ni rekodo 0o kureta.
(Mr. Kawamura gave my daughter a record.)
1. Kureru, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means

‘ give ’. Unlike the English give, however, kureru is used only when
the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker
empathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (1) is
unacceptable. (If the speaker empathizes with Mr. Ito, (1) is considered
acceptable. Addressing someone as “ Mr. Ito ”, however, is too formal in
such a situation.)
(U*mUébdWOb@§éhKkfi:E<h6°
(1) *JlltIé=/o&1v\'>*£>f¥K?ié</olcfalic E <:h.Z>.
*Kawaguchi-san wa itsumo /to-san
Ito-san ni tabako o kureru.
(Mr. Kawaguchi always gives Mr. Ito cigarettes.)
2. When the giver is the first person, kureru cannot be used.
tm*flu$%énc@&<nn.
(2) *%Lii 41% é Anlifié < hf.-.0
*Watashi wa Nakajima-san ni sake o0 kureta.
(I gave Mr. Nakajima sake.)
In this case, ageru must be used.
m flu¢%énmfie&Wn.
fluwéénmfienfik.
Watashi wa Nakajima-san ni sake 0o ageta.
(I gave Mr. Nakajima sake.)
Note that when the subject is the first person, kureru-sentences are not
grammatical even if the receiver is someone the speaker empathizes
with, as in (4).
*$Li:.tR.é/ol:—1~
(4) *$LliR.?L< /ol:—7- a3 :1 l/-—
I/-— ll~~ 2 < 11.2%.,
5: (11.71,
*Watashi wa ni-san ni chokoréto 0o kureta.
(I gave my elder brother chocolates.)
The reason for this is as follows: Kureru requires the receiver’s point
of view when describing an event, and when an event involves the first
person, the event is normally described from the first person’s point of
kureru‘ 215S
21
view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in kureru-sentences,

a viewpoint conflict
conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (In
this case, ageru must be used.)
The polite (honorific) version of kureru is kudasaru (Gr. 1 verb; The
masu-form is kudasaimasu). Example:
(5) 5'aic1(*1.&=:)1Ii2
Fem: (%1.i:)>l1& < 15$
r.-as mi Lt.
1.1;.
Sensei wa (watashi ni)
n/) hon o0 kudasaimashita.
(My teacher gave me a book.)
The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in de-
clarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.
(See KS and Ex. (a).)
I [1] compares the differences among the three giving and receiving verbs
ageru, kureru and morau in terms of viewpoint when A gives X to B.
The eye sign “V” indicates which viewpoint the sentence requires.
=' =
[1] a- A Ii B tr: X &&>if1‘:..,

[ll Ezbiffco ‘K5
=-
N
Z
A wa B ni X o0 ageta.
v (or neutral)
(A gave X to B.)
b. A Ii
ii B it.
ll’. X 2<i1)7‘:,,
§5(;}1,f:_°
A wa B ni X 0o kureta.
V
(A gave X to B.)
¢-
C. Ii A IC
B ii IE. X EBBOTCO
’5_*‘l.>l'>=>f:.o
B wa A ni X o moratta.
V
(B got X from A.)
If the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is involved
in a giving-receiving situation, the NP which refers to him must occur
in the positions with “V”. The reason for this is as follows: When
the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with is involved in
a giving-receiving situation, the situation is normally described from his
viewpoint, and if the NP which refers to him occurs in the positions
without “V”, a viewpoint conflict arises.
[2] summarizes the plain forms and polite forms of giving and receiving
verbs:
216 kureru‘ /I kureru”
kureru’
I2]
[2]
AI - (I) give (s.o.) (s.o.) gives (me) (I)(f%fi';,r{
(I)(f%3n/ '$g_e)ive
::§?)ive
Plain
Hwflwm form G) *<=z>
(Dee ® <nz>
i®<n@ ® 4. e 5
CD565
yaru kureru morau
(to s.o. of
lower status)
“
"'
itenesspo
C>@Ha
@ blfé -*~____~_
ageru G)
(D < fié
T53 6 (D
G) I/\f.:7‘.:T
v\7‘:.f;’ <
''**'i—-**"“"*———i——
_ " ' kudasaru itadaku
Polite form ® 5
3 Léblfz’
Lffiflfz’ (honorific) (humble)
sashzageru (maswformz
. sag/"ageru (masu-form :
+
+ (very
(very humble)
humble) kudasaimasu)
(G):
((D: Gr. 1 verb; ®:
Q): Gr. 2 verb)
Note the different degree of politeness in each verb (particularly, yaru,
ageru and sash/ageru).
sashiageru).
ku|'e|'|_|2
kufgfui < ( aux. v.
‘U. (Gr. 2)
S.o. does s.t. as a favor to the first do s.t. (for me or s.o.); do me

person or to s.o. with whom the or s.o. a favor by doing s.t.
2g speaker empathizes. [REL. ageru2;
agerua; kureru‘;
/\/\/'\/\/'\/'\/'\./\./\./'\"\/\/\ ¥I./\ “/ .\/ \/.,’\/'\ 'r
/\'\/'\./\/\'\/\/\/\/\'\/\/\
morau2]
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vte —
5-L‘ 5Eli ($1. 5*(J wxaie

EL) w 2'7:
" 5 at <31.
Eat
E n / <nxun.
<hk/<fliLt°
Ch/‘chi wa
Chichi (watashi ni) kamera QR‘
o katte kureta /kuremashita.
/ kuremashita.
(My father bought a camera for me.)
kureru2 217
kureru?
(B)
Topic (subject) Direct Object Vte
as :1 #1. 2
% .~<a=u>-c
r~
f£<'é6b'C <nr.../
~ <ns1,r..,
<i1.T:/ -
<fbi L712,
Michio 5 wa watashi 5 o nagusamete kureta / kuremashita.
(Michio consoled me.)
Vte H6
< 116
kureru
Efibf
Efil/C < HZ)
no (s.o. (will) talks for my sake)
hanashite kureru
fiaf < $1.25
gar #135 (s.o. (will) eats for my sake)
tabete kureru
M
(a) i:EH1(%Lt~1)'r—#2i%v\'C mt.
EH1 (fllc) /r~—-#2i;'%wt < 217:,
Ex;
Haha wa (watashi ni)
I7!) kéki o yaite kureta. ___
1
_
1
(My mother baked a cake for me.)

M e¢—w—éamfion+:n%%2fizr<nrwa.
va—w—éumfl®n¢:n%%&fiir<nrw5,
Woké-san wa watashi no musuko ni eigo 0o oshiete kurete iru.
Woka-san
(Ms. Walker is kindly teaching my son English.)
(0) fiieiiii
(c) :1-"l-llkiili (me 7‘:.l:)[FIE LT
(bit f::lC.)f5I& 1,1 << hi
11.: L7‘:7b>.,
L7‘:.2fi=.
Kodomotachi wa (anata nr) ni) nani o shite kuremashita
kuremash/‘ta ka.
(What did your children do for you?)
1. Kureru is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte. The meaning of Vte

kureru is ““someone
someone does the first person (or someone with whom the
speaker empathizes) a favor by doing something
something”.”. Like sentences with
kureru as a main verb, sentences with Vte kureru are stated from the
viewpoint of the person who receives the favor and the receiver must
be the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with (usually a
member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (la) is grammatical, but (lb)
is not. (=:>
(Q kureru‘)
m
(1) w %5&wA#fit=—§&E¢r<nk.
8- 931 l'o>’.tl/‘A7)3%LlC I1 '- 9 5'? QT < 1117:.»
Shiranai hito ga watashi ni kora 0 katte kureta.
(A stranger bought cola for me.)
218 kureru?
kureru”
b.*HuflekwAm:—§2§¢T<nka
b-*flu%&&wAn:—9&E¢T<nta
*Watashi wa shiranai hito ni kora o0 katte kureta.
(I bought cola for a stranger.)
(In the case in (lb), ageru ‘give’ must be used. (=t>
(Q ageru2)) Note
that if the subject is the first person, sentences with Vte kureru are
ungrammatical even if the person who receives the favor is someone
the speaker empathizes with, as in (2). (See kureru‘, Note 2.)
(m*fiu§mv—#&%wr<nt.
un*flm&mv—a2fiwr<nh.
*Watashi wa haha ni kéki 0o yaite kureta.
(I baked a cake for my mother.)
In this case, ageru must be used. (=>
(Q ageru?)
ageru2)
2. As in KS(B), if the person receiving the benefit of the action is the
direct object, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b)
are ungrammatical.
Q.
w)a-*fi%uflmfi&a¢awr<nn.
wla-*fi%nflmfl2&¢awr<nn.
*M/ch/'0 wa watashi ni watashi 0o nagusamete kureta.
*M/‘ch/'0
b-*fi%ufice¢awr<nn.
b-*E%mflca¢éwr<nn.
*M/"ch/'0 wa watashi ni nagusamete kureta.
*Michio
3. If the main verb of the sentence is intransitive, the person receiving
the benefit of the action is not marked by ni. Therefore, (4) is un-
grammatical.
u)*a»auflcmwr<nn.
(4) *J+/vf.c&:.t%L|:filJv\'C < 31.1.2.
*Minna wa watashi ni hataraite kureta.
(Everybody worked for me.)
In this case, no tame ni ‘for the sake of’ is used, as in (5). (Q
(=> tame)
W enauflotwcmwr<nn.
hm&mfl®twc%wT<nk.
Minna wa watashi no tame ni hataraite kureta.
(Everybody worked for my sake.)
4. The polite (honorific) version of Vte kureru is Vte kudasaru. Example:
m %EflflK$&§LT<Eé¢ta
W %imfim$2§Lr<Eaat.
Sensei wa watashi ni hon 0o kashite kudasatta.
(My teacher kindly lent me a book.)
S. Note that in sentences like “ Mr. A taught me ~ ”, “ Mr. A bought
me ~ ” and “ Mr. A lent me ~ ”, which usually imply that the speaker
received some sort of favor, Vte kureru (or kudasaru) should be used,
kureru”
kureruz / kuru‘ 219
though in English this is not usually explicitly expressed. In Japanese,
without the auxiliary verbs kureru or kudasaru, such sentences don’t
convey the idea that the speaker received a favor.
6. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in de-
clarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.
(See KS(A), Exs. (a) and (c).)
Ageru, kureru and morau and all their polite and non-polite versions are
used as auxiliary verbs with Vte. (Auxiliary verbs ageru, kureru and morau
are explained under ageru”, kureru2
kureru” and morau’,
morauz, respectively.) When these
verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, the same viewpoint rules stated in kureru‘
Related Expression I apply, except that there is no neutral viewpoint.
A
i 3
M
kuru‘
kurul 5&5
5155 v- (Irr-)
v. (Irr.)
E‘\I'\'\/\/\'\/\/\./\/\'\/ ’\/\/\ '\/\/\'\'\’\/\/\’\/\’\’\
S.o. or s.t. moves in a direction to- come; visit; show up

wards the speaker or the speaker’s [REL. ikul]
ikull
g viewpoint or area of empathy.
\’\'\-/\/\/'\/\'\/\/\’\
/\’\/\/\/\/\'\/\.'\/\ ~/\
\./\ &\A
\\A
Q Key Sentence
M
- E$éb n i sun
-B51413/V
NM
55
We Ii
“J K %6/%iTa
2)‘ Ebb)‘;
Noun (place)
55 '\/ll §iEZ>/§iEi*J‘a
Tanaka-san ga as/vita
ash/‘ta uchi e / ni kuru /kimasu.
/ kimasu.
(Mr. Tanaka will come to my home tomorrow.)
M +vv—u%®5fi—?4—n%iLt#.
(®"Tvv—m%@5fi—%4—m%iLtm.
Nanshi wa kino pati
péti ni kimashita ka.
(Did Nancy come to the party yesterday?)
M
(b) %fi$nan#£$§m%a%5fi.
§l€7l<Cl F5 A/7)§¥1$'5lC§i€6% '5 7.50
Raishfi Kiguchi-san ga Nagoya ni kuru soda.
Raisho
(I was told that Mr. Kiguchi is coming to Nagoya next week.)
220 kuru‘
M
© tu.tu.%W#%na+¢fie:5m%@r<fiaw.
bu.su.%W#%kef¢%ax5m§or<fiéw.
Moshi, moshi,
moshi. kanai ga kitara sugu kaeru yo ni itte kudasai.
(Hello, please tell my wife to come home right away if she (lit. comes
to see you) drops by.)
(d) '9;El[ii7‘.:'%Tfii'i7b3§iE7*.;II/\,,
'9,~Htiir£§'a?fifin§;Iéf.cv\,
Kyo wa mada shinbun ga konai.
(Today’s newspaper hasn’t come yet.)
o %®H%§uacn$r<fiaw.
M %®W%§t%Lk%T<fiéW°
Boku no kenkydshitsu
kenkyoshitsu ni ashita
ash/‘ta kite kudasai.
(Please come to my office tomorrow.)
Kuru commonly describes a movement towards a place where the speaker

physically exists, as in KS and Ex. (d). However, it can also describe a
movement in a direction where the speaker has placed his viewpoint or
where he feels strong empathy. For example, in Ex. (a) the speaker, who
apparently did not attend the party, is taking the viewpoint of the hearer,
who did attend. In Ex. (c) the speaker is phoning and is not at the hearer’s
house, yet he is taking the hearer’s viewpoint, a typical example of the
psychological fusion between speaker and hearer. In Ex. (b), it is possible that
the speaker lives nearer Nagoya than Mr. Kiguchi does and feels that Mr.
Kiguchi is entering his (the speaker’s) territory or area of strong empathy.
And again, in Ex. (e), the use of kuru indicates that the speaker’s office as well
as his house can be considered his territory or area of empathy.
Ex pression]
If a movement is towards a place where the speaker can place his viewpoint,
kuru is used, but if a movement is towards a place where the speaker cannot
place his viewpoint, iku is used. (=>
(Q iku‘)
In Exs. (a) and (c) both kuru and iku are acceptable. The difference is that
the use of kuru shifts the focus of the sentence to the hearer’s viewpoint while
iku shifts it to the speaker’s viewpoint.
kuru2 221
kuru“ 5155
5E5 aux. v. (Irr.)
/'\/\/\/\/\
/\/\/\/\/\ /'\/\/\'\'\/\'\/\/\
/'\/\/'\/\/'\/'\/\/\./‘\
An auxiliary verb which indicates the come about; grow; come to;
beginning of some process or con- begin to
é% tinuation of some action up to a cur- [REL. ~hajimeru]
(REL.
rent point of time. '
<
§Key
Q Key Sentences
Vte (process)
fi (1
ti :1‘/I:°
=1/l:=.—-61-
‘-71’ ~—- 1)»
25 ' §}7b\o'C
§}h\-.-.»'C 5&7‘:/§lEil,f;,,
stat /aléibico
Watashi wa conpydta
conpyora SU/(OS/7!
ga sukoshi wakatte kita / kimashita
kimashita.
'\
computers)
(Now I have begun to understand computers.)
E’
:5
(W
i—;—-|i-
ii-Ii i
Mi-
§K%
it---1-_
Q;
Vtee
.__.-M
.__.--i_
i-_—_
_fl
.___-i-
M
i-_—_ 1
ii-
.__.-M
.__.-_,_._
g
i 2i
ii
H
iFL uv%w%>W$<o
ti W6!/\Z> B21: <0 Eié
Elk? 2 %h?
5%/RIC‘ fin/mack,
51%?‘
fi /aléibico :
(T. 'r\. .,_

Watashr wa
Watashi II'0II'O Nihon
iroiro N/hon no rekishisho
rek/shisho 0o yonde kita / kimashita.
kimash/ta
V
0_
Ive been reading various Japanese histories)
(Up to now I’ve histories.)
(i) Vte §lEZ>

§[EZ>
kuru
,3» < F;/V
,§- I5/V ‘G
“G §[EZ>
5165 / fiéfc
51%;’; (s.t. begins / has begun to swell)
fukuran de kuru / kita
jqg
j<€< < 2*; QT §iEZ>
f.co"C §lEZ> / §i€7‘:.
5&7’; (s.t. begins / has begun to grow big)
na tte kuru / kita
okiku natte
M
M
w ?=Z&LTwt5%Km#%@T%k°
7=1&LTwkB%Kfi#%oT%ka
kydni ame ga futte kita.
Tenisu o shite itara kyoni
(Suddenly, while we were playing tennis, it began to rain.)
M
(b) ¢&mefimfi<aar%aLk.
‘Ffim 69E>b‘§ifi?< tr QUE: Lie.
Gogo kara atama ga itaku natte kimashita.
(Lit. My head began to ache in the afternoon. (=My headache started
in the afternoon.))
kuru”
222 kuru?
flfiC@:5XOT%§Lko
M flu:@:6tor%iLk.
Watashi wa konogoro futotte kimashita.
(I’ve started to gain weight these days.)
(I've
%®¥m:@C6fw$A%nwm&oT%kha
W %0¥u:®d6fw$b%nwm&¢T%tn.
M
Ano ko wa konogoro zuibun kireini natte kita ne.
(That girl has become very pretty lately, hasn’t she?)
@
M aavn<an$2%nv%atn#,:n#es%nvfi<osvv+.
%avn<sh$2%hv%atn#.:nwet%nvfi<ot0c+.
/ma made takusan hon 0 yonde kimashita ga. kore kara mo yonde iku
tsumori desu.
(Up to now I have read quite a few books and I intend to read from now
on,tooJ
on, too.)
M aaefinvfiatnm,:n»eu—$%a%%+aot0v+.
%ivfinv%aun#.:nmen—$fin%%+aosvv+.
/ma made asonde kimashita ga. kore kara wa isshokenmei benkyosuru
tsumori desu.
(Up to now I haven’t been working hard (lit. have been playing), but
from now on I intend to work very hard.)
1 Vte kuru expresses inception as in Exs. (a) through (d), or continuation of

1.
s.t. up to a current point of time, as in Exs. (e) and (f). In the former
case the V is a verb that indicates a process that takes some time to com-
plete, such as naru ‘ become ’, wakaru ‘ understand ’, futoru ‘ gain weight ’,
yaseru ‘lose weight’, fukuramu ‘swell’ and chijimu ‘shrink’. In the
latter case the V is any non-punctual verb.
2. In the following sentences kuru is used more as a full verb than as an

auxiliary verb. The meaning of Vte kuru is the same as that of Vte
(i.e., ‘ V and’) and of kuru. (=>
(Q kuru‘)
HU%fiKfiZK%0T%i?°
m fiu%&m»zm%or%a+.
Watashi wa kaisha ni basu ni notte kimasu.
(Lit. I ride a bus and come to my company. (=I come to work
by bus.))
M
m w%1cmufiar%r<fisw,
m%avun%ar%r<fiaw.
Yoji made ni wa kaette kite kudasai.
(Lit. Please return and come here by 4:00. (=Please come back
by 4:00.))
4: 00.))
kuru2 223
kuru’
m
(3) BwLw#—%&EoT%iLt.
If<5\r\ l,\r\'f'-=¥ EH».-»'C5lEi Lit,
Oishii kéki 0o katte kimashita.
(Lit. I bought a delicious cake and came here. (=I bought you
a delicious cake.))
fifiefiamfinrfin.
W fifiE5BKEhT%k°
Tomodachi o uchi ni tsurete kita.
(I brought my friends to my house.)
(5)
(5) Eb0)2lI1§o'C§lE7‘c'.?
3)7)2J§J#0'C§IETC?
kita.?
Ano hon motte kita?
(Did you bring that book (lit. carry that book and come)?)
l6)
(6) '5 J: 0 ERTBQ5
‘B <EE.T§lE75 lo
la
Chotto mite kuru yo.
(Lit. I’ll just look and come back here. (=I’ll just go and take
a look at it.))
(7) ilZ2El'JT5lE35'i"° iii
Kasa 0o totte kimasu.

iii
M-ii
iii
q
M j
—
11 1
j
M
i -
1
-i
-_- j
j
M
i-. j
Z
(Lit. I’ll get my umbrella and come back here. (=I’ll go and get -_-
1;
1.1 :-
-_-
i- I
M-
my umbrella.))
3. Note that the experiencer of the inception process or the continuation of
the action must be the speaker himself or someone with whom the
speaker empathizes. In other words, in this usage, what is expressed
by Vte kuru’
kuruz involves the speaker in a very intimate way.
kuru” means inception (the beginning of a process, that is), it is very

When kuru’
close to Vmasu hajimeru ‘ begin to ~ ’ Exs. (a) through (d) can all be para-
phrased using Vmasu hajimeru. However, kuru implies that s.t. happens to
the speaker or whomever he can empathize with, whereas Vmasu hajimeru
lacks the speaker’s involvement with a process of inception. (=>
(Q ~hajimeru)
224 mada
mada if.-I
iii adv-
~\'>
E S.o. or s.t. is in some state he or it ég still; (not) yet
was in some time ago. [REL. mo]
'\./'\/'\/\/'\/'\./\.I\§
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Topic (subject) Predicate (affirmative)

(affirmative)
vkfifi
7l<1’TE [1 are Erféli
E Bi 2 fi’\'C
E as-c L\?a/L\I'§'
L\?o/L\§'§'°
Kimura-kun wa
9-1-Q, mada hirugohan o tabete iru/
iru/imasu
imasu
F’ -‘I
(Mr.
(Mr Kimura is still eating his lunch.)
lunch)
(M
(B)
iziflas/V
>l'. as/V ii are
F-‘;
94+ 7:0 :5:
1&0 :2: 2iI1Bi;:L\/illkiit/v
2 i£lB7ZiL\/iIl"J§fl'/vs
i
l
--M
-ii
Ota-san wa mada sono koto o0 shlranal
shiranai// shirlmasen
shirimasen
I 1.;
. OS
H"- know about it)
lllglllllllli
E
E._ Ota still doesnt

(Mr
(Mr.
.
doesn’t it.)
(a.)
(a) Biéiiiiik
isiétiifiib D E'§'7b=°
i'i‘ib=~a
O-sake wa mada arimasu ka.
(Do you still have sake?)
M
n fiuenB$~fion:e#aw.
flnafiH$~fiok:a#aw.
Watashi wa mada Nihon e itta koto ga nai.
(I have not been to Japan yet.)
(0) Ar
AI ‘l> ofiififiéfifii Lien»,
‘{>'5EZ§I'9i?i*fi*<iLT:.2b>.,
Mo hirugohan o tabemashita ka.
(Have you eaten your lunch yet?)
By
Bu wwi,ififi&Tw§th.
wwi.ifi&~rwiem.
/'e. mada tabete imasen.
(No, I haven’t eaten it yet.)
By
B» wwi,ifi?T.
wwi.ific+.
/e.
/e, mada desu.
(No, not yet.)
mada / made 225
1. Mada expresses the idea that someone or something is in the same state
that he or it was in some time ago. In affirmative sentences, mada
always corresponds to ‘still’. In negative sentences, however, it cor-
responds to ‘yet ’ when an action has not yet been taken, and ‘still’
in other situations, as in Ex. (c) and KS(B), respectively.
2. The abbreviated sentence seen in B2 of Ex. (c) is used only when the
response to a question is a negative one.
The concept which mada expresses is opposite to that of mo. [1] illustrates
difference between the idea conveyed by mada and the one conveyed by
the difierence
mo.
[1] a. mada X is in the state A T time
Mime
point of reference
(X is still in the state A)
b. mo X is in the state AI time

>time —
.
.
—
, T ME
Z2
point of reference ==
(X is not in the state A any more.)
made if
i ‘C M-
P"-
a particle to indicate a spatial, tem- as far as; till; up to; until;
poral or quantitative limit or an un- through; even
inanimatfe object
expected animate / inanimate [REL. made ni]
226 made
QKey Sentences
§Key
(A)
Noun Noun
(time) (time)
am ii 58%
205:1 .EB% we
a=¢_> 31%
£82 2-c~
21' iii
7152 a2 -"i-7*:-z
-.-_->-< 2 Licl
L7‘.:/
Kino wa sanji kara goji made tomodachi to tenisu 0 shital
shita/
Libko
L Si L Tc,
shimashita.
(Yesterday I played tennis from three to five with my friend.)
(B)
Noun Noun
(location) (location)
fist
iii we
#6 It-Itfl
Iiiili 1-c=
if‘ fiififi
fififi -r~
T’ E-‘.B#F§l
3-‘-W551 h=-r)=Z5/
7§*75*Z>/
T6ky6
Tokyo kara Ky6
Kyo to made shinkansen de sanjikan kakarul
kakaru/
M-M
-M
—-ii-
—
1
_
1-
-
_—
ii
i
_—
.-__
av)‘ 9 ifs
#10‘ i ‘Ts
kakarimasu.
Q M
- _1
- M
_ M
_ —._
--1
I
_ -_-.
-_-
(It takes three hours by bullet train from Tokyo to Kyoto.)
15>
(C)
Subordinate Clause _
Main Clause
Vinf non P ast
Vinf-nonpast
El“
$1. 7% fi"(
M A
0 ifcl
H- 515 ‘C
'9 ‘G Iii? OT \r\'C'
#3}/)'C v\'C <<f:I&'.<\/‘O
Tii. ilk ll
_o*
Watashi ga 'iku
1#3u made uchi de matte ite kudasai
kudasai. .°°/
*3"..
(Please wait at home until III-1 get there.)
there)
1-
(D)
Number
N Counter
umber-Cou nter
co
riV to 2-»
1-—1v ii1 :=FA
_-_ -H
.>.
acti /Ju/1.21-..
Ana /Ania‘
Kono horu wa
Kono horu wa msennm
nisennin made haireru
haireru// /78Ii'8iTi8.S‘U
hairemasu.
Ila
(This hall can hold up to 2000 people *'M-
2,000 people.)
made 227
E)
/\ \-/
Noun (unex-
pected object)
object \-/
m
2o.A
&o.A u
H are-vzw>w
nfhteznuv u task
teak E 22cl
Ano hito wa nezumi ya sukanku wa mochiron hebi made
flat/Hart
flan/flees.
fil.
5
sukida I/ sukidesu.
sukidesu wQ
0
(He even likes snakes, not to mention rats and skunks.)

skunks)
M
( i ) Noun (time / location) 3'6
iv
made
E553‘;/'i1=j
315$/$152 if
321- (until five / as far as school)
go/'1' /I gakko made
go/'i
(ii) Vinf-nonpast if;
if
made
M-ii.
Q =
25:1"
EE1" if (until s.o. talks /talked) ii-—
_____i
_._—-i
ii
____i
i?
ii.
ii
i-M
{ii
hanasu made
if
Q/<25 ii‘ (until s.o. eats / ate)
taberu made
(iii) Number-Counter if
it
made
|E—|—)\
|E—[-A if (up to forty people)
yonjiinin made
yonjunin
EEK
Elifll 3??
§'C' (up to five sheets of paper)
gomai made
M
a 7xvnAu§fiB@Bme&EB2cM<.
M TxvnAufifiH@Bme$@Hsv@<.
maishii getsuyobi kara kin'yobi made hataraku.
Amerikajin wa maisho
(Americans work every week from Monday through Friday.)
@ fi#BA#2cfi$wT+fi<6wfT.
M mmek#avu$wr+fi¢ewv+.
Eki kara daigaku made wa aruite juppun gurai desu.
(Lit. It’s about 10 minutes from the station to the university on foot.
(=It’s about a ten-minute walk from the station to the university.))
228 made / made ni
M
@ Xizébflfififlbbéht&ot5i?fi*5bTTlo
zixshuflamseah.ao252cfi~ahc+x.
Sumisu-san wa sashimi wa mochiron. natté
natto made taberu n desu yo.
(Mr. Smith even eats fermented soybeans, not to mention raw fish.)
M fifi%#wa2vnH—cfifi2%Lrwn.
W %fi%fiw5icwE—?KEtfiLTwk°
Hikoki ga deru made robi de tomodachi to hanashite ita.
(Until the plane left I was talking with my friend in the lobby.)
‘X made ’ and ‘ until X ’ do not have the same meaning when X represents
a duration of time. For example, in (1) raishfi
raishd no getsuyobi made means
that the speaker will be absent next Monday; therefore, the corresponding
English is ‘until next Tuesday’.
m %Lti5léi@</>F1@B2'C'{Pl<-7+i1’.,
(1) fiu%fi@H@HxcwAx+.
Watashi wa raisho
raishd no getsuyobi made yasumimasu.
(I’ll be absent until next Tuesday.)
Ii-Iiii
iii
—
L-3
-
i 1;
i
i i
made ni §‘C‘I;
3E'C‘|: pr!-
pri-
/\,/\_/'\./\./\,/\_
a3 particle
particle that
that indicates
indicates 3a time
time limit
limit Eé by;
by; by
by titt
the time
time (when)
(when)
on / for an action \_ [REL. made; made de; mae ni]
/\/\/\_/\/\/\/\/‘\./\/‘\ /‘\./N/'\./\./\/\!
/'\/\/\./\/'\/'\./\/'\/\/\ /‘\./'\/\/ \1\/ \-I
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
1%) __
Noun ((time)
time )
ui lll
H u +fi x i
22:: ma/max?
fie/%92+.
Watashr wa
Watashi
-+
/5/1
jfiji
:-E _H
made ni
m kaeru / kaenmasu
kaerimasu.
(I ~
(I'll
ll come home by 10 oclock)'/zl
o’clock.)
made ni 229
(B)
Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vinf- nonpast
Vinf-nonpast
’‘$155
%‘==t2 r>=
2)? naze
if-.i$%> 2'0 t.:
if is: :0 I41
III 2 5'21%/V-ct<sv\r <r;'év\..
iii/we 35V \ 1' <r:1'é_<v\.
Gakko ga hajimaru made ni kono hon 0o yonde oite kudasai.
(Please read this book (in advance) by the time school starts.)
KS(A):
N (time) 2'0
$1‘ I:
is;
made n/'
ni
EH5 $1‘ L:
3.7.5’-i= (by five o’clock)
goji made ni
XQL7‘;
Zlbbfc 331*
$1" t;
I; (by tomorrow)
ashita made ni
j ;
KS(B): ___
2
-1
.__.
--1‘
2
Z
j .__..
.__.
——
1-.2
2
i .-=
Vinf-nonpast 331* [.1

351- (5,
:2?
Z Z
A--—
i
made ni
331' $1‘ [.1
11- is; (by the time s.o. talks / talked)
talks/talked)
hanasu made ni
EAZ5 if
QK5 35-(= is;
[.1 (by the time s.o. eats / ate)
taberu made ni
M
(a) A: fiIB?i$i't"l:§i%lCfil‘Hi'v\\/\'C*
(FIB?-i=i'C"l~:§?%l~’-1i"fl7‘li'l/\\t\'G L1, J:2 56 vi».
a».
Nanji made ni koko ni ikeba ii desho ka.
(By what time should I go to the airport?)
B : :;lj%0)—-H#Ftt‘ifiiIi'(‘l:§lE'C
[;lj%r7)—-B#Fs‘ifii[3E‘C'l:5[E'C < ffé in,
7'55 v\,,
Shuppatsu no ich/jikan
ichijikan mae made ni kite kudasai.
(Please come one hour before departure.)
M %u:@v£—ra—fi:+Bxvm%aaHaonuaeawwfi.
%u:ov£—F2—B:+B2cu%%2daun&aeawhfi.
Boku wa kono repoto 0o ichigatsu hatsuka made ni kakiagenakereba
naranai n da.
(I have to finish writing this paper by January 20.)
230 made ni
(0) ~‘/'1: ~y bfinivi

l~l€§2b‘5'/4' ')U lC%<
l:%< ‘3E’C'lC2lI&E-'.{]l}%/1/‘C'
i'C'l;2l=:&'E-‘.fi{}§-5%/o'(‘ Lilo?
Lilflfli Lfco
Liz,
Jettoki ga Pari Pan’ ni tsuku made ni hon 0 sansatsu yonde shimaimashita.
(By the time the jet got to Paris, I had finished reading three books.)
I. Made ni cannot be used with a verb that indicates a continuous action.
Instead, made ‘‘continuously
continuously until / to X’ is used.
[1] lllEHii5lEFl$'C‘
IllH5It1§lEH$'C‘ /*$t*|:v~2s.
/*$'E|:v\6s
Yamada wa reigetsu
raigetsu made / *made ni iru.
(Yamada will stay here until / *by next month.)
?Lli£@i=i'C‘/*$'C‘|Z??'r'.>'Cv\Z>o
[2] #1411522-e /*§'E|:i%io'Cv\Z>s
go/'1' made
Watashi wa goji made!/ *made ni matte iru.
(I’ll be waiting until / *by five o’clock.)
When made ni ‘ by ’ is preceded by an informal nonpast verb, it may be
difl'erence between the two is the
replaced by mae ni ‘before’. The difference
same as the English ‘by’ vs. ‘before’. Thus, if made ni in Ex. (c)
is replaced by mae ni, the sentence means ‘ Before the jet got to Paris
iii-_—
$1-ii
I had finished reading three books.’ More examples of the different uses
in
follow:
i-Q
-—n_
1.;
[31
[3] a-
8- aléfiii-ea:
éléfi I'M: //*'fii|::.
*'sTi|:.: v>f:|:$&
o(i$2 Lid",
Li-J".
nil/ *mae ni kono shigoto o shimasu.
Raigetsu made ni
(I will finish this work by / *before next month.)
i%¥'|i1i|: /*§t*|:fi(EJ%t:fi<.
b. t%¥§fi|: / *$"c=~|:fi§{EEt::fi<.
Jugyo mae ni nil/ *made ni yobinkyoku
ytibinkyoku ni iku.
(I will go to the post office before / *by class.)
Made de, a particle which means ‘s.t. continues until / up to X (and
stops at X, although it can continue beyond X)’ is similar to made ni.
The differences in meaning can be seen in the examples below. In [4]
made ni is unacceptable because Lesson 10 is not the limit of domain
(which is Lesson 20). In [S] made de is unacceptable because no im-
portant items appear after Lesson 10.
[41
[4] :1: ofitflrati
ow-1%t1 :+a2-ea
.::+fix-c ti 09 217$
21"» ease +a2r*<* /*$-c=~|:i'=%
’9t‘#%ti +%$-c=~'c /*2<~|=t.2
to
zb D $11,
‘3E’3‘s
Kono kyokasho wa nijukka made arimasu ga kongakki wa jukka
de / *made ni owarimasu.
made de/
(There are up to twenty lessons in this textbook, but this semester
we will stop at Lesson 10.)
ni / mae ni 231
made nil
pl:ofifi%m:+%2c2v2+#.k$a:2u+fi$ec/nr
5]:wfifi%u:+fixv&9x+#.k$u:&m+fi$vt/H?
ivréumrxxx.
ieeawmrxar.
Kono kyokasho wa ni/'ukka
n/jukka made arimasu ga. daijina
datjina koto wa
jukka made ni / ???made de zenbu dete kimasu.
(There are (lit. up to) twenty lessons in this textbook, but the
important items are introduced (lit. appear) by Lesson 10.)
mae ni ETII:
E111: conj-
/\/\.¢\
/\-/\-I‘
in front of or before some situation a) before; in front of

O omes about > [REL. made ni' ni;D uchi ni] L--i
\*\/\,
1-'\./\,,/\-
\/\./\-
\ O/VY“
(ANT. ato de; ushiro ni)
/\/ -/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/‘
1i ii
ii ii
——
T
2
*1
__
__ __
Z an
___
__ __
ii T
__ _...
§Key Sentences
QKey
(M
(A)
Subordinate Clause
' Main Clause
Vinf- nonpast
v+avvahu B$'\ fi<

vtavvénu:B$~\ Wt: B$%2:
B$%§: %%Ln/
nutn/
Jakuson-san wa Nihon e iku mae ni nihongo o benkyoshita /
Libko
L Ii L 71:,
shimashita.
(Mr. Jackson studied Japanese before he went to Japan.)
(E
(B)
Noun (event)
I-—
hifi
Hfi 43
V) iianall Lll* H313 3'! ~~ ft./Eléibfca
' '
E313 2 '€lv\r.:/'3l%iL7‘.:.,
Ryok6
Ryoko no
I70 mae ni kaze o0 hiita / hikimashita.
(Before the trip I caught cold.)
232 mae ni
(Q
(C)
NW" <P'"~=> --—

Noun (place)
R
SR co
4) E11 E:
ET] L." t1’: E 7323
7‘:t:t':§
T: &> Z: / &> 9 1 ~r.
1); $>?.5/3i>Di'i‘s
Eki no mae ni tabako-ya ga aru I/ arimasu.
(There is a tobacco shop in front of the station.)
(i) Vinf-nonpast fit] I;

ET]
mae ni
E31‘ E?! I:
fiil II. (before s.o. talks / talked)
hanasu mae ni
fiflé
KKK» E1] I: (before s.o. eats I/ ate)
taberu mae ni
co ET]
(ii) N 0) fit] I:
it;
no mae ni
fifffili
flffilji 0) ET] II.
(D ll’. (before breakfast)
§§ 1
§ asagohan no mae ni
.M;
g
E
g
E
E
=
Z
(8-) H74§A(;l:2f.'fiEZEfi'<?-nfiilll "1/\7‘:7‘:"é<i'i‘s_| L’§5s

El7l§AliC’.'f§}i2fi'<ZaF3!'IIlC. "\<\T:.f£"é'i'§‘o_| £550
Nihonjin wa gohan o taberu mae ni ” /tadakimasu." to iu.
“Itadakt'masu” (lit. I humbly receive (this food))
(The Japanese say “Itadakimasu”
before eating their meals.)
¥4§—§nuH$~fi<%m»v4m%9xtn.
M 24a—2hmB$~fi<mc»v4m%v2Lk.
Teiré-san wa Nihon e iku mae ni Hawai ni yorimashita.
Teira-san
(Mr. Taylor stopped in Hawaii before he went to Japan.)
M
(0) fiua&o%mmE2Rwfi¢n.
ir‘Ll:I%‘ilZfi0')i:*|’|]l1'.B9&E1'&RlC'.i'=1'~>7’:..,
Watashi wa shiken no mae ni eiga o mi ni itta.
(Before the exam I went to see a movie.)
1. Mae ni is used when the speaker knows when something is going to take
place. Thus, the following uses of mae ni are marginal.
u)?m#%amn%vxct5.
(ll ?T=l§733@5'|5iilIi'-% 9 E L L '5 0
?Ame ga furu mae ni kaerimasho.
(Let’s go home before it rains.)
ni/mai-
mae nil mai- 233
M
(2) nfineficgarsco.
??.‘t§1l1/6'éI‘Jl:'§o'Ci=$I'.’)o
??Wasureru mae ni itte oko.
(I’ll say it (in advance) before I forget.)
(See Related Expression for proper expressions.)
2. The verb before mae ni is always nonpast, even if the tense of the main
verb is past, as in Ex. (b).
When the speaker knows that something is about to happen but does not know
exactly when it is to happen, uchi ni ‘before’ is used instead of mae ni.
Thus, mae ni in (1) and (2) of Note 1 should be replaced by nai uchi ni,
as in [1] and [2]. (Q
(=i> uchi ni)
M
W m#%euu5Bcfiv2Lr5.
fifl%%Hu5Bt%9iLx5.
Ame ga furanai uchi ni kaerimasho.
(Let’s go home before it rains.)
W EflUU55E§0TBC5s
EnUu5Bt§oT£:5o
Wasurenai uchi ni itte oko.
(I’ll say it (in advance) before I forget.)
ma].
m3i- §(,\
in pref.
a prefix which means ‘every (unit g every; per

of time)’ [REL. goto ni]
AAAA _A/V
9 Key Sentence
QKey
No_un
Noun of
time
tlmfi
Q
fit ti
if- E28 -wwflv
—--14» W</Wéii
i9i<<’/i9i<€='i*J‘s
O
,$ _m
Watasht wa
Watashi mat mcht
mai§nichi tchtmatru
ichimairu oyogu /I oyogtmasu
oyogimasu.
§_
(I swim one mile every day)
day.)
234 mai-
M
E N of time
iii
mai
ma/'
E $5 (every morning)
mat" asa
mai
=5;
E H (every month)
mai tsuki
M
m
W %ufimfi¥m€%Lrwa%5n.
M flmfiufitmfifitrwatéfi.
Hiroshi wa maiban Michiko ni den washite iru soda.
(I heard that Hiroshi calls Michiko every evening.)
M amufi%:+anofi2c%m@nvwa.
fimufi%:+*woEsv%m£tvwa.
Taifti wa mai/'i
Taifo ma/'/"i nijukkiro
ntjukkiro no hayasa de kita ni susunde iru.
(The typhoon is moving north at a speed of twenty kilometers per hour.)
M fiufi$—&mH$~fi<s
flu@¢—EuH$~fi<.
Watashi wa maitoshi ichido wa Nihon e iku.
(I go to Japan at least once every year.)
w v—vufifi#§¥&fi&é.
M §—vufifi#5¥2fiK6,
Jin wa maishoku sarada o taberu.
(Jean eats salad at every meal.)
1. Mai is prefixed to nouns which express a unit of time. Nouns like shoku
‘ meal’ can also be used, as seen in Ex. (d). In this case, shoku implies
the time at which one eats. However, the following phrases are all un-
acceptable because the nouns following mai do not indicate a time or
period of time. (The correct expressions are given in parentheses.)
(1) a. *fi)\
*fiA ‘every person’ (+~<oA/Auauu)
('!"<'C®A /Ami»/etc)
*mai-hito I/ nin (subete no hito I/ hito wa
minna)
b. *fi5'f;§|3
*fi9E53_ ‘ every teacher ’ (+~ro%$/
(ffirofiii
*mai-sensei (subete no sensei I/
fiimaha)
fiimkbfi)
sensei wa minna)
c. *fi%‘
*fi5<’ ‘every house’ (xdroi/imauu)
(fflroi/fimakg)
*mai-ie /I ka I/ ya (subete no ieI
ie / ie wa
minna)
mai- 235
Mai cannot be used when nouns of time are preceded by numbers;
thus, the following phrases are unacceptable. (=i>
(Q goto ni)
(2) a. *fi_‘I_-IE]
*5:-IE] ‘every three days’
*mai-mikka
b. *fi:‘_£F-
*fiI.51]5 ‘every other year’
*mai-ninen
c. *fi—-
*fi— ‘every one week’
*mai-isshi7
*mai-issho
(See Related Expresssion [la]
[Ia] for correct expressions.)
2. Mai is usually used with Japanese-origin words of one or two syllables
or shorter Chinese-origin words. Thus, compounds like those in (3) are
awkward.
(3) a. ???fi{7|<.7+
???i§i{7|<.71. ‘every holiday’’
‘ every holiday
???mai-yasumi
??? ma/1 yasumi
b. ???fi9 1)U 2 '<'
-=222 ‘ every Christmas ’
? ? ?mai-kurisumasu
c. *fi¥{;U;t7)
*fi¥[;i&0) El ‘ every Children’s Day ’ E
E
g
5
_T_ 2
*mai-kodomo-no-hi
(See Related Expression [lb] for correct expressions.)
Goto ni also means ‘every

‘ every’,’, but its usage differs
difi'ers from that of mai. First,
goto ni is not a prefix but a sufiix.
suffix. Second, it is used with nouns of time
preceded by numbers or specific dates, as seen in [1]. (=>
(Q goto ni)
[1] a. Period of time
E.’
E. El C.’
;'_' <2 I; ‘ every three days ’
mikka goto ni
--%|"a"] C.’ .1;
—B%"ff'a"lL’.' t‘: ll ‘ every hour ’
ichijikan goto ni
b. Specific date
7 ‘JU X -v
-1' 2
1 21'
C.’ J;
k ll‘.
ll ‘ every Christmas ’
Kurisumasu goto ni
¥fl1;0) 3;’ 2;
¥[Jt0) El I.‘ <‘: ll’.
I: ‘ every Children’s Day ’
Kodomo-no-hi goto ni
236 mai- /I mama
(Cf. El 31'};
21'}; I:
It: ‘ day after day’; £|‘5-Ct‘:
5|‘?-Ck lC.
ll’. year ’)
‘ year after year’)
hi-goto ni toshi-goto ni
Third, unlike mai, goto ni can also be used with other noun phrases, as
seen in [2].
M §avm%5ACtKB$%?%wé0&Lk°
W vayu%5A:2uB$%c2wao2Ln.
Jon wa au hito goto ni nihongo de aisatsu 0o shita.
shira.
(John greeted every person he met in Japanese.)
mama i
22i tt-
~-
./\/'\/\'
\./\/'\/\r
M
g; An already given situation or condi- as it is; unchanged; undis-
E Z
E -—
.
'
__-'-
——
_._-'-
i
tion remains unaltered. turbed; leave as is, remain
'\./\\/\/\.
./\-\/.\’/\*."\/\/'
[REL. nai de; zu ni)ni]

Q Key Sentences
(A)
(A)
To ic Direct -
<i"bii¢*>
(subj)ect) Object Vm" pas‘
%
EB 02
ti -7-1/i;'§2
-7-I/1:’ 2 0|-H;
Diff: 22
ii ET L2¢t:/ L2!/~2L1‘.:,
L107‘:/Liv\iLT:.,
otat0;‘w
0toto§ te rbi’
waa terebi
e 0o tsu k eta mama
tsuketa mama s/1'/matta //shimaimashita.
nete shimatta s/1'/matmas
' h'tta.
(My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.)
(B)
(B)
Topic Direct -
(subject) Object "'“"P“$‘
is t2
% ti -rue‘
an/i;*§ 2 -at-rt;
om‘: 22ea §t: i.-c"
LT tsv\t‘.:/i$€=iLt‘:...
:sv\r.:/2;=e2Lr;..
Ototog wa terebi
010:0; 0 tsuketa mama Hi shite oita I/ okimashita.
(My younger brother left the TV on)
on.)
mama 237
(C)
(C)
(SUDJCCII)
Topic (subject) ODJCCII
Direct Object Vinf past
Vinf-past
-7-1/1:‘
ivt 2 om‘;
O|_ 22
til- Trs/1--2.,
T?
ota to
Ototo wa terebz
terebi 0 tsuketa mama da /I desu.
desu
(My younger brother has left the TV on)
on.)
(D)
(SUDJCCI)
:00:15
252 Ii 20:5
5'0)? o 22.9* rs/-c-2.,
T -~. T1‘
9*
fi,
Kono heya ?ix

wa
Q) km6
kino no ama
mama Idesu
da /desu.
yesterday
(This room is as it was yesterday.)
(E)
Topic Demonstrative
ODJCCII)
(Direct Object) Pronoun A i
picni-
-in-ail
— M
L ?_ -
2 5'
I Z _.
I _..... _.
;". :1
.1: ti :0) 22
'&/9* ' LL1‘
‘C to < / to =5 i *T
ia</16222.
liq,
Q
it_ __
Z
__
__
=
__
__
iii.-
=
_.
_.
_
€
_.
Koko wa kono mama E,FT shite oku I/ ok/masu

okimasu.'o
"’ti._8*
(I
(I’ll ll leave this place as it is)
is.)
. . . '.
'5
£3E5
(F)
SubJ ect
Subject Vinf P ast
Vinf-past
it/1:
‘fl/E’ 15$ 'JL\1'._
om‘: 22
SH’:- I: ?.£0'C l/)5/\r\i'§‘
7.£'>'C l/‘6 / \r‘i'§‘.,
' -..
Terebt
Terebi ga tsutta
tsuita mama ni natte I!'U I/imasu.
iru tmasu
at' - ‘3
§
91.
F-I
§5::
-.
Po--it.
.
. ..
si@-t .
v. O0
OI
( The TV was turned on and is still on

(The ) ._. ,
on).
'4-
Ft
it G)
(G)
--I— Vinf-past Noun C
115% 2
$5? 22 1)‘Sic
s 1*.-'
75‘-Sic)’: ii
22 0')
0) 'l‘}"'-E
ii 253
7)‘ $15
fii ic.
ll WT: I lo ibtn.
..
\r\T.:/\r\2L7‘:,
B55/ii o0
Boshi kabuttg mama no gakusei ga kyoshitsu ni
kabutta ita I/imashita.
imashita.
(A student who kept his hat on was in the classroom.)

238 mama
(i) Vinf-past EE
ii
mama
('£€,E)'>U'7C.
('£i&)'>UT: ii (leaving (the light) on)
(denki o) tsuketa mama
GU Adj (i)
(ii) ii
235
mama
jq-Z<\t\ ‘SE2
A5‘!/\ ii (as s.t. is big)
okii mama
am [Adj
(iii) {Adj (na) stem it
P‘:/N
I N 0)]
0)} ii
na no mama
Ziiiiar
7|§'{E?.£ 3232
ii (leaving s.t. inconvenient)
fubenna mama
=5 <7)
0) ii
$35 (leaving s.t. as it was)
mukashi no mama
-M
-M
iii
i i
- i
I M
3' M
- M
= ii
%€(&0t7‘T.:iiE'C Liini
(a) ‘£€,2/>D‘7‘.:22E'C Lia,
L2!/\2 L7‘.:,,
- —
- ti
‘ M
- M
- 1.1
I
- it
.11
M
Denki 0 tsuketa mama nete shimaimashita.

(I fell asleep leaving the light on.)
M
(b) E—w2§¢t22fi2&m¢k,
I1‘-ll/ZE0TCiifiki7£75>0TC.,,
Biru 0o katta mama nomanakatta.
(I bought beer, but I didn’t drink it.)
M
(0) mwn22222u2L2Ln.
fifiwfci i ’i'7i'i£lC'.','=;fi Li Lia,
Kiita mama o tomodachi ni hanashimashita.
(I told my friend exactly what I heard.)
(d) &>0)Atia)i*l.h=6'i‘ot‘:$7‘c.iiT;'a
2!b¢)AI2Z!i>1h)7§~F>*J‘o<‘:§f:227‘;'o
Ano hito wa are kara zutto neta mama da.
(He’s been in bed (lit. all along) since then.)
Emanurxur~fianaa%aaman,
M EW$bfl7fUfi~fiok22fi6&#¢t,
Takayama-san wa Amerika e itta mama kaeranakatta
(Mr. Takayama went to America never to return.)
(i) $a>:n‘/~‘/"/2rb>n‘T.:22t:L'C2sv\f;.,
(f) Eat).-.11‘/9“/&2b=i)‘t.:iii::L'C1=sv\t‘:.,
Kuruma no enjin o0 kaketa mama ni shite oita.
(I left the car engine on.)
mama 239
M
® %m22nLTBwT<fiéw,
%®iimLT£wT<fiéw,
/ma no mama ni shite oite kudasai.
(Please leave it as it is now.)
1. The verb before mama has to be nonpast if the verb is negative as in

I.
U)
m
(ll a
a. Fremwauaawmnrcaan.
F7 2Ffi8bf£t.\3E§kH7)>U'C L2 ofcs
Doa 0 shimenai mama dekakete shimatta.
(I left my house with the door open.)
h 225aeo2w2Lau22fiorL2¢k.
B axaueofiwtuuuaifiaruaan.
Sayonara no aisatsu mo shinai mama itte shimatta.
(She went away without even saying goodbye.)
If a verb that precedes mama 0 is non-volitional, the verb can be
nonpast even if the main transitive verb is past, as shown in (2):
M 8-
(2) a '§b1'bZo/§bt1.T:22E?tL->f;..
abna/abnnaaaaan.
Iwareru I/ Iwareta mama o haratta.
(I paid money as I was told to.) ji-
iii-
Q
ii =
= _
B Earns/ut2222wr§n.
h Earué/utaaaawrfiko -=.=
Z
ZIII-I
E
-=:
1
M
g
i
1
E:E5
=1:
Omotte iru I/ ita mama 0o kaite mita. =1:
(I wrote exactly as I felt.)

2. When mama is followed directly by a verb (other than suru) as in KS(A)
and Exs. (a), (b) and (e), de can be inserted between mama and the
verb. Thus, KS(A) can be rephrased as follows:
M %d?vE2oUt22TETL2¢k,
%d¥vE20Htii?ETLioko
Ototo wa terebi 0 tsuketa mama de nete shimatta.
(Lit. My younger brother left the TV on, and went to sleep. (=
My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.))
difierence between the mama version and the mama de version is
The difference
minimal; the latter sounds more like a coordinate construction as illus-
trated by the literary translation of (3).
Vinf-nonpast-neg mama can be paraphrased using nai de or zu ni, as in:

[1]
M Fr &FHa>t.i-iaii I f.i:t.\'c* /'§‘l:Hj2b=D"C Li at.-;.,
F12%wau22/our/fcmmurL2a2.
Doa 0o shimenai mama /I nai de
do I/ zu ni dekakete shimatta.
(He left his house with the door open.)
240 mama /I ~mash6
~masho
The mama version focuses on the unaltered situation, but the nai de I/zu
zu ni
versions focus primarily on the negative aspect of the verb. The translation
of the former and the latter are ‘ He left with the door open.’ and ‘ He left
without closing the door.’, respectively. (Q nai de)
(=>
~mash6
~masho ~ i
35 L J: 5 aux-
»\/\/\/\/\./\/\/'\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/'\'\/\/\/‘\/\
a verb ending which indicates the IIWe will do s.t.;

I/We
first person’s volition or invitation Let’s do s.t.
2 in formal speech [REL. ~masen ka]
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Subject (first person) Vmasu
Mg fit 2 753 % ii
TE -L
E-EL
lllll ibxfi5°O
2L1:
_FT
Watasht
Watashi ga nt
kare ni hanasht
hanashi masho
masho.‘I
I
'<Qa-
him)
(I will talk to him.) my‘ 0
I=_"€=
(B)
Vmasu
IBQEat_
~ g, I:V
~ .§ ‘>- .(
fi
iii ibxvo
2 L2 5O
E/ga ni
Eiga nt ikt
iki masho1,
masho.
movie)
(Let’s go to a movie.)
i L 2J: 5
Vmasu 2
masho
;‘l,‘3[,i I, J;
331,2 1; 5 (I /I We will talk; Let’s talk.)
hanashimasho
Q42
fix; L,I, 3;
J; 5 (I /I We will eat; Let’s eat.)
zabemasho
tabemasho
~ masho 241
M
M
(8-) n2m22w2Li5.
?Li§t)*$E\t\i L x 5 O
Wa tashitachi ga tetsudaimasho.
Watashitachi
(Wé will help you.)
M
(b) fi#fi%2Lx5nu
?FLt5§fi€= E L J: 5 an
Wa tashi ga ikimasho ka.
Watashi
(Shall I go there?)
(0) E—W2fiA2L25s
M I:'~—-/1/éflvii L .1: 5..
Biru 0 nomimasho.
(Let’s drink beer.)
W $ffi%2L25#s
M $ffi%iLx5wo
Kuruma de ikimasho ka.
(Shall we go by car?)
(NEE
1. Masho is a formal verb ending which is used to express the first person’s
volition (KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b)) or invitation (KS(B), Exs. (c) and (d)).
2. The sentence in the KS(A) pattern, which includes the subject X ga, _-M-i
jin-
_-M-i
_-M-j
ZIIIII
_
ii
_
i
M
i
i
M Z
M 1
implies that ‘ not others but X will do something ’. If the sentence doesn’t i
M
i
i
i
i
1
-
1
1
i
-i—t—-it
-nix-ii
carry such an implication but simply states the first person’s volition,
the subject is usually omitted. Compare the following sentences:
m
(ll w %@wuLefiaaLi5.
a. %0)75*l:l5/v§:i’%‘?B2 L1 5°
Sono kaban 0 mochimasho.
(I’ll carry that bag.)
h fl#%o»uLafiaaLt5.
B fl#2o#ak22a2L25.
Watashi ga sono kaban 0 mochimasho.
(I will carry that bag.)
3. In invitation situations like KS(B), the subject is usually omitted. (Exs.
(C) and (d))
4. Masho with the question marker ka asks whether the hearer will accept
the speaker’s volitional action or invitation. (Exs. (b) and (d))
5. Negative volition is usually expressed by simple nonpast negatives, as
seen in (2).
M
(2) flu»—24—cfi222k.
?Lti/i’-=1‘ 4 '-(C-fi"Z‘ ii‘/va
Watashi wa pati ni ikimasen.
(I won’t go to the party.)
242 ~masho
~mash6
(The negative volitional ending mai, as in ikumai ‘won’t go ’, is not
commonly used in modern colloquial Japanese.)
6. “ Let’s not do s.t.” is expressed by different constructions.
(A) Vinf no wa yamemasho I/ yoshimasho. (Lit. Let’s stop doing s.t.)
Example:
fi—¥4—Kfi<0m%wiLx5/lLiL;5a
M fi—?4—Kfi<®u$w2L25/2L2L25s
Pa'ti
Pati ni /'ku
iku no wa yamemasho I/ yoshimasho.
(Let’s not go to the party.)
(B) Vneg naide okimasho (Lit. Let’s leave ~ undone.) (=>
(Q oku)
Example:
(M
M 7vwFmm%b&wTB€iL;5.
7vvFmu€b&wT%%2L25.
Fureddo ni wa iwanaide okimasho.
(Let’s not tell Fred.)
7. In indirect speech or in sentences with verbs like omou ‘think’ and
kesshinsuru ‘ make up one’s mind’,
mind ’, the informal volitional form is used.
(For the informal volitional forms of verbs, see Appendix l.) 1.)
M fiBébu=—t—2fib5&§oks
W HEaLu=—e—a&t5&§an.
Murata-san wa kohi o nomo to itta.
(Mr. Murata suggested we drink coffee.)
m fiu2$B$~fi:52Ew22.
M flm%$B$~fi:5eEwa¢.
Watashi wa rainen Nihon e iko to omoimasu.
(I think I will go to Japan next year.)
8. Unlike English, in Japanese the volitional future and the simple future
are expressed by different forms. Thus, “I think I will see a movie.”
is expressed by either (7) or (8).
W 22222225225.
M flm%E2fi;5&E5.
Watashi wa eiga o0 miyo to omou.
W iFLt2B9&E£'E.Z>
(8) aaaaeaaeaa. &.‘§~ 5 o
Watashi wa eiga o miru to omou.
(7) is an example of the volitional future, in which the speaker’s voli-
tion is expressed, while (8) is an example of the simple future.
An invitation by the speaker can also be expressed through negative ques-

tions, as in [1].
~masho / mieru 243
~mash6
W /‘°-7*
I1] fi—¥4—Kfi%$fih#o
4 -ii-fi‘%35't-1'/vfJ‘a
Pari
Péti ni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you (like to) go to the party?)
In invitation situations, negative questions are more polite than mash6-masho-
sentences because the former are asking whether or not the hearer will do
something and, therefore, are hearer-oriented, while the latter do not consider
the hearer’s volition and are more speaker-oriented.
52,5
mieru R25 (Gr 2)
v- (Gr-
~/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\
\/\/'\/'\./\./'\./\/\/'\./\./'\ i_i_-
___
Z j
j
i__
S.o. or s.t. is passively / spontane- §g be visible; (can) see; look ~ iz

ii
__i
-1:
_-1?
ii
i
.__._%
ii.
.._i.._i-
ously visible. 2 [REL.

(REL. mirareru]
-/-\',\_//'\\_,,\./,;\\..1\¢
I'\/\/\/\./\/\./\
/'\/\/\./\./\/\/\
Q Key Sentences
(M
Topic (experiencer) Visible Object
#1. §<i:>a \/ 2<< 0V) $0

ta »= 2< aaa/222+.
lK,Ez6/RziT
W8I8ShI
Watashi (I7!) wa
(ni) toku no mono g
ga mieru / m/emasu
yoku !T7I8!'U miemasu.
. I
O1
(Lit To me distant objects are very visible

(Lit. visible. (=I can see distant objects
very well ))
well.))
(B)
13>
tn
/'\u
/-K \/
%/
. 0of‘
0
Topic (location) Visible Object
2 we
@ t6
. V 5(2)
C3.-. *~/ 2
j.&&
$ 2 m E22/E222.
R16/ExiT
. 1
IO
Mada
Mado kara (wa) um!
umi ga
‘Du
' m/eru
mierul/ m/emasu
miemasu.O'1.
E.'
ii“.'From '/'\the window the ocean is visible
.
(Lit.
(Lit visible.. (=We can see the ocean
'mt-91
from the window
window.)) '-))
9-4'
H-
244 mieru
(Q
- - - Adj (adverbial
Visible Ob]€Ct
Object form” N+m-
ztiglglxglc/1‘§Tr_}_);3l
#52:
4’; E1 ii IEuis »= i&</\ E26/EiiT°
E. 2. Z5 / E. x i ‘T
Kyo wa
Kyd
llé yama E ‘S' e: ch/kaku
ch/‘kaku m/eru / m/emasu
mieru miemasu.
(Today the mountains look near)
near.)
m
(8-)
(a») iFLl:.li7l<0)_l;<D/]-é>*£,%7)§E,>?.f.:.,
?LlC.li7lW)_l;<7)/]\é >*£,%7)3E.i7‘:_°
Watashi ni wa ki no ue no chisana tori ga m/eta.
(I could see small birds on the tree.)
fifi¢v—#emfifioM#;<Ria.
M fifi§v—mamfifi@m#;<Eia°
Tokyo Ta wé kara wa Tdkyé
Tdkyd Tokyo no machi ga yoku mieru.
(From Tokyo Tower you can get a good view of the towns of Tokyo.)
M
(0) b®Am$:Dfo&%<Ri6°
$>r7)Aliil'3J; D 1:0 <‘:%< Eiéa
zutto wakaku mieru.
Ano hito wa toshi yori zuzzo
(He looks much younger than his age.)
-
-
t --—
i
-
1-
I
-
-
I
-
T
i
1-
f
1.-,
_.-T
-*1
-iii
m
w #@Aufi%nwmEia°
t®AmK%nwnRi5.
Onna no hito wa yoru kireini mieru.
(Women look beautiful at night.)
¢%ébm$$KRi6Q
@ ¢%é@u¥$mEza°
Nakajima-san wa gakusei ni mieru.
(Mr. Nakajima looks like a student.)
1. Mieru can mean ‘look ~ ’ if it is preceded by the adverbial form of an

(i) as in Ex. (c) or of an Adj (na) as in Ex. (d) or by a N ni as in
Adj (1')
Ex. (e).
2. Mieru can be used as a polite version of kuru ‘ come’ as in:
(1) Ikifilré /v, $553 A/fi§E.7'<.T: J10
/I./9 lo
0-ké-san. 0-kyaku-san
O-ké-san. o-kyaku-san ga mieta yo.
(Mom, we have company!)
M
(2) #%KuiE%E%Eit°
$§?<‘lCli_hEH§'i3$b§.iT:a
Gakkai ni wa Ueda-sensei mo mieta.
(Lit. To the academic meeting appeared Prof. Ueda, too. (=Prof.
Ueda also attended the academic conference.))
mieru 245
Mieru can be used as an honorific polite verb because it is a more indirect
reference to a superior’s act of ‘ coming’. In other words, the speaker
is referring to a superior’s appearance as if it were a spontaneous, natural
phenomenon of ‘‘visibility
visibility Q’..
3. A visible object is marked by ga, not by 0.
o.
Mieru is different from the regular potential form of miru, i.e., mirareru, in
that mieru indicates that s.t. or s.o. is passively visible regardless of the voli-
tion of the speaker; mirareru, on the other hand, indicates that the speaker
or the subject of the sentence can see s.t. or s.o. actively rather than pas-
sively. Thus,
lll
[1] {ima
lfiiifi r)§E:'u’.:l.\
>o‘§§.if.:i.\ /I *§.i'511.f.:i.\..
*§.6nf.:t\.
Boku wa me ga mienai / *mirarenai.
(I’m blind.)
[2] -7-
7- 1/l:’&E'>2‘:rb=
i/i:“2E'>T::1b> 5-7
57- v e*1>§§.-ans/*Rxz>.
l:“n‘§E.i'511.%> /*E.i'i.%5.,
Terebi 0 katta kara terebi ga mirareru /I *mieru.
(Because I bought a TV I can now watch TV.) L.
i.
1 _
an/Jflkfiii E:'C*§.=5n$‘4‘
[3] aoflkfili E C '6-E. '51‘!/35'§' / *Ei.$1'n=..
*§.ii*4'r)=. :=
=
‘:5
i
1
2
__.ii
2
2
E
E
1
Ano eiga wa doko de miraremasu / *miemasu ka. L I
(Where can we see the movie?)

E.i.T.il.\/*E.'51'lJ*$b\7)=F;7k=1‘-—€2'0Jfi<l:fi"C_
[4] J: < §.:':.f.;l.\ -‘J.
/ *§.6#1J’.;l.\r)~F>x-'f——~J<r>5&< lcfic 5.,
mienail/ *mirarenai kara sutéji no chikaku ni iko.
Yoku mienai ikd.
(We can’t see it well, so let’s go closer to the stage.)
§§l.:Ev\i:“1i/1)‘?-1'1i»>T.:o'>'6|i|:b§§,i't_ /5,511.2‘;
[5] liéicgt/\1:*/1/r)§3‘L¢>7:rI>'C'|i1r)§E,;'r_ /E,i'5,11,f,_.,c < 74207;,
trofco
Tonari
Tonan‘ ni takai biru ga tatta node yama ga mie / mirare naku natta.
(Because a tall building was built next door, the mountains are not
visible any more / we can’t see the mountains any more.)
[5] both mieru and mirareru are possible, depending on how the
Note that in [S]
speaker perceives the visible object; if he thinks that the situation is beyond
his control and has to give up looking at the mountains, he uses mieru; if
not, he uses mirareru.
246 miru
miru 7;-5
I;-5 aux. v. (Gr. 2)
/\/\/'\/\./\/\/\'\'\I'\./\/\-
/'\/'\'\/\/'\/'\-
do s.t. to see what it’s like or what jé do s.t. and see; try to do s.t.
will happen §% [REL. yo to suru]
&A\% ~
QKey Sentence
§Key
Topic (subject) Vte

re
#1. li an: ++ VJ0»

.113
/we
/lot E2 am
E5-' 5/v'c* M»/air.
A6/hi?
Watashi gr:
wa Nihon no shosetsu o yonde
Ii miru / mzmasu
mimasu.
-ga..
(I will read Japanese novels (to see what they are like))
like).)
Formation
Vte 1+5
7+2»
miru
/TllfU
E-‘ilxc
;.%‘fil/C 1+2-.'>
-7+2» (try to talk)
hanashite miru
gar A5 (try to eat)
iii
xii
ii
Q1:-( 71.25
tabete miru
(a-) I18
(a) id ‘L
‘B L6’? '55 >211 ‘/")"— l~ f:I'oT:<7)'C‘fi"o'C¥»i
74?: I/*)'— T:IoT;¢J'Gfi'o'C1»i Lfco
Lt‘,
Omoshiro sona konséto datta node itte mimashita.
(Since it seemed interesting, I went to the concert (to see what it was like).)
M
(b) ::ofl§uswLwT+;.§~1AiTm,
:1:/>$l]§'ii§sv\Lv\'c'l'.1:., fi'<'C?1~i'§"n>.,
Koko no sashimi wa oishiidesu yo. Tabete mimasu ka.
(Sashimi here is good. Will you try it?)
Miru is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte meaning ‘‘make

make an attempt at
doing s.t. to see what it is like or what will happen’.
A similar expression, ~ yo to suru, means simply ‘try to do s.t.’ When

these two expressions are used in the past tense, however, their meanings are
not the same. For example, [la] means that Mr. Brown did put on Tom's Tom’s
undershirt, whereas [lb] means that Mr. Brown tried to put it on, with the
implication that he couldn’t or didn’t actually do it.
miru / mo‘ 247
M 8-m
[1] 1§vvénu+a@v+v&%rnh.
7'? '7‘/é/vii I~.A0)*‘/~\"7£’%'CJI~T:a
Buraun-san wa Tomu no shatsu
sharsu o kite mite.
mita.
(Mr. Brown tried Tom's
Tom’s undershirt on.)
777VéhfibA®V#72%&5&Lha
h 7§7véhurAov+v%%;5&Lt.
Buraun-san wa Tomu no shatsu
sharsu 0o kiyo
kiy6 to shite.
shira.
(Mr. Brown tried to put Tom’s undershirt on.)
nw‘§
mol :5 pm
prt.
a particle which indicates that a too; also; (not) ~ either '

mm
proposition about the preceding ele- E if

E E
E Z
ment X is also true when another é m
similar proposition is true
§Key
QKey Sentences
(A)
33\-/
Subject
fl gt em
+5 TE/1+.
/‘C1’{'4-0
W8I88hI
Watashi m
mo Q8/(U88!
gakusei da / desu
desu. ‘O
(Lit. I, too, am a student.

(Lit student (=I’m
(=I m a student, too
too.))
))
(E
(B)
ii‘a**--
u in z&4v%§
>1/\»f/3% s O 6 fir/near.
iii"/§3Li'i'
I1
.0
Vi/818$/7!
Watashi wa supe/ngo
supeingo mo
§mo hanasu] hanashzmasu
hanasu/hanashimasu.
-§,*‘il
Oa-
(I speak Spanish, too.)
too)
248 mo‘
(C)
(C)
Topic (subject) Indirect Object
#1,
$1. :1
li 1=-nus/V
Hm:/c l;ll ii,1, 7'1/<z~/|~ 2 anfal
7'1/~12"/l~ §>lf%'>/
Watashi wa Murayama-san
Murayama-sang ni mo purezento o ageru]
f ‘ ‘I anfsr.
airy;-.
agemasu.
(I will give a present to Mr. Murayama, too.)
(i)N
(i) N is1,
mo
[T70
$1, 1, (I, too / me (as direct object), too)

watashi mo
(ii) N (Prt) 4,1,
mo
I770
'
mi-it
- i
i
B21:
Hit (lg) 1,
(lc) 4, (in / to Japan,
japan, too)
- i
. -_—
'
..
'.
I.-
.
-ii
W
i
i
W
i
--1
W
i
i
Nihon
N/hon (ni) mo
7'2‘ U 77
72‘ 71 (’\)
('\) 1,
Yl, (to America, too)
Amerika (e) mo
(iii) N Prt 1,
mo
I; 1,
lC. (to / for the teacher, too (indirect object))
sensei ni mo
7 ‘/1
7§ ‘/2 7)>l5
W6 i, 1, (from France, too)
Furansu kara mo
/f
4 =Y-*9 1 '6'
iF'U 71 '6 ‘L
b (in England, too)
/girisu de mo
jiii
Z55 <1;
5; 1,
4, (with my friend, too)
tomodachi to mo
(3) /\—
(6) /~'— l~ 3/olililll‘-I'\fi'c>7:,,
3/vii Hlli“-fi':7':'.,, 1|/4
/l/4 Z
253 A/is
/ob (El2lI'\)fi"oT::.,
(Ei2l§*\)fi'oT:,,
Héto-san wa Nihon e itta. Ruisu-san mo (Nihon e) itta.
Ha'to-san
(Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.)
mo‘ 249
M
(b) its
#ému¥=22Li¢.WHflfi»7$LiT.
/vz1—>===:< 2 1,:-r. (fEl1)=’/|/7 1, err.
Hayashi-san wa tenisu o shimasu. (Kare wa) gorufu mo shimasu.
(Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.)
(<1)
(0) r; o lBT'C'l;t
Z10) mT'L‘li %‘il,v\fi\r)§ E221:/V. |%<7)B]"C‘1>
%?l,v\%n‘i E>'{’_i't=l.'/V0 mom? 1. (%TL,v\fi7b3)E;i"*_i-ETA/O
(is? l,v\fir)§)§:‘¢ ii:/V.
Kono machi de wa atarash/i
atarashii sakana ga kaemasen. Tonari no machi
de mo (atarashii sakana ga) kaemasen.
(You can’t buy fresh fish in this town. You can’t buy it in the next
town, either.)
1. In general, when the element X mo appears in a sentence, a related

sentence with the element Y (plus particle if necessary) in place of X
mo is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence
like (2) is presupposed.
(1) $Lli::=.—- 2 —-7 '\=l=.-fie 71:,

M fifi:;—3—9~$fi¢k°
Watashi wa Nydyoku
Nyoyoku e mo itta.
(I went to New York, too.)
M
(2) flfl£XhV~fiok°
fliirfiz l~ ‘/*\fi'oT:,,
= 2
Watashi wa Bosuton e itta. E E
(I went to Boston.)
Thus, when X mo appears in a sentence, X mo is always the element
under focus in that sentence.
22. There are cases in which X mo is used, although it does not exactly
replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b)
can be spoken after (3a).
m m
(3) flo%n%%fieiw.
a. ?L</>'§<'liEF'a'i7)§'t~‘.'i\<‘.
Watashi no ie wa ima ga semai.
(The living room of my house is small.)
b.
h %>i1.l:'éi"F3?=b7|<l§f;'°
%nmfifi£$Efi.
Sore ni daidokoro mo fubenda.
(On top of that, the kitchen is inconvenient, too.)
In this case, the speaker implies that his house is inconvenient when
he says (3a), and this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where
the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.
3. “ X mo A da
da”” cannot be used to mean ‘ X is also A’ in the sense that
250 mo‘ / mo”
X is A as well as something else. “ X mo A da ” can be used only when

“ Y wa / ga A da” is presupposed. Thus, (4) does not mean (5).(S). (In
fact, (4) is nonsensical if it is stated by the same person.)
w fLli[*§%‘f:'.,
(4) fluE%fi. *fit%$fi.
*iFL¥.»5'E£—E7‘;',,
Watashi wa isha da. *Watashi mo sensei da.
(5) I am a (medical) doctor. I am also a teacher.
The idea that someone is a doctor as well as a teacher is expressed as
in (6).
m
W fluE%fi. %u<%$et&é.
%Lr%ict&%.
Watashi wa isha da. Soshite sensei de mo aru.
(I am a (medical) doctor and also a teacher.)
i
._-i_i-
i
—._
i
i
i
Zi
—._,
Wi
ii
i
mg? :5
at, prt.
A
ég a marker which indicates emphasis E1 even; as many / much / long

longl/
/\/\-/\/\/\¢\
A’“M" ...as;
as; (not) even (one); (not) any
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
I55rt/-5/.,§
s. _'é/V ii ;/we
" ti mm
Emu ii
E 1. sews/arwsr.
éitwa/ivtwir
ll
Gure san
Guré-san wa konna muzukashii
muzukashu kanji
kanp mo yomeru / yomemasu
yomemasu.
(Mr Gray can read even difficult kanjz
(Mr. thi
kanji like this.)
»~uza/..§
)\l)Zé/V 11
TF1- cm;
"/on r-2=i.t\
I’
|' ;"£$
’t=éi,i.\ éi 4.is %%wr.¢v~/arose/V.
5t'w>*.:v~/mtws-i-r/.,
lll lll
Harisu-san
Hansu san wa konna yasashii
yasashn kanji
ken]: mo yomenailI yomemasen
yomenal yomemasen.
P
. :_H}
(Mr
T-. Harris cannot read even easy kanji
(Mr. kanjt like this)
this.)
<2‘-
ma 251
mo“ xi
rm
(B)
Topic (subject) Quantifier Predicate (affirmative)
#1. 5 Ii is-1
‘ii >2.1
"'“ 2" /\¥
/\¥ 4,4, in ,3 1 we/v\i1"..
knot ;,\ 5/ \,\ :1-.
Watashi wa kanji o hassen mo shitte iru //imasu.

imasu.
(I know as many as eight thousand kanjz)
kanji.)
(C)
(C)
Topic (subject) One Counter Predicate (negative)
#1.
*1. iuii i¥—¥-
"" 2
ifiie — '2‘J 4,1, aaa;»
2* \ /was-/.,.
raerw/nin:-u.-/V.
wa
Watashi gwa kanji o0 hito tsu mo shiranai
shiranail/ shirimasen.
(I don’t
dont know even one kanji.)
kanjz)
(D)
Topic (subject) WH-word
WH wor Predicate (negative)
fl gli M s fi4&mok/fi*i%b?Lk°
7.
’\7iJ:7§>OTc. I/f\..O
-ii-@-
W6I8ShI
Watashi wa nan:
nani m
mo tabenakatta / tabemasendeshita.
tabemasendeshita
iii
-__.
i
.-_-
W
i T
L
L i
- —
—i
L -1
. L —
3 1—
L ——
ii
L —
__-
-ii-_
didnt eat anything.)

(I didn’t anything)
E1
:2
(E)
Topic (subject) Vmasu
Vmas
1"/~‘/——§&:.t
'1" ./ / —- FlIi- #1. 0) 33
V) —
ttlll 2 55%
FIE] =5 is LLf.i:v\/Lxit/U.
ti: V‘ / L E 5;
. E“
'ca. i \
Nanshi wa watashz
watashi no hanashz
hanashi o Ink:
kiki mo
3 shinai //shimasen.
shrnal shimasen O,
E
1‘
1*‘ii‘-.
(Nancy doesn’t even listen to me)
me.)
DH-
I!i i
KS(A): See mo‘ Formation.

KS(B):
Quantifier 4,
1,
mo
31+ 4,
11+ 1, (as many as fifty)
go/'0 mo
§)\
EA 4,
1, (as many as a hundred people)
hyakunin mo
252 moz
mo2
KS(C):
One Counter 1,
mo
--)\
-j\ 1, ((not) even one person)
hitori mo
-0
—-0 1, ((not) even one ~)
hitotsu mo
KS(D):
WH-word 1,
mo
fir]
{if 1, ((not) anything)
nanimo
7,;-131,1,
7_;';h,1, ((not) anybody)
daremo
KS(B):
KS(E):
Vmasu 1, |,f;v\
|_,f4:v\
.
-
-i
i
shinai
mo sh/‘nai
-
-
=--i
T
i
5
:
=-—
-i
.
.
-
L
T
i
33!,
E31, 1, 1,2’; in
[_,f; I/\ (don’t even talk)
if‘
hanashi mo shinai
Q/< 1, |_,>‘;l/\
l,f4:v\ (don’t even eat)
tabe mo sh/‘nai
m
W
w %%u—¢$oncfis1&tmmmaw,
@ %%fi—¢$®kLfi$it$Km%tw,
Haruo wa ichinensei
ich/nensei no tashizan
rash/zan mo matomoni dekinai.
(Haruo cannot do even the first-year addition correctly.)
M %Bfl$#+fi$%nt.
(bl '9i‘l51ii$7)'3+'i:’Ei"b%1‘I.7‘:a
Kyo wa kuruma ga /Udai
Kyo‘ jodai mo ureta.
(As many as ten cars sold today.)
M %o»—+4—mu#@¥m—As%m»¢n.
%®fi~74~Kfl#@¥fl—Ab%K#oko
Sono péti ni wa onna no ko wa hitori mo konakatta.
(No (lit. Not even one) girl came to the party.)
(d) T.'.’i1.i>%0);: 5:k 2561

f;'hi>%<7): 295119D id"/vs
E-Ii"/W
Daremo sono koto 0o shirimasen.
(Nobody knows about it.)
mo2 253
mo’
@ fim*Héb#<nt$Eififi£LTw&w,
flu$fiéhfi<nk$&ififi£LTw&w,
Watashi wa Kimura-san ga kureta hon o mada mi mo shite /"nai.
/‘nai.
(I haven’t even seen the book Mr. Kimura gave me yet.)
1. M0
l. Mo as an emphatic marker is an extended use of mo‘. (=:> (=> mo‘) The
following examples show the transition of meaning from the original idea
‘ also’ to the emphatic use ‘ even’.
m a
1 Fv—$uu#€mfiLw%$£%w5.
fv—éhfi#€K%Lwfi$£%w5a
Guré-san wa hijoni
h/joni muzukashii kanji mo yomeru.
(Lit. Mr. Gray can read very difficult
diflicult kanji, too. (=Mr. Gray
can read even very difiicult
diFficult kanji.))
kanjz'.))
h »U2éhfi#fiK%éLW@$£%w&W.
»uzsnu#fim@éLw@$t%waw.
Harisu-san wa hi/"on/'
h/joni yasashii kanji mo yomenai.
(Lit. Mr. Harris cannot read very easy kanji, either. (=Mr.
Harris cannot read even very easy kanji.))
2. Nanimo
Nan/"mo and daremo are used only in negative sentences. Other WH-
words with mo can be used in both affirmative
affirmative sentences and negative ii-
ii-
ii-
-iii
sentences.
ii-
i 1
'_'_i -—-
i
-i 1-
1
T _-1
-_— --
_—_ §
Z
-i -
-
i
i
-.1 3:
1
iii
(2) \/W91, (always; anytime)

-
I/W31, -L-ti
itsumo
E 3; 1, (everywhere; anywhere)
dokomo
E, 1,
E15 15 (both; neither of the two ~)
dochiramo
E 5 1, (somehow)
domo
Note the following examples:
m m x*£uuo£Au§wfi.
k*Euu0£Amfiwfi.
Gk/'-kun wa itsumo hito ni shinsetsuda.
Oki-kun
(Mr. Oki is always kind to people.)
h mmuuoefifiznemw.
mmuuoawfiaweuw.
Koyama wa itsumo yakusoku 0 mamoranai.
(Koyama never keeps his promise.)
3. Vmasu mo is always followed by a negative form of suru ‘do’ as in
KS(E) and Ex. (e).
254 mo
m5
mfi 1:,-5 adv.
g\ '\/'\'\'\/\/\/\/\
"\/'\/\'\./'\./\/'\/\l\/\ /'\ /\
g S.o. or s.t. is no longer in the same 4 (not) any more;(not) anylonger;

state that he or it was in some time already; yet; now
ago. [REL. mada]
&’ I\/\/'\I\_/\/\/\/~ A/VVV
§Key
Q Key Sentences
M)
Topic (subject) Predicate (aflirmative)
(affirmative)
I
I
fl _ii $9' E Eli

Effili E KAT.
341': /fi’\i
/fi’<3E LT.
L1':°
.0
Watashi wa mo' /rugohan o0 tabeta
hirugohan tabete / tabemashita
tabemashita.
(I have already eaten my lunch)
lunch.)
Q
E
(B) \-/
\/

L;
e»én§
is/vs/V u1 £5 B$%
B21125 2 flfibf L\T.i~L\/L\$‘t2'A.:
wfiixc uuu/oxen.
= .___
3 _
- __-
‘ .__-
-
-
.
-
-
H
i
i
H
i
(1,
.u
U
5%
5"" D‘ _ \.
I
- i
-i
iii .‘ O‘.
H/ru san
Hiru-san wa 36' '
mo
3*?" nihongo 0o benkyoshlte
benkyéshite mar
inai / lmasen
imasen.-o
Qgt_O\;t
(Mr.g
(Mr -,. Hill is not studying Japanese any longer)
longer.)
I.
M A=$5@E&L§Ltm,
(11) AI L 573%? Li Liana,
M6 shukudai 0 shimashita ka.
Mo
(Have you done your homework yet (or already)?)
B : till‘,
B1 lilr‘, 5L 5'5 L35 Lia,
tibia,
Hai. m6mo shimashita.
I've already done it.)
(Yes, I’ve
flut5%&finien.
M fiuséfieflnaen.
Watashi wa mo sake o0 nomimasen.
(I won’t drink sake any more.)
M %%£us5fiu¢5sr+.
W %%%us5ku¢5sc+.
Haruo-kun wa mo da/jdbudesu.
daijobudesu.
(Haruo is all right now.)
mo / ~mo ~mo 255
1. M6
Mo expresses the idea that someone or something is not in the same
state he or it was in some time ago. Thus, mo corresponds to ‘ already ’
or ‘now’ in affirmative
affirmative declarative sentences, ‘yet’ or ‘already’ in afi"irm-
af’firm-
ative interrogative
ativeinterro 8 ative sentences,
sentences , and ‘‘(not
(not) an
anyY more
more’’ or ‘‘(not
(not) any
an Y longer
lon 8 er’’
in negative sentences.
2. The opposite concept of mo is expressed by mada. (=:>
(Q mada)
~mo ~mo ~1,~1> 81'-

ii..-
the repeated use of a particle mean- both ~ and ~; neither ~ nor Z

=2
i__.
ii-
.___:
‘_
ii.
ing ‘ also
also’ to list elements belonging i
__:
i__
...._i_.__
to the same part of speech )

-\/" \/ ./\l ./\./\ /~" /\/\/\/\./\/\ \/'\/\/\/\/Z
Q Key Sentences
§Key
(A)
Noun
I-—
Noun
H3=PéA.
H3413/o I.is =PllléA,
4=lll3/L 1.L ¥/*'~—
""2{'-- I~l~lll
-r élnbf Ir)
C. §7Jbb'C Io?» / \/‘if.
Z5/v \ $12,
Tanaka-san mo Nakayama-san mo depéto ni tsutomete iru
iru/I imasu.
(Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are working for a department store.)
(B)
—E_W—— Noun Prt‘ Noun Prt
fi%‘I§~l1
fifil ~i1 nx
/<z 1*
'0 1,1. E5
Ei 1*
'6 1>1. i‘Tl)‘6/i?D‘i'i‘°
firm /finish
Kyoto e wa basu de mo densha de mo ikeru / ikemasu.
ikeru/ikemasu.
(We can go to _Kyoto either by bus or by electric train (lit. by both bus
and electric tram).)
train).)
256 ~mo ~mo
(Q
@)
—I_— Adj (1) stemj Adj (i) stem?
co
:0) fiat:
5% ii m§< 1,1 m§<
5% 1>4. no/
f.cv\/
Kono uchi wa hiroyru mo
hirojku semafku
semaiku mo nail
§ § avian.
%DiEhs
arimasen.
(This house is neither big nor small.)
W
Cflflflfll
(i) N(Prt) 1, N(Prt) 1, (N(Prt) 1,)
mo mo mo
5'35
5'55}; 1, ii
$513 1, (both teachers and students)
sensei mo gakusei mo
(ii) Adj (1')
(i) stem < 1, Adj (i) stem < 1, Neg
ku mo ku mo
jqé < 1, l]\§ <
/1,-35 fgin
1, fgl/\ (s.t. is neither big nor small)
§
§ =-
I:I
3
E
5
1
L.
=-—
EI-
1 Z okiku mo chisaku mo nai
L.
(iii) {Adj
[Adj (na) stem/N}
stem/N] '6
‘G 1, {Adj (na) stem/N} ‘G
"G 1, Neg
de mo de mo
1E$I]'G
Eiljrc 1, 12%"?
ZIQT 1, fgln (s.t. is neither convenient nor incon-
benride mo fubende mo nai venient)
51553
95$ 1-
'6 1, ig
$1-“E "G
"6 21¢!/\
1, fgl/\ (s.o. is neither a teacher nor a
sensei de mo gakusei de mo nai student)
(BEEN?
W
H¢As7xvnAs;<@<.
M B$A$7fUnA$;<@<.
Nihon/"in mo amerikajin mo yoku hataraku.
Nihonjin
(Both Japanese and Americans work hard.)
mmanu@tnw:s@vian.
M mmanumsnmearvaan.
Yamakawa-san wa sake mo tabako mo yarimasen.
(Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.)
M %K1%ns$&EorrvaLn.
%KL%KL$EE¢T%DiLks
Ototo ni mo imoto ni mo hon 0 katte
karte yarimashita.
(I bought books for both my younger brother and younger sister.)
~mo ~mo / mono (da) 257
fi&u%Ar1$%Ac1&w.
M fiEu%Avs$%Ava&w.
Kazue wa b/jin demo fub/jin demo nai.
(Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.)
M :®E%u%nw?LiW?L%Di%h°
(e) C®}§!I’hli%hv\'C“l>1'ZIiIR'C'¥>2§> 9 3i'li'/o,
kireide mo rippade mo arimasen.
Kono tatemono wa k/'reide
(This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.)
1. Noun mo Noun mo can be used as the subject as in Ex. (a), as the direct
l.
object as in Ex. (b), as the indirect object as in Ex. (c) or in any other
way in which a regular noun phrase is used. (=t>
(Eb mo‘)
2. Although Noun mo Noun mo can be an indefinitely long noun phrase,
normally Noun mo is not repeated more than three or four times.
3. The predicate that corresponds to the Noun mo Noun mo phrase can be
afiirmative as in Exs. (a) and (c) or negative as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e).
affirmative
iii-
_i._i-L
i —
i _
1,0305)
mono (da) t,0J(T.-I) "-
-_-. ‘-
i
i _Zq
g
H —
i 1-
i m
H —
-—— i
Z
ii
_—g H
—
mi
ii
/\/\,
I'\/'\_,..
% The speaker presents some situation i because; how could ~ !; used

~!;
as if it were a tangible object. 5 to; should like to; should
‘\'\ /\./\-/'\tI
“““"( [REL. kara; no da]

da)
Q Key Sentences
(A)
A: B:
LT fi>§>>*.cv\
E5 Ixc fir)>-f.cv\ <0?
<0’ rs/rt. 1tLv~
rior. it'll»/\ in/J.
C“
Dosh/te
Ddshite ikanar no?
/‘kanai isogashii mono
Datte, /sogashii mono.
(How come you don’t
dont go there?) (’Cause Im
j (Cause I'm busy)
busy.)
3’
(B)
Vinf
?.’
9+ 5)/wt:
J:< 29>/of; %
/\ t2: 7-'—
7'"'~—I~ H1356
PE {>03
C"6
II /‘C5’~+. !
T7;’/T"?!
(I,
I
Yoku anna otoko to deto

déto
' .95
dekiru mono da / desu!
7" .
(How could you date that kind of guy!)
guy l) @_ O
258 mono (da)
(C)
Vinf past
Vinf-past
11* ii .r<
.J,:< ME
Biltfi 2 Rf;..\
so Tre’/1'1‘.
‘CT
Mukashi wa yoku eiga o0 mita mono
mo/10 da
d8 / desu
desu.
(I used to see movies a lot)
lot.)
e
'6
(D)
Vmasu
/of vw\ 513
C/of; 9*) I:
I —-F‘
—-E {"£/VT
B:/we~4-.
ri-. M'
Rt
§_7‘:lr\
'‘S
1,0) S. rt
I‘22:’/‘C’-1',
In ‘C
Konna iin UC/7!
uchi n1
ni /ch/do
ichido sunde mi tai
Sfil
I;
sC. .
ono
mono da / desu
desu.
(I’d
mt,_.,
(I d like to live in such a nice house
house.) kl
(E)
Vinf- nonpast
fi
Q A
A I:
iu. 4-_-2/sic?)
%‘0T~Q> "1611: 51 Z<‘:
‘-$tQi2'lI,J;9_l §'3
'5" 3
1,4) rs/—c~r,
T ~\ T
1_
ii
--ii-_
i
ii-
.-
l Ii
Asa h/to
hito n1
ni attara O ayo
”Ohayo" I
to =u
iu
‘I mono da / desu
da/desu.
_
-—
.%.
.—_@
2
_ i
i
_ i
(You should say “:\Good morning”

— i
i
.__._'-'-
Z morning.)
morning when you see people in the morning)
T2
T1
(F)
Vmasu
i'é2Hizz>&
55 2 F516 & =5
ml=l= ¢>.:.&&
DS
"(1., Ipr ' PI“o §iLf:2b§%'>
ti Tft Y9 5 1.075/'6-r,
T(I, ~_. _"CTO0'
Tosh: o0 toru to mukashr

Toshi mukashi no koto o hanash: tagaru
hanashi ono
mono
5cf" S(1.,.
da / desu . O
O
(' -
(When one gets old, he wants to talk about his past
past.) U96
L’
W
( i ) {Vinfl Vmasu tai} L‘L 0)
<7) Tc.’
Ti
mono da
33-1‘
35'?‘ 1,0)
$0) T5
7‘.:' (s.o. should talk)
hanasu mono da
351,7‘;
32}-1,7; 1,0) T5
7:’ (s.o. used to talk)
hanashite mono da
hanashita
§éL2‘;v\
Efibfcl/\ L0)
1,0) 7:’
7;’ (s.o. would like to talk)
hanashitai mono da
mono (da) 259
(ii) {Adj
(ii) {Adj (i)/Adj
(i)/Adj (na)}inf
(na)}inf Lo
1,0) (rs)
(T5)
mono (da)
E1!»
[E110 1,0) (’Cause s.t. is expensive)
-_l-A
takai mono
}‘é]7)=-of-.';
|E17)>/>7‘; L0)
1,0) (’Cause s.t. was expensive)
takakatta mono
,a17)>oT; 1,0) if (s.t. used to be expensive)
--I-5
_|§j7)*0T; it’
takakatta mono da
§§7)=7‘;’
fi§7)=-T5 1,0) (’Cause s.t. is quiet)
shizukada mono
§in’)=7‘.:’¢7‘:
€§79=T.'Io7’:; (>0)
L0) (’Cause s.t. was quiet)
shizukadatta mono
§§7)=f.:’o7‘;
§§2b>f.:IoT; $0)
L0) Ti
fi (s.t. used to be quiet)
shizukadatta mono da
O
M A=E5LTfi~&w0?
@ A: E5 Lia/<f.cv~0>?
Dosh/'te tabenai no?
Doshite ii
ii
ii
(Why don’t you eat it?)

B:
B: T:'o'C, i*l‘\r“l>0>°
ii-fV\‘()a)o
Datte. mazui mono.

(’Cause it doesnt
doesn’t taste good.)
(b) A: E")
@ E5 L'C%0):4s:,
L'C%0>1l§. *;‘,-;,#=,;gr;v~/,,r.:‘v~?
%if¢:l/\/\/fill‘?
Doshite sono hon, yomanai n da!?
dai?
(Why don’t you read that book?)
B: fi@r.;<9m5uwnfiso.
B=fioT.i<fim5&whfiL@,
Datte, yoku wakaranai n da mono.
(’Cause I don’t understand it well.)
M l<%h&Hm&:t&Lk1®fi!
© l<%h&Hm&:t&LtL®E!
Yoku sonna bakana koto o shita mono da!
(How could you do such a foolish thing!)
M HHoioou$w1ofi.
@ BB@io@m$wL@fi.
Tsukihi no tatsu no wa hayai mono da.
(Lit. The passing of days and months is so
s o quick! (=How fast time
flies!))
flies !))
260 mono (da)
(e) =é=ti:</>)||l:
@ %l:.t :1 a>J|| ls; 1,§1h‘iv\f; 1, 015.
1,;$11f.»§v\1‘;1,<1)t;'.,
Mukashi wa kono kawa ni mo sakana ga ita mono da.
(There used to be fish in this river, too.)
M —§E#—%Ki:z&Ltw10v+h,
W —E%#—%mi:z&LtwL@?1h.
/chido zehi isshoni tenisu o shitai mono desu ne.
(I’d like to play tennis with you once.)
(I'd
M Ao§ufi<fiun#%H&fiorfi<$orT.
® Jkoat-<'¢.:fi<aa=a1tsa*<=tf&4%oTfi< M>'c=*J'.
Hito no ie ni iku toki wa o-miyage o motte iku mono desu.
(When you visit someone, you should take a gift with you.)
M fi%&&$&LTw5&fiin&%&W1®fi.
® fi%&&$&Lrw5tfiim&okwL@fi.
Sukina shigoto 0o shite iru to byoki ni naranai mono da.
(When you are doing work you love, you don’t become ill.)
1.
1 Because the speaker presents a situation before mono (da) as if it were
a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing degrees of
emotion. KSs (A) through (F) represent emotive excuse, exclamation,
nostalgic reminiscence, desire, indirect command and conviction, re-
spectively. Note, however, that the emotion expressed here is not an
-pi
L-—._—,
i
2
31
i
Ii
-_ i
l Ii
i i
-- H
-_ -i
E
--
--
1
--
-L1
'——
H
-i
-l
i
instantaneously appearing emotion instigated by a current event but an
emotion nurtured in one’s mind for a relatively long period time.
2. When mono indicates a reason or an excuse it is used only in very
informal speech.
3. Mono is contracted into mon in very colloquial speech.
4. The usage of mono in KS(A) does not take da / desu, unless it appears
in a subordinate clause, as in (1).
(1) &iJ§f..¢\r\=l=.»/\/'C‘B9&Ei>E.E>>!1/>‘.cv\/offs
(ll fi7)§f.C\r‘=EiA1'C‘B9&@LR%1l’L?.cv\/offs
Kane ga nai mon de eiga mo mirarenai n da.
(Because I don’t have money, I can’t see even a movie, you know.)
In KSs(A), (C), (D), (E) and (F) mono can be replaced by no, but with a
slightly different meaning. Mono sounds more emotive than no, probably due
to the semantic difference between mono ‘ a tangible object ’ and no ‘ a nomi-
nalizer of a directly perceptible state or action ’. Thus, the mono (da)
version is more indirectly emotive, and is not necessarily geared to the current
moment, whereas the no (da) version is more directly emotive and is geared to
the current moment. Observe the following:
mono (da) / morau‘ 261
'9,*t*—/I/2b§fi.*K1/~T.:v\/i//*=b0)'C*'§‘.,
[1] »9,~I:’~—-11/>b§fik.1;~7‘:.\/\/u / *=E» (D'C'*§‘.,
/ma biru ga nomitai n / *mono desu.
(I’d like to drink beer now.)
[2] 4";-<'é2v\¢:??</.1/*=t.a>r'—t.
[21 '%**r<'4—E-<~v\i:1~?</V/*=t,a>'t=~*r.
/ma sugu ai ni iku n / *mono desu.
(You should go see him at once.)
Note that mono in KS(A) can be replaced by kara, but the latter is free from
the emotive overtones which are attached to mono.
11,55
morau‘ 1,55 'v-
v- (Go
(Gr- 1)
'\/'\/‘\/\"
'\/'\/'\/'\"\
The first person or s.o. the speaker ég get; receive; be given it

M-ii
M-ii
—
}
empathizes with receives s.t. from [REL. kureru‘ (ageru')] _'€

—-1
=—
i
i
H
-i
=—
i
H
§
§
E
-
-—
Z
Q-
I
‘i
i
11
i -_
1 5
€__
--- €
s.o. whose status is not as high as the gi iii-

it
-iii-it
receiver’s.
./x/\.'\/'\/\/\/\"\/\»
§Key Sentence
QKey
T°l2iI(€e(cS(:l£J;fi,c)t)
T°I2lI‘€e(cs(:E’,-ge)‘) Giver Direct Object
(KE1). ju)
/"\ E mmen
lilllié/v in ¢=§aPit seen/sewatn.
L607‘./Loy‘
i
9+4‘ F‘ 71.
(Watashi wa) Yamamoto-san
(Watashi§ n/
ni 0-H-n
hhon o0 moratta / mora/mash/ta
moraimashita.
. 1
O.
nl
Mr Yamamoto.)
(I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto)
WNéhfi%$éhK74X#—&L6ota
M mMsnu%$énuw4za—2saan.
Yamakawa-san wa Hashimoto-san ni uisuki o0 moratta.
(Mr. Yamakawa got whiskey from Mr. Hashimoto.)
M
(b) (asf.:2‘;t1)=E
(a>r.¢r=-.11) -‘e 9U z
x é3 /olcfilk
/vtcfflk L1, B5 07:0?
QTCUDP
(Anata wa) Morisu-san ni nani o0 moratta no?
(What did you get from Mr. Morris?)
262 morau‘
%
1. Morau, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means
get’.’. Unlike the English get, however, morau is used only when the
‘ get
receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker em-
pathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (1) is
unacceptable.
(n*m$snufim@21e@k.
(1) *LLl2l§r-5 /oli?.Ll:?EE ‘B 6 <>T:.,,
*Yamam0t0-san wa watashi ni sake o0 moratta.
*Yamamoto-san
(Mr. Yamamoto got sake from me.)
The reason for this is as follows: morau requires the receiver’s point
of view when describing an event, and when an event involves the
first person, the event is normally described from the first person’s point
of view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in morau-sentences,
a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (The
situation seen in (1) is usually described using ageru.) (Q
(=> ageru‘)
2. The humble polite version of morau is itadaku. Example:
N
-i1
(2) $Ll15'E.ElC2li*&l.\f:f£L\T:..
?Li15’E.ElC2l§EL\1':1':'L\1':.,
Watashi wa sensei ni hon 0o itadaita.
(I was given a book by my teacher.)
3. The giver can also be marked by the source kara ‘from’ (i.e., kara‘).
(=:>
(=> ni3)
nia)
M fium$anc/me$asean.
m flmm$éuc/#5$&be¢k.
Watashi wa Yamamoto-san ni / kara hon 0o moratta.
(I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.)
However, if the giver is not human, kara is more appropriate than ni,
as seen in (4).
w
(4) naaxunwa/nuaaasaan.
flii El2I$ZKiJ?]‘7'J\E> / ??lZJF5$E ‘b F; 07:0
Watashi wa Nihonseifu kara / ??m'
??ni o-kane 0 moratta.
(I received some money from the Japanese government.)
This seems to be due to the fact that kara‘ carries the idea of source,
while ni conveys the idea of direct contact. That is, unlike the situa-
tion in (3), the speaker in (4) does not have direct contact with the giver,
the Japanese government, when receiving money. Rather, the Japanese
government in (4) is merely the source of the money received.
4. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often
morau‘ I/ morau”
morau’ 263
omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the
hearer, it is often omitted. (See KS and Ex. (b).)
morau? {,5 5
morau” aux. v. (Gr. 1)
)'\'\'\"\./\"\
)'\'\'\'\I\'\ /'\/\/\.’\./‘»/\/\/'\/\/\./'\/\./\./\/\/\/
/'\./\/\_'\/\/\/\/'\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/ A
/\ *'\/\'\,
'\/\'\,
1§ The first person or s.o. the speaker receive benefit from an action
32 empathizes with receives some bene- by s.o.; have s.t. done by s.o.;
g fit from an action by someone whose have s.o. do s.t.
, status is not as high as the receiver’s. [REL. kureru”
kureru’ (ageru2)]
"M\
'\ //\\ //\\44/.\/\4 //\\4¢
\\
\
/'\/\/\/\.,\,\/\/\,\,\.¢\,
/'\./\/'\./'\/'\.d\/\./\/'\.v\.v \-/
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Topic (subject) - - -
T°P‘° (S-ubie“)
(Receiver) Giver Direct Ob'ect
J Vte
-
($1. iii)
ii) ac
fit gt: 1:;-'7 § 2
ic we Eat
er-st beokl
searel :
-._
%
?-
--
=3
i
-._
i
-
__—-
I
Ell
-_-.
__
=5
(Watashi§ wa)
(Watashi? chichig ni kamera 0 katte moratta
m0ratta//
=3
__
--._.._
Ii
-
.__.
1
ii
lb Fa
is Ea V‘ i L Tc,
7‘.:,,
moraimashita.
(My father bought a camera for me.)

me)
(B)
(SUb]€ClZ)
Topic (subject) Gwer
Giver Vtee
"‘$
(Receiver)
:€
-. :
(tiI1‘
/Q , =1)
__
QI aaaFE-ll+
d , 1:
.. anPl ‘I
‘{>l’oo7L/ ~
il>€>v $1.71.
‘b¢JoTC./‘l>f9l/
'4
ilsfe
.\
-.
(Watashi wa) tomodachi
t0modachi§ 9.ni
??? kite moratta / moraimash/ta
moraimashita..0
'7;-
(I had my friend come (for my benefit
benefit).)
Y’ \./ ‘*-
Vw b%5
BB5
morau
'55-1,1
Efi 1,1 IL,
1, F;
15 '55 (have s.o. talk for my sake)
hanashite morau
264 morau”
fix-5 1,
Q-<1‘ Q, 1',
5 -55 (have s.o. eat for my sake)
tabete morau
m
M
@ ifienukflenmiafiursean.
M *Hébfifi§ébK$E§LT%6ok,
Kimura-san wa Ono-san
Gno-san ni kuruma 0o kashite moratta.
(Mr. Kimura had Mr. Ono lend him his car.)
unfiwnsvasnmmacrtewxtnw.
(b)
(E'ii)'<'7 7 3 /vlifilfi LT L F; W35 L 7:75‘,
(Kimi wa) Bekku-san ni nani o0 shite moraimashita ka.
(Lit. What did you have Mr. Beck do for you? (=What did Mr.
Beck do for you?))
M
@ §aVYV3bfi%*3bKH$%EfiiTbE0TW6°
VaV7V€bU%*3hKH$%EfiiTbBQTW%°
Jonson-san wa Suzuki-san ni nihongo o0 oshiete moratte /'ru.
iru.
(Mr. Johnson has Mr. Suzuki teaching him Japanese.)
l. Morau is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte. The meaning of Vte

1.
morau is ‘ receive some benefit from someone’s action ’ or ‘ have someone
do something for s.o.’s sake’. Like sentences with morau as a main
verb, when the auxiliary verb morau is used, the recipient of the favor
(i.e., the person in the subject position) must be the first person or some-
one with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s
in-group). Thus, (la) is grammatical, but (lb) is not.
& fiu%oAm&v&§Lr16ot.
m M Hm%0Am&v&%LT£&¢t.
Watashi wa tonari no hito ni pen 0 kashite moratta.
(Lit. I had the man next to me lend me a pen. (=I borrowed
a pen from the man next to me.))
b-*W®AfifiE&vE§LTb%oka
b.*%@Aunu&v&§Lrts@n.
*Tonari no hito wa watashi
Watashi ni pen o kashite moratta.
(Lit. The man next to me had me lend him a pen. (=The
man next to me borrowed a pen from me.))
Note that if the giver of the favor is the first person, sentences with Vte
morau are ungrammatical even if the recipient of the favor is someone
the speaker empathizes with, as in (2). (Q morau‘, Note 1)
(2) *3%iiiFLl:
*%li?Ll:'. 7
'7 £771‘
°/'71‘ EELT ll.) I5 071:,
EE LT ‘b ->711,
*Ototo
*Otc5to wa watashi ni rajio o kashite moratta.
(My younger brother had me lend him a radio.)
morau” 265
3. The humble polite version of morau as an auxiliary verb is itadaku.
Example:
M
(3) fiu%§c$a§Lrutfiut.
iLli5'5Z-‘l.=.lr.2l§22§L'CL\T:f.-:'L\T:°
Watashi wa sensei ni
n/' hon o kashite itadaita.
(Lit. I had my teacher lend me a book. (=I borrowed a book
from my teacher.))
4. Unlike sentences with morau‘, the giver cannot be marked by kara in
sentences with moraui.
morau2.
5. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often omitted.
Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the hearer, it is of-
ten omitted. (KS(A) (B) and Ex. (b).)
—
i-Z-Lani
i-Z-L-i
€—-ii-—
it-it-I
_1
—
1
=- Z
5
=='—
T 2
E
Z i
_____.—-
1
j Z
|
266 na
na Z;
|13 Q; prt.
‘X/\./\ /\/*/\/\/'
./\/T./\./\/‘ /‘ /'\/\/\/\/\/\/*
/‘\./'\./\/'\/\./"./"' /‘
/" /\/\/\/‘
/'\/‘ /'\/" /'\/\/\/\/\./\»
/\/\/\/\/'\-/'\v
a negative imperative marker used Don’t do ~

0 0
by a male speaker in very informal
/\-,\/,\. ,\/.,
speech /\."/\.-’\./'\/‘c-/\/'\/\-(
%A/v¢ \A A /~_/-\/\/~.r\-
§Key Sentence
QKey
n o n p as t
Vinf nonpast
Vinf-
7‘: if
Pi“ C
1 E
9-B. f PF ‘£1 '3 2’;
¢¢' !
Tabako o suu na
na!
smoke ')
(Don’t smoke!)
Vinf-nonpast
Vinf- nonpast 2*;
2‘;
na
331-
3&1‘ 1*;
2’; (Don’t talk
(Don’t talk!)!)
hanasu na
Q/§2_5 2‘;
Q/<5 2*; eat!)
(Don’t eat !)
i
taberu na
E =
_.
M
i
1
T
M
m
M
@ naaannna!
fiébibfifit!
Sake 0o amari nomu na!
(Don’t drink too much sake!)
(b) %/1/ftififll
%/ifirfifll ‘L‘b 5fi"<
5fi'< it!
7.42!
Sonna tokoro ni mo iku na!
(Don’t go to such a place any more!)
M
(0) oh&%&fl%%¢ea!!
$>A/>'.st%<1:i1iFi§l1§'§‘%>>’.rr
Anna otoko to wa kekkonsuru na!)
(Don’t marry that kind of man!)
(d)
(<1) 1»
‘b 5'5I'%'J'C'5i€?5?'.£!
i%'>T§lE%>>’.¢!
M6 kaette kuru na!
(Don’t come home any more!)
(ENE
l. ~ na is a strong negative imperative and is seldom used except in highly
1.
na I/ nado 267
emotional situations. However, the addition of yo after na serves to

soften the force of the statement.
m nasavnuas.
M eeasvaaax.
Sake o0 amari nomu na yo.
(Don’t drink too much sake, OK?)
2. A female speaker normally does not use the na imperative. She uses
Vneg nai de, as in hanasanai de ‘ Don’t talk.’ or tabenai de ‘ Don’t eat.’
(Q
(@ ~ kudasai, Note 3)
nado tr
1&5E prt-
/\//\/\1\/\\/\/\/\/\ fi AI @ fi f I /\/
é§ a marker that indicates exemplifica- and so on; and the like; for
. tion example; things like ~
-\'"\_'\\..-I"\'\'.\/\-/\’.\.-
'\/\'\'\ ’\'\'\’ ’\,\’\'\/\/'\/'\./\/\ /\I\/'\/\/\/
[REL. nanka]
§Key Sentence
QKey
—I— Noun Noun

-iii
-iii
—-_
—-1
-1-
izizls: o
am flew:
QKW co ¢
o 1'-P 1-m'TL
"c li TL JP 'CA..$=6
e rA$6 ic<':' 153 tea
&En=fl%
H i
L
--_ -1-
i i
H _--
--_
--_ _-.
_@
--_
--- -1-
_-
--_
--_ i
_-
-ii-_
.-ii--_
tenpura nado ga suki-

it
Nihon no tabemono no naka de wa sushi ya

fi/fleet.
E/fiéT?°
da / sukidesu.
(Among Japanese foods I like things like sushi and tempura.)
M
(a.)
(a) A
A:: ¢§i7l<J+1;l:
%H<¥/~li E: 1:??? i L J:.t 5'5 73>,
<‘:'C.lCfi'€*i 75%
Fuyuyasumi wa doko ni ikimasho ka.
(Where shall we go during the winter vacation?)
/\V4>’.£ <‘:'<‘:'5'C"§‘2b=.,
BI /~7»f>’.r<‘:'<‘:'5'C"1"7)>,
Hawai nado do desu ka.
(How about Hawaii, for example?)
w fi$vu77vz%¢F4v%tE&%%Lk.
M fi$fm77v2%%F4v%&EE@fiLk,
Daigaku de wa furansugo ya doitsugo nado 0 benkyéshita.
benkyoshita.
(In college I studied French and German and the like.)
268 nado
M :ok#Km¢@%fi@&Em6#£#fi%%i+.
:ok#mu¢@%fi@aEm6$i#fi%%iT.
Kono daigaku ni wa Chdgoku ya Kankoku nado kara gakusei ga ézei
ozei
kimasu.
(A lot of students from China, Korea and so on come to this college.)
w Arfifiiéfifiiaobbrmm.
M A=%%$E$&?%0$DTT#°
Keizaigaku o0 senkosuru tsumori desu ka.
(Are you going to major in economics?)
B: ww2.&%#&E$&+ao1vmn9aan.
B=WWi.&%$&E$&+%0$Dm%Dieh.
/“e. keizaigaku nado senkosuru tsumori wa arimasen.
/'e,
(No, I have no intention of majoring in things like economics.)
@ A::®flfiELT<fiéwiem#.
(e) A: ;ofi$%Lr<fiawaanm.
Kono hon'yaku 0o shite kudasaimasen ka.
(Could you kindly translate this for me?)
B: ;na%Lw1o.fia2uum%aan.
r./w‘.c%Lv\4,v>. iii: <':'lclit;tl§l&it1.-/V.
Watashi nado ni wa dekimasen.
Konna muzukashii mono. watashi
(A person like me cannot translate such a diflicult
difficult thing.)
1. A particle normally follows nado, as in:

l.
i
nado {wa / ga / (0)
(o) / (ni) / kara / de / e/ yori /I etc.}
Particles other than ga, o,
0, and wa can precede nado, but, depending
on the context, this order gives the sentence a more derogatory meaning.
Examples:
m %'C'f£Efi'\'i"oh»?‘.£!/‘O
(ll %ctEfi<enaw.
Hashi de nado taberarenai.
(We can’t eat with damned chopsticks.)
m
(2) %HE€fi&%A%w&°
%7§TE'C‘fi'<E>A Ia lr\Z>a
Hashi nado de taberu hito mo iru.
(Some people eat it with chopsticks (and the like).)
2. If the main predicate is negated, as in Exs. (d) and (e), nado often
conveys a sense of humbleness especially when the subject is the speaker
or a member of his in-group. In other cases, it is generally derogatory.
Expression]
Nanka is the informal, colloquial version of nado. It is used as nado is used

except that in a context conveying undesirability or contempt there is more
emphasis on the derogatory meaning.
nagara 269
nagara tgijtg
lg-mi; conj.
I '\./'\/\/'\./'\/'\.'\f\/'\./'\/'\/“\ ‘
'\/'\/'\/\I'\/\_"\/'\’\/\/‘\/\ " "\./'\/‘\ \/\’\/\
'\/\/\ \./'\"\/'\
J a conjunction which indicates that ) while; over; with

the action expressed by the preceding ‘ [REL. aida]
verb takes place concurrently or si- i
multaneously with the action ex-
?; pressed in the main clause
'\./\/\ \/\'\/\/\/\/\’\./\/\ " /\’\/\/\
QKey
OKey Sentence
Topic (subject) Secondary Action Vmasu -
mos»
Elna/V * :1Ii l/\’)‘b
1,,->1, anEi 2
W»?! ma
nai“ mre
>*.ca=e
‘
Taguchi'- san
Taguchi-san wa t um o
itsumo
is h inb un o
sshinbun yomi na ra
nagara
n
Primary Action
fiiizffili
fiiirjfili *2 fi*<%>
E EA?» /fidiifl.
/EKETO
asagohan o taberu / tabemasu.
(Mr. Taguchi always reads a newspaper while eating his breakfast.)
i 1
i-iii
ii
-n—-_ 1—
—
i -1
i
j
H _._
11 i
..__, i
H _@—"
-1-
__ __
_—
_
-—- _-
_@
-—_-
--- _-
_@
1—I
-ii--—
Vmasu it 753
tr hi 6lb
-ii-_
-ii-_
ii-_
nagara
36
-5,5 L
l, fa:
2*; vb?
753 I5
F, (while talking / talk while doing s.t.)
hanashi nagara
Q/<
KN‘ >*;;:,1r,
P‘; 751$‘, (while eating / eat while doing s.t.)
tabe nagara
w $%&#6$&%U0m%£&wTTl°
M $ea#e$e%nouasawc+:.
Aruki nagara hon 0 yomu no wa abunaidesu yo.
(It is dangerous to read while walking.)
(b) LUIII
L|.llIl é
5 /oi:I%\/\>’.42
/uli%l/‘it 753 755 ¢;?L0)EfiEBEllr\T\/‘7‘¢..
l5TL(7)§fiEfi=Fl\f‘Tl/‘T10
Yamaguchi-san wa warai nagara watashi no hanashi o kiite ita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to me with a smile. (Lit. While smiling,
Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to my story.))
270 nagara
M naeemamnefinonfise.
aaeamemaaanomnae.
Watashi wa ne nagara shosetsu 0o yomu no ga sukida.
(I like to read novels in bed. (Lit. While in bed, I like to read novels.))
M
(d) $@&fi&&#5%LTmwUiuA.
‘I,(7)’<i_'fi’<?'4f753l5§§l/'C'l;lZlr\U'$‘l§.‘/vs
Mono o tabe nagara hanashite wa ikemasen.
(Don’t talk with food in your mouth. (Lit. You must not talk while
eating things.))
xnaaeuvnsemaeakfiarpa.
M *H€u%&rMaa#e#&mfi@rwa.
Kimura-kun
Kimura—kun wa kaisha de hataraki nagara gakko ni itte iru.
(Mr. Kimura works for a company while going to school.)
l. Vmasu nagara expresses an action that occurs concurrently or simul-

taneously with another action. The action expressed by Vmasu nagara
is always secondary to the action expressed in the main clause. Thus,
(l), B is acceptable as a response to A, but C is not.
in (1),
M
(1) A r B;ot%#LkwbT?fi,
E x ‘O 513326‘; LT:.v\/6'6-'§*2b§.,
Chotto hanashi ga shitai n desu ga.
(I’d like to have a little talk with you.)
H
H
H-
- —-_
B:ue.=—e—2&an#6%Licx5.
B=ue.=—e-a&aa#5%LaL;5.
Ja,
Ja. kohi o nomi nagara hanashimasho.
-
= H
H
Z
(Then, let’s
lets talk over a cup of coffee.)
C=*l;s».§£l,fs'1b<6=~—i:—>$_'flW+iL.:
C1*ll»<=, 33L7§I/J‘E>=1"-11'-51$?/~iLJ: 5..
5°
*Ja, hanashi nagara kohi o nomimasho.
(Then, let’s drink a cup of coffee while talking.)
Note that in English, “ while ~ing” is not always the secondary action.
2. Vmasu nagara cannot be used when the subjects of the two actions are
different, as in (2).
oi*»—A»—rmzevzemsamenanncn.
Q)*W—Af—b#z%v%&W€&#Bfid@fiLk°
*R0muméto ga sutereo o kiki nagara watashi wa benkydshita.
benkyoshite.
(I studied while my roommate was listening to the stereo set.)
(In this case, aida is used. (Q
(=> aida))
aI'da))
~nai de 271
~nai de ~t;l.\'c‘
~t;L\'C‘ Phr-
P7"-
. ./\/\/"v> .
. ”“”> ,
Zj a negative te-form of a verb 5 do not do s.t. and; without do-
_/\, I5
ing ~
../\’-
ni]
[REL. nakute; zu n/I
O Key Sentence
0
_ Adverbial Clause
Topic (subject)
Vneg
'1"/=/~—§ ti
+vv—§i1 5505 Mrfiér
aoa firffili E £4 is-v~ 'c=-
fiNaw\n $133 -\ fi0TC/
#&¢\fi@t/
Nanshi wa kino asagohan o tabe nai de gakko e itta/
ittal
5 if it
I? 3i E L Tao
7:0
/kimashita.
ikimashita.
(Nancy went to school yesterday without eating her breakfast.)
Vneg 2*; I/\ ‘G

2‘,;:v\ “G
nai de
333 1‘; in ‘G
33$ f,gv\ (without talking) ii- i
i-—-i-it
mi;
hanasanai de W
.-__,
__-.
H
---_
—
--_
--_
--—
--.
--.
--—
--.
in-
@-.
@-
@-
---_
H --
--_
L.
.-_-HZ-
5&1; \/\ ‘G
iii
Q/<f,;:v\ '6' (without eating) ii

it
tabenai de
M
M
(=1) wmenukmmfimawrfinmfian.
“PEI 5 /viiJl<l$l5it:fiib>f.cv\'efi%‘lSl:.:fi-J r.-.-..
Nakada-san wa Osaka ni ikanai de Kyoto ni itta.
(Mr. Nakada didn’t go to Osaka; he went to Kyoto.)
fi%EEb&wT%hT<fiéW°
M fi%&Eb&wv%wr<fiéw.
Jisho o0 tsukawanai de yonde kudasai.
(Please read it without using a dictionary.)
(<1) i fit???) Pic!/\'C" < fié W0
i7‘.:'Ii%B?’.t\/\'C' I/‘O
Mada kaeranai de kudasai.
(Please don’t go home yet.)
m
M €%Lawc&Lw,
fifibawvfibw.
Denwashinai
Denwash/‘nai de hoshii.
(Lit. I want you not to call me. (=Don’t
(=Don't call me.))
272 ~nai de
(Q)
(6) Jami
Q’??? L < l,>*.:v\'e
L>*.cv\'c= 4,
‘b ¢>v\r:v\°
E>\¢\T:\/‘O
Yakamashiku sh/'na/'
sh/‘nai de moraitai.
(Lit. I want you not to make noises. (=Don't make any noise.))
(=Don’t
(f) if:'3bZ>75> E>Ebf.cv\'c-is? E L72,
iT:'i5>Zafl~l5Eb>§:v\'G>?5é'i L720
ok/‘mash/'ta.
Mada aru kara kawanai de ok/mash/'ta.
(Because I still have it, I didn’t buy it (in advance).)
1. If a nai de clause expresses something one is expected to do, as in KS

where there is the expectation that Nancy should eat breakfast, the trans-
lation is ‘without ~ing’, but if not, it is ‘do not do ~ and ~’, as
in Ex. (a).
2. ~nai de is often used to combine two sentences as in KS and Exs. (a)
and (b) but can also be used with kudasai ‘please do s.t.’, as in Ex.
(c), hoshii ‘ want’, as in Ex. (d), morau ‘receive a favor’, as in Ex. (e),
and te oku ‘ do s.t. in advance ’, as in Ex. (f).
3. ~nai de is used only with verbs. It cannot be used with adjectives.
4. In cases where no auxiliaries such as kudasai, hoshii, morau and te
oku are used, nai de implies that the speaker is emphasizing negation,
ii
L
in-i. because somehow the proposition expressed in the nai de clause is
-
- 1;
- 2
contrary to his expectation.

- —.-
: _
- }
- —.-
-
- —.-
_.-
-
- i
_.-
-
ig-i
is
L-.—
ig-
-iii
I. ~nai de can be replaced by ~ zu ni, if de of nai de somehow retains the

original meaning of‘ and ’, as in KS, Exs. (a), (b) and (f). Thus, the sen-
tences in [1] are all grammatical, but those in [2] are all ungrammatical:
M a +vv—u%m5%:fi2fi&?c#&~fi¢k°
Ula +vv—u%®5fiffi&fi&ft#&~fi¢k.
Nanshi wa kino
kind asagohan 0 tabezu ni gakko e itta. (Cp. KS)
h
b wmsmufimufiwfcfimmfian,
$EéAufiMmfimfcfifitfi¢k,
Nakada-san wa fisaka ni ikazu
/kazu ni Kydto ni itta. (Cp. Ex. (a))
Q
¢- fi%&Ebft%Av<fiéw.
3¥%2Eb‘§'l3-5%’/~/‘C’ < E5 l(‘o
Jisho
J/sho 0 tsukawazu ni yonde kudasai. (Cp. Ex. (b))
d ifib6#6EbTE£%iLk°
¢ afiaamafibfcssxun.
Mada aru kara kawazu ni ok/‘mash/'ta.
ok/mash/'ta. (Cp. Ex. (f))
[2] a.
8. *1
*i 754% l5'4‘|: < 7;’
T5li?16'§‘l: 3 W0
fzfa‘-5 vy,
*Mada kaerazu ni kudasai. (Cp. Ex. (c))
~nai de 273
b.
b- *%;%'§’¢'d‘l:?§k1,v\.
*'£i€3t“'s1‘l:i%kLv\o
*Denwasezu ni hoshii. (Cp. Ex. (d))
The only difference
difi'erence between nai de and zu ni is that of style: zu ni is
used in formal speech or written Japanese. The formation is exactly
the same as nai de, namely, Vinf-neg zu ni. However, the zu ni form
for suru-verbs is not sh/'
shi zu ni, but se zu ni, as in benkydsezu ni ‘ without
studying ’.
studying’.
II. ~nai de can be replaced by nakute only when the nai de clause indicates
some cause for human emotion which is expressed in the main clause.
Otherwise, the nakute version is unacceptable, as in [5].
[S].
[3] '&l19*@%w>=%a*¢r;t\-c* ?P?1‘|: / tr

’é'éa1%i%r>§%fi*¢f;\.\'e / ???"¢‘|: ta < 'cHL~1‘»=w>»@r;.
‘tH+;~';‘:o> l,n>Qr:;.
Boku wa eiga
eigo ga hanasenai de/
del ???zu ni
nil/ nakute hazukash/1
katta.
(I felt ashamed because I couldn’t speak English.)
[4]
[4] ><-~2‘—>b§fi0'l:;l&f.-I we / ???'d‘|: / ts << 'CHJm~>T:.
z—'~‘/"—fi§iZ1§U‘lC;l&f;(\-5~/???'§‘l:/fa: 'CB}J2b>o7‘:s
S0/'i
$0/7 ga asobi ni konai de/ ???zu ni / nakute tasukatta.
(I felt relieved, because Susie didn’t come see me.)
[5] a- —-fi|w111E€¢'.‘:n5wr:1-L\'e/-d‘|:/*t.a'
—-E[$l1l1E¥-5:l1FEiv§f.£ W6 / "fl: / *t; < 'C%l$El:)\o no
-CHEER’-A’) 7:.
Ichiro wa bésh/'
béshi 0 nuganai de / zu ni /*nakute heya ni haitta.
i
ii-—
(Ichiro entered the room without taking off his hat.) iii
iii
_
—
i_
—.-T
—
i
1-
1-
*-
1-
11
i
_
%
? 1-
*-
—
1-. it
—-—
b- Rmvc
§.o:'|.\'c* /*1’|:
/*1‘|: / *1‘:
*1; < -c
‘C < 75:-'
Tzfa’-S_<v\.
ZN:
— *-
vx.
—__ *-
L-j-——-—
ii-— i
ii-it
ii-—
Mina!’ de / *zu ni
Minai nil/ *nakute kudasai.
(Please don’t look at it.)
¢-°- fi~m.\'c~ /-fl: /*1‘: < 'Ci=$\r\T:o
fi’<1'3~'L\'E‘/'§‘l2/*7; 'c:aw‘;.
nil/ *nakute oita.
Tabenai de / zu ni
(I left it uneaten.)
It is also noted that the idea of‘ X is not Y but Z ’ is expressed by nakute
rather than nai de, as in [6].
[6] %Le1'iir'a1t:
1‘F1.a1'%‘¢i-czar; < ‘C
-c /*f.;1.\'c*5’ai"c~r.
/ *1; c.\'c=5E$"c=1“.
Watashi wa gakusei de wa nakute / *nai de sensei desu.
(I am not a student but a teacher.)
274 ~nakereba naranai
~nakereba naranai ~1I:Uhlzf£L'5t:l.\

~t;lfl1Iaff.:I5f.:L\ Phr-
-'\/\
"\/\ /\'\-/\/\/\/\./\/'\/\/\/\,/\/\f\/‘\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\./\/\/‘\/\
/\’\/\/\/\/\/‘\'\/\/\/\./\./'\/\/‘\/\/\/'\ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\-/'\/\
I
It won’t
won t do if s.o.
s o does not take some
no
I 0 have to; must; need
action or if s.o. or s.t. is not in some [REL. ~nai to ikenai; ~nake-
\vx//.\,/\/-\~.\-.
state. reba ikenai; ~nakute wa ikenai;
ikena/' ;
\_,-\\/\, /\._/\ 4/\.4‘~\
\/\. ./\/\./\/\/'\ '\/\"\/\
\/\ _/\/\/\/\/'\ '\/'\.'\/\'\/\-’\’\/\-/\/.\/\'\/\/'\/'\/\-/'
’\/\/\’\/\/\/v\'\/\/\/\/\/¢\/\/\-
~nakute wa naranai; ~neba
naranai]
(ANT. ~na/'de moii;
mo ii; ~na/cute
~nakute
mo ii; ~te wa ikenai; ~te wa
naranai)
Q Key Sentences
'59
(A)
A:
>
\./
are :1ti
‘Q f§Jm>>:c<r
%»&<r =1,svw~@-c
vw~ A1 1-*r n7:».
Kyo wa hatarakanakute mo /1//' n desu ka
ka.o.
L;
L-_-1
i
iii-
-ii-i
— 1;-
(Dont
(Don’t you have to work today?)
— ‘-
§ 1
g .-—
g =—
-ii
{
B: Vinf-neg
Vinf neg
vw\2.,
\wW\X., Em
8. fa 1 >*.ch‘m:£
fxliflli >2it 9D 1+:/V.
iii"/U
5'm
/'e. hataraka nakereba nanmasen
narimasen..OV
(Yes, I have to work)
work.)
(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (1') stem I
/<1»/—~y l~7l?—/V
/<2*r~y |~a<‘-» <00) 12$
5?? :1 is
ice < cum:
fxlihlf z.¢s>*.w/
>::e>:.¢v~/
Basukettoboru no senshu
Basukettobéru wa 6ki ku nakereba naranai]
naranai I
I2 muses.
maze».
5 narimasen.
(Basketball players have to be big.)
~nakereba naranai 275
(C)
Topic (subject)
(Sl.lb_]6ClI) Adj
Ad] (na) stem
mafia
[Z1 E6 :1 fit»
=3- 'C* trfimf
icwmi tr e->:.<v~/>21: D itt/be
>*.cE>tcv\/>'.:D$~i;t/V
Toshokan wa shizuka
shrzuka d
de fl8!'8fl8I / nar/masen
nakereba naranai nar/masen.
quiet)
(Libraries have to be quiet.)
(D)
Topic Noun
$
$2
9:r/J
(1 <0 41$
{:I:$ 5&1 $5
~|{E
. ‘G tcfimi f.¢F>7£V\/719$-Ii“/oo
>‘.cUi1/if f.c6f.cv\/irviir/V
K0 n 0 shigoto
Kono sh/goto wa Q8/(U88!
gakusei d
de nakereba naranai /I narimasen.
nar/masen
H.
(Lit.
(Lit
.M_ O Speaking
H?..
'#,_";. of this job,
]0b, it has to be students.
students (=Only students can
apply for this job.))_]0b )). K 0
m
(i) Vneg tn
fxfihtf f.:6f.cv\
umi 12: 15 tr l/\
nakereba naranai
533 tcfimf
E83 giymi‘ r; 15>‘.rv\
>2: c,z,¢v~ (s.o. has to talk)
hanasanakereba
hanasa nakereba naranai ii
ji-_i
iii
i.
11
i
fi¢<f;l'j'j’L§jf f;
gxfgljnlf 2*; 157;:
E,f;':v\
\/\ (s.o. has to eat)
i
i. —-
-
N 1
—.- 1
i
—
11 1-
i
i
1; 1-
1-
11
11 -
—-
naranai
tabenakereba narana/
__-iii
iii-
in-_-—-a
iii-
ii
Adi (1') Stem < >’.ch‘mf

(ii) Adj tcfimf f.c15>‘.cv\
?.cE>tcv\
ku nakereba naranai
§5< fgliitlf
g'<'< 21;: Hitif 2*; t‘,f;:v\-
2‘; c3f,;v\- (s.t. has to be inexpensive)
yasukunakereba naranai
iii) {Adi (na) stem/N} '6
(iii) '0 r‘.:muf
rmzui >::15>:cv\
f.cE>f.cv\
de nakereba naranai
n5*}/;='(=~f; U1l"Ll;fl
‘$0‘ ‘ ‘C' >‘.rh‘m;.t 2*; 15
tr 1;, tn/\
fgln (s.t. has to be quiet)
sh/zukadenakereba
shizukadenakereba naranai
15¢'
.' ‘ '60 M11“;
T f;(")j1,lf
\ ‘F 7; 15?; \(\
>*;¢,f.;v~ (s.o. has to be a teacher)
sensei de nakereba naranai
sense!
flubbkfiifimfiékfinflfibitbo
@ fiuaunfiinmfiamunwmvzem.
Watashi wa ashita
ash/‘ta asa goji ni okinakereba nar/masen.
narimasen.
(I have to get up at five tomorrow morning.)
276 ~nakereba naranai
a@%§us§¢cm<awn&a0saa.
M a@%§utawcm<annuav1e».
Ano heya wa mo
mo’ sukoshi hirokunakereba narimasen.
(That room has to be a bit larger.)
M :o&$2+anwnu§%#L$cmun&msaw.
:o&$2+anwuu§%#i$vunn&mea».
Kono shigoto 0 suru tame ni wa eigo ga jozu
jdzu de nakereba naranai.
(To do this job, your English has to be good.)
w :@d»7%2&5nwmuxv»—vmwnuasuw.
:@dw7%2E5kwmu;vfi—v&Hnd&akw.
gorufu/'6 0 tsukau tame ni wa menbé de nakereba naranai.
Kono gorufujd
(To use this golf course, you have to be a member.)
1. Vneg nakereba naranai expresses the idea of obligation. The contracted

forms Vneg nakerya naranai and Vneg nakya(a) naranai are also used in
conversation. Sometimes, naranai is omitted if the context is clear.
Example:
(1) 'l> 5l1%Ib>’.:l7‘fLlf/lri'il‘o>‘.tl7‘

‘b 5l%E»>’.:b‘nli‘ / 4%‘-1%f.cH D ‘ta»<= I/l'ri'rl5>‘.£é'R=(§>)°
l'?i‘-%E»f.;:%=<= (Mo
M6
Mo kaeranakereba / kaeranakerya / kearanakya(a).
(I have to go home now.)
2. Negative obligation, i.e., “ do not have to ” cannot be expressed by the
-
iii
it
.
i-iii
negative form of this Pattern. It is expressed by ~nakutem0 ii /'/' ‘It
‘ It is
-- *-
1
-_ _
11
-p
1
1
--
1
-
1
1
-_
S
_
*-
S
11
_.-
—
i
all right if ~ doesn’t do s.t.’ (=> ~ te mo ii)
(r=>
-i —
—-iii
iii
-ii
-ii
--nakereba naranai / ikenai

In addition to ~nakereba ikena/' there are at least four other ex-
pressions of obligation. They are as follows:
film
Ulm %éu<tmu5uu/uwuu.
%éu<tmt6uu/uwuu.
Hanasanakute wa naranai / ikenai.
b- €%a‘-.=f.i'i.\&i.\|+f.i"i.\/*»t1'»51‘.i'i.\.
:%%'i<>f:t\&t\I1>‘::u\/*1:-5f.:L\.
Hanasanai to ikenai / *naranai.
¢- §€éni£f.:5f;L\/*i.\|+=tri.\.
;%‘£é<2alff.:»5>t:l.\/*t\|+m\.
Hanasaneba naranai / *ikenai.
[1c]
[lc] is the written version of ~na/rereba
~nakereba naranai. [la], [lb] and hanasa
nakereba naranai / ikena/'
ikenai carry essentially the same meaning. Nakute wa is
often contracted into ~nakucha, ~nakuch.-5,
~nakucha, ~nakutcha, and »-nakutché.
~nakutch5.
~naku naru 277
~naku naru ~11‘

~13; < K5
7326 N"-
P1"-
It has reached the point where some not ~ any more
state or action does not take place [REL. ydni
y6n/' naru; mo ~ na/I
na/1
any more.
A/V\m/V\
(
§Key Sentence
QKey
Vinf neg
Vinf-neg
i
*?é.<l,v\ 1%+ ‘b‘L
’<°&’_<l.,\r‘l§$ EH
EH‘ >*.:< >‘.:»>T:/P'£D3il,T:°
>’.¢< f.cof._/1‘.cDiLf_.
‘i
Yasashu kanji
Yasashii kan// mo kake naku natta //narimash/ta.
nanmash/ta ‘O
ll
kart]: any more.)
(I cannot even write easy kanji more)
(i) Vinf-neg if; <( >335

2*; 25:5 where V is often a potential verb
naku naru
{E33
{%<-'5 /33-11-}
/E3-11-} f; < fgzg
f_;Z> doesn’t / can’t talk any more)
(s.o. doesn’t/can’t
/ hanase} naku naru
{hanasa /hanase}
{fix /fix 1511,}
[fix 531,} 7;
f; < #4:?)
fgzg doesn’t/can’t
(s.o. doesn’t /can’t eat any more)
iii iI
{tabe / taberare} naku naru

[tabe iii?-
111
=-—-1
Ni
iii
ii
i
Ni
iii
ii
Iii
ii
ii
ii
iii:
ii-ii
(ii) Adj (1') stem < f;<

2{;:< 735
>35
{-
ii
ii
ku naku naru
',I,§%‘ <
F51] f;5
2*; < 74:25 (s.t. isn’t expensive any more)
takaku naku naru
(iii) (Adi
{Adi (na)stem/N}
(na) stem/N} l'C'
{'6 :1/ta»)
Ii/l‘L—*'i‘>} >’.c<
>*.c< >25
tca
[de wa /ja]
{de / ja} naku naru
[§§;b>'(=
[§%;b>'(= /?}fJ=1;.q>}
(1 /§\75=1;.q>} 2*;
2’; ( 74:25
fgz, (s.t. isn’t quiet any more)
{sh/zukade
fshizukade wa / shizukaja} naku naru
[955
[5'(;5};-1 "G
*6 (1 / 955
I1 553$ 1; gs} f; < f;Z>
Q3} 2‘; #5 (s.o. isn’t a teacher any more)
[sensei
{sensei de wa / sensei ja} naku naru
@ %mfi2l<&h?wk#.:®@U&it<&DiLk°
w WdEEi<&bTwk#.:®@u&i&<kDiLk.
Mae wa sake 0 yoku nonde ita ga. konogoro wa nomanaku narirnashita.
narimashita.
(I used to drink sake a lot, but now I don’t drink any more.)
278 ~naku naru
&u%r<E%&wnr%§Ln#.$5mnr%m<&91Lt.
M %uWl<€%2#UT%iLk#.b5#HT%fi<&DiLto
Kare wa mae yoku den wa 0o kakete
kakere kimash/"ta
kimashita ga.
ga, mo kakete konaku nari-
mash/'ta.
mash/‘ta.
(He used to call me frequently, but he doesn’t call me any more.)
@
(0) B$%fl$5%L<K<KDELk°
Blliifili ‘b fifib < it < it D 1 Lfco
Nihongo wa mo muzukashikunaku narimash/"ta.
(Japanese isn’t difficult
diflicult for me any more.)
W :o%%smT&#%r$@vum<man.
w :o%%smT&#%r$Evu&<tan.
Kono kdgai
kogai mo chikatetsu ga kite fubende wa naku natta.
(This suburban area is no longer inconvenient because there is a subway
now (lit. the subway has reached here).)
@
(9) ¢¢&k#emr#icum<&0§Ln.
"Y": <‘:7<#’ZlIlIl'C$E'C‘l;lZ7£ < it 9 i L730
Yatto daigaku 0 dete gakusei de wa naku narimashita.
narimash/‘ta.
(I finally graduated from college and am not a student any longer.)
Ex pressions]
Compare naku naru, Vinf-neg yoni

yon/' naru and mo ~nai in the following
sentences:
W B$%#%%U<H¢t°
Ill l3ji§§§703§§'t5.'7a? < 73' '2 1':<>
Nihongo ga hanasenaku natta.
= *-
(I cannot speak Japanese any more.)

_
- E
—.-
= 11
_
- E
11
_
—
1-
1.;
— 1;
— i-
— _
in-ii
i
ii;
H$%#%eou;5mu¢t.
mi
W B$%#%eau;5caan.
Nihongo ga hanasenai y6ni natta.
(I’ve reached the point where I can’t speak Japanese.)
W H$%#e5%eou.
B$%#s5%euv.
Nihongo ga m6 hanasenai.
(I cannot speak Japanese any more.)
[1] and [2] focus on both process and result, but [3] focuses only on result.
Thus, [1] and [2] can take time expressions indicating the period of change,
such as ichinen no uchi ni
n/' ‘ within a year ’, kyiini
kydni ‘‘suddenly
suddenly ’, toro
(oto ‘ finally ’,
but [3] cannot. [1] is different from [2] in that the latter focuses on an in-
direct, circumstantial cause for the change, whereas the former focuses on a
more direct one. Thus, [1] implies that the speaker cannot speak Japanese
any more because he has simply forgotten Japanese but [2] implies that he
cannot speak Japanese because the situation is such that there are no native
speakers around to speak with. (r=>
(==> y6ni naru)
~nakute 279
~nakute ~1:;<'C
~r:r<'C phr.
phr-
*\/'\/'\/\./\/\
'\/'\/\./\/\/\ /\/\/\/\/\/\
a te-form
re-form of the negative nai, which §g do not do s.t. and ~; is not ~
indicates a cause / reason for a state and ~ ; because ~ do not do s.t.
or action [REL. nai de; nai kara; nai
\'\/\'\.
“M” node; nakute mo]
Q§Key
Key Sentence
Sentence (cause)
_ Sentence (effect)
Vinf-neg
Vinf- neg
fi
% ‘BIB?
'|3B?i= ll Eéé
E25 >’.c<
?£<'C ‘C éfiz I12
42‘-:‘l’:l: ll finre /Enibfco
Eflfc/Ehibfc
A sas/c/
Asa h h// n1
shichiji ni If
okirar
okar nnakute
ku
ate ka/sha
kaisha n1
ni okureta / okuremash/ta
okuremashita. O
couldnt get up at seven and was late for work (at my company))
(I couldn’t 1
company).) .
Formation
(i) Vinf-neg fa? < “C

2*; ‘C where V is often a potential verb
nakure
nakute
[353
lgfié /E3-11']
/33-11'} 2*;
in < ‘C (s.o. doesn’t / can’t talk and ~)
{hanasa
[hanasa / hanase} nakute
iii
{fix
{Q/~: /fix 1511,} 7; <( ‘C
git} 2*; "C (s.o. doesn’t /I can’t eat and ~) Z =2
1 Z
[tabe / taberare]
{tabe taberare} nakute 2 E
(i) stem
(ii) Adj (I) < f;< 1'
ku nakute
‘,§,‘<
?;1:]< 2*; <( ‘C
7; "C (s.t. isn’t expensive and ~)
takaku nakute
[Adj (na) stem/N} {C
(iii) [Adi {"0 li
ii /Be]
/13¢} >‘.:<
r;<-c C
[de wa /ja} nakute
{ggw--0»
[fizbvfi ii /finite}
(1 /gmsugs} z,,;< -c
2*; < ‘C (s.t. isn’t quiet and ~)
[shizukade wa / shizukaja} nakute
[955 “G
l5'f:C-ll-I '6 li
(1 /§'E£lZ
/9555 11¢}1341-} f,;:<
2*; < "C
‘C (s.o. isn’t
(s.o. isn’t aa teacher
teacher and ~)
and ~)
sensei ja}
{sensei de wa / sense/' nakute
m
@
W %&ofi%#9meu<r@v:Ln.
%i®fi%#fi#6&<T@DiLk°
Sensei
Sense/' no setsumei ga wakaranakute komar/mash/ta.
komarimashita.
teacher’s explanation and had a difficult time.)
(I didn’t understand the teacher's
280 ~nakute
M H$CuB$%#%en<r%@cun.
B$vuH$%#%en<r%fivLn.
Nihon de wa nihongo ga hanasenakute zannendeshita.
(It’s regrettable that I couldn’t speak Japanese in Japan.)
M fi%u%L<m<rrmanv+n.
Iiiffifilifi L < it < “C J: 75*’) T:'C";'a‘11.,
Shiken wa muzukash/ku
Sh/ken muzukashiku nakute yokattadesu ne.
(Lit. The exam wasn’t difficult
difficult and it was good, wasn’t it? (=Aren’t you
?))
glad that the exam wasn’t difficult P))
M ¢#L$ueo<C%fmLwnC+.
W $#L$ua&<r%fwbwavr.
J/' ga jozuja nakute hazukashii n desu.
(My handwriting is so poor that I feel ashamed.)
M %()‘l,\/\5'iZ-lill-<=>‘.t
@ aoLw%iuan<r;m¢k. < 'C.1:2b>'>7‘.:.,
Kibishi/' sensei ja nakute
Kibish/i nakure yokatta.
(Lit. He wasn’t a strict teacher and it was good. (=I’m glad that he
wasn’t a strict teacher.))
I. Nakute mo means ‘‘(even)

(even) if ~ not ~’.
W
M mmufi#wwma@%uo<tefifimAna;.
mmufimwwma%%Lu<teikmAnar.
Ogawa wa atama ga ii kara benkyosh/nakute
benkyoshinakute mo Todai ni haireru
L
yo.
L;
L
(Ogawa is bright, so he can enter Tokyo University even if he

bi
L-
- 11
-~ 1;
—
' H
doesn’t study.)
Bl:ofiuw&$u%zu<t£wwC+m?
[2] Z’. 0% Ll-(‘l%$lifii7a‘I < ‘C =6 vW\'C"§'2b>?
Kono muzukashii
muzukashi/' kanji wa oboenakute mo i/desu
iidesu ka.?
(Is it all right if I don’t memorize this difficult
diflicult kanji?)
II. The cause and effect
efiect relation indicated by nakute is much weaker and
more indirectly presented than that of nai kara or nai node. Thus, KS
can be rewritten in four versions, including nai de, as shown in [3].
Bl%t%KE%enH<t/Hue/Hnatné/finatmvéfi
Bl@tfiKfieeno<C/out/tmatme/tm¢twv%&
lcfiiti L Tao
magma 7:,
shich/ji ni okirarenakute / nai de / nakatta kara / nakatta
Asa shich/)7
node kaisha ni okuremash/‘ta.
n/' okuremashita.
The most direct presentation of the cause-efi'ect
cause-effect relation is nakatta kara,
and the presentation becomes more indirect in the following order: na-
katta node, nai de, and nakute. For an excuse for one’s lateness the
least direct one is of course preferred, because the more indirect, the
politer the expression. (==>
(=> kara; node; -te)
nara 281
nara 12:5
1&5 w"J'-
w"1'-
a conjunction which indicates that if it is true that; if it is the
the preceding sentence is the case that; if; would; could
speaker’s supposition about the truth [REL. tara (ba, to‘)]
of a present or past fact or the actu-
alization of something in the future ,
/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/~
I‘\/\./\./‘\/\/\/'\/\/\/'\/Q
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Sentencel
11 Sentence2
1'i"B3
1.}-“EH vb;
20 ‘i 51%
5E Z» (ro)
( 0) ) fee
Pf; s 9%
% #1
lat m~>*.w/fie " 111“/U.
tr"nutat v\ /he i ‘Ti’/u 0
Matsuda ga kuru (no) nara boku wa ikanai / /kimasen.
ikimasen.
(If it is true that Matsuda will come, I won’t go.)
m
(U{VHmHmiM(@)ue
(i) {V/Adj (i)} inf (0)) 15:1},
(no) nara
{E3-;'
[E3-;‘ /331,72}
/§fi[,f:,} (0)) gr,
2*; 5 (if it is true that s.o. talks
talks/talked)
/ talked)
[hanasu / hanashita} (no) nara
{hanasu iii
‘iii-
-
-
‘iii-
1-. 1-
1; i
1; i
= j
— 1
ii H
{,"§]'u\ /E2b=o7‘.:}
{Ev /$26:-)f:;] (0)) 2*;
Z; 15
E, (if it is true that s.t. is / was expensive) H
j-
11
1-‘
11
11
11
{-1
1_i.-L
in
1'
l
1-
i
1-
1-
i
iii-
i--_-—--
{takai / takakatta} (no) nara
(ii) -{Adj
{Adj (na) stem/N} In / ff/>7‘: (v>)}
la/rear; (<o)} fro
tn;
[6 /datta (no)} nara
lo
{fin
{%2b> /?sn=r;w>r;
/%%n=T5of.:. (<o)} z;c_,E,
(0))} 2*; (if it is true that s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizuka /shizukadatta
/sh/zukadatta (no)} nara
l5'[5E{-E /95$ 7‘;'o7‘:
i:Z-'l':Z /96$ 7597*; (v))l
(0))} 7:15
fgq, (if it is true that s.o. is / was a
[sensei]/ sensei datta (no)} nara
{sense/' teacher)
m
M vfii~fi<®&%fi2ffi%kéW°
@ Vfii~fi<®t&fi2Cfi%téW°
Shikago e iku no nara basu de /kinasa/'.
ikinasai.
(If you go to Chicago, go by bus.)
M %m#%n@me%u%a.
W #m#%n@ae%m%e.
Sugita ga kita no nara boku wa kaeru.
(If Sugita has come, I'll
I’ll go home.)
282 nara
%n&m§wo&&Ei§%n°
%/o>*.tlC?§i\r\0)?; 652$-tl:/vs
Sonna ni takai no nara kaemasen.
(If it is that expensive, I can’t buy it.)
wEén%fi%&5$fiE%wk6E5C?m.
ILIBEI é /o2b§!l¥€*f.c I‘o$§f=EEE%'/‘Tc. 6 E 5 'C"i*7b=~o
Yamada-san ga suki nara tegami 0o kaitara do desu ka.
(If you like Mr. Yamada, why don’t you write a letter to him?)
E%%$&5%@:&&%@Cw5CLr5.
E%%i&6%®:t&%oTwacL;5o
Takahashi-sensei nara sono koto 0o shitte iru desho.
(Lit. If it is Prof. Takahashi, he probably knows about it. (=Prof.
Takahashi would probably know about it.))
Notes
Basically, S nara expresses the speaker’s supposition concerning the truth

of a present or past fact or the actualization of something in the future.
Nara is the simplified form of naraba, the conditional form of the copula
da. (=> ba) In modern Japanese, however, ba is usually omitted.
Since nara is the simplified conditional form of the copula, it requires
a noun or a noun equivalent. Thus, if the preceding element is not a
noun, it is nominalized by no (=> no”),
no“), although this no is optional in
-ii
_-ii
I»
1-
—
—
i
modern Japanese. (The stems of na-type adjectives behave like nouns;
I 1.1
1—
therefore, they can precede nara without being nominalized. See For-
l
it
1—
1—
__
1—
i
-mg
ii.
i
mi;
-um;
mation (ii).)
When S1 is nonpast, S1 nara S2 cannot be used if it is nonsensical to
suppose the truth of S1. Thus, the sentences in (1) —- (3) are all un-
acceptable. (1) is unacceptable because it never fails to become ten
o’clock; (2) is unacceptable because one can never tell whether it is
true or not that it will rain tomorrow; (3) is unacceptable because the
speaker already knows it is true that he wants to go.
*+B=5=lcf:?s1‘:6/<zr)§5l£?st11"C-1‘.
(1) *+filC?£%>7£5/<7<7)3§lEZ>li'§"('T°
*Jt7/7
*J0ji ni naru nara basu ga kuru hazu desu.
(Lit. The bus is expected to come if it is true that it becomes
ten o’clock.)
(2) *&
*3: L7‘:.F|§7b§%Z>
Lfcfififlifio fa 1‘; 6%=i'8~t1f.:v~'c
Bis‘1i€*l1f.:v\'C' 1,
L .1J: 5' 0O
*Ashita ame ga furu nara shiai wa nai desho.
(If it is true that it will rain tomorrow, there will probably be
no game.)
nara 283
(m*%#fi%nwu6.m%tfi%t#¢rwaufc+.
ml*%#fi%nwu5.fi¥sfi%k#@rwauf?+.
ikirai nara.
*Boku ga ikitai nara, Kazuko mo ikita gatte iru hazu desu.
(If it is true that I want to go, I expect that Kazuko also wants
to go.)
As seen above, S1 nara S2 cannot be used (A) if S1 never fails to happen,
(B) if one can never tell if it is true or not that S1 will happen, or
(C) if the speaker already knows S1 is the fact.
If S1
S, is counterfactual, S1 nara S2 can be used. For example, (4) is
acceptable because S1 expresses the speaker's
speaker’s counterfactual feeling.
Note that in this case the nominalizer no is preferred.
%#fi%nwwu5finms%bfu—Acfi<1.
m %#fi%nwwo5finns%bfu—Avfi<;.
Boku ga ikirai
ikitai no nara dare ni mo iwazu
/wazu ni hitori de iku yo.
(If it were the case that I wanted to go, I would go by myself
without telling anybody.)
S1 nara S2 cannot be used if the completion or actualization of S;
S1 brings
about S2.
flbOUt S2.
(5) *%¥-V37’/\°—
*%%"V)7/*’~— l~ ’\fi'<
*5‘ < /fi'of:?Zi"':5-*ElW3l/‘TC-O
/fie 7‘;f£B-El$?5§\/‘7‘¢.,
*Haruko no apéto e iku / itta nara Ichiro ga ita.
(When I went to Haruko’s apartment, Ichiro was there.)
(6) "‘='i--—7°1/:1—§1°-E5 5 /E07‘-:7;-"B='i*-—-7°&
*7--—7°l/:1—§1'—-25 < flfco
/?io7‘:i£57-—7°E<1l”b7’:., g
H
are
i
E =
*Tépurekodé o0 kau / karta
*Tépurek6da katta nara tépu o kureta. i
2
W
L-
I
3
2
(When I bought a tape-recorder, they gave me a tape.)

If S2 does not express a past event or a present habitual event, but ex-
presses a present state, the speaker’s opinion, volition, judgment, command,
request or suggestion, S, S1 nara can be used as in (7).
m a ==—a—7~fi<wDu5uvw—v-tv¢—#xsLaw
w ==—H—9~fi<WMfi5vvw—y-tv§—#%bL6w
'C‘"§‘_l:,, (Opinion)
’C*‘l‘Ji°
Nydyoku e iku (no) nara Rinkén
Rinkan Senté ga omoshiroidesu
omosh/roidesu yo.
(If you go to New York, Lincoln Center is interesting.)
b. -=1-—B—9*\fi<(0>)f£B
b- -I-=.~—H-—9*\fi< (ODHIB 9‘J ‘/11-—y
‘/7a~—y - 1:‘/6"-**~1‘fé‘?i*J‘.,
-lz‘/§"—’\i‘:r'Z=i'?‘°
(Volition)
Nydyoku e iku (no) nara Rinkén
Rinkan Senté
Senta e ikimasu.
(If I go to New York, I will go to Lincoln Center.)
L
c. %—fv=—;—z§5/§OkuB¥—f&<naufc+.
7--—7°l/:1-§1'—-kfi 5 / '§o7‘:U5-7-~—7°E <1l1.Z>li1"C'1'.,
(Judgment)
Tépurekodé 0o kau / karta
Tépurekoda katta nara tépu 0o kureru hazu desu.
284 nara/
nara / ~nasa/'
(If you buy / have bought a tape-recorder, they should give
you a tape.)
6. When S2 in S1 nara S2 is past, S1 must be a past event or state. For
example, in (8), S1 represents a past event, and S1 nara indicates that
the speaker supposes the truth of S1.
Eié-i>o'>1[i§.»2re(o>)f;6%té§~c1r.ma>Or;t1~;*'c+r.
(8) Ffifiiféofc(0))f.iE>T.%Ké1*tif.cfa>/>T:t;t*l"C'§‘°
futra (no) nara sh/'ai
Ame ga futta shiai wa nakatta hazu desu.
(If it is true that it rained, there should have been no game.)
(8) can also be used in a counterfactual situation where it means ‘If it
were true that it rained, there should have been no game.’ In this
case the nominalizer no is preferred.
7. No nara often becomes n nara in conversation.
~r|a53i ~71;-3(,\
~|'|a5ai ~Jf;'5(,\ aux. '0.
v.
- AAA
"\/'\/\./\ / /‘./'\/\/'\'\"\/'\/'\/\'\/\/ /\/“
/ /‘J\/\/\'\'\/\/\/\'\/\/ /\/'
L
iii
ii-1
--
-
1. Z
1_
--_
$1
1-.-
i—
\/\.;‘~
\/\\
a polite imperative used by superiors Do s.t.
Z
i
1_
such as parents or teachers to their [REL. ~kudasa/'1

~kudasai]
.. 1_
1_
..-1
11
1—-L
-
-
2-L-
inferiors (=people of younger age

and of lower rank)
\/ \/ /"*'\J/\ ./'\
'\/\/\'\/\'\'\/\/\/\ /\/\/\.'
'\/\/\1-\/\v'\I\/\./\/\ /\/\/x-'
Q Key Sentence
Vmasu
‘bvk Fl‘ 0? E“
cf“ O l\" T;(é/L gm
fix fg v 1,
?'.£€l/‘O
Motto rakusan
takusan tabe /7888!
nasai.
(Eat more '/\.)
more.)
Vmasu 742
it 3é’ V‘
nasai
35 1, 2*;
33 M
f; 3 In (Talk.)
hanashinasai
~ nasai 285
gar;
fix 2.1: Pl3‘ to
v\ (Eat.)
tabenasai
@ fifinwvmfiunsw.
(a) fitff: I/\'C*§=25‘§ Lt‘: 3 ll\o
Asobanaide benkyoshinasai.
(Don’t play. Study.)
M
@ $<5Bt%¢C%kéwl°
$<5Bt%@T%&éwl.
kaetre kinasai yo.
Hayaku uchi ni kaette
(Come home early, OK?)
(<1)
M 1,s5£%wwefi&%wrE&éw.
5 :‘<s%w>- emanwrezt: 5 v~.,
Mo osoi kara ha o0 miga/te
migaite nenasai.
(It’s late now, so brush your teeth and go to bed.)
1. ~nasai is the imperative form of the verb nasaru ‘‘do’

do ’ (polite honorific).
2. ~nasai is the polite version of nonpolite imperatives.
(=> Appendix 1, Basic Conjugations)
(1) a. 31'-5.7,<r;gt,\°
;-T;')‘1§;l,Lf,,1:é<\/\,, (a polite imperative)
Yominasai. ii I
I
I
mi-—ii
—
1.1?-
___ j_
(Read it.)
1-_ 1-
%
?
.-.; 2
#-
it
____ #-
%
W
ii- Z
it
i—
i 1-
1-
11?-
i_ *-
1-— i-1
__iii—-
___.ii—-
___iii—-
ii-in
b. Efibl (a nonpolite imperative)

Effizdpl
ii-ii
Yome!
(Read it!)
(2) a. Q/<f,,1:é\/\° (a polite imperative)
fl¢<f,,1:é!/\°
Tabenasafl
Tabenasa/'.
(Eat it.)
b. 1%/<5! (a nonpolite imperative)
Q/<5!
Tabero!
(Eat it!)
In contrast to nasai, kudasai is used by an inferior towards his superior when

he asks a favor of the latter.
[1] 96$.
96$, §Ci“1.=.&$5ti‘C
3Ci‘5E&$$U'L'C < T53
I53 L\ / *#:lI;T:.b‘-"5
*$5tif.té Ln L\o
Sensei,
Sense/', bunpo 0o oshiete kudasai /I *oshienasai.
(Professor, please teach me grammar.)
286 ne
ne 1; prt.
asentence-final particle that indicates li English tag question (such as

the speaker’s request for confirmation isn’t it?; is it?; don’t you?; do
or agreement from the hearer about you?); you know
some shared knowledge 1
\/.\/'\./4'\.n/'\.l-/\ /\.rvI- (
/\_/'\/'\/'\/'\/'\/'\_/'\/\./
/'\/\/\ "\/'\/'\/\/\_/\./ (
Q Key Sentence
QKey
Sentence
fiizlié/V
fiiéu :1 t&:§:%bmw/Wwiek
u H:1._‘I 2 %2>*.cv\/W/\i*¢-Au
ft
i
In.
Sakamoto san wa tabako 0o suwana/
Sakamoto-san I
/ su/masen
suwanai/suimasen ne.
Cbo-
9-J
(Mr Sakamoto doesn’t smoke

(Mr. smoke, does he? / Mr
Mr. Sakamoto, you dont
don’t smoke
smoke,
do you?)
i
W
(a)
@ A: '-‘;\l5ll:l£\/\\/\3E%"i\,’C'1‘IQ°
A=%HuwwI%T+h.
Kyo wa ii renki
tenki desu ne.
(Today is a fine day, isn’t it?)
B=$%m%5c+n.
B¥$%K%5TTh°
Honto ni so desu ne.
(Isn’t it!)
(Isn’t it!)
M nnnu#£v+n.
(b) 2b>’.stf:li#i'C"§‘2Q.,
Anata wa gakusei desu ne.
(You are a student, aren’t you?)
(0) »~‘-"-7-»r ~—l:.v\|E> /2
/4’-7-4 —l:\/W1, 0 l,:<>v\i<;-11,1?
l,»<=v\i'Ha?
Péti ni irasshaimasu ne.?
Pati ne?
(You are going to the party, aren’t you?)
1. In this construction the sentence preceding ne can be any informal or

formal sentence except nonpolite imperative. Thus,
(1) a.
a- *§a*f:8b1I-1°
*'5"Ev>1ao
*Yome ne.
(Read it, will you?)
b- 5%-¥'+?.cé<v\1ao
;%%7+>*.cé\/‘#20
Yominasai ne.
(Read it, will you?)
ne 287
Q
¢- %b?<fiéwh.
$15/1/T’ < fa’ 3 \r‘1I-11.,
Yonde kudasai ne.
(Please read it, will you?)
Ne can be used as a request for either confirmation or agreement from
the addressee. When a sentence expresses the speaker’s strong impression
of something, ne indicates the speaker’s request for agreement from the
hearer, as in Ex. (a). When a sentence expresses something emotively
neutral, ne indicates the speaker’s request for confirmation from the
hearer, as in KS and Exs. (b) and (c). Here, however, KS can also be
a request for agreement, if the speaker is surprised that Mr. Sakamoto
doesn’t smoke. These two uses of ne have different intonations: the ne
of agreement uses falling intonation and the ne of confirmation uses
rising intonation. The ne of agreement becomes ne né if the speaker is
excited about the content of his statement. In other words, S né is an
exclamatory sentence, as in (2).
m
(2) A=£$L6W%E?Lkbi!
A1ll’5‘b l,7_'>lr\ll9%E'C' LTCJZIFL l
Omoshiroi eiga deshita né!
(It was such an interesting film, wasn’t it!)
'0 Lfchi !
B I % 5 ‘C’
S6 deshita né!
So ii-
L-ii
(Wasn’t it !)l)
__ii1_—
1----:1
*—
1-1.;
ii
ii
1-i
=1-
111-
1-xi
ii‘-
ii-
i_- .-1
1--1-1
On the other hand, the ne of confirmation has no exclamatory overtones;

iii;
L
1
I
I
_
it implies something like ‘I am assuming X but can you confirm it?’

Thus, in KS the speaker doesn’t like people who smoke, and for some
reason or other, he wants to confirm that Mr. Sakamoto is not one of
those people.
Ne is sometimes used in a non-sentence-final position to draw the hearer’s
attention to something or to confirm that the hearer has understood what
has been said up to that point. Ne is typically used in this manner in
telephone conversations.
m tutu,awn.fi&vflnvma%amsn.+—fi¥@nna
tutu.emu.fl&c&ncme%smsn.+~fi¥€uea
3:0
J20
Moshi mosh/', konban ne.ne, Ginza de nonde kara kaeru kara ne.
ne,
jtiichijihan goro ni naru yo.
joichijihan
(Lit. Hello, tonight, OK? I go home after drinking in Ginza, you
understand?, so I’ll be home around 11:30. (=Hello, tonight I’ll
go to the Ginza to drink, so I'll
I’ll be home around 1l:30.))
ll : 30.))
288 ne
4. [~te/kara}
{~te / kara} ne is specifically used to give a reason or a cause for the
speaker’s state of mind or feelings in a very indirect and vague fashion.
Examples follow:
(4) a. b®%idtT£%UL<T/%ULw#6b°
$)0)5'Eilit'C"l>‘€(J<L< ‘C / %()<l,v\fJ\'B13o
Ano sensei wa totemo kibishiku te / kibishii kara ne.
kibish/kute
((It’s because) that teacher is very strict, you know?)
b- I/J>
tJ> 5 *<t1fi;k7+*J‘€="C /flK7>"J‘€?'f:1a\B1a°
*<lifiK¢7»'l‘€5'C/fil(71~'§'€5f:fJ\'€>1Qo
Ydbe wa nomisugite / nomisugita kara ne.
Yobe
((It’s because) I drank too much last night, you know?)
Ne here indicates the speaker’s request for agreement from the hearer
based on shared knowledge.
5. The ne of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-
final particle yo of assertion. Y0
Yo ne means ‘I assert that ~ but don’t
you agree? / am I right? ’. This ne is pronounced with rising intonation
(5) a.
a- fig};
¥%§a§§>a>z>.1:1a..
5 $130
Eigo ga wakaru yo ne.

(Lit. I assert that you understand English but am I right?
(=You understand English, don’t you?))
_i
ii
-
it
1- i
6
h nwfiiuwwfiivrxho
bwfiifiwwfiiffiho
§
g
Z
==- Ano sensei wa ii sensei desu yo ne.
(That teacher is a good teacher. Don’t you think so?)
6. The ne of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-
'final particle, the question marker ka. Ka ne means ‘I am not sure if
~, am I right? ’. The ne of ka ne is pronounced with falling intonation.
(6)
(6) a.
8- mTEt17;id<c:.)\ni*;"n~1a..
lll'FEli3"i17<lC-Jkih/5E*i‘fJ\1;\o
Yamashita-kun wa KyddaiKyodai ni hairemasuka ne.
(Lit. I'm
I’m not sure whether Mr. Yamashita can get into Kyoto
University, but am I right? (=I’m not sure whether Mr.
Yamashita can get into Kyoto University. What do you say?))
h
b. b®%iuww%i?T#h.
2lbr7)5'iiliv\v\5'[;i'C'1‘7b\1:-1.,
Ano sensei wa ii
//' sensei desu ka ne.
(I doubt that he is a good teacher.)
nil 289
ni‘ I;
IL‘. P"-
*\./\../\/'\./‘C/\./\/\/\./\./\/\/\./x /\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘\.f\/\/\.f\/\/'\/\/\./\/F
/\ \/\/\/\/J\/\/\P\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\'\'\/\'\’\/\/\/\/\/2
a particle that indicates a point of at; in; on

/“-~.c/\/
'\a'\4a\'/\4\./\~/‘
\4\
time at which s.t. takes place [REL. de‘]
/\/\/\
§Key Sentence
QKey
(SLlb_]6Ct)
Topic (subject) Noun (time)
iL
-,1“
. g u fififi *
fi%¥
\I . _|+: fies/fies?
u less/Essa.
Watashr
Watashi $2:
wa
_$
ma/asa
maiasa $1
rokuphan
rokujihan ni ok/ru / ok/masu
ok/'ru / okimasu.
IHiiKuK|l |K
(I get up at six thirty every morning.)
M
@ flmmB—BK$ifliLk°
flfiEB—HtiiniLko
Watashi wa shigatsu
shigarsu tsuitachi ni
n/' umaremashita.
(I was born on April lst.)
M %%u£%¥w5eemspn.
%%u£%¥n5e2mxcn.
Kesa wa gojihan ni uchi 0o demashita.
(This morning I left home at five thirty.)
L.
5?;
M aléifir/>E(l1)5'l|E7ififi&*rZ»'>
%$@§w9%@Hfi2+&os9c¢.
==W
(0) t> 9 'C"3‘° 5%

=I_.._
1 i
_
E
Rainen no narsu
natsu (ni) gaikokuryokd
gaikokuryoko o suru tsumori desu. L.
(I intend to make a trip abroad next summer.)

w ¥&#$&mfiarws%m$m&§wn,
(d) %lJ1er>§#t5Et:fi¢'Cv\Z>F2'il:$§r=l£2%v\7;.,
Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru aida" ni tegami
tegam/' o kaira.
kaita.
(I wrote a letter while my children were away at school.)
m ElrPt17C#t:v\¥.>B#(t:)é,*a>%é/v<‘:l:l:i%@r;.,
(e) Ewnxfimwafiunewménaméan.
Tanaka wa daigaku ni iru toki (ni) ima no okusan to deatta.
(Tanaka met his present wife when he was in college.)
1. There are a number of time expressions that cannot take ni; the typical
ones are asa ‘ morning ’, ashita ‘tomorrow ’, kind
kino ‘ yesterday ’, kyo ‘today ’,
ototoi ‘the day before yesterday ’, rainen ‘next year’,
year ’, saikin ‘lately’,
etc. Generally speaking, if a time expression can be specified uniquely
in terms of digits, the adverb can take ni; otherwise, it cannot. G etsuydbi
etsuyob/'
‘Monday ’ is the ‘first’ day of the week, so it can take ni. So can
nil
290 ni'
kurisumasu ‘ Christmas’, because it is December 25. But kydkyo ‘today ’

cannot take ni, because ‘today
‘today’’ cannot be uniquely specified by date.
Ni is optional with certain time nouns, such as natsu ‘summer’ (as in
Ex. (c)) and toki ‘time’ (as in Ex. (e)). The version with ni stresses
the point of time more than the version without ni does.
The time noun aida also takes ni if the event in the main clause does not
continue for the entire duration of the event in the aida clause, as seen
in Ex. (d). If the event in the main clause covers the same duration as
the event in the aida clause, ni cannot be used. (==>
(Q aida (ni))
m ¥%fl#&Kfiorw5%$fi&%wrwh.
M %fifi#fiKfioCwa%$fi&%wCwk.
Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru aida tegami 0o kaite ita.
(I was writing letters while my children were away at school.)
When a specific time expression takes goro ‘ about’ as in (2), ni may
drop.
M %%£fi¥EflOE%iLt.
%%£fi¥@WUE%iLk.
Kesa goj/han
gojihan goro (ni) okimashita.
(I got up at about five thirty.)
Ni as a particle for a point of time can be used freely with various
time expressions, as long as it occurs with a time expression that can
be uniquely specified in terms of digits. (Q
(=='> Note 1)
(3) a. —-B$Eli§}l:
—-fiEfi15}l.'_'
ich/ji gofun ni
ichiji
(at 1:05)
8 EHEBE
M Efimflt
sangatsu yokka ni
(on March 4)
c.
¢- Hfilill
BEEN:
gersu yobi ni
getsu
(on Monday)
hdonday)
¢ ¥fiEA+E$t
+nEA+m¢m
sen-kydh yaku-hachi/':Jyo(n)nen ni
sen-kyohyaku-hachfioyo(n)nen
(in 1984)
a :+—fi%t
e. 3+-1firl‘=El.';
nijtiisseiki
n//oisseiki ni
(in the 21st century)
nil /n/'2
/ n/'2 291
6. Ni is optional with the names of the four seasons. Thus,

(4) %(lI)$i!ilt§Li'4‘.,
%(lZ)¥i§ll§l/i*l‘o
Haru (ni) kekkonshimasu.
(I’m getting married in the Spring.)
MZE
ni* I; PM
P"-
‘\ \_/\_/'\._/'\,/'\/ Ix/\ \./\./xrv
"\/\ \/\"\-’\/
(
ig an indirect object marker § to; for

/'\/'\/\"\."\*'\/\/\./\./\
QKey Sentence
(SLIIJJBCI) Indirect Obj6Ct

Topic (subject) Object Direct Object
Ol)_]6Cl£
“lib
. Ha
. in
E a5: .:<
.12 < %</saw.
3 4 / §€‘ i
l/l/8f8$hI 5 waa
Watashi haha Q77
'
ni regamr
tegami . 0
O yoku kaku /I kakimasu.
kak/masu
. 0E
E’
%'.
mother)
(I often write letters to my mother.)
W '11‘-é
W ii
=-—-i-__=-i
M
E
1 ———'"'___
W
M snfli
}
_--
ii:
-—.—
M
@ Qu%Kfi%&<nn.
Qfi%K%%E<ht°
Chichi wa boku ni tokei o0 kureta.
(My father gave me a watch.)
M mfifiiurxvwAo#$nB$i#afiirwa.
mfi%$n7xvnA@#$KH$I#&fiirw%.
Kato-sensei wa amerikajin no gakusei ni nihonbungaku o0 oshiete iru.
(Prof. Kato is teaching Japanese literature to American students.)
@ finnuxnewuvvsun.
M nnneneewcenacn.
Watashi wa imoto ni o-kane
o kane 0 sukoshi yarimashita.
(I gave a little money to my younger sister.)
M
W %#snm%%L1LnmweanvLn.
e#snm%%LxLnmwienvLn.
lmai-san ni denwashimashita ga imasendeshita.
/mai-san
(I called Mr. Imai, but he wasn’t there.)
© fim%&u#$n@amfi%s§an,
M fim%$n#ie@~nfi%anen.
Okawa-sensei wa gakusei ni iroirona jisho o0 miseta.
(Prof. Okawa showed various dictionaries to his students.)
ni2 / n/'3
292 niz
Notes
1. In this construction, as seen in KS, the verb is typically transitive and

is related to an action that involves something that can be transferred
from one person to another, such as ageru ‘ give ’, hanasu ‘talk ’, kureru
‘ give ’, miseru ‘ show ’, nageru ‘throw
‘ throw’,’, oshieru ‘ teach ’ and yaru ‘ give ’.
2. Any transitive verb used in the Vte ageru or Vte kureru construction
can take ni, if the verb does not take a human direct object. For example,
yomu ‘ read’, which does not take a human object, can take n/"Z,
n/“Z, if used
in the Vte ageru or Vte kureru construction, as shown in (1), but homeru
‘praise’, which takes a human object, cannot take ni, as shown in (2).
M /l\é
(ll ¢éwfififiéhmflti<$E%bT<nko
\/\ll#f~$Elé /otifill J: < 7l§2§i-EA/C’ < fbfco
0-ké-san wa
Chisai toki o-ké-san we watashi
Watashi ni yoku hon 0o yonde kureta.
(When I was small, my mother often read me books.)
(2)
M 9a&t1?L=& /*l:t1b'b'C < res we 1.1;.
fiimfli/Wuaof<fiéwiLk.
Sense/' wa watashi 0
Sensei o /I *ni homete kudasaimashita.
(My teacher praised me.)
An intransitive verb can never take ni even if it is used in the Vte
ageru or Vte kureru construction. Thus,
M
(3) 3 ‘/(if
‘/112* 7 1)I) -0) / *|:»<—? 4 --1C-5lE'C&)lff.:..
~—0>/*1:/<'—--7- —lc§lCCa>o"t;..
-—
-—
-—
-—
1
-—
-—
-—
Z
-—
i
M
i
i
M
i
ip
Mean‘ no / *ni péti ni kite ageta.
Jon wa Meari
-— ip
1
Z i
i
1
M i
-ii.
-ii
M
M (John came to Mary’s party (for her sake).)
ageru’; kureru’)
(Q ageru2;
mam
his l-Z ML
P"-
.\/\_/'\/"\/\'
\/\/\/\/\ \, \‘
a particle that indicates an agent or by; from

morau]
a source in passive, causative, morau/ [REL. karall
kara‘)
re morau and other receiving con-
te
structions ,
R/\’\/\/\/\/
"\/'\’\/\/\./\-/\./\./\/\/\./'\./\/\./\/\./\“
n/'3
nia 293
QKey
§Key Sentences
(M
Sentence (passive)
Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object Verb (passive)
—'
—'§"%‘l li HE ll $ iiffi 2 Efiihfc/ijfiihi
%E1l1.T L710
ft /53"‘-f.E1l*bi L71...
Kazuo wa tomodachi
Kazuoi n1 tegamz
tomodachii ni tegami? o yomaretal yomaremashlta
yomaremashita.
(Kazuo’s friend read his (=Kazuo’s)

(Kazuos unhappy).)
(=Kazuo s) letter (and Kazuo was unhappy))
(B)
Sentence (causative)
Topic
(srilggcct)
(Subject, Agent Direct Object Verb (causative)
fl¥§l1
fit ti e § m :m §s mean/neastn.
1'£I9tt7‘/1’Ebt'.'il,T.:.,
A/(I/(O wa Hiroshi
Akiko; Hiroshii ni gohan
gohanfi 0 tsukuraseta
tsukurasetal/ tsukurasemash/ta
tsukurasemashita.
Eli-
(Akiko made Hiroshi fix a meal)
meal.)
(C)
Li
.
_
ii i
M?-
Topic (subject Agent Direct Object Vte —_

i.__.-
-i._i-
i-.__.-
ii.-
ii-
—_
._i-
.__.-
*--—-_
ii-
M11-
ii-
iii
iii
_
fi
Q-H. it: Q
‘I M; E §&2 Eat
HOT been/soviet. ,.
c"~ '5'>T._/‘l2fp\/‘ibico
1
)' < E,
F‘-
FT
Watashi? wa
l/l/8f6$/7! wa chichi§
chrchi n1 kurumai
ni kuruma 0o katte moratta / mora/mashzta
moraimashita.
(Lit. I had my car bought by my father. =My father bought me a car.))
(=My
(D)
L‘'-l4_
35-.
Topic (subject)
(subJ ect) Source
§
5
E
E
~..’
§:—V§l1
/-I__/ 9-P U
E..isw. FRnz
*1
mfi 'H,- he §nm§a
-.. I"-H‘
115+ I R1
I:‘
gen/Qween,2
i,' mo
*1‘'\._
Jen wa Yamano sensei nr I/<8b6!76
ikebanai o naratta / nara/mash/ta
W
. IO
Yamano-senseié ni ' I
naraimashita.
.E
ii. .
(Jane took lessons in flower arranging from Mrs. Yamano.)
w %®¥fifiBébt%BhiLk°
M %®¥fi£fiébK%6hiLks
Sono ko wa 0-ké-san ni shikararemashita.
(The child was scolded by its mother.)
294 nia
nii‘
M
(b) A=%o$aa4nfinuseonne+m.
AI %<t>7‘r~9 '7/f l:tf;'1l'LlC ‘£2 I5 07’:/-/C*‘J‘7J*.=
Sono nekutai wa dare ni moratta n desu ka.
(Lit. From whom did you receive that tie? (=Who gave you that
tie?))
BI5C1C'l,
BI Fplni L71,
fifilct, lélni Liz,
Ch/"chi ni moraimashita.
Chichi
(Lit. I received it from my father. (=My father did.))
M
(<1) %u7/vfiAKfi%2fizrse¢n.
{F3117} ‘J iJJ\l~‘l'£§§’5:fii<.'C ‘ls F207;.
amerikajin ni eigo o0 osh/"ere
Boku wa amerika/in oshiete moratta.
(I had an American teach me English.)
M
W RHfit£%%$fiEé%iLk°
Rflflt£%%bEfié€iLk.
Ani wa watashi ni gojikan mo untensasemash/"ta.
untensasemashita.
(My older brother made me drive for as long as five hours.)
M
@ A=%wém#%%Ln%5c+;.
A=€Eéb#%ELk%5TTl.
Yoshida-san ga kekkonsh/‘ta
kekkonshita sodesu yo.
(I heard that Mr. Yoshida got married.)
B
BII ~"c
*2‘ 5 'C";‘7)=.,
'6"<J‘2b=., Tizlwllfifiif
7‘.:'1h.l:F§]'é’ i L Tana,
T:7§~,,
so desu ka. Dare ni kikimashita ka.
So
ii
-
i
M-—i
1 M
(Is that right? Who told you so?)
1 M
1 M
1
up
1 M
-i
1 qi
1-
1 M
-i
-
1 -i
-i
1
1 i
-i
1 i
ii.-
M
M
it
ii
1. NI3
Ni“ is typically used in passive, causative, morau!
morau / te morau constructions
and with verbs such as kariru ‘ borrow’, kiku ‘‘hear
hear ’, morau ‘ receive ’,
‘learn ’, osowaru ‘learn ’ which require a noun phrase represent-
narau ‘learn’,
ing the source of the direct object.
(=i>
(Q rareru; saseru; morau‘; morau‘)
morau?)
2. Nouns that take n/3
n/'3 as in KSs (A), (B) and (C) all represent agents of
the main verb’s action. Thus, KSs (A), (B) and (C) include (1), (2)
and (3), respectively as part of their meaning.
m Kfifiifiefinfi.
M fififlifiefiufi.
Tomodachi ga tegami 0o yonda.
(His friend read a letter.)
M
(2) %#ffi&W¢k.
?t|§b§‘-:’fiE{€'9f:-O
Hiroshi ga gohan 0o tsukutta.
(Hiroshi fixed a meal.)
n/'4 295
n/'3 / ni‘
(3) §Qfi§$~2E0T;o
§C7)§§§5§07’C.<,
Chichi ga kuruma o0 katta.
(My father bought a car.)
3. N/'3 of source as in KS (D), Exs. (b) and (e) can be replaced by kara‘,
ni3 of agent, as in KSs (A), (B), (C), Exs. (a), (c) and (d), cannot.
but nii’
difierence between n/'3 (of source) and kara‘ is that the former indicates
The difference
the speaker’s psychological closeness to a human source, whereas the latter
doesn’t. This diflerence
difference explains why n/"3 is ungrammatical if the source is
an impersonal institution to which the speaker can hardly feel close, as shown
in [1].
[11 I: we /~n1§c%t§%n~-5 /*|=fi#*a2 1. :=,»-1 Lfc...

U]ewénuI%%m6Ptfi¥&&$ewiLk.
Hiru-san wa monbusho kara / *ni shogakukin 0o moraimash/"ta.
moraimashita.
(Mr. Hill has received a scholarship from the Ministry of Education.)
iii
m‘E PW
ML
i .--_
ip
ip -1-
-1-
} -1-
i
L -1-
_-i
2
L -p—-"-
Q
L Q
-i
-i Q
.--_
__ —
L .--
i
-iii-_
a particle that indicates the surface on; onto

of s.t. upon which some action di- [REL. de‘; e (made, ni'); n/'6]
ni°]
rectly takes place
§Key
QKey Sentence
Subject Direct Object Verb (action)
wt
¥‘lJlE #1
713 ta
$E ccll $2
$2‘ 2
E ta ll we /?fi€<iLTc:..
ifil/‘T1/iE€‘ i Lfca
Kodomo ga kami ni e E 0o kaita / kakimashita.
(A child has drawn a picture on the paper.)
M
w
M ::m&&k0$%&Efi&%wT<fiéw°
CCK&&k®%%t&fi&%wC<fiéw.
Koko ni anata no namae to /Usho
josho 0 kaite kudasai.
(Please write your name and address here.)
296 ni‘
(b) *\ ')‘J =1 7°51

'\ ——7b§lll®J:l:'.:l=5 9D E
7°’? -t)3lJ-l@J:lCi5 i Lfca
L/7:-0
Herikoputé ga yama no ue ni orimashita.
(A helicoptor landed on the top of the mountain.)
(c)
(6) >1-——»<~—t:r/~
71"-/*‘-—li/~ */11'—l:n>|"J'C
I/77'-—lC75>l‘I'C < 7;‘ é \/‘O
Ti I5 lo.
Oba wa hangé ni kakete kudasai.
5bé
(Please hang your overcoat on the hanger.)
w %@afimi¢rw5&fi&wv¢i.
M %@afini@Cw5&fi&wC+l.
Sonna tokoro ni tatte iru to abunaidesu yo.
(It’s dangerous to keep standing in such a place.)
(Related
I. Ni‘ should not be confused with del,

de‘, a particle that indicates a location
in which some action takes place. (=>
(Q de‘)
del) Consider the difference in
meaning between [la] and [lb]:
HIM fiméefiwk.
[1] a. filZ1%&¥E\(\T:'..,
Michi ni e 0o kaita.
Mich/'
(I drew a picture on the street.)
R fiC%&%wk.
h ficaamwk.
Mich/' de e 0o kaita.
M/‘chi
I
21
11
Z11
(I drew a picture in the street.)
1
1 1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
II. Ni‘ should not be confused with n/1*,
nl“, a particle that indicates the location
1
1
1
where someone or something exists. (=> (Q nifi)

ni°) Examples:
-1
film eoeufifiuaa.
%@%mfific&5.
Sono tera wa Kyoto ni aru.
(That temple is in Kyoto.)
b. %‘L&:.t%|3E|:v\f.:.,
iFLl:t¥='=IS§l:u\7‘;.,
Watashi wa heya ni ita.
(I was in the room.)
ni5 297
nis
r|i5 I:
l; Pt!-
prt.
a particle which indicates purpose 5i to do s.t.; in order to do s.t.

when s.o. moves from one place to g [REL. tame ni]
another
§Key Sentence
QKey
T opic
' -.
(sugjpelst, Vmasu Verb (motion)
$1.
fli ti
Eli =1"-'»<'-— l~ ~
5'"/4-l~'\ tam
599% 2
2 Eu
EU ta:
ll fiat: /fies Lfco
fi">7‘:/fi'%iL7‘:.,
Watashi wa depéto e okurimono 0
depato kai ni itta //ikimashita.
/‘kimashita.
(I went to a department store to buy a gift.)
iiiflfli
la:
Vmasu l:
ni
T33 L
33 ll‘. (to talk)
hanashi ni
fix
fifi t:I: (to eat) 11
111
11
if
1 1
1
111
111
tabe ni 11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1-
11
11
11
iflflflb
1
M
@ $i#§M&Lm%n.
#E#E%2Ln%k.
Gakusei ga shitsumon o0 sh/' ni kita.
(A student came to ask questions.)
M %:~M&Lmfi<nc¢m.
%:~m2Lmfi<»c¢m.
Soko e nani o0 shi ni iku n desu ka.
(Lit. To do what are you going there? (=For what are you going
there?))
W H#éuu§rfi&fi&K5e~%at,
M H#aan§:fiaa&u5s~%an.
Murai-san wa hirugohan o0 tabe ni uchi e kaetta.
(Mr. Murai went home to eat his lunch.)
QEMD
1. Vmasu ni, meaning ‘‘toto do s.t.’, can be used only with verbs of motion,
(i.e., verbs which express a movement from one place to another), such
298 n/'5
ni5
as iku ‘ go ’, kuru ‘ come’,

come ’, kaeru ‘ return
return’,’, hairu ‘ enter ’ and deru ‘ leave ’.
Verbs like aruku ‘ walk ’, hashiru ‘ run ’ and oyogu ‘swim’ ‘ swim ’ are not con-
sidered motion verbs because they express a manner of movement rather
than a movement from one place to another. Therefore, the following
sentence is ungrammatical.
(n*flnwom2EmQfi2$wn.
(n*fiu%om&Ru@E2$wk.
*Watashi wa sakura no hana 0o mi ni koen 0o aruita.
(I walked through the park to see cherry blossoms.)
2. If the verb in Vmasu ni is a compound verb of the structure N suru,
such as shigotosuru ‘ work ’, benkyosuru ‘ study
study’’ and shitsumonsuru ‘ ask
a question ’, suru is sometimes omitted.
m w fimsnn&$u»nfiOn.
M M kmsnu&$uJufi@k,
Oyama-san wa sh/'goto(shi)
5yama-san sh/'goto(sh/') ni itta.
(Mr. Oyama went to work.)
iii)?-EF!=='i(l/)lr.§lEf:..
b- #5-l:1>§§E=‘i(L)tc§lEf:..
Gakusei ga sh/'tsumon(shi) ni kita.
(A student came to ask questions.)
(Related
M
-1
E 1
Vinf-nonpast tame ni is also used to express purpose in an action. However,
-
- 1
-
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
the uses of Vinf-nonpast tame ni and Vmasu ni differ in some ways. First,
1
1
unlike Vmasu ni, Vinf-nonpast tame ni can be used with any verb. Ex-
1
amples:
H1fln%%o5E2%atwcwx§2E@t.
M fiu¥mo5E2&atwcn;5&E¢n.
Watashi wa kodomo no shashin o0 toru tame ni kamera o0 katta.
(I bought a camera to take pictures of my child.)
miflM7iUfiA®Kfi&%TtbE%%2fl%LTW5o
[2] iFLt1'rx '1 71)\<7)Zv“li£<‘:§3‘l‘T:6l'>lZ'§E§‘§&%§fiL'CI/\Z5.,
Watashi wa amerikajin
amerika/"in no tomodachi to hanasu tame ni eigo o
benkyoshite iru.
(I’m studying English in order to speak with my American friend.)
Second, when Vmasu ni and Vinf-nonpast tame ni are used with verbs of
motion,_Vmasu
motion,,Vmasu ni can be used without a directional phrase, but Vinf-nonpast
tame ni cannot, unless that information is clear from the context. Examples:
m~&fifiEflBEfioka
[3] filii§§ffik1l~l:f:l"o7‘C<>
Boku wa sake o nomi ni itta.
(I went (somewhere) to drink.)
ni5 / n/'6
n/'5 ni6 299
Him
[4] 11- eufiannnwuzgwxufian.
{%liiE’<'i*fiKirT.:6!)lZ7;Zi§0)%lCfioT;.,
Boku wa sake o nomu tame ni tomodachi no ie ni itta.
(I went to his friend’s house to drink.)
b- *{}"€l:t?E2fil(Ii‘T:6f)lZi“'f/17:0
*l%l2lIi"§§ffikUT:3f)lZZ‘l':J.'*JTCo
*Boku wa sake o nomu tame ni itta.
(I went to drink.)
Third, when Vinf-nonpast tame ni and Vmasu ni are used with verbs of
motion, Vinf-nonpast tame ni usually expresses a rather important purpose,
while Vmasu ni can be used even to express something insignificant. Ex-
amples:
51%
M m W%E~=—t—&&htfiek.
@%E~n—t—2fl#Efiok°
Kissaten e kohi o nomi ni itta.
(I went to a coffee shop to drink coffee.)
cofi'ee.)
U Nm%E~:—e—2&ntwcfi@k.
”@%E“3—t—&fiUtbtfiok°
??K/'ssaten e kohi o nomu tame ni itta.
(I went to a cofi'ee
coffee shop to drink coffee.)
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
-1 1
-1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
111
1
|1|°
I1 i6 I;
|.__ I
prt.
"~/'\/\/‘./\/'\/“/'\/\./\/\/\/‘/\/'\/“\/\/'\/\/'\l\/'\/"
-/\/\/‘./\/\/“/\/\/\/\/\/‘/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘ ./\
/\ /"/‘/"‘/“/'\/" ./~.-
/‘A/‘/‘/\’“/\'
E a particle which indicates the loca

loca- I
in; at; on
Q I
s o or st
tion where s.o. s.t. exists
0 0 O I [REL. del; nil]
ni‘]
’\/
/'\J\I\J\\(\¢\.;\
"\
-'\/\./-\./\/\./\/~/\./' /-/~/\/*/\/\ /\/'\./\/'\/\/\./\.¢'\/\./'\/'\./\./\/\/\--
QKey Sentences
§Key
(M
(A)
Topic (subject) - Noun (location) Verb (existence)
e/vs/.,§ :1
e/vs/.,§i1 4,~\
4\ =;s>~/as/V tn 7/<-|~ cc.I:
yaw/~/a=/60>?/s-|~§ v~a/we-r.
wa,/v\s—;-.,
Hiru-san§ wa ima Jonson-san no apéto ni iru
iru// imasu.
(Mr. Hill is at Mr. ]ohnson’s
Johnson’s apartment now.)
300 n/'6
n /'6
(B)
(B)
Topic (location) Subject Verb (existence)
it.
$11 952
0) 951 I;
L: ti
ii EPIEA
“PISA o
v) éi
ii 51>‘;
gzii v\Z>/v\i<;-O
v\Z>/vi’;-O
Watashi no kurasui
kurasufi ni gwa chdgokujin no gakusei ga
§wa chogokujin
_ -_ -
iru /imasu.
' v
(There is a Chinese student in my class.)
1
w
(3) %o$n:o$&®E%%mh9i¢.
%®2l§l;t: <I)#ffé‘7)lZl%fi'§lC&> 9 $12.
Sono hon wa kono gakko no toshokan ni arimasu.
(That book is in this school’s library.)
.";v>'¥l5’él~";t:.t7°-/I/rfi>*.cw.,
(b) :r/>$t§l:t17°——/w>1f.cv\.,
ptiru ga nai.
Kono gakko ni wa poru
(There is no swimming pool at this school.)
M
(<1) mfiébmfiMuEnCwiT.
11113? 3 A/li7l<[5)ji_lC'.{I/of‘ vii".
Kato-san wa Osaka ni sunde imasu.
(Mr. Kato lives in Osaka.)
M
(d) Eu&®*#i@Cw6.
fEl:1l;£0)7|<7b31’21o'Cv\%>.,
i-III11-1
iqu-1-1
1
1
-1.-11
n
-
1
1
Niwa ni sakura no ki ga tatte
ta tte iru.
E
:
-
-:
1
Z
1
1 (There is a cherry tree standing in the yard.)
:o¢iunI%oa2mwmn<annana.
M :oWImuI&osa#w#n<swEena.
Kono sakubun ni wa bunpo no machigai ga takusan mirareru.
(Lit. A lot of grammatical mistakes can be seen in this composition.
(=There are a lot of grammatical mistakes in this composition.))
m
(t) %¥mao5omm@a1wo.
?‘l5¥ti‘l.1m>z:>r/>|i;t£l.:;;1§-;'C\/\2.'>.,
Hanako ga Minoru no tonari ni suwatte iru.
(Hanako is sitting next to Minoru.)
Ni“ indicates the location where someone or something exists. Verbs

1. N/'6
such as iru ‘(animate things) exist’, aru ‘(inanimate things) exist’ and
sumu ‘live’ typically occur with the locational ni. (Q aru‘; iru‘)
2. The verb aru often takes the particle ni, but when aru is used for an
event, ni cannot be used. In this case, de is used. (Q aru‘; de‘)
3. Noun phrases with ni often occur as topics, as in KS(B) and Ex. (b).
n/'6 301
4. If a location phrase which indicates the existence of someone or some-
thing modifies a noun phrase, as in ‘an apartment in New York’,
ni cannot be used. In this case, no is used. (Q no‘)
(1)
(1) :-1-3-0
-'1:--3-7 0) /*|:7'»<’-—-
/*lZT/*'— l~I~
Nydyoku
Nyoyoku no I/ *ni apéto
(an apartment in New York)
I. De‘ also indicates location, but not a location where someone /something
exists. Thus, in the following sentences de is ungrammatical.
[1] fl-
=1. $1.0)
TM) 5 15|:/*'C*t1—7-
Bl: /*'en—"r i/i:’n§>‘.:v\.,
v l:’7b§f.;2\/\,,
Watashi no uchi ni
nil/ *de wa terebi ga nai.
(There is no TV set in my house.)
b. :<z i~:~: 2x :53 m1é*,~§’.<~%i’|:/*-ev~z>.
/ot:t'9r%%5l: / *1‘!/\Z>.,
Sum/'su-san
Sumisu-san wa ima kaigishitsu nil
ni / *de iru.
(Mr. Smith is in the conference room now.)
On the other hand, ni is used only to indicate the location where
someone /something exists, but not an event; therefore, in the following
sentences, ni is ungrammatical.
1
11
--.
--.
--1-
- 1
[2] =-1- $1.a1v~/>t.l2I%€é'e

bl2l%fi'é'C* / =~=|.:taaa—;-a.
_i -
[2] a. fltzii/\'> *lI%5'fi1‘E>..

- 1
E -L
1 1
1"?
1
1 1
1
1 1
-
1 1
1
j_ 1
1 1
Watashi wa itsumo toshokan de / "‘ni

*ni benkyosuru. -1
1
-
(I always study at the library.)
b. C.:0)-7/rv
0'7 '7 9 l~I~t1E11lI'6~/*|:t13i7iF[1<'F>v~t5.
ti El7l§'C* /*lZt:I3:i77F[l <' Bl/‘T5,.
Kono raketto wa Nihon de /*ni wa goman'en gurai da.
(This racket costs about 50,000 yen in Japan.)
c6- %oH—?4—uiAo%c/flabon.
%®/i-7*»! -ti l~l=~0)§'C‘ /*l.':3bof;.-.
Sono péti wa Tomu no ie de /I *ni
*m' atta.
(The party was held at Tom’s.)
II. In some sentences, both the locational ni and the locational de can be
used. For example, in [3] both ni and de are appropriate.
W flufifiu/cwwisaoun.
M flfififit/fwwiifiofito
Watashi wa Kyoto ni
nil/ de ii ie o mitsuketa.
(I found a good house in Kyoto.)
However, the nuances of a sentence with ni and that with de are dif-
ferent. Namely, the sentence with ni implies that “ I found a good house
302 ni“ nii
ni° / n/'7
which is in Kyoto”, while the one with de means “ In Kyoto I found

a good house”. Therefore, in [4] the ni version and the de version
mean different things.
Hlnnifin/cfiiafioun.
W fiufifit/cfiisnoun.
Watashi wa Tokyo’
Tokyo ni / de shigoto o mitsuketa.
(I found a job in Tokyo.)
Namely, in the sentence with ni, the job is in Tokyo and the place the
speaker found it might not have been Tokyo. On the other hand, the
sentence with de means that the place the speaker found the job was
Tokyo and the place where he is going to work is not necessarily Tokyo.
mtg
ni" I; pm
prt.
/\/\1
/\/\I
g3 a particle which indicates a place to; toward

,8 toward which s.o. or s.t. moves § [REL. e]
A%
/V\/
1 §Key
Q Key Sentence
- 1
: -1
-
- 1
-
= --1
-
- 1
1
- 1
(SUb]€Ct
Topic (subject) Noun (place)
_ 1
_ --1
_ --1
— -in-1
-1
2-1
1-1
1-1
1-:1 \-/
fl
i‘. gm
3‘-ii $05
(1% 09 #u75u>z:
#/759/2: c. fiat/fi%iLk,
‘oh/fiéibto
:\
\
'r \-
W6f8S/7!
Watashi wa k/no
kino Sanfuranshlsuko
Sanfuranshisuko ni /tta / /kzmash/ta
itta /kimashita.1.
(I went to San Francisco yesterday.)
M
(ii) 9Am%$7x9nu%6.
‘I/”J-\li§lE£F-7)‘ ‘) 7Jl~'.".l%?.5°
Jimu wa rainen Amerika ni kaeru.
(Jim is going back to America next year.)
M wo#fl®5BK%ifih#°
womfl®5Bm%ifiA#.
/tsuka watashi no uchi ni kimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to come to my house sometime?)
(0) fi6fifi@vzb§vtAok,
M ifimifico vx I~ 5 ‘/Ic:)\~.->T:;.,
Karera wa kado no resutoran ni haitta.
(They entered the restaurant around the corner.)
ni'
n/'7 303
*Semantic
~kSemantic Derivations of Ni
<(Direct Contact)> ni‘

Direct Contact
.i%¥iil:f%&ifi\/‘Tc.
%1i7i|Z$%2i‘%\r\T:O
Kokuban ni e 0o kaita.
(I drew a picture on the blackboard.)
< Locational existence > m“

r.r; : |:%';f.§ifi;§>
|:§%'az»§a> 5Z» O..
m.. (contact ) or denwa ga aru.
Koko ni
I'll < contact > _
IS a telephone.)
(Here is
<Direction
< Direction > ni’
nii
6 flu n :/ F 3/|Z'fi'0 21:0
flHwVFVtfi¢k,
Watashi wa Rondon ni itta.
(I went to London.)
< Purpose > n/'5

nii’
§lI-lfi E5‘/‘llfcfv 7:2
&iifiEE‘/‘|Zi“T"> Tao
Boku wa sakana 0o kai ni itta.
itta
(I went to buy fish.) ¢
i
i
-1.-‘iii
1
i—-ax
—
‘ Z1
a Z1
_
Z
1.;
i
Z1
i Z1
—
-—
-1-1 _
-1-
1-1 —
--1 11
— _
1.15 11
1-1 _
-
it--no
Object)> nfz
< Indirect Object n/“Z
g
-
-1
A :!<Em1?E¥|:1I=12§ L 1:0
i%u%¥c$2§Lk°
Taro wa Hanako ni hon 0o kashita.
kashira.
(Taro lent a book to Hanako.)
mi‘
< Source / Agent > n/3
g £7ux?v—mflH&$a¢n.
#7uxTv—mwH&$s@nO
Mean" ni kippu 0o moratta.
Bobu wa Meari
(Bob received a ticket from Mary.)
< Point of time > nil

_, Zflfrlliiiifiiiléico
15%-"rlZ7'ii£i1§5iET¢°
N/ji ni tomodachi ga kita.
Ni/'i
(A friend of mine came at 2 o’clock.)
304 ni chigainai
ni chigainai l:51gtL\trt\
l:1_=,;§<i,\/;;i,\ phr.
Phr-
/~/'\/\/'\/"~/‘./'\/\/\/\./\./'\/\/\./‘/'\/\/\.1
/\/\/\/\/~/-/\/-\/\/\/\/\/\/\_/\/\/\./\/ /*/'\/‘
/~/\/'
\/~
The speaker is convinced that there there is no doubt that ~; must
is no mistake on his part in guessin
guessingUQ be ~; no doubt
i something. daro’; hazu; kamoshi-
[REL. daro;
/\,,-\
\/\/\/.\/\./\ ,\ ,\/'\
/'\/\/\./'\./\/\./'\./\/\.l\/\/\./'\/\/\/\/\/'\/‘/‘
renai]
renal]
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
TOP" <S"bi“*> ——
Twéb-gkt
Twas in aaa>;a§z
ee<»;a§a san
sat eimwwww
lzbfiwfiwl
Shimoda-san§ wa
Shimoda-sani kyo no koto
koto; 0 wasureta ni chigainail
chigainai]
§ f5 amwavaeno
B#w%Di%b.
chigaiarimasen.
(Mr Shimoda must have forgotten today’s
(Mr. today s plans (lit
(lit. about things of today)
today).))
(B)
(Sl.lb_]€Ct)
Topic (subject) Ad] (i)
Adj (1) inf
L
L
ni-
&m>%$ o an
aw 96$ <0 fifiiliii new
film liczmwew/snwanaan.
an wtcw / ma»-»~a>n air/U
sense: no shiken
Ano sensei 8/7Ik8fl wa muzukashn
muzukashii n1
ni ch/ga/nai
chigainai / chigazanmasen
chigaiarimasen.
-ii
-ii
- -in-1
_ i
-in-1
_ i
- 1.-_
- i
L
i
teachers exams must be hard)

(That teacher’s hard.)
iii
i
ii
(C)
Topic Ad]
Adj (na
(experiencer) stem
s4v—sn§u
*\ 9- 'M- _ /V ii a=z§»=_5¥
6'-:2 n J1? memwnw/snwavean.
'6nw:cv~/'l;>z‘iv~&,9i A, 'oO
Be/r/-san
Beiri-san wa tenisu §ga
Zwa ga 16zu
jozu nz
ni C/7Ig8I!78I
chigainai /chigazanmasen
/ chigaiarimasen.
(Mr Bailey must be good at tennis.)
(Mr. k .
Q tennis \-f
0
ID)
9V~
/'\
/5
I5
(SUb_]€Ct)
ao.A
ZN) A iu axx
B$)\ libfiwfiw/%#wbDi%b°
I 15ia=v\>*.:v\ / Bi» v\a'bD iii-/U
*fr;.H
O
/7lIO
Ano hito E9+.
wa mhonjm
nihonjin I7!
ni
..
-. V‘ U5
C/7Ig8II78I
O- . Ufi
0 .
chigainai / chiga/anmasen
- . °vi- 1'
chigaiarimasen.
(That person must be Japanese)
Japanese.)
ni chigainai 305
m
M
KSs (A) and (B):
{Vinf/Adj(1)} inf
{Vinf/Adj(/)] ll B223!/\f.:\r\
*;7)§\/‘Pitt/\
ni chigainai
l§3'§"
iii?‘ /Efibfc}
/ESLTC} ll‘. 15203!/\f;ln
(C. 157)“/\f;v\ (s.o. will no doubt talk / s.o. no
-[hanasu
{hanasu /hanashita}
/ hanashita} ni chigainai
chiga/‘nai doubt talked)
lfi'<Z>
{EKZ5 /fi*<T:l
/fififcl ll '52:“/\t.cv\
ll’. 'l5zb¥v\>:;v\ (s.o. will no doubt eat /s.o. no doubt
{taberu / tabeta}
-[taberu tabeta] ni chigainai ate)
-[Em /"1*.§.'1‘r)>-27:} I: 2a§y~>‘.:v~
{Elm /‘|“*,»;';'§7)>oT:} 151:3!/\r‘; ln (s.t. is /was
/ was no doubt expensive)
{takail takakatta} ni chigainai
(takail
KSs (C) and (D):
{Adj (Ha)
{Adj (na) stem/N} I0/fiofc}
stem / N} {0/ l: 15113!/\f;l/\
Tick} ll‘. m>=y~>*.¢i~
{H
{B /datta} ni chigainai
{?'§2b>
($7? /i%i1>f:;'o7‘:.}
/%7fJ>f;'o7‘:.] I:
l: 5n‘iv\r;v\
#27)“/\f;y\ (s.t. is / was no doubt quiet)
{shizuka /shizukadatta} ni chiga/nai
chigainai
~[5*13£E
lfiléi /913$
/55$ T5072} l: 157)“/\f,1:y\
Tiofc} ll. i5:o‘iv~>*,;v\ (s.o. is / was no doubt a teacher)
{sensei / sensei datta]
(sensei datta} ni chigainai
j
ii-_-_-i
-
:i__-__i-
_-— -—-_
--—
--— —i
i
1
i __-
Z1
i
--— i
1 —
i
a --—
—
i ii
--— --—
--1
_-Q -_-—
-_.—
ii-—-i-—n
{i--_-i
ii-_-i-—n
in
m ZAH%@»V4T%L<%WTW6KEfiwkw°
M :Am%@»w4v%L<%wvwenBmwaw.
Futari wa imagoro Ha wai de tanoshiku oyoide iru ni chigainai.
Hawai
(The two must now be enjoying swimming in Hawaii.)
M
(b) —AC%@~fi<®fifiEKEfiw&w,
-—-)\'C'5’l@*\fi<r/>i:.t7E23i¢:'6:b‘=1v~f.cv\. M
Hitori de gaikoku e iku no wa taihen ni chigainai.
(It must be hard to go to a foreign country alone.)
(0)
(<1) lllEl
LLIIII é /oti§1Er)§vw\t:*)ia¥v\f.cy\,
/viifi:b'iv\v\l:;15:b§v\>‘;v\,,
Yamaguchi-san wa atama ga ii ni chigafnai.
chigainai.
(Mr. Yamaguchi must be bright.)
ame: bI~ ‘/7°?
(d) ilbnti /»/i:'l5:b‘iv\f.cv\.,
‘/7'7 ‘/é /olC.B2b§v\f.cv\,
Are wa Tonpuson-san ni chigainai.
(That must be Mr. Thompson.)
306 ni chigainai
The sentence-equivalent that precedes ni chigainai can be nominalized by no

in written JJapanese,
apanese, yielding more credibility to the speaker’s assertion.
Examples: (Q
(==> nos)
no”)
(1) a. B2ls:<r>&%§ii.l:<f.:oTc0)l:15:b§v\f.cv\..
E12Iw>&%4§li.L < >*.:/>f:0)l:.*;r)§v\>*4:v\o
Nihon no keizai wa yoku natta no ni chigainai.
(The Japanese economy must have really improved.)
b- %<’2E
51325 5 (alibi
0)li§)i Dfil,
Dfib < f.:v\0>l:’@2b§v\>*.:v\°
>*;v\0)l:.f5n‘iv\f.cv\.
/e 0o kau no wa amari muzukashikunai no ni chiga/"nai.
chigainai.
(Buying a house is no doubt not so diflicult.)
difficult.)
I. There are cases where ni chigainai can sometimes be replaced by hazu

da. In such cases, however, the former is always a conjecture and the
latter is the speaker’s expectation based on objective facts. (==>
(Eb hazu)
II. The degree of probability implied by daro, kamoshirenai, and ni chigai-
nai is as follows:
Least probable Most probable
( )
i--i
ii‘
-L1
-ii
i_i__
kamoshirenai daro ni chigainai
= -_-_-—'
-_-_
-nikui 307
.|1ikui 1;
|; ( (,\ aux. adj. (i)
(1')
g S.t. or s.o. is hard to ~. é§2 hard to ~;

~ ; diflicult
diflicult to ~; don’t
do s.t. easily; not readily; not
prone to ~
(ANT. -yasui)
- yasui)
§Key
Q Key Sentence
ToP(J)
ic (subject)
Topic sub ect Vmasu
1
:0 2|:
._<o2li :1 xa
1:25
~>+
§3%¥+l:<v\/a;<v\'e~r°
=i’iv/i<v\
__~‘ 3 : '
/\
.n 2+
Kono hon §,rs;
wa ta/hen
taihen yomin/kui
.(i
n/kuidesu..~.\
yomlnikui / n/ku/desu
(This book is very hard to read.)
read)
gll
0
Formation
Vmasu ll’. In
II. < v\
nikui
§-%l,i:; << in
EELIC. v\ (s.o. is hard
(s.o. is to talk
hard to talk to)
to)
hanashinikui
hanashiniku/'
fix};
E/<lr_'. (< in
In (s.t. is hard to eat) in
mim-
ii
— i
%i
Ti
tabenikui
__.—i
‘ti
ii
ii
_—
-iii
_-¢.-_-
ii
iii
ii
--ii
-._¢.-iiii-I
iii-n—-—
g
i-
Z-
iii
(a)
@ 1:0) Fwififiélc < v~'c*H2..
:@F7u%%t<wrTh°
Kono doa wa akinikuidesu ne.
(This door doesn’t open easily, does it?)
M b@A@%%u%im<w.
w &@A0£%mEim<w°
Ano hito no namae wa oboenikui.
(His name is hard to remember.)
(c) zbofiaétliéiblc
§N>5'5Eli§% Li: < v\'c='J"..
v\'c"1“.,
Ano sensei wa hanashinikuidesu.
(That teacher is hard to talk to.)
(d) zofifmii
3'. rofiitiifi D9 la
ix; < 1/\'c=<;".,
I/"('11,
Kono kutsu wa hashiriniku/‘desu.
hashirinikuidesu.
(These shoes are hard to run in.)
308 -nikui
1. Vmasu+nikui
Vmasu+n/'kui conjugates exactly like an Adj (1).
(I).
—- Informal Formal
Nonpast
Nonpast - L, tr. < I/\
i%u:<v~
3% - L I::1 < in
381,:
38 *
1'5"
v~'C"J'
hanashinikui
hanashin/kui hanashinikuidesu
Afi'.
Aff
Past ;]‘fiLI: < mar;
iijfil/lC<7§>0f.'. Eéiblc < 7)>o7‘.:'C";‘
gfil/lC<7')*0T$.'.'@"‘i"
hanashinikukatta hanash/nikukattadesu
hanashinikukattadesu
Nonpast
Nonpast %=.§u:.<
E3 L I: < <1::v~
< tr W §€LlC<
EELIC < <<ava~ex.,
3) D it/o
N hanashinikukunai hanashinikukuarimasen
eg.
Neg.
Past '§€LlI.<< <<7:C7)*’JTC
;‘fiu: >:cr>~>r; %Lt<<%DitbTLk
%%1,a::<<a>va—e/..-c~1,r;
hanashinikukunakatta
hanashinikukunaka tta hanashinikukuarimasendeshita
2 In both English and Japanese the subject of the n/kui-construction

nikui-construction can
be the subject of an intransitive verb, as in Ex. (a) where kono doa
‘‘this
this door ’ is the subject of aku ‘ open ’. It can also be the direct object
of a transitive verb, as in Ex. (b) where ano hito h/to no namae ‘ his name
name’’
is the direct object of Oboeru
oboeru ‘ remember ’. It can be the indirect object
of a transitive verb, as in Ex. (c) where ano sensei ‘that teacher ’ is
-
.
iii-
-—1
the indirect object of hanasu ‘talk ’. Finally, the subject can be N+
Particle such as kono kutsu de ‘with these shoes’ corresponding in
English to Preposition+N. In this construction, as in Exs. (c) and (d),
note that the preposition in the English sentence is retained but the
corresponding particle in the Japanese sentence is deleted.
3 -yasui ‘easy
3. ‘ easy to do ~’ is an antonym of -nikui. The basic formation of
the yasui-construction is identical to the nikui-construction. (Q -yasui)
~ni shite wa 309
~ni shite wa ~I:b'Cl;t

~|:l/CI: P"-
(( ./\/\/\/\/\./\/\./\./\./\./\./\./\/'\/\/\/\
/\/§Z\/\ \/\/\./\/\.¢\./
\./'\/\./'\./\.1\./
a phrase that indicates a generally for ~; considering that ~

agreed upon standard (The entire [REL. ~to shite we]
wa)
sentence that includes this phrase
expresses some deviation from that
(, standard.)
'’"'"\/'
\.’\’.\"\/\./‘/‘
—-\*'\f\1\"\'\»'\/-/\ '“ »\/\ _/\/- 2
O Key Sentences
(A)
F§i|l1a</V
ram 3/V
'“ §i1ii Elililk
EI$Jk l:cc; 1,1
uc :1 flcaw/fl<%v~'c~~r.
is v ~/is I/\ re-i".
Takayama-san wa nihonjin ni shite wa okii / okiidesu.
dkiidesu.
(Mr. Takayama is big for a Japanese person.)
(B)
Topic -
(subject) Vinf
kimi
— ‘
*
ii:-1
mini
aw’
vii?’ :1
ti B14133
axes 2 J:< 9t"ZI.§§l/C
9'rZ1.i§L'C ma
we ac LT #1
ls: 1,-c :1 Tirsl E
Z
=_
Z
i__
_-—
E
Z
E
Z
Z
Z
Bobu wa nihongo o0 yoku benkyéshite

benkycishite iru ni shite wa hetadal
5§ Tiei.
Tier.
hetadesu.
(Considering that Bob is studying Japanese hard, he is poor at it.)
m
IEEEEI
KS(A):
N (7507:)
(fioic) I:
it; LT
l/C ti
Ii
(datta) ni shite wa
95$ (T.-1071:)
5‘|3£E (f.;'o7‘.:) ll
it; I,/C
l/C ii (considering that s.o. is / was a teacher)
sensei (datta) ni shite wa
KS(B):
Vinf l/C
lc. L/C ti
ii
ni shite wa
310 ~ni shite wa / ~ni suru
{EET
l§5"i‘ /Efibicl
/Efibfcl L: [,1 ti
l; L/C :1 (considering that s.o. talks / talked)
{hanasul hanashita} ni shite wa
i
/\Fll::. L,'Ct:.t’0'iILv\'C"i"i21..
(a) /\Fll:.l/Cl1‘6i‘il,v\'C'1‘i11s
Hachigatsu ni shite wa suzushiidesu ne.
(For August it is cool, isn’t it?)
(b) cm: Hllir/JEL:
Elllir/>$l::. 1,-c like we-Ha.
lxttiité v\'C"Hn.
Kore wa Nihon no kuruma ni shite wa okiidesu
dkiidesu ne.
(For a Japanese car this is big, isn’t it?)
M fiuv2§—fi¢ktLTu¢fi¢éw.
(0) {Eli I/Z '7 -- T50 fall Lfliflini/l\é I/\.,
Kare wa resuré datta ni shite wa karada ga chisai.
(Considering that he was a wrestler, he is small.)
%$ébuTfUhm+$wkmLTfi¥%fi%iDi$B¢&W.
w %$ébm7fUfit+$wktLTfi%%#h$Di$t¢&W.
Aoki-san wa Amerika ni jdnen ita ni shite wa eigo ga amari /'o'zujanai.
jozujanai.
(Considering that Mr. Aoki spent ten years in America, his English is
not very good.)
~ni shite wa is the te-form of ni suru ‘ make it ~, decide on ~ ’ plus wa

iii
--ii
-
_
-
-
_.-_
--_
-—-_
1
‘if’. The literal meaning is ‘if one makes it ~’.
~ni suru ~t:';'Zs

~ |:'§' Z; Phr-
/;/\ \A/\/\/\/\/\/‘/~/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘I./\/\4\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
E /\ */\/\/\/\/\/\f/"/K/\fi/\/\/\/\/\/\/‘I./‘/\/\l\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
S.o. has decided on s.t. decide on ~; make it ~

AM'W\N‘N"“v“'“'“
"M'W‘N“”NWV““ [REL. ni kimeru]
Q
O Key Sentence
TOP“ <s"bi@">
_—
n
11. gt::1 cw
..a>
' 7H—b|
7 1\-
' |~ u
cs; To/LET.
-;~>.:>/ 1.11".
Watashi wa kono apéito
ap5to ni surul
suru/ shimasu.
(I’ve decided on this apartment.)
~ni suru 311
@
(a) Arbkkufimbifw.
A: ;bf.cf:;tifiIi:Li'i"n=.
Anata wa nan ni shimasu ka.
(Lit. What have you decided on? (=What will you have?))
Bwfimza—#cea¢.
B=fluzi—#tLi+.
Watashi wa sutéki ni shimasu.
(Lit. I’ve decided on steak. (=I’ll have steak.))
M
(b) %Eéhfl7fUh®$KLiLkO
lEB5lé</t/I172‘ ‘) fiwilcbi l/7:0
Okada-san wa Amerika no kuruma ni shimashita.
(Mr. Okada (has) decided on an American car.)
l. Ni suru is usually preceded by a noun or a noun equivalent. (==:> koto

(=>
ni suru) However, a noun with a particle is also possible. Example:
%§omfim==—a—aavmLa+.
m %E®%fifi:;—a—9iTtLiT.
Kondo no ryoko
ryokd wa Nyfiyo/cu
Nydyoku made ni shimasu.
(Next trip, I’ll make it as far as New York.)
2. If the tense is nonpast, ni suru implies that a decision has just been
made, as in KS and Ex. (a). If the past tense is used, the sentence is
ambiguous; it means either that a decision has been made but no action 2
kimi
iii--—|
-1-: —-I
1
? E
--1 1-
1-
-1|
has been taken or that a decision was made and an action was also E
i
=
_i2
--1
1-
—--|
—--|
T
2
L
i
Z:
E E
-ii
ax:
—--|
—--|_'
-L--L
L
taken. (Ex. (b))

Ni kimeru also means ‘decide

‘ decide on
on’’ and ni suru and ni kimeru can be used
interchangeably, although ni kimeru is usually used in situations where a
decision is considered significant or important. Thus, in situations like Ex.
(a), ni kimeru is not used.
312 no‘
no‘
nol 0) prt.
a particle which, with a preceding ’s; of; in; at; for; by;
by from
om
noun phrase, forms a phrase to [REL. n02]
no’)
modify
m odify a following noun phrase z5
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
___ Noun Noun
2211.
$.11. ii 95$ 0) 2151
Ili 7;’ / '61‘,
if/'C“§‘.,
Kore
K ore wa sensei' no hon
h on da
da /desu.
/desu .
(This is my teacher’s book.)
(B)
—%
Noun Particle
NW"
Noun
:.n ti
czn ii E12
7.\-iii #6
#5 <0 iifli
~l+E5
\ T7‘.:'/1'13
T1‘
—i1¢i—
_
Kore wa tomodachi
(This is a letter from my friend.)
kara
HI
no tegaml
tegami da / desu
jg
up ip
n i
I _
- i
L-
lim-
lim-
mi-1
iii
1%
m
(i) N<oN
N0>N
no
I70
[B11135/V
B5l“PZ'-.“/v 0) 55
i (Mr. Tanaka’s house)
Tanaka-san no ie
7'}
T} U') 7'71 0) it?
J) Xi (a university in America)
Amerika no daigaku
(ii) N Prt 0)
(ii) <7) N
no
Hit
B341 “G 0')
‘G 0) {;|;$
{ii (a job in Japan)
Nihon de no shigoto
j7
pl 7’ I)U -— *\
¢\ V)
0) 7’l/-t:"/
7"v—t:°:/ I~l\ (a present for Mary)
Meari e no purezento
no‘ 313
w floi
fioi $§®$W
fifiwifl eaoam
%B®fiW
watashi no hon gakko no namae kyo no shinbun
(my book) (the name of the school) (today’s paper)
m B$®% fiofifi
Rwfifi
Nihon no tera eki no den wa
(a temple in Japan) (a telephone at the station)
¥Wo$
W iwoi B$%®fi%
B$%®fifi
bijutsu no hon
bi/'utsu nihongo no shiken
(a book on fine arts) (an exam on Japanese)
W flow
fiwfi iJl5v>7l<
liEa>7l< /"P<”>i;'Ji?F
1* 2
sakura no hana momo no ki basu no kippu
(a cherry blossom) (a peach tree) (a bus ticket)
m€o%
m€0%
kaze no kusuri
(cold medicine)
@ B$%®%E
H$%®%$ %%®#$
%%®#E
nihongo no sensei ongaku no gakusei
(a teacher of J apanese) (a student of music)
iii
—
m ewvofi
-
Ehvofi
-
&—b—&v0%¥
&—b—&vm%% 7¢—F®$
7a—Fw$
_ i
—-_
_
i
_
_
E
1
_ i
_
1|
=-—
i
H
-_—i
_
_
2
in
1'
.1-
i
i
_ i
Pikaso no e Bétoben no ongaku Fodo no kuruma .___

in
ii
in
i
i
(a picture by Picasso) (music by Beethoven) (a car made by Ford)
® fifiwfiiéw
fiE@fi*éw E%ofiEéh
E%o§Eéw w§—oEE
n§—03E
Cjki-san isha no Morita-san
tomodachi no O'ki-san karé no shashin
(my friend Mr. Oki) (a medical doctor, Dr. (a photo in color)
Morita)
+fio¥%
+§o¥%
jussai no kodomo
(a ten-year-old child)
W fi0Fvz
fi0Fvx tr./v>b‘$a>%‘
it/V7530)?
kinu no doresu renga no ie
(a silk dress) (a brick house)
M Am»
/\Bi5i=70= 6 <0/<'—-r
0)/‘3~—7‘ 4 — %$&®%Léw
'- fiikofibéw
hachiji kara no péti
hach/ji sensei to no hanashiai
(a party which starts (a discussion with the
at eight o’clock) teacher)
314 no‘
1. Generally, no combines two noun phrases into a larger noun phrase. In

A no B, A no modifies B and indicates a specific member(s) of B
among all the members of B. A and B in A no B relate to each other
in various ways, and these relationships are determined by context.
Some common relationships follow.
(A) A is the possessor of B. (Ex. (a))

B of A; A’s B
(B) A is the location where B exists. (Ex. (b))

B in / at A
(C) B is about/on
about / on A. (Ex. (c))
B on A; B about A
(D) A is a specific kind of B. (Ex. (d))

AB; B ofA; B for A
(E) A is the object and B is the subject. (Ex. (e))

AB; B of A
(F) A created B. (Ex. (f))

ii
ti
—
-
In
i
_
A’s B; B by A; B created by A
g E
5 E
i
(G) A is an attribute of B. (Ex. (g))
who / which is A
A, B; B, who/which
(I-I)
(H) B is made of/ from A. (Ex. (h))
AB
2. In A no B, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in KS(B)

and Ex. (i). Note that no cannot be omitted in this case, because it
indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle modifies the
following noun phrase. Without no, the noun phrase with the particle
is interpreted as an adverbial phrase which modifies the predicate in
the clause. For example, in (la) hachi/'i kara ‘‘from
from eight o'clock
o’clock ’ modi-
fies ikimashita ‘ went’, while in (lb) hachiji kara no modifies péti ‘ party ’.
(1) a-
=1. /\B¥ifi\-'5
/\B§f:\6 /~‘=~—-‘i-4
/<—-7-4-H: ~—ir. fiéi Liz.
fi=éil,f:.
i-_IQchiji
Hachiji kara péti ni ikimashita.
L___i____T
I l
(I went to the party at (lit. from) eight o’clock.)
n02
no‘ / no” 315
h
b- Anmsw
/\Bi*;7‘J\E>(7) H-§4—n fisatn.
13-5-4-K i‘T%i L710
Hachijilrara
Hachiji pfiti ni
kara no pit!" ikimashita.
Lli__i1
_T
(I went to the party which had started at (lit. from) eight
o’clock.)
3. The “A no B ” construction can be extended as in “A no B no C no. . .”
Examples:
m
(2) m
a. fl®%$w$
$L(7)§‘r3El£(7)7$1
watashi no sensei no hon
(my teacher’s book)
u
h B$%®%E®E$%$
B$%w%$ww¢%$
nihongo no sensei no Tanaka-sensei
(the Japanese teacher, Prof. Tanaka)
4. In A no B, B can be omitted if it is apparent from context. Examples:
m Ct1.l:lt$L0)($)'("i‘o
(3) znuflowflvt.
Kore wa watashi no (hon) desu.
(This is mine (=my book).)
(4) C.¢>1/1 l~I~ -7 ‘/0)(:<-7-~—-ti-)irt.;t
covz ‘/0)(;<7-—flr)iiJ: < £9) ab D iii:/vs
E-ti:/V,
(suték/) wa yokuarimasen.
Kono resutoran no (sutékl) iii--
-‘iii
(This restaurant’s (steak) is not good.) -.-

E
-.-
¢-
E
—-_
@-_
i
=
i
Z
i
-1
j-
A Z
-1
@-_
i i
i
g-
iii-no
in
i
no’ 0)
I102 pro-
pro.
I, a dependent indefinite pronoun one

~’\-’\/-\-/‘\/\./\/\/\./\/\/\’\/_v
I-"\"\/_\-/-\/‘\/x/\-/\-/\/\/\’.\-/_v J ¢
J V \/\/\/\./\/\
~/s/~./\./\./~. (
[REL. no‘; nos]
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Am
_-—
fir
$1. Ii
ti Xi L\
jqéfl 0
<7) 2 E o T: /E W a L r:2 .
Eat‘:/El/\EL7‘:,
Watashi wa 6kii no o katta I/kaimashita.
kaimashita.
(I bought a big one.)
316 n02
cm
(E
— Relative
"‘°‘a“"° Clause
°‘“"s° -—
n
H m
ti ii
£515 Eofi
aoi.
M " o
V) 2E E
Eek/Ewibko
OTC’. /lE€ lr ‘il, TC. O
Watashi wa katte
kyonen katta no o tsukatta / tsukaimashita.
(I used the one I bought last year.)
W
KS(A):
(i) Adj (i) inf-nonpast 0)
no
',1.§]l/\ 0)
?é.*]v\ (expensive one)
takai no
(ii) Adj (na) stem f;
1‘; 0)
<7)
na no
L‘; J: '35 51?;
IL .5i>*.i: 0) (durable one)
jobuna no
KS(B):
Same formation rules as those for relative clauses. (==> Relative Clause)
(=>
i
xi
trimmin-
iii-1
i
W
— i
— i
i
(a.)
(a) A:
AI E/vf.:$>§§t11,v\'c~;->9-,
2'/viifivbili 1,wc=*J">b~.
Donna kuruma ga hoshiidesu ka.
(What kind of car do you want?)
B:
B = /l~a‘.<
/l~é v~mb=a7tl,v~'C-~r.,
v~a>z:‘iak l,v\'c=--)2,
Chisai no ga hoshiidesu.
(I want a small one.)
M
® KEfiU4VEfi3KfloK®T3@5E0K®EmLkO
fififiU4V2fiBk#ok®T3®5Eokw&mLk,
Tomodachi ga wain 0o nomitagatta node kino katta no o dashita.
dash/"ta.
(My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I bought yesterday.)
1. The indefinite pronoun no is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be used

by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative clause.
2. No is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is clear from the
context or the situation. Things referred to by no are not necessarily
tangible. Example:
n02 317
no“
m exrmwn74¥7o¢vnmH%#§ono#—%:a%5n.
eavmwnr4¥1o¢remH£#%¢nw#~%;s%5n.
/ma made kiita aidea no naka de wa Tamura-kun ga itta no ga
ichiban yosa soda.
(Among the ideas we’ve
we've heard so far, the one Mr. Tamura told
us seems the best.)
The indefinite pronoun no (i.e., no“)

no’) is different from the particle no (i.e.,
no‘) and the nominalizer no (i.e., no“).
no‘). First, [1] shows the diflerence
difference be-
tween no‘ and no“.
no”. Namely, in [la] Tomu no is the omitted form of Tomu
no pen. On the other hand, [lb] is not an omitted form; that is, if a noun
is inserted after kuroi no in [lb], the sentence becomes ungrammatical as seen
in [lc]. In fact, what [lb] means is [ld], if no ‘ one’ refers to a pen.
[1] a. no‘ (particle)
flti |~ 1» 0) (/< ~/) ima uh.
flmtAoPQA#nLw.
Watashi wa Tomu no (pen) ga hoshii.
(I want Tom’s pen.)
b. no‘
no“ (indefinite pronoun)
%Lt;t5%v\0)r)¥i1
%Lt:.t§%v\0)n§i1 Lin,
L tn,
Watashi wa kuroi no ga hoshii.
(I want a black one.)
-
-
-
-
-
1_— i
i i
i ii
-___ _
_ i
___
___ i
i
T
i
:-
ii
-i i
¢-*flm%wo~v#mLw.
c. *$Lli,i%v\U)'<‘/vbilibvn.
___
_ i
_
-i
-.__ —-
i
__-iii
Z
L-
an
-ii
*Watashi wa kuroi no pen ga hoshii.

(I want a black pen.)
d. iFLti,i£v\"<‘/n'5liL\r\.,
iFLt1,i§v~»<"/rb§t1l,v\..
Watashi wa kuroi pen ga hoshii.
(I want a black pen.)
Next, [2] shows the difference between no“
no‘ and no‘.
no“. That is, the meaning of
the sentence depends on whether the no in [2] is interpreted as no“
no? or no“,
no‘,
as shown in the two English translations.
U]EEéb#EoTwk®&BEiTwi+#.
Qlnwénfifierwnwexmzrwitm,
Takada-san ga tsukatte ita no o0 oboete imasu ka.
((A) [Indefinite pronoun] Do you remember the one Mr. Takada was
using?)
((B) [Nominalizer] Do you remember that Mr. Takada was using
(something)?)
318 no‘
no“
no“ 0)
H03 nom.
nom.
\f\/\/\/\I\'\/\f\/\I’\'\/\/\/\/\I\./\./\/\/\./\./\/\/\/'\/
\f\_/\/\/\I\'\/\/'\/\'\'\./\/\/\/\/\/\v\/\/\./\_/\/\/\ r /\/\/\/\/\r\
/-\/ / AA/\/\'\'\ ~
jé a nominalizer which is used when that ~; to do s.t.; doing s.t.

§g the nominalized sentence expresses [REL. koto”; no’)
koto“; nai]
K a directly perceptible event ""\'\\_/'\\/’."\\'.'.\'.\/\-\.l
§ .
§Key
Q Key Sentences
T:
(A)
(informal)?
Sentence (informa1)’r
El *5 E
B1133 5: #116
$116 <73 ii %Lv\/fil,v\'C-<J-
fiblo/$1-/1/‘T'1‘.>
Nihongo o oshieru no
El wa s uzukashn /I muzukash//desu
muzukashii muzukashiidesu.
difficult
(Teaching Japanese is difficult.)
(B)
+1_
(slggggt)
(srggiigt) (ll'lf0!'fI1fll)'l'
Sentence (informa1)T
H
fi
. ii
iii ';§':1"'<".‘/v
E5-_t"<’-5/v 73> l:‘—-/v
7)§ l:~—/l/ E
2 iki}
flit ‘D E E7‘:/Ribfco
if ri _ /E. l./Ts-o
.Ho,
iii-
1
1
1
—
_
—
_
|
ii--.5
1
_
—-——
L
___
E
l/l/8i8S/‘Ii
Watashi wa
beer)
(I saw Yukiko drink beer.)
Yuk/ko-san ga biru
..
no
o nomu /10
HI=§_ o s_,rta / m/mash/ta
mita]
‘I,
mimashita
= 1
—
— —-
@-
— _
— E
i
§ _
—
—
1-xiE
-L--_i
-A-Q
1'Da after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

‘TDa
W
((i) {V/Adj
i ) {V (1); inf
/ Adj (i)} inf 0)
<1»
no
I70
{E-E-f
‘[331 /I 33 [_,f;}
l,f;} 0) (that s.o. talks /I talked)
{hanasu //hanashite}
[hanasu H0
hanashita} no
{,"§,"\,\ /%]7§\¢;1':_j
~T.€§\/\ /gnu, 7;} 0) (that s.t. is /I was expensive)
(takai
{takai /I takakatta} no
stem/N}
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {tr /iioic} 0)
{it /f.:'o7‘:.]
{na/datta}
{na /datta} no
(fiat; /|%f)>T.:'o
‘i§7)>>’£ /ainprserei
Tc} a>
<7) (that s.t. isis // was
(that s.t. was quiet)
quiet)
[shizukana
{shizukafla /shizukadatta}
I shizukadatta} no
{#55
ffiigi it /95$ iioic} <7)
7.507;} 0) (that s.o. is /I was a teacher)
{sensei na /sensei datta}
[sensei no
no‘
no“ 319
W
U a¢~fi<@ufiHv+.
H$~fi<0u%$TT.
Nihon e iku no wa kantandesu.
(Going to Japan is easy.)
fl.ii/l~H<é/vzrii:°7/ &5$v~'cv~z>o*&|%fiv\f;.
%Lt:.t/l\1=»1<a‘< /wai B7 / MW/\'t we o &F=Eiw‘;,
Watashi wa Kobayashi-san ga piano 0o hiite iru no o kiita.
(I heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.)
) 97—7ébfi77Vz~fi<®&fioTWiTW,
5 '7'"-9 1'-S/v7f)'57'7?/Z'\»fi"< V)29&lJo'Cl/\i‘§‘n=.,
Kuraku-san ga Furansu e iku no 0o shitte imasu ka.
Kuréku-san
(Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?)
iflii
No makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. KS(A) and Ex. (a) are
examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are used in subject
position, and KS(B) and Exs. (b) and (c) are examples where nominalized
sentences are used as direct objects. A nominalized sentence can occur
in any position where a noun phrase can appear, except in the position of
B in “A wa B da”. In that situation, the nominalizer koto (i.e., koto“)
koto‘)
is used as in (1).
(1) ;: at 07:0) I/ C:. t‘:<2 t1t&:v=;I&enm~.:
Cioicv) i:t&2b§§|eF>nt.:v~: 1‘:2; /*0)T.:'o
/*a>t.i'. ii
Ei-
i|
i =1
-i 1-
Komatta no /I koto wa kare ga korarenai koto /I *no da. W

-i
-i
}
i
i
E
_
_—-
-i
j-
-_-'
W
ii-
-Z
1-u
—-
-.- 1-u
__-
ii
(The trouble is that he can’t come.)

ii
€
Nominalized sentences are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic

marker wa cannot occur, as seen in (2). (=> ga‘)
m
(2) %flU6¥éh#/WiBT/E%WTw5®&WWk°
&i1oa¥a/.no</*|1e"-r/ 2%%v~-cv~z.a>2|%av~r:..,
Boku wa Hiroko-san gagal/ *wa piano o hiite iru no o kiita.
(I heard Hiroko playing the piano.)
There is another nominalizer, koto. No and koto are sometimes mutually
(=:> koto?)
interchangeable. (=9 koto“) For example, Exs. (a) and (c) can be restated
as:
m B$~fi<:tm%¥TT°
H¢~fi<:am%$v+.
Nihon e iku koto wa kantandesu.
(Going to Japan is easy.)
m
(4) 97—9éb#7§vz~fi<CtE%oTw§+#,
9 '7"-9 $5/V7537 '7' I/2*\fi< It ?i'5EiIlo'C\/\i'i"n>.,
Kuraku-san ga Furansu e iku koto o shitte imasu ka.
Kuréku-san
(Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?)
320 no‘
no“
However, in general, no is used when the preceding clause expresses some-

thing rather concrete or perceptible, while koto is used when the preceding
clause expresses something rather abstract or imperceptible. In KS(B), Ex.
(b) and (5), for example, koto cannot be used because the nominalized
clauses in these examples all express concrete, perceptible events.
(5) iltlifiéit/)fZl§7)§.5~Z>:I'.'Cv\ZI>0)
%L&iE5i0>I1I§r>§.s-5:‘%.'c'v~50>/*:t El?-§l;2‘:..
/ *:t&!;&I;f:...
Watashi wa jibun no karada ga furuete iru no I/ *koto o kanjita.
(I felt my body trembling.)
Also, there are a number of idiomatic phrases with koto where koto
cannot be replaced by no. (=>
(==:> koto ga aru; koto ga dekiru; koto
koro m
naru; koto ni suru) (6) lists verbs and adjectives and their appropriate
nominalizers.
(6) no koto
E.
R5 ‘ see ’ v *
miru
E it
R fr. 5 ‘ be visible ’ v *
mieru
1%‘! <
EH ‘ hear ’ v *
kiku
E-H
Bil C. it 5
3; in
‘ be audible ’ v *
|
Qi-i,
iii
it
iii
Z
kikoeru
E2
at I;1; 5 ‘ feel ’ v *
kanjiru
kan/‘iru
Jlzbb
ll: 5
to Z>
‘ stop (v.t.) ’ v **
tomeru
1i3j=’J
1%‘?/J
‘ wait
wait’ v **
ma tsu
E065
fiofié . v ?
. ‘ discover ’
mitsukeru
mltsukeru
{S--ts‘:
2» -ti‘ <'
‘ protect
protect’’ v ?
fusegu
£15.
561% . et to know
. v v
sh/ru g
.En5
FL-Ina. ‘ forget’ v v
wasureru
(ll) i
fit »§
253 O
“J < CI °
notice I‘ Y
v v
(ni) ki ga tsuku
.%.\/‘t:1:H‘
'Eg"\fiH_ ‘ recall
recall’’ v v
omoidasu
no‘
no“ 321
no koto
% in
it 5
learn ’ v
oboeru
33¢?)
3%-Z ab 5 ‘ admit ’ V
mitomeru
5&1)‘
Eh‘ 5 C
avoid D3 V
sakeru
ll:
1|: lib
to 5 C Q
quit V
yameru
&%+5
&fi+5 regret ’ V
kokaisuru
<1/1*)
(ni) 6M=5
5i'7§>5 . understand V
(ga) wakaru
(2%)
(7);)
, ,
!1¥=é=r;*
I13‘?, if ,
‘like
like ’
, V
(ga) sukida
suk/da
(ti)
‘ ‘ 5 rs wti
1'75‘) %¢>\r\7*:1 . .
‘ dislike
lk ’ V
(ga) kiraida dis‘ e
M»)
(iii) -Pfliv
I +\
if‘?!/\\
afraid ’ V
(ga) kowai
(ni)
(2%) 5 new
ti. Lin ,
(ga) ureshi/'
ureshii happy’ V
all
A-in
g
iii
iii
(nQ>2EL.v~ ,sad,
-i _-_-.
(ni) ifs‘? Ll/\

-,__ G
i -—-I
W —
—-A
—__ _-.
g _-.
sad ’ V
-.-
i
E
-i
_-.
.-_-.
@-__-_-.
___ _-_-.
(ga) kanashii
-i .-_-.
in
iii
iii
ii-i
mint-—
-‘€-°z¥l,v\
3° 3 L W
easy V
yasashii ‘ easy ‘
fiuw
% L P‘ C6 ‘' I I
V
muzukashii dlfficu
dimcu t
%fi+5 C
expect I
‘expect’ ? V
kitaisuru
fiatns
4%‘ : 1; 5 beheve’
‘befieve’ V
shinjiru
1'1‘
time to 5 advise ’ V
susumeru
525 ‘ think ’ V
kangaeru
liti-
iii? ‘ ask ’ * V
tanomu
ta
fir: IL 5
‘ order ’ * V
me///ru
meijiru
no“ /I no‘
322 no‘
no koto
(iv)
r‘ H9155
7);) HHE6 ‘ can do’
‘can * v
(ga)
{ga) dekiru
(ni)
[ 753] i 55
iii; 5 ‘ there are I/ were
. , * v
(ga)
I Qa) aru when’
times when * V
01) +5
ll) 1-5
‘ decide ’ * v
(ni)
[ni) suru
(tc) 5:5
1:) >25
‘ be decided
decided’’ * v
(ni)
[ni) naru
__’_‘
_,2
_
(ic) J:
([1) .1: 5
‘ be due to’
‘be to ’ * v
(ni) yoru
no‘ 0) P"-
./\-/'\/\/\/\/\4\§
_/‘\/'\/\_/\/'\_/'\./\-%~
a sentence-final particle used by a it is that ~

female speaker or a child to indicate [REL. no da)da]
L
ii
=
=
E
—u
Z
Z
5
— E
i’
“
Z an explanation or emotive emphasis §5
—u
—p —
G
Z
—n —
ip
-_ -Z
---'
J
-iii;
ii-
iii
it
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
(A)
A:
251.1
551,-c irzwc
Vinf
i.'i'£L\'C i.\5
-1
tn?
to? mfié/V 1% i.\t.:i.\
5&5» n; i.\f.:i.\
B:
o.
tn.
Vinf
Doshite naite iru no? O-ka-san

O-ké-san ga inai no.
(How come you are crying?) H (’Cause mommy ’s gone.)
(B)
(B)
TOP“ <S" * > i

Topic (subject)
0,
< =<=* > — Adi <’ > "if
;,\
_Adj (i) inf
ho A , ti
5 2;-ct.
ETL ’eé=l,i.\
4:‘-*3 L <0.
Ano hito wa totemo yasashii no.
(He is so gentle, you know.)
no‘ 323
(C)
(C)
Topic (subject
(subject) Adj (na) ste
stema
El: * ii iii ' 2;e-ct.
1 1. frat
iii tr 0).
O
Haha wa mada totemo genki na no.

il
(My mother is still quite fine)
fine.)
(D)
I Topic (subject) Noun
1+1’
IA iii
5- *
I//:7
I y F/I :- 7 ti a)o
“H'- =>
Shu//n
Shujin 5,55:_§,av
wa enjmla
enjinia na 8?'
/70-
ll
(My husband is an engineer)
engineer.)
 {V/Adj </(i)}>1 int

inf 5
I70
[33-tr ~+ /I 33
3% l,T:_]
l_,7";} 0) (s.o. talks I/ talked)
35:‘: nasu /I hanashita} no
{hanasu
i__
_-ii
j-
1-
="
i-
M
i
1-
i
j
i
--—
fi
_
=_
_-
1_-
iv
ii
Z‘
-._-.
---. 1_-
_--.
i 1_-
{@4425 /Q/<7‘;]
[Q/<5 /Q/<i:.} 0) (s.o. eats /I ate)
ii’
Z:
ii-
._M-‘"-
M
ti-M
{taberu /I tabeta]
[taberu tabeta} no
{jqgrin /jq=3;b>-91;} to
Ii<=év\/1<=é1b=~>t:} a) (s.t. is I was big)
($-t- is/was big)
{okii
[okii I okikatta}
/okikatta} no
(Adj (na)
(ii) {Adi (na)stem/N} lit/Tiofcl
stem / N} {til Tfoill to
{na / datta}
[na/datta} no
0
{figsyx
{,§;).;; / €%f‘)>f_£.¢_) f;}
/$3.759 1;] 0) (s.t. is /I was quiet)
{shizukana /I shizuka datta} no
l5’|3§I':'.
l9fiZ=E 2*;
2‘; I-jE§
/-5'55]; ;‘;“-_>f;} 0)
;‘;’qf;} (s.o. is I/ was a teacher)
na I sensei datta}
{sensei na/ no
(a) A: £5
E -‘j 1,-cg/<r;v\a>?
i,—cg¢<r;wo?
Doshite tabenai no?
(How come you don’t eat it?)
324 no‘
B: £t.c>b~(:b'i)§v\'C(v\)t.cv\0>.,
B 1 25f.i:1)>(r)§)§v\'C(v\)f.cv~</J,
(1)nai no.
Onaka (ga) suite (/)nai
(’Cause I’m not .hungry.)
(b) A: E5
2:") Liam?
Liza)?
Dosh/‘ta no?
Doshita
(What’s the matter with you?)
E‘t'E7b3I$?v\0),,
B : §E7b§7§\/\0)°
Atama ga itai no.
(I have a headache.)
M 55o¥m&fi¢$imo.
55®¥mifi¢$i&®o
Uchi no ko wa mada shogakusei na no.)
(My child is still in grade school.)
w
(d) fiiufvvxbvfiekoo
7<'%i17°I) ‘/2 l~ I/7‘;'oi:'.0),,
Daigaku wa Purinsuton datta no.
(My university was Princeton.)
1. The sentence-final no is derived from no da /I no desu through deletion

of da /I desu.
M
-QM
M
-M-M-.
Mi WM
W
M
M
M
_
M
M
2. This no is used by females or children only in an informal situation.
M ---.
M
M ---.
-_
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
There are times when adult male speakers use no in questions, as in
Exs. (a) and (b), but they do not use it in declarative sentences, as
in Exs. (c) and (d).
The sentence-final particle no‘ is the same in its meaning as no of no da.

(=> no da)
no da 325
no da 037:’
037:5 Phr-
N"-
/\_/'\/’\/'\/'\/'\/'\/'\_/'\_/\_/\/“ /'~/\./\/\/-/\./\./~ »'~/'~/'~/\./\./'\./\/\/\/'\_/'\_/\/\,‘*
a sentence ending which indicates The explanation is that ~ ; The

that the speaker is explaining or ask- reason is that ~; The fact is
ing for an explanation about some in- that ~; It is that ~
formation shared with the hearer, or
is talking about something emotively, \//\'./~/.\/ I/‘. \/
as if it were of common interest to

the speaker and the hearer
\./
\-
\\/\/
\-/ \v.-./\--
/v\- /' 4\/ '\/_4\/1_\/, ./“\ \&1f//\/ ‘./\ /“_/\
§Key Sentences
QKey
‘A:
(informal)’r
Sentence (informal)1'
til 2'2 1,1

LT 1/\5
v\Z> /V/to
/ to -est
“C “l- M. O
Nani o shite
sh/re iru n / no desu $
*3"
ka.
(What are you doing?)
B:
(lI‘lf0l'I'I13l)'l‘
Sentence (informal)? __€_.
ii.
"E" §
Elli’-*5U E2 Qfliifibf
B111??? . 9&5'fiL'C
UL we
v\5 /V / to '61:.
T1‘: +'"‘|'1 Z §
1-L1-in
L1--i
iii‘?-
.. '*-. i
NI/70f)gO o benkyoshite
Nihongo benkyosh/re iru
IfU n /no desu.
desu
-in--ni
. O
(I'm
(I m studying Japanese.)
3
"9.on
Japanese)
'c
TDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na. .

Ilnformal form: {Fl 5' LT v\5
E v\z> /._,
/V ;‘;’\/\,,
7;’!/\,, (male)
(male)
Nani o shite iru n dai. (==>
(=> dai)
1'{FlFI I/\%'> 0)?
2 LT 1/~5 (female)
Nani o shite iru no? (=>
(i:'> no‘)
form :
filnformal form: "'§fl§'§l/C
"'@5'fi1/‘C’ I/\5
107.5 A,
A1 7;’,
Tia (male)
(male)
---benkyoshite iru n da.
---fihifibr I/‘Z:
I06 09°
a)o (female)
---benkyoshite iru no.
1%
M
(i) {V/Adj (1'(1)1)) inf to0) its
rs
no da
326 no da
i351‘
lid?‘ /ifi L71}
/3'3 L711] (D
0) T5 (s.o. (will) talk / talked)
hanashita} no da
{',é,‘i,\
{,'é;v~ /;é];)~-;7;]
/';é5n~@r;} 0) if
ff (s.t. is / was expensive)
ltakail takakatta} no da
{takail
{Adj (na) Stem/N} {tr/2357;}

(ii) {Adi lfi/fiat} to
co iti
t-1‘
{na /datta} no da
{§';m~r,;
{§;9nf; /§=;m»r.5-,7;
/;$;§>7’;' 0 7*; 0) r_-;'
<1) 7;’ (s.t. is/was
is / was quiet)
/ shizukadatta} no da
[shizukana /shizukadatta}
{jifii
[fijg 1,: /96$
ii; /95$ 7‘.;’of.:} <7) Ti‘
7;’/>f:l T5 (s.o. is / was a teacher)
[sensei na /sensei datta]
{sense/' datta} no da
m
M
w A:2§urmfi2&1mw5c+m,
A=E5L<£fi&fiimwnv¢m.
Doshite o-sake o nomanai n desu ka.
(Why don’t you drink sake?)
B=fluxfi+tmnv¢.
B=flfiifi+t&b?T°
Watashi wa mada jdshichi
jushichi na n desu.
((The reason is that) I’m still seventeen.)
ii-ii
M %B%Hofi—*4—Kfinieh.€%#n<s555hct.
%m%Bofi—?4—mfinien.€%mn<én&anc¢.
i.-1-i_—-,
-ii
n *1
--_
Boku wa kyo no péti ni ikemasen. Shukudai ga takusan aru n desu.

(I can’t go to today’s party. I have a lot of homework.)
(c)
M §>?‘.rIf:¢‘;i€5§§‘LT;v\/1/'(‘1'.,
b&tt%%Lkwnv+,
Anata to kekkonshitai n desu.
(I want to marry you.)
1. In conversation, no da / desu often becomes n da / desu. In informal

speech, male speakers use n da and female speakers use no. (For the
informal forms of no da in interrogative sentences, see kai and dai.)
2. Basically, S no da is used when the speaker is explaining or asking
for an explanation about information shared with the hearer. The in-
formation is often what the speaker and the hearer have observed or
heard. For example, in KSs, A uses no desu because he is asking for
an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also uses no desu be-
cause he is explaining his actions. In this situation, (1) is odd.
no da 327
(1)A= M2
{FIE L'Cv\3i1‘i)=..
lxcv\i'J":b>..
Nani o shite imasu ka.
(What are you doing?)
El1lI§'a‘&9'<fl5'fiL'cv\i'4"..
B 1 El1lI%§&@5‘§ I/cv~i*f..
Nihongo o benkyoshite imasu.
(I'm studying Japanese.)
If, however, A is only assuming that B is doing something, A can ask
the question in (2), and B can answer as B does in (1).
(2) §>1’.£7‘:l:.t'9,*fFI’& L'('v\i'§'2b>.,,

$)7'.t7‘:l;lI*-9,‘f5IEL'C\r\i1‘7f)*.,
Anata wa ima nani o shite imasu ka.
(What are you doing now?)
In Ex. (a), as in KS, A uses n desu because A observes that B isn’t
drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses n
desu because he is explaining about what A observed. In Ex. (b), the
speaker uses n desu in the second sentence because it is an explanation
about the information which has been given in the first sentence.
S no da is also used when no information is shared by the speaker
and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or asking for an ex-
planation about anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some ii
iii
5-:
:
ii‘?
=:|
5'“ =-
information were shared with the hearer and the effects of this are, for _'g
-.-,
-.-,
ii
E
i
i
i
i_
-_-mix!i
-111-ii-1
i
example, -1.-mix
{Ini-
(A) to involve the hearer in the affairs he is talking about (See (3) and
(4) below.),
and / or
(B) to impose his idea upon the hearer or, at least, to emphasize his
idea emotively. (See (S) below.)
Examples:
(3) '9i‘El 7 '7
’9|‘El *7 l~l~Fl<'—-ll/7b329)Z>/\/'C"§'7§3—-%ElC.fi'€
Fl'5—-ll/n3$>Z.5A/'C"§'2b3——firElCfi'% i't‘I/'1/73>,
iii‘/v7b=~.,
Kyo futtoboru ga aru n desu ga isshoni ikimasen ka.
(There is a football game today. Wouldn’t you like to go (to-
gether) with me?)
m %i.@orw5ne¢.%nr<fiéw.
W %i.@orwanc¢.%nr<fiéw.
Sense/'. komatte iru n desu. Tasukete kudasai.
Sensei,
I’m in trouble. Please help me.)
(Teacher, I'm
328 no da / node
m B$%®i%fifiLw?T#B$L6wh€Tla
(5) E11l§§§<7>§Ci§iifi Ll/"C“i‘)53JF5 'l> I./Zak)/v'C“4'JZ°
Nihongo no bunpo wa muzukashiidesu ga omoshiroi n desu yo.
yo
(Japanese grammar is difiicult,
difficult, but it is interesting, you know.)
node UTE‘
I10Cl6 0)'C‘ ¢0"J'-
conj.
/\/\/\./\/\./~/\/\./-\r\/-\/\/\./\/\/\/\./\/'\./'\/\/\-
\.l\
a subordinate conjunction which ex- gé so; since; because
presses a8 T635011
p1'€SS€S reason OI‘
or a8 CHUSC
cause (REL. de‘; kara3]
[REL. de3; kara‘)
/"'\,4/\_\,w/'\./'\14"\./\I
/'\./\
§Key Sentence
QKey
Subordinate Clause (cause / reason)
2 _ Main Clause
i
15% 2
ibfi E T.:<
n ES/v fit/\.1':'lo r/>1‘/3
S fi< tat/fiflibto
'i
I
I
O-sake o takusan nonda
nonde node /narimashita.
nemuku natta /nanmashita
,
,
i ---p
i ---|
E
i
i
1 W =
i_
_.
g
1
1
_.
1
1
i
1
1
1
_--
1
i-___-
---.
_--
{Ii
---
_--
---
(Because I drank a lot of sake
sake, I got sleepy)
sleepy.)
-
-
iii-
iii
W
(i) {V/Adj (i)}
(i)] inf O1‘
0)‘?
node
l?i5'§"
‘i333’ /ES Lfzl
/33 Lfcl 0)‘? (because s.o. (will) talk / talked)
-{hanasu hanashite} node
[,§;v~ /"|é'i75>oT;l
-[féil/\ /'|éi72=oT;l 0'6
0)‘? (because s.t. is /was
/ was expensive)
{ta/ca/' / takakatta} node
[takai
{Adj (na)
(ii) -{Adj (na)stem/N}
stem / N} {tr/r5->f:.} are
{ta /rs->71} or
{na/datta}
[na /datta} node
-{§w)>>’.c
{§§n>7‘.L‘ /§%7)~7‘.;'o7‘:]
/€¥‘7b>f:fo 7:] 0)‘? (because s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} node
[shizukana
515$
~[5E§|; it; /91355
1:: /5'55 7;’-;7‘:.} 0)‘?
T.:'oT;} 0'6 (because s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei na /sensei datta}
fsensei node
node 329
w fiE#k<ébb5®?fi—?4—tfiUi%b,
E%fik<éw&6®ffi—?4—KfiHi%b.
Shukudai ga takusan aru node péti ni ikemasen.
(Since I have a lot of homework, I can’t go to the party.)
(b) *'é'0)2lili'%7)>-.>f:.0)'C‘Eb?.£2b=o7‘.:,,
%r7)2[£li|'é]2b>->i“;<7)'C‘E>l9>'.¢7b>->T:,
Sono hon wa takakatta node kawanakatta.
(Because that book was expensive, I didn’t buy one.)
flo%§u%m&ovi<%fiw%i¢.
M fio%@mfim&oc:<%%w%iT.
Watashi no heya wa shizukana node yoku benkyo dekimasu.
(My room is quiet, so I can study (there) well.)
w
W v1-vmifi¢$$&oc$&fifiw%&w.
V=—vHifi¢¥i&ov$2fifiw%&w.
Jen
Jén wa mada chugakusei
chfigakusei na node kuruma o unten dekinai.
(Because Jane is still a junior high student, she can’t drive a car.)
Etymologically, node is the re-form

te-form of no da. (=>
(==> no da) However, in
modern Japanese it is used as a conjunction to indicate reason or cause.
ii-
in
iii
ii
I. The conjunction kara also expresses reason or cause. However, kara —_-.
é
i
---
g
W
_
_.i
—_-.
W
_
E
ii
i
E
1|
-1i
.-.-
=
Z
ii
---.
.i_ ii
1|
-._-, .__
and node differ in the following way. Node is used when the speaker
---. ii
-._-,
i- .-—
1|
ii
i
{-
believes that the information he provides in S;

Si node as cause or reason
for S2 is valid and is also evident and acceptable to the hearer. (Exs.
(a)-(d)) S;
(a)—(d)) S1 kara S2, however, does not involve that assumption. There-
fore, node cannot be used and kara must be used in the following situ-
ations:
(A) S1 (i.e., reason /cause clause) expresses the speaker’s conjecture
about something.
[ll )\>b'if:;< smlearsa ama /*0)'Gfi'<'i>0>2 r.—;< 3/V€’.7‘C.
U1A#n<sh%5n55m5/flowa<so2n<shE@r
IP31/\f:'..,
2‘sv\f.:,,
Hito ga takusan kuru daro kara / *node tabemono o takusan
katte oita.
(Because many people will probably come, I’ve bought a lot
of food.)
(B) S2 (i.e., the main clause) is a command, request, suggestion or
invitation.
330 node
[2] Command
:.oH§&Ei1r.:a'>i::r.cz>a\-3 /*0>'efi%t.cév\.
I.</)B9&Etii“:bblCf.t57f)‘5 /*0>'c‘fi%t.cév\..
Kono eiga wa tame ni naru kara / *node ikinasai.
(Because this movie is good for you, go (see it).)
[3] Request
5; Lf.:ro~‘/ 32 -1115
3) LT:rD~‘/ —-tits iiB L>5v\f.i\"5
L6v\i)‘5 //*0)'C~‘-t1.’U~E.(:§[&'C
*0)'C*ifU~E.l::§lE'C < T53
75:15 \/‘O
v\.,
Ashita no sho wa omoshiroi kara / *node zehi mi ni kite
kudasai.
(Tomorrow's
(Tomorrow’s show is interesting, so please come to see it.)
[4] Suggestion
:.o21=i1
ctolliti (E.1; 'c
‘C ste
his 4,is 1,av~ib~E'>
L5wb\5 /*o'e1+/vat.
/*0>'C'1+/of: I> iv’-mrsii
ii‘?/V7512 5 ism
itiw
I/\ J: O
v\
Kono hon wa totemo omoshiroi kara / *node minna mo yonda
ho ga ii yo.
you’d better read it, too.)
(This book is very interesting, so you'd
[5] Invitation
I/‘I/‘$52 I> I5
V“1‘@?i' lb 6 o7‘:fJ‘E>
o f;:h\E> /*0J'C‘—¥“§l~’lfiK1/~i
/*®'C‘--irfillfifi-7+1 L J: 5 1)».
xi».
Ii sake o moratta kara / *node isshoni nomimasho ka.
/i
(I got some good sake, so shall we drink it together?)
M
M
-ii
-ii
Q ---.
i
2
; =
Z-
(C) S2 expresses the speaker’s volition or personal opinion.
g
= ==
E
L
M
[6] Volition
i
H1=Pa/..>b=fi<)b~5
EE1=Pé/.,r>=fi< r.i\i5 /*0>'c*%i>fi:
/*0>'c*’§i>fi;: 5.
Tanaka-san ga iku kara / *node boku mo iko.
(Since Mr. Tanaka is going (there), I'll
I’ll go, too.)
[7] Personal Opinion
(fin;
(£253.: <és1an~5n\5
< 581->'Cv\Z>n\E> /*0)'C‘i<L£.:
/*0>'C*1<l; .1 55.s=—c*r.
A='C*'§'..
Boku ga yoku shitte iru kara / *node dai/obudesu.
(I know it well, so there will be no problem.)
II. The particle de is also used to express a reason or cause. (==>

(=> dea;
de3;
Semantic Derivations of De) De, however, can be used only with nouns,
while node and kara are used only with sentences. Compare [8] and
[9]-
l81 em-e
‘an-c /*1»-5 /*0:-c*%a=r¢. < 3s /vfcfifbfco
/ *1)“; /*a>'e%>§r; /msenre.
Taiffi
Taifo de / *kara /I *node ie ga takusan taoreta.
(Many houses fell down due to the typhoon.)
node / noni‘ 331
[9] ifiv E17) UN T f.)\b /0)'C
5%/‘l§l75§'9K\t\7‘:.h\"5 / UTE‘ /*'c*%‘a=t
/*'C‘%2b'if: < 3/vfciifbfca
8/of ioitico
Tsuyoi kaze ga fu/tafu/‘ta kara / node / *de /e ie ga takusan taoreta
taoreta.
(Lit
(Lit. Many houses fell down because a strong wind blew.)
blew)
noni‘ UN"
IIOHI‘ 0) I: conj.
con]
\~/'\/\J'\./\./\./\/‘ /\/\/\/\/\/\/V /“/'\./'\./N.»
/'\/\-/\'
/\/\/y
everybody’s expectation
Contrary to everybodys even though;
though despite the fact
noni,
based on the sentence preceding I70I7I, that ~
~;, although;
although but;
but, in spite
the proposition in the sentence fol- of the fact that ~
lowing noni is the case . \\.// \'/\/ \\//v-r\\/' ./\'\"‘\‘\--
(REL ga keredo(mo)]
(REL. ga;
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(A) -iii-—
-iii-—
W5‘
i-
q--
i-
M
Z
---s
i-
Z
it
—n|
E
1|
1
an
$3
---s
§
-—
i
1-_
iy -—
-—
-n-- 1|
iy
---s 1
-1
Subordinate Clause
-i__i-—
-iii-—
M
Main Clause
-
fit?! 1%?-2
EB 1%’? 12 9tti§§L"c U6
fiZ1.3§L'C i.\%> oi: .J:<< fix.
.t ie'::‘t»3itr.cv\/
i3i1.f.cv\/
kanji o
Mainichi kan// benkyoshite II'U
benkyoshlte I!U noni yoku oboerarenail
oboerarenai /
Eaenauh
fiienaen.
oboeraremasen
oboeraremasen.
I’m studying kdfljl
(Although lm kanji every day, I cannot memorize them well.)
well)
(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (i) inf
C0) 2?—#
Z7"-‘if’ § ii gm
@
"!"L\ on
VJIC kWL<kW/kWL<%9i%h
aW‘ L<:
7 ll‘ /zW‘ c<evaen.
Kono sutéki wa takai noni
I70!7I oishikunail/ oishikuarimasen.
oish/kunal oish/kuanmasen
(In spite of the fact that this steak is expensive, it isn’t delicious.)
delicious)
332 noni‘
(C)
(C)
Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem
Ema»
ems» 5§ H
n :mw7»§T$
:fiw7n§T$ u
4; on fifiafil
kfi%fi/
Shimizu-san we
wa gorufu ga heta
hera na noni dai-sukida/
jI kfiavio
fiflavt.
dai-sukidesu.
Mr Shimizu is not good at golf, he loves it)
(Although Mr. it.)
(D)
$—wéb§kt
".l"_'/l/é:/I./ ti 7xunA
7 X ' Cl‘ A e
it <m:
3 ¢ia=%wfi/fives.
in 25 ;i}Evf/!i1§v~"C1-
In
Q
°. (‘. I,
Horu-san §wa
wa amerikajin
amerika/in na
n noni niku ga kiraida / kiraidesu.
/(H'8Id6’8U
.
Mr Hall is an American
(In spite of the fact that Mr. American, he doesn’t like meat.)
meat) OO.
M
KSs(A) and (B):
{V/Adj (i)} inf (Di:
(DI:
iii
iii
1--M
- —
noni
{EET
(33? / 3% L 7:}
3‘t§L7‘:.} <1) I:
(Di: (although s.o. talks / talked)
hanashita} noni
{féjln /fé]7)»o7‘;}
{féiln / féjm-9 fg} Oi;
OI; (although s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} noni
KSs(C) and (D):
{Adj (na) steml {tr / T.f0i'C.]
stem/ N} {ztc riot} oi; wt;
{na /datta}
/ datta} noni
{?§7b*7£
[g*%7§*7.t /%75=T:foT:.}
/5’$2§>7‘;'oT:} Oi;
(Di; (although s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} noni
l5‘fiEli
(955 7.32 /96$
it T5071} (Di;
T:'o7‘:.} OIL’. (although s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei na /sensei datta} noni
W wieéwvfiifit¥%2@%cn@m1fi%%#%eaen.
@ wieéwvfifimtfinenficnomafifinnneaeh.
Chiigaku to koko de rokunenkan mo eigo o benkyoshita
benkyoshite noni mada
eigo ga hanasemasen.
noni‘ 333
(I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior
high, but I still cannot speak it.)
(b) fil/W)I171‘-—/*-—’&%>’.r'/\'GHj2f)=i‘J7.:,,
%\/‘®lI'.7i‘-/*-’&%f£\/\'GH:ln>l7‘f:.,
Samui noni obé k/‘naide dekaketa.
oba' o kinaide
(Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.)
(Q) eoxuer/#L$eouwanuw%aen.
M 3b0)}\l;t t°'7/ ib§_|;$f.c®lci?>->2‘;t:.3$€=iié.'/v.,
Ano hito wa piano ga jozuna noni metta ni hikimasen.
(He is good at piano, but seldom plays.)
(<1) 5ct1iL+fit.cv>t:it;'1‘§iv\'cv\i*i".,
(d) 5tt1#i.+fi>*.i:®tr:if:"f§liv~'Cv~$1"..
Ch/‘chi
Chichi wa kydjussai na noni mada hataraite imasu.
(My father is
i_s still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years
old.)
11. Noni is the nominalizer no plus the particle ni ‘to’, meaning ‘in
contrast to the fact that ~’. The noni clause expresses a highly pre-
supposed, speaker-oriented action or state. (==:>
(==> no”)
no‘) In other words, the
speaker of S1 noni S2 is personally involved with the proposition of S1.
This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone.
2 In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable,
2. it
i-—-ii
iii
iii-
ii-.-i
-._- i
—__-'- i
the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of
W i
— i
¢__. i
i
W
M i
i
—__ i
i W
—__ i
—__
--. i
-1
_i_?i--
_i_?i--
_i_?i--
discontent on the part of the speaker. i__-ii

_i_?i--—
m A:%heto¥eewx.
A=%b&£®E6&wl.
iranai yo.
Sonna mono /‘ranai
(I don't
don’t need that kind of stuff.)
B: -ti‘->n*< 3bl)‘75
B 2 'li'o7§*< $>l)"Z5 2:55
&'§50)lZo
(D110
Sekkaku ageru to iu noni.
(Lit. Although I'm I’m kindly saying that I’ll
I'll give it to you.
(=I’m saying I'll I’ll give it to you, you know.))
I.
I Because of the speaker-oriented character of the noni clause, certain
types of constructions involving the hearer cannot be used in the
main clause in this construction. If the main clause is a request, sug-
gestion, question, command or request for permission, only keredo(mo)
can be used. Examples of the above categories can be seen in [1] through
[5] below:
334 /Inoni‘
oni‘
[1] %ewwnEV*occrar<fisw.
M fii,i~i+nE / *0)lr: crew < riaw.
Muzukash/'1' keredo / *noni shire
Muzukashii shite mire
mite kudasai.
(It is difficult, but try it, please.)
[2] 5:
3032 0D tam,
tat» L < >:ci~i11iE
f.cv\H'1h.E /*(7)lZfi’<'C-71~‘i'fi.‘/i/7YPo
/ *0)l:fi¢<'C¥+iii-/V20».
Amari oishiku nai keredo / *noni
*nom' tabete mimasen ka.
(It’s not so good, but do you want to try it?)
%t~i+1rt&“/*a>i:§'ii.:ii:ia~ris=.
[3] a- 9i‘%v\|-r:t1..1;'/*0J|:5'l~i.:l:l:ii1'>)~.
Samui keredo / *noni soto ni demasu ka.
(It’s cold, but are you going outside?)
%wwnE/oc%uw5nvsm.
h %wnn£/wcflumenrrm.
Samui keredo / noni soto ni deru n desu ka.
(It’s cold, but (lit. is it that you are going outside?) are you
going outside?)
[4] oi I515 f.cv\l1'1lt&“/*0)l:€=="%?+f.c
>‘.cv\l'H1.t'/*0>|:%f-7+t.c 5é "\O
I/‘O
Tsumaranai keredo / *noni yominasai.
(It’s boring, but read it.)
[5] T5l37‘;'l'l’1l‘l.E/*_F$>*.i‘0)|:
_F$f£I'l'1l'l.E / *'F$f.c0)|: 1,-c
ixc 4.4, vw~r'-rm.
v\v~'c=1‘r§=..
Hetada keredo / *Hetana noni shite mo i/‘desu
iidesu ka.
(I’m not good at it, but can I do it?)
(I'm
M
l
-.-ii
un-
1
1
1.
-—
1.
-1-
___
___.
W
___.
[3b] is acceptable, because the scope of the question is not the main
verb deru ‘ go outside’ but the whole sentence nominalized by n.
The main clause cannot be an expression of intention as in [6], because

the expression is directed not towards the speaker but towards the hearer.
[6]
[61 §i‘7§=l57.iI\/\l'l'1i'l.E/*(7JlIJI
§?70*fo7.£\/\l'l'1‘LE/*U)lZJI < 5211+?»->4.
%i"CJ+Z>o't> 90 '01“/521 1+ .1:.r 5
'c=~~;- / ear 2+
&.%.v~i*J-O
.1;.'i'=.‘.\/\i*J'..
Wakaranai keredo / *nom'
*noni yoku kangaete miru tsumori desu]
kangaete miyo to omoimasu.
(Although I don’t understand it, I intend to really think about
it /I think I will really think about it.)
Due to the nominalizer no, the noni clause tends to express something
with which the speaker is emotively involved. But keredo(mo) is rela-
tively free from the speaker’s emotive involvement; in short, it is more
objective than noni. (==> nos)
no”)
Noni in Exs. (a) through (d) can also be replaced by the disjunctive
conjunction ga ‘but’. For example, Ex. (d) can be rewritten as [7].
noni‘ 335
noni‘ / noniz
§Cli7‘L"l"fif;'n3. i7.:'@J!/\'C!/‘Zn,
[7] §Cl;l£7‘L‘l“fii;'7§‘i if:-1'1'§!Jv\'C\¢\%.'>.,
Chichi wa kyiijussai da ga,
ga. mada hataraite
hataraire iru.
(My father is ninety years old, but he is still working.)
The disjunctive meaning of ga is much weaker than that of noni, and
ga is free from the restrictions imposed on noni. The style of the
noni clause is always informal, but depending on the style of the second
sentence, the style of the sentence preceding ga can be either informal
or formal, as shown below:
Sinf] fml
Sinf ga Sinf/fml vs. Sinf noni Sinf]
Sinf/ fml
Sfml ga Sfml
noni’ 0)
l'lOl‘ll' I:
UJIC conj.
conj.
\.A/;
éE in the process or for the purpose of i in the process of doing ~; (in

doin
doingg s.t. expressed
ex p re sse d in th
thee no - no mi-
no-nomi- order
order)) to do ~; for tthe
he purpose
nalized clause of ~
"‘\' ."\'-/\ ' "\/‘\'_/\./\
“M [REL. n/‘5;
n/'5; tame (n/)1
§Key Sentence
QKey
_ Subordinate Clause _
Topic (subject) Main Clause
Vinf- nonpast
I
TL ti. iiiii BZFEE
azsaao03 aaa aaa;
filifi ‘E 53%} oi: aaa aw
®lC 5*??? ‘E5!
Watashi wa nihongo no shinbun o yomu noni jisho o rsukaul
tsukaul
awai-.
iE€\/‘i'§'°
tsukaimasu.
(I use a dictionary to read Japanese newspapers.)
Formation
Vinf- nonpast 0) (C.

Ii;
noni
351-
331' wt:
(DI: (in order to talk)
hanasu noni
non/'2
336 noni‘
ga;}, 0)lC.
gag (DI: (in order to eat)
taberu noni
M
@
(=1) T%%%&W5omum#¥9im#.
'i‘€=*'<>‘-5 2i’F?.'><ot:.t:.tfiIib=% D at-1:».
Sukiyaki o tsukuru noni wa nani ga irimasu ka.
(What do you need to make sukiyaki?)
:ov£—ta%<om—mnwmvacn.
M :®v£—bE%<®m—mH#mDiLk,
Kono repoto o kaku noni ikkagetsu kakarimashita.
(It took me a month to write this paper.)
M
m %&Kfi<®Kflzt%$&EoTW5.
%&Kfi<0nfiz&%$&EeTw6.
Kaisha ni iku noni basu to densha 0o tsukatte iru.
Keisha
(I am using the bus and the train to get to (lit. my company) work.)
1. In the noniz construction, only informal, nonpast, volitional verbs can

l.
precede noni. (Cp. noni‘)
2. When the noni clause is used as the topic (i.e., S noni wa), no is
often deleted in conversation, as in (1).
M
M-—_;
m +a%%&¢5muM#%vi¢m.
Taeaafianummfivaimo
1.
Sukiyaki o tsukuru ni wa nani ga irimasu ka.
1 1-—.
(What do you need to make sukiyaki?)

1 _
1 1-—.
Z --
1 1-—.
1 M
,
iii
,
I. When the main verb is a verb of motion, the noni’ noni‘ construction con-
trasts with that of Vmasu ni V(motion). (==:>
(Q nii’)
nii‘) Examples:
[ll B§&EEE.l:fiE’\i“ToT:°
B5lEE’&'Rl~'i§El§§'\fi"oTC.a
Eiga o mi ni Ginza e itta.
(I went to Ginza to see a movie.)
Rl%@ER5@E%E“fi0ke
Bl%EeB5ou%$~fian.
Eiga o miru noni Ginza e itta.
(I went to Ginza for the purpose of seeing a movie.)
[3] IWEEEIZ
BREEEI: / *§.50)l2fi'o7‘;,,
*EZ>0)l:fi"-pizza
Eiga o mi ni /*miru noni itta.
(I went to see / *for the purpose of seeing a movie.)
If a destination is specified, as in [1] and [2], both constructions can
be used. However, the noni version implies that the subject of the
noni2/ ~no wa ~da 337
sentence made a lot out of the entire process. [2] can imply that the
shouldn’t have used time and
speaker shouldn't money going to Ginza to see a
movie. If a location is not specified, only the Vmasu ni V (motion)
construction-can be used, as shown in [3].
Noni’ is similar in its meaning to Vinf-nonpast tame ni ‘in order to’.
Noni‘
The latter purely means ‘purpose’ but the former retains the meaning of
‘in the process of’,
of ’, even when it means ‘‘purpose
purpose ’.'. Thus, in a sentence
such as [4] below in which the verb in the noni-clause is incongruous
with the meaning of ‘process ’, noni cannot be used.
[4] Z-l?.€'5T:¥>l:/*0)l:fi¢<5.,
£li€‘Z>T:8bl:/*0)l:fi¢<?5.,
/kiru tame nil
ni / *noni taberu.
(We eat in order to live.)
Cp. C®Wfi%rw<kwc/®cB:+fiHm%Efi.
3-1 @lBT'6‘f-.li% ‘C!/‘ < Tzfibll / UJIZH I.+77Pil:lZdZ~¥f.:Ia
Kono machi de ikite iku tame ni / noni tsuki ni/'t7man'en
ni/'i7man'en wa
hitsuyoda.
(We need 200,000 yen a month in order to keep living in this town.)
~ wa ~da ~0J|:t ~75 str- ii

M--i
-
-
ii
—
M
M
a structure that indicates new, im- it is ~ that ~; the one who ~

1-1 M
M ai-
;-1 M
ii
-
-
-
-
portant information by placing it be- is ~; the place where ~ is ~;

tween no wa and the copula da (No the reason why ~ is ~; the
is an indefinite pronoun (n02) that time when ~ is ~; what ~ is
replaces ‘time ’,', ‘ person ',’, ‘ thing ’,', ~
‘ place '’ or ‘ reason '.)
’.) [RE
[REL.L. no”)
no"-"1
v"\_-"/\\._/'\,."/\'\/./.\./\\/' .\// ¢
QKey
¢Key Sentences
Important
Vinf Information
$1. as
vii =i=@
41$ i:
la: fiofz
F‘:-=1; <0 iiIi
o zfii
21$ Fri
at rs/ca.
Ti/"GT0
Watashi ga Chugoku
Chiigoku fll
n1 itta no wa sannen mae da / desu.
(It was three years ago that I went to China. / The time when I went
to China was three years ago.)
338 ~no wa ~da
(B)
Important
Ad] (1)
Adj mf
(1') inf Information
:0o a-711*
W -721 —-5
—-fi BE vb‘2)‘;
FIE mu on BEE:/V
=.§EHé</V T5/“GT
rs/~<=~~r
Kono kurasu de zch/ban
ichiban atama ga ii no wa Yoshida-san da / desu.
(The brightest one in this class is
ts Mr
Mr. Yoshida)
Yoshida.)
3*
fart
(C)
Important
Ad] (na) ste
Adj stem Information
:1:
C. C. '6G‘ -'3
—- %11.L\
%:|'1.L\ 1‘; <1)
0) ti Ill Tif/'C"§'<>
“C1-
.
.,maQ
Koko de /ch/ban
ichiban klrer
kirei
. EI
'
na no wa yama
‘I da / desu
desu.
(The most beautiful things here are mountains)
mountains.)
n
M
{V/Adj(i)}
(i) {V/Adj (i)} inf 0) ii ~ T5
if
nowa-da
no wa ~ da
an
i-xii-11
i-t-
{§3-;-
ii??? /§§[_,f;}
/§fiL7‘;l 0)
<7) (1
(1 ~
~ ff
Ti (it is
(it is ~
~ who
who talks/talked)
talks/talked)
{hanasu /hanashita} no wa ~ da
(hanasu
{fl¢<2_5
(Q/<5 /Q/<r;}
/fiat} 0) g1
[1 ~ if
7;’ (it is ~ who eats/ate)
{taberu
(taberu / tabeta} no wa ~ da
{El/\
[El/\ /%§;b>»;T:;}
/fiibwnfc} 0) ti
ii ~ T5
7;’ (it is ~ that is/was expensive)
{takai/takakatta}
(takai / takakatta} no wa ~ da
(ii) {Adj
(Adi (na)stem/N} {TI/T5071}
lit/f;'o7‘:] <0 ti
ii ~ 2‘:
ii
{na/datta} no wa ~ da
{§¥i;!)>f;
{fiinwbr /§;§»f;’57;}
/§%70=7‘.:'oT;} 0) ii
[1 ~ T1’
7;’ (it is ~ that is / was quiet)
{shizukana/ shizukadatta}
{shizukanal no wa ~ da
{$1533
(9553 7;
2‘; /95513
/5155]; f.;’o7‘:;}
7;’->13} 0) ii
(1 ~ Tc’
7‘;' (it is ~ who is / was a teacher)
{sensei na / sensei datta} no wa ~ da
M
@
W M$éb,%kk#Vnfitfiok®flw0?f#°
mEéh,%&kfiVfifiKfiok®mw0?TWo
Yamada-san, anata ga Shikago ni itta no wa itsu desu ka.
(Mr. Yamada, when was it that you went to Chicago?)
~no wa ~da 339
M B&&w%Uu%k®ufl*ébTT°
saawfiom%noufl¥snv+.
Ototoi asobi ni kita no wa Akiko-san desu.
(It was Akiko who came to see me the day before yesterday.)
M
(0) e—v7wi#kflaweanoufi#—¢ofie+.
-‘E-—‘77/v l~ nijifié ltltco f:.0)l;t7<$-'$0)B§'C"§'.,
Motsuaruto ga dai-sukini natta no wa daigaku ichinen no toki desu.
(It was during my freshman year that I became very fond of Mozart.)
(d) 562915 15v~>*.c0>t:.t§-
l5v\f.c0>&i§- 1/1:“r;'.,
i/i;'7;'.,
Ch/"chi
Chichi ga kiraina no wa terebi da.
(It is television that my father hates.)
(e) EI1l§'c£v\l,v\0>l:.t%4nr;'.,
El1i='C*2‘av~l,v\a>i:):%1I=hf;'.,
Nihon do
de oishii no wa kudamono da.
(What is delicious in Japan is fruit.)
1.
l. The particle used with the noun or noun phrase between no wa and da
usually drops if the particle does not have any concrete meaning (as in
the cases of ga and o), or if the meaning of the entire sentence is
somehow predictable. Examples follow.
m Afim5em%noufiEéwV#Hg
A%K5BK%k®flfiEébC#H$
Hachiji ni uchi ni kita no wa Morita-san (*ga) da. i1-iii
i1-iii
—
1
1
1_—i—-u
iii
T
(It was Mr. Morita who came to my house at eight o’clock.)

iii
iii
=--i
--2.-i
iii
__
iii
iii
i
:
gm-ix
i
i
m §mén#%@r%nouv—#02M;
nwéh#%ar%nouv—a0§M;
Morita-san ga motte
motto kita no wa kéki (*0) da.
(It was cake that Mr. Morita brought here.)
m fiwéw#v—#2<nnou%flnfi.
nman#v—ae<nnou%unfi.
Morita-san ga kéki o kureta no wa ototo (ni) da.
(It was to my brother that Mr. Morita gave cake.)
m fiméufi5sm%nou$vfi.
w fimanmaeuxnouficfi.
Morita-san ga uchi ni kita no wa kuruma de da.
(It was by his car that Mr. Morita came to my house.)
m wa fimsnmfinonfifiwan.
fimahnxnouifimafi,
Morita-san ga kita no wa Tokyo kara da.
(It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita came.)
B §wah#w%unoufiam@nn.
h fiméu#w%Lnoufifiw%flm.
Morita-san ga shuppatsushita no wa Tokyo (kara) da.
(It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita departed.)
340 ~no wa ~da
w A
m a fimanfiflhuoumméhefi.
fimsnmflnfiouwmsnefio
Morita-san ga nonda no wa Tayama-san to da.
(It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita drank.)
B §mén#—%nnnfioumméhQnfi.
h fiwén#—%m&wfiouwmé»unfi.
Morita-san ga isshoni nonda no wa Tayama-san (to) da.
(It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita (lit. together)
drank.)
In (Sb) and (6b)
(ob) the particles kara and to normally drop, because shup-
patsushita ‘departed’ and isshoni ‘together’ generally co-occur with
kara and to, respectively.
The element between no wa and da cannot be a manner adverb. The
following sentences are all unacceptable.
*tE¥a¥$v\r:v>i1t1> 5 < ‘J Tia
(7) *TE¥2fi'5$v\T:.0)lil’i>o ti.
*Hanako ga aruita no wa yukkuri da.
(*It was slowly that Hanako walked.)
*:!<E[Sn‘i'-i“'=->.»1»%v\f.:.v>li%t|.l.\|:f£.,
(8) *i<E[§r)§'$&%v~t.:0>i1%ti.t.\l:75.,
*Taro ga ji o kaita no wa kireini da.
(*It was beautifully that Taro wrote characters.)
Unlike English, the copula da in this construction is normally in the
$
;
present tense.
$
ii
ii
-Q
i —__
—__
i —__
i‘ T
i
i —__
?-
i T
i
—
-_- ___
--
(9) so
$0) 5 5->t;<oi1z=;—
Eofcwlizi wr'c+T/
1/7l"E"§' / P?P' C~ L120
Lt.
_—
-1. ___
i
???'C'
-i —
iii;-_-.
i--i
ii
i
Kino katta no wa sutereo desu / ???deshita.

(It was a stereo set that I bought yesterday.)
The number of no wa ~da sentences which can be produced from one
sentence is limited only by the number of elements which can be placed
between no wa and da. For example, four such sentences can be
derived from (10).
(10)
llol ‘J 35 ‘/>!>§~'/'
'/753‘? 1 :1; —
- visits-2'6/\H 1:42->r;.,
Vi:-$1-‘i‘:'C“l\Hl~'1%”’JTCo
Jon ni Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta.
Jon ga Jén
(John met Jane in August in Tokyo.)
M
(11) m
a. §;—vmfififAfim§@k0m§=ufi.
I‘/":1: -1/ICKFTC’/\}5iiC§-'_;-‘OTCVJli:/' 5 '/Tie
Jon ni Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta no wa Jon da.
Jén
(It was John who met Jane in August in Tokyo.)
b. 9av#ifiTABn§5kom§=—vfi,
B 3 :/n=fifi'c=~/\H l:.4-3»; Tami 1 — "/T5.
Jon ga Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta no wa Jon
Jén da.
(It was Jane whom John met in August in Tokyo.)
~no wa ~da 341
e 9av#91—VKAHK%ot®fl§§HUfi°
c. 3 :/n=~)1——:/ls:/\J5i la;-E<~/>2*;v>l1ETi'I('C*)f.i.,
Jon ni hachigatsu ni aria
Jon ga Jén atta no wa Tokyo (de) da.
(It was in Tokyo that John met Jane in August.)
¢ 9aV#§z—VKfifiT§ok®HAHfi°
vav#v1—vufifip%5k0uAHfi,
Jon ga Jon
Jén ni Tokyo do
de atta no wa hachigatsu da.
(It was in August that John met Jane in Tokyo.)
6. Normally the no clause takes wa, marking the entire clause as presup-
posed, old, unimportant information, and the element between no wa and
da represents a new, important piece of information. But sometimes
the no clause takes ga, marking the clause as new, important informa-
tion. In this case the element between no ga and da indicates unim-
portant information.
(12) iF1.n={’F¢"cv~z»0>n<=»
$L7)3{’Fo'Cv\50)iJ<v -7 i~'C"J‘°
l~’C"§'°
Watashi ga tsukutte iru no ga robotto desu.
(The one I’m
I'm making is a robot.)
Cp
Cp. I1ufivhMfl#WoTWiTs
IE '-2 l~ |1$L2b'§l’Fo'C\/\i'i'°
Robotto wa watashi ga tsukutte imasu.
(Speaking of robots, I'm
I’m making one.)
[Related Expression] ¢
I
ii-ii
i -——_
i
—__ -—-up
--
£2 T
Z-E
--. --
T -—-=
Z:
No in the present construction should not be confused with the no used as
1-—.—-—-
iii
-_-it
1:-.
1-—.-—i
iii;
___,..___i
ii-ii
ii-ii
ii-ii
iii-
a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the no wa ~da construction and [2], the

nominalized sentence. no”)
(==> nos)
m iafinoonwrwafi.
Uliéfinwunwrwfifio
Hon o yomu no wa taitei yoru da.
(It is usually at night that I read books.)
pl$&%UwuWW:&fio
W iefioouwwcefi.
Hon 0o yomu no wa ii koto da.
(It is a good thing to read books.)
One way to differentiate between the two constructions is to see if the sentence
can be restated by deleting no wa and da and placing the element before
no wa in an appropriate position. For example, [1] can be restated as [3],
but [2] cannot be restated, as seen in [4].
[3] fat/\'C\r‘i§7l§’&%Uo
TC.l(\'tl/\Tg'Z$7&%t-lio
Taitei yoru hon o yomu.
(I read books usually at night.)
342 ~no wa ~ da
[4] a. *vw\: ézllikfitx.
*vw\:'. <E1lI’2Ii=?Et.i>..
*/i koto hon o yomu.
b. *2|:&vw\: tau.
*1l1& vw\:; <‘;§a’-‘tte.
*Hon o ii koto yomu
c. *$2%oww:t.
*1l§&?%ti=vw\:: to
*Hon o yomu ii koto.
L
mi-
p p i-
i
-
- i
p
D l
i-
I T
p
p T
—
U i
-- i-
i-
- i-
-ii- i
ii-
i-ii-i
0- 343
o-
0- as
2&3 Pref-
/"Q/\z"v/\/"J/\»"~P~/\¢F\/\¢"\/"4*\/\J“
/\./\/\/\/\/\/\./— /\./-\/\/\/~./\./\/~/\/\/\/'\/‘./‘./'\/\/\./\/
J“J\u*vF\/\/ 1; /-
é2 a prefix that expresses politeness §

"\-/'\/\~
[REL. go-]
Q
§Key
Key Sentences
(A)
Vmasu ‘
Eiiafiai
7E'B3l5'i3i iili aaa '6
¥§§'C isifiib
E331, lI: isfoft./7.CDELT_a
TJTQTC\ / ti: 9 a we.
/shida-sensei
I shr da - sense: wa eigo
ergo de o-Zhanashi
0- hanash! ni natta /nanmashita
n1 / narimashita.
(Prof Ishida talked in English.)
(Prof. English)
(B)
| Vmasu
ti. ii am
=50)? lll1%i5‘i3$
Ill 96$
Illl-
I:H. ia§.e.i~
2‘<>%L\ l,1‘;/ tatte.
1,1 /estrc.
ft
'\
\
Vl/6l'8.S‘/7/ wa kino Yamazaki-sensei

Watashi Y8fl78Z8kI-881788! I7!
ni o-at
o-iai sh/ta /shimashlta
shita / shimashita.
Prof Yamazaki yesterday.)
(I met Prof. yesterday) . nanauqalu nrncnl l l l
(C)
. l l l lIOll l:lIl
Adj
Ad) (i / na)
(1/na)
A115/V
4—’ r1F~Té /v ii :01/7
ti :1’/I/7 1)¥
7) :<>ti¥=&r /flaw?
is§!1¥%t:'/il¥%'C"§'..
1
O
fl‘0~
/mamura-san wa gorufu ga o-isukida / sukidesu.
o-sukida $UkId8$U
'1
(Mr Imamura likes golf.)
(Mr. golf)
'5
(D)\-/
Noun
iiofiflifi
5ifi1(<7~I~4% =-5~ 1>=7) JIE>Lv\'C“T
Iiii tit
(T .J:E>Lv\'C‘i‘ 1».
- U‘
0
kt
2) U‘ 'I
V’
O - no m I m ono
O-inomimono /7617! ga yoroshiidesu
wa nani yoroshndesu ka.
ka OI
l lOl l l l l‘;§+\
l l:l l
4»~-. As for drinks, what would be good?H' ,_ (=What would you like to
(Lit
(Lit.
drink?))
ir. 23:5
KS(A): is Vmasu I; ins (=>0 ~ni naru)
(Qo
o-
0- ni naru
344 o-
KS(B): 1'25
is Vmasu T5 (Q
(Qoo ~suru)
0- suru
KS(C): 3-3 Adj (i/na)
is
O-
0-
:t5'|1'j1,v\
i5'|1’j 1,!/\ (s.o. is busy)
o-isogashii
2‘5_];$f.£
z‘5_];$7;' (s.o. is good at ~)
o-jozuda
KS(D): $5 N
0-
O-
(money)
o-kane
M
m
@
w $H%Eu%&Th£tLw,
wH%iu%&rsstLw.
o-isogashi/'.
Tamura-sensei wa ima totemo o-isogashii.
(Prof. Tamura is very busy now.)
M fiBn%wptn.
® fiB£%W?Th.
Mainichi o-atsuidesu ne.
(It’s hot day after day, isn't
(It's isn’t it?)
L1
L1
-i
-ii
M LH%iua:z#nL$c+.
@ Lw%im¥=zfisL$v+.
Ueda-sensei wa tenisu ga o-jozudesu.
L1
_
—
—
T
—
—
i-
i
—
i-
i
(Prof. Ueda is good at tennis.)

i
i-
—
-i
mi
it
w Biapofifinartsanwn.
€$éno%fiu&rss%nwfi.
Miyamoto-san no okusama wa totemo o-kireida.
(Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.)
o
@ §fiéb#5£€%#&DiLt.
%Héb#B£€%fibDiLk°
Nomura-san kara o-denwa ga arimashita.
(There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.)
sfirfimsfifieaunm.
m sB:fimt5a~aLnm.
O-hirugohan wa mo tabemashita ka.
(Have you had your lunch yet?)
1. The polite prefix 0- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to ex-
press the speaker’s respect, modesty or politeness. O-Vmasu ni naru
0- 345
o-
is an honorific polite expression and o-Vmasu
0-Vmasu suru is a humble polite
expression. (Q o0 ~ni naru; o0 ~suru)
2. O-Adj can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c)
and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b).
3. O-N is used in various ways:

(1) Honorific polite expression:
%ifiB$fi%<fiéwiLt.
5'i3i7)§?’5$if~'EE' < T33 WE Lfca
Sensei ga 0-tegami
o-tegami o kudasaimashita.
(My teacher wrote me a letter.)
(2) Humble polite expression:
%B3€%2éLbfiiT°
l9‘lB§5%§€2e‘.< L2§>i)"i'i‘..
Myonichi 0-denwa
o-denwa o sashiagemasu.
(I’ll
(I'll call you tomorrow.)
(3) Simple polite expression:
BE¥#%<tDiLthi°
B§¥#E<&DiLthi.
0-yasai ga takaku narimashita né.
(Vegetables have become expensive, haven’t they?)
4. 0- cannot be attached to the following words:
(A) Adjectives and nouns which begin with the [o] sound:
*2l’$i5
*3 $6 'l>
‘ls L7f>\r\
L 6 In (interesting) *§5$5v\
*3 is In 1,!/\
L I/\ (delicious) M1
M1
iii-
M1
QM
*o-omoshiroi
*0-omoshiroi *0-oishii
*0 -oishii
i 1
_€
i- 1
1
M 1
1
i- i
i- i
i_ Z
— i
i— i
ip Z
1_- -1
1_- i
M i
1_- i
iii
it
1-ii
*d=$7l<=5
*j=$j<% toI/\ (big) W536‘ IL
*§5;t5 1; <3
é A1
A, (uncle) *§$i5U<
*$5;k-;U¥ (belt, sash)
1-ii
M1
*0-okii
*0 -okii *0-oji-san *0-obi
(B) Long words:
*8 IL 1:»
-t= 75$!/\ ii, (potato)
7)‘!/\ *1, (cf. $5 I; 1:»
.<> zbi
7)§ (potato))
*0-jagaimo
*0 -jagaimo o-jaga
*3 l1
Ii 511,/i/E
5111./i/E (spinach)
*o -horenso
*0
(C) Foreign words:
*3 :i:. I//<~—
*j=5:n l/¢<~— 51
$1 -— (elevator) *8
*3 9
7 ‘JU Z
2 -v 2
Z (Christmas)
*0-erebéto
*0-erebété *0-kurisumasu
*3/4 51 --
— (butter)
*0-bato
*0 -baté
346 0-
There are some exceptions to this rule. For example:

Bfclf
$5 Tali Z‘.
C (tobacco) $5 2'21? 2/ (trousers)
B 2'/"K is I:°~—
l:'~—- 11/ (beer)
0-tabako 0-zubon 0-biru
$5 7- 1 (sauce)
7 ~— X
o-sosu
O -SOSU
These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vo-
cabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native
speakers.
5. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix
0- or go-. (For go-, see Related Expression.)
(4) 151:7)»
tat; n= (stomach) :1’ Eli (cooked rice, meal)
1'
0-naka
o-naka go-han
There is another polite prefix, go-. Basically, go- is used for Chinese-origin
words and 0- for Japanese-origin words. Examples follow:
(I-type adjectives are all Japanese-origin words;
[1] Na-type adjectives (/-type
therefore, they are all preceded by 0-.)
a. Chinese-origin words:
;"fii;‘l]' (kind)
.'_'§,l;'iJ_ ;"cu\nv\ (polite)
i'_"Cv\}t.W\ Zfiilj (convenient)
fjfiiflj
-ii
-Mg
-M
M1
n-I-nui-
1—-
_
go -shinsetsu
go-shinsetsu go-teinei go -benri
go-benri
b. Japanese-origin words:
tsfw (quiet)
tsp?» ;I=$l::
tsi: aw»€='*<=»> (lively) tstrié
tslfié (fond)
0-shizuka o-nigiyaka
0-nigiyaka 0-suki
[2] Nouns
a. Chinese-origin words:
;’Ii}f§E (research)
;’li}f§E ,'_"$=,!,=ti§‘- (marriage)
,'_“$§lz§- ,'_"2Ii (book)
.'_'2[§:
go-kenkyo go-kekkon go-hon
b. Japanese-origin words:
;3|'iE]
j=5[§] (meat) (fish) $511
Eli LI, (chopsticks)
0-niku 0-sakana o-hashi
0-hashi
There are, however, some Chinese-origin words which require the use of 0-.
These exceptions are words which have become assimilated to the point
that native speakers no longer consider them to be “ borrowed "” words. The
words in [3] are examples of such exceptions.
0- / 0‘ 347
[3] a. Na-type adjectives:
351;?
§5_[;E}3 (skillful) jsfgi
§5f;€, (healthy)
00-jozu
-jozu 00-genki
-genki
b. Nouns:
Nouns :
1'5
$5 2‘;-13
32$ (telephone) $5
is iliilfi
iiillfi (dishes) B B#F§i (time)
$5 Biff]
00-den
-den wa 0 -ryori 0-jikan
0 -jikan
33%;? (study)
isflifi $3 $511 (confectionery)
35%;}-'~
00-benkyo
-benkyo 00-kashi
-kashi
There are very few examples of go- Japanese-origin words.
[4] ,'_’i9b 5
.'_'t§> 0 < D9 (slowly) ,1’
.'_’ 1,
4, o E;
<‘.: ‘B
‘ii (reasonable)
go-yukkuri go -mottomo
go-mottomo
Q1 5-
01 Q prt.
~vvvvvvvvv\AA/w
/\/\/\/Y\l\/%\/ \./\_/'\/\/\./'\./ (
a particle which marks a direct ob- gE

ject ,
../\/\/\/\/\/\/\r\/\/\/\r\/‘~/\/\./\/\ /v\A/vV\
Q Key Sentence
QKey
__4
S Topic (subject) Direct Object Transitive Verb
$1.
o. gii 521%
B 5D
U fl1.§§L’Cl/‘Zn/I/\i‘§".,
9'ifl5‘§L'C v\?.5/I/1')‘
W8l8S/‘II
Watashi §;c
wa mhongo
nihongo ooiv benkyosh/te
benkyoshite II'U
||N‘NN iru //imasu.
I!Tl88U
(I a- )
m studying Japanese
(I’m Japanese.)
w Wwanuaoifiefion.
@ mmspeaoaneaan.
Maeda-san wa kino kuruma 0o katta.
(Mr. Maeda bought a car yesterday.)
(b) (FI‘$:fi‘K7+i'i'r)=.,
filafit-7»-isirrb-.
Nani 0 nomimasu ka.
(What will you drink?)
348 0‘
%
@
O marks the direct object. It is noted, however, that the direct object
1. 0
in English is not always marked by o 0 in Japanese. Compare Japanese
and English in the following sentences, for example.
(1)
(ll fl.i1%§§1i<§)rb=z>.
iFLii§§§1Ji§}7)>5°
Watashi wa eigo ga wakaru.
(I understand English.) (=:>
(Q ~ wa ~ ga; wakaru)
in
(2) 9Au&xE%%LtO
1-\ Id:/< 2 lliifi L 7:0
Jimu wa Besu ni denwashita.
(Jim called Beth.)
m
M %u%®5E¢émc/t55t.
%m%®5E¢ébc/tboto
nil/ to atta.
Boku wa kino Tanaka-san ni
(I met Mr. Tanaka yesterday.)
2. In some constructions, the direct object marker 0o can be replaced by
the subject marker ga.
M)s»a&&o
(4) :1 11/? EEKU ~
—> -3i 11/9
/l/7 E / taiflt-1+1; L\
"E/iJiEX-7+1’:l.\ (Q tai)
(=:>
miruku 0 nomu miruku 0 / ga nomitai
(drink milk) (want to drink milk)
(5) Hlliiaiifit
W B$%€%+ —>
~ Hlliiéi
El1l§§§’& I/iJ<;;%tt%>
75i§§‘tl.'%> (=>
(Q rareru’)
rareruz)
nihongo 0 hanasu nihongo 0 /ga
/ ga hanaseru
(speak Japanese) (can speak JJapanese)
apanese)
it
(6) i<‘:"'<£B~¥li‘J‘Z> ——> i<‘:"&/lJi|3§i‘J"Co>%>

i HE / 7'J‘liFlD"Cfi>Zo (=t>aru2)
(Q aru”)
it
i E E55 IT 35 —’
it
it
-iii
-1-.
-ii
mado 0 akeru mado 0o /ga akete aru
(open the window) (The window has been opened.)
3. O cannot occur more than once in a clause, whether it is the direct
object marker (i.e., 0')
o‘) or the space marker (i.e., 02). Thus, in the
causative construction, for example, the causee can be marked only by
ni if another element in the same clause is marked by 0. (=9(Q saseru)
(1) xmmzwenaaa
m ’)EliTL|:'. /*%io%&st+rr;.
tfico
Chichi wa watashi ni
nil/ *0 sake 0 nomaseta.
(My father made me drink sake.)
wifiéuficfiaaefiaoeean.
(8) 7ii£i1%Li:/**&:-‘="..t.ct>i*&oi:ei=:r;.
Tomodachi wa watashi ni
nil/ *0 kyona saka 0 noboraseta.
(My friend made me go up a steep slope.)
4. If the direct object is presented as a topic or a contrastive element, 0
is replaced by wa.
0‘ / 02 349
M B$%m%Dith°
H$%uflvsen.
Nihongo wa shirimasen.
(I don’t know Japanese.)
M %o$u$5%AiLt°
%o$M$5fihiLk.
Sono hon wa mo yomimashita.
(I already read that book.)
Q
02 if prt.
§i a particle which indicates a space in / in; on; across; through; along;

on / across /I through / along which over
s.o. or s.t. moves [REL. dell
de']
’\/\’ /-"’\/ '\/ "\./‘ \."\/"
_/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\
QKey
§Key Sentence
— NW" <W> __ Noun (space)
H m: fififi
£33?
' E
2 fi\k/fi%iLk.
$\/‘T:/$%iLT:o
l1 0
Watashi wa goban-gai 0 aruita /arukimashita.
/ arukimashita.
(I walked along Fifth Avenue.) M-ii-M

M-|-—-I1
-1
-1
?,
—_
1—-ii
—*
ti
it-i
i-1-i
ii
i-ii
ii
ii;
tkti
i-ti
1%?‘
M--—-1
-
iii‘?
M
M--—-1
o
M--—-—
@
(3) anew-tenable.
{L§@§fi§O'C"l'i??D it): 5°
Koen 0 totte kaerimasho.
(Let’s go home through the park (lit. passing through the park).)
M £§7§;illill7)_l1’¢Ifil§/1/T‘!/‘§';_o
(b) fifiwoiéfikvwits
Tsuru ga mizuumi no ue 0 tonde imasu.
(Cranes are flying over the lake.)
B$?m$mfi®EM2fiDET°
M B$Tu§mfi®EWEEDiT°
Nihon de wa kuruma wa michi no hidarigawa 0 hashirimasu.
(In Japan they drive (lit. cars run) on the left side of the street.)
w %:o§%fi2Ecm#or<fi$w,
W %:®E%fiEEm®fioT<fiéw,
Soko no kosaten o0 migi ni magatte kudasai.
(Please turn to the right at the intersection there.)
350 02
When a sentence involves the verb noboru ‘climb’, there is an important

difference between the use of the particle 0 and that of ni, as seen in (1).
M
(1) m
a. FVdifi57—E®Eot°
F‘/li§)‘iI5"U--’&0)li'-.>T:.,
Don wa Tokyo Tawé
Tawa‘ 0 nobotta.
(Don scaled Tokyo Tower.)
h
s Fvuifiav—mo&on.
Fvmfifi9V—t®Eot,
Tawo ni nobotta.
Don wa Tokyo Tawé
(Don went up Tokyo Tower.)
The particle de‘ also marks the space in which an action takes place. The
difference between de‘ and 0 is that de‘ can be used with any action verb,
while 0 can be used only with motion verbs such as aruku ‘‘walk
walk ’, hash/'ru
hashiru
‘ fly’ and oyogu ‘swim’. Thus, 0o is ungrammatical in [1].
‘ run’, tobu ‘fly’
[11
[1] ?LlilZl§€é"G
TLiilZl%fi'§'t‘ /*&9&r3‘§Lr;.
/*"é%5'§LT:.-,
Watashi wa toshokan de / *0 benkyoshita.
(I studied at the library.)
del or 0 is possible, as in [2], there is usually a subtle difference
When either de‘ difierence
between them.
M..-
1-
—-- —-
—
[2] *2‘ 3a ~/mill?
‘/li)I|'E‘ / §iii<v~r;'.
’&i5"i<\/\f.f.,
g 0 2
1-
1-.
_.-.
—
M
1-
_.-.
—--
_-
_-
_.-.
= _—
_..
__
1-
—
—-
_-
i-
i-
_q
i-
i-
i-
i-
do I 0 oyoida.
Jon wa kawa do/o
ii
-M
it
-M
(John swam in the river.)
del is used, other locations for an action are also implied, but
First, when de‘
when 0 is used, there are no such implications. For example, in [3] John
has a choice between a pool and the river. Here, do‘de‘ is acceptable, but 0
is not.
[3] 3 ~./:17"-—/w>§%
‘/ii 7"-/was =av\r;'r>~¢>r;v\r
1‘>v~r::‘r>=e2*:v~'< 1/\)Il'c'
v\JIl'e I/ *’&?ii<<‘..
*§fi< <2.
piiru ga kiraida kara taitei kawa de / *0 oyogu.
Jon wa poru
(John usually swims in the river because he doesn’t like pools.)
Second, when deldo‘ is used, the sentence often indicates that the purpose of
the action is the action itself, whereas when 0 is used it seems that there is
another purpose behind the action. For example, in [4] John swam in order
to escape, and swimming was not the purpose of his action. Therefore, 0
is acceptable but de‘ is not.
02 / 03 351
[4] ~‘/' 3 ‘/li)I|=&
2/liJIIE /*'ci§i<v\'6~%U’T;.,
/*'C‘i9]<v\'6%U’7‘:.,
Jon wa kawa 0 / *de oyoide nigeta.
(John escaped by swimming in the river.)
J5}
03 E» prt.
/\/\/\/\/
a particle that marks the location 3 [REL. karall

kara‘)
from which some movement begins gé
§Key Sentence
QKey
Topic (SUl)_]6Ct)
(subject) Noun (space
(space)\./
I1“.
TL - li 3
W tfi ‘H5
'l35§3l5
.l..
Ill(1
.
W
§
.
5: lil>5
H16 /lili'l'
I
/llliiil
.
Watashi §€Z
wa 8/‘NC/7! /han ni
asa shichi/'ihan m uch:
uchi 0 deru / demasu.
demasu
I
(I leave home at 7:30 in the morning.)
i
‘F{.$7)'>1I~l~ 2/fi'~/1/2H:l7‘:.,
(a) HEY); ‘/I‘1'~/1/?£'l.l:l7*:.,
Kisha ga zonneru tonneru 0 deta. dera. iii-
-
i
iii-
L111
ii
ii
ii
i
(A train came out of the tunnel.) 1-i

i-i
1-i
mi
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ml
|
-in
nzzwvnwfifimgano
@ fi22%Dk§EEK%0Ko
Basu 0 orita toki tomodachi ni atta.
(I met a friend when I got off the bus.)
M
(<>) H$&%nr%Ec§eLrwa.
B1lI&%E>r|.'c5'i~E"c§F> 1.'cv~z>.
Nihon 0 hanarete gaikoku de kurashite iru.
(He left Japan and is living abroad.)
The particle 03 in Exs. (a), (b), (c) can be replaced by kara‘ ‘from’.
‘from ’. The
basic difference between 03 and kara‘ is that 03 marks the location from which
some movement begins and kara‘ marks the initial location in movement from
one location to another. Thus, when focusing on both the new and old loca-
tion of something or someone, kara should be used instead of 0. Consider
the following examples. (1)
(Q kara‘)
352 oi’/0‘
03 / 0"
[1] 3-
[11 a- %1.c1»-’*>$?B/\H#@%& /*n~~5t:fir;.
$Lli41‘fl/\B%”r€9i'E/*1§\E>Hif:..
hachiji goro ie 0
Watashi wa kesa hachi/'/' o / *kara deta.
(This morning I left my house at about eight.)
b. so
b- am 55&1
01 5 an“;
e1s~»'e.~/*='.»_=m::;u>*.¢7s~»>r;.
/*1=5'H:H:m:7a=@r;..
Kino wa uchi kara /*0 soto ni denakatta.
(Yesterday I didn’t go outside.)
[lb],
[la] focuses on a point of detachment, so 0 is acceptable but kara isn’t. [lb]
however, focuses on a starting point, so kara is acceptable but 0 o isn’t.
75-
04 =5 prt.
§E a particle that marks the cause of

i some human emotion
§
€ \././\./\./‘\../\ I
»\"_,‘\-_"»\."_\./ \,¢/\./\
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
iii
_
iii
iii
iii
i
(SUl)_]6ClI)
Topic (subject) Noun Verb (emotive)
:1mi;
. 7111'. :1 ac‘l< o re
I\ w
P3-‘l 2 iki,/..r:/?.E1,1»:1,r¢.
?l.l?L/of /ii? Lki LT.
fig °\
Jiro
J/ro
'7
. 9?"
$5?
'
wa chichi no shi
chlchl
(Jiro was saddened at lllS

sh! 0
fathers death.)
his father’s death)
kanashinda
' >\~
@- kanashimimash/ta
anashmda / kanash/mzmash/ta
(B)
Topic (subject) N ominalizer Verb (emotive)
Ms; :1
kfllig sc /1* at/we
3: 12* £5/~15 ca/<0
ca/o 2 ?.»E1,/.,r.-:/
1'5 L /v 7:‘ /
Jiro wa chichi ga shinde
shinda koto / no
koto/no 0o kanashindal
kanash/nda /
5 %LhiLko
ill? L 1/~ 1 L 7:0
kanashimimashita
kanashimimashita.
(Jiro was sad that his father died.)
0‘ 353
m
a fiueokfikéeénn.
@ Hm%@k$A#&E»fi.
daigakunydgaku 0 yorokonda.
Watashi wa Hiroshi no daigakunyogaku
(I was happy about Hiroshi’s entering college.)
M a—wvflAu1n%%#E%e:a&%nrwa.
El -- I1 ‘7 /ijkliifcfikérbi-E€= Zn 2: <‘: ’£5El=1l1,'Cv\Z>.,
Yoroppajin
Ydroppajin wa mata sensd
senso ga okiru koto 0o osorete iru.
(Europeans are afraid that war will break out again.)
M %¥flfifif®—$2&0#Lbfi°
€¥H§fif®—$&&oWLbfi°
Nobuko wa Kycito
Kyoto de no ichinen 0o natsukashinda.
(Nobuko nostalgically recollected her year in Kyoto.)
$1I<&;t;'@§§vb§tI:l§lU-c WC <‘: E1‘i2’1/v"c=\/~15.
@ #u%%#w%&w:&2fihvw6.
Hayashi wa eigo ga dek/‘nai koro
koto 0o nayande iru.
(Hayashi is worried that he cannot speak English.)
1. Because the main verbs used in the KSs and the Exs., such as kanashimu
‘ sadden ’, yorokobu ‘ rejoice ’, osoreru ‘ fear ’, natsukashimu ‘ nostalgically
recollect’ and nayamu ‘worry’ are all inwardly-oriented psychological
verbs they cannot be considered transitive verbs in Japanese. Therefore,
the particle 04
0‘ preceding these verbs cannot be the ordinary direct object
marker 0 which normally marks an outwardly-oriented event. Rather
it indicates the cause for human emotion expressed by the main verb. N.
-
-ii
___i_
ii-
Thus, it is sometimes possible to rewrite the sentence in question using %

iii
—
-ii
ii
..__-i—_
—
_
-__.i__
..__—_-.1
—
_
-__.i__
-
node ‘because’. (=9 (==:> node) For example, KS(A) and Ex. (a) can be L-
ii
‘ii
paraphrased as (la) and (lb), respectively.

m m kwuxfifiwfiwcfibwfi.
&mux#Rnfiwc%Lnn.
Jiro wa chichi ga shinda node kanash/nda.
kanashinda.
(Jiro was sad because his father died.)
u flu%#k#uA#cnwcEnfi.
h flu%mk$mA$Lnwc€nfi.
Watashi wa Hiroshi ga daigaku ni nyfigakushita
nyogakushita node yoro-
konda.
(I was glad because Hiroshi entered college.)
The original versions are examples of written style and are seldom used
in conversational Japanese, but the rewritten versions can be used in
both spoken and written Japanese.
2. No matter what person (first, second, third) the subject of this con-
354 0‘ / oi
04 6/
struction is, the main emotive verb is normally in the stative re

te iru]
iru/
inai
/nai form and / or in the past tense. In a generic statement, however,
the verb can be in the non-stative, nonpast form as in (2):
m finvsfiofiaficc.
fincsfiofiaficc.
Dare demo oya no sh/'
shi 0o kanashimu.
(Everybody is saddened by their parents’ death.)
3. If the emotive verb consists of adj(i)stem+suffix
adj(i)stem+suFfix mu as in kanashi-mu
‘‘sadden’,
sadden’, natsukashi-mu ‘ nostalgically recollect’, oshi-mu ‘ regret’, ta-
noshi-mu ‘enjoy’, it can take the suflix -garu ‘show signs of ~’ as
in kanashi-garu, natsukash/-garu, oshi-garu and tanoshi-garu. Thus,
along with KS(A) we have a sentence type (3). (==:>
(=9 garu)
m &%uQoR2fiL#¢t.
kfluxofiaficmsh.
Jiro wa chichi no sh/' o0 kanashigatta.
(Jiro showed signs of being sad about his father’s death.)
(3) is a more objective expression than KS(A), because the verb -garu
‘show signs of ~’ has an outwardly-oriented meaning.
um
um
um
_
— -1
-_._
_ —
—-1—-
in
T
-_1
2- -—1
2- —-—|
ii-Q-_
in —-—|
-—1
in —-—|
S —-—|
—-—|
_ _
-
n
|
6i gm adj. (1')
(i)
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/~
§§$ (of quantity or number) a lot many; a lot of; much

/
“““M““““M““ ‘ i [REL. ozei; takusan]
dzei;
(ANT. sukunai)
§Key Sentence
QKey
Topic (location) Subject
E1111 (ac)
I ) :1 E
1:?
‘P r>= §v~ / §\/"C
§\/ §v~'<~r.. O
(I7!)
N/hon (ni) 5;:
wa daigaku ga
bl-o.vs>
<Q oi I/ oldesu
0/ oidesu.
(Lit
..tm In Japan universities are many.
(Lit. many (=There are a lot of universities
Japan . ))
in Japan.)) _(i
oi 355
m
o
@ fifiwnunfifléwcr.
fiwflnunfifizwcr.
Kyoto (ni) wa 0-tera
o-tera ga oidesu.
(There are many temples in Kyoto.)
m wzénofiiunnmfiwfizwcr.
w uxstwwxuoewewmzwvr.
Rosu-san no sakubun (ni) wa machigai ga oidesu.
(There are many mistakes in Mr. Ross’s compositions.)
-'Fl(l~‘1)li%"75§§‘/‘O
(0) —'Fl(lC)li§§7b§§‘/‘Q
/chigatsu (ni) wa yuki ga oi.
(There is a lot of snow in January.)
%
l.
1. Unlike the English ‘ many ’, the Japanese oi cannot be used before a noun,
except in a relative clause where oi is the predicate of the clause, not
the modifier of the head noun.
(n*fifimu£un%%&9i+.
(ll *Ti§i|5‘l§lCl;l:§L\I?$#7)§§> D 1'91.
*Kyoto ni wa oi o-tera ga arimasu.
(There are many temples in Kyoto.)
m nfifiauwufihcr.
n##£uWmfifiv+.
O-tera
O tera ga oi machi wa Kyoto desu.
(The town in which there are many temples is Kyoto.)
2. 6/
51' cannot be used in front of a noun, but oku no can be used that way
in written Japanese. Thus, ii-
Z ii--_
ii
2.:
-Z; E
m §<w$i#§$7v7meH$ok$t%6.
£<w$$fifi$7v7m5H$ok$K%%.
'_=_— E-
Gku no gakusei ga maitoshi Ajia kara Nihon no daigaku ni kuru.

(§ku
(Every year many students come to Japanese universities from
Asia.)
3. Sukunai, an antonym of oi, is very similar to oi in its use. Neither
sukunai nor oi can be used before nouns, except in relative clauses.
Sukunai differs from oi in that there is no counterpart of oku ‘the
majority’ and of oku no ‘ many’. (=0
(==£> sukunai)
(4) a. :</>lHTt:.r$r)§&‘f:t\'c~r.,
l';0)mTli$75§!Pfi£'l.\'C"'§"o
Kono machi wa kuruma ga sukunaidesu.
(There aren’t many cars in this town.)
h Hifiohwfifiwafiinouu.
B$%@fi%fi%w6$im¢Hu.
Nihongo no shinbun ga yomeru gakusei wa sukunai.
(Few students can read Japanese newspapers.)
356 oi
I. 5/ and oku no can be replaced by ozei iru and ozei no, respectively, if
oi and oku no refer to human beings. Gzei
529/ is used only for people.
[1] C®¥=‘l5E(l¢)
;’;®‘é‘B§(l::) Ii$E7b§£L\
a1#£lz7a=§t~ I7c%i.\%>.
/ 7:%t.\»15.
Kono heya (ni) wa gakusei ga oi I/ ozei iru.
(There are a lot of students in this room.)
[2]
[21 ::1 </>¥{$§(l¢)
®%[$E(I::) I1;
us < an I 7cs%*0>'¥$r>=y\z>.
to /1:%%*0>#$r>§v\z>..
Kono heya (ni) wa oku no I/ ozei no gakusei ga iru.
Gzei can be used by itself as an adverb, but the adverbial form of oi
cannot be used as an adverb in colloquial speech.
[3] 'i‘$i)§X$%‘
[3] #'m=1<st// *£ << alert-..
§lEf:°
Gakusei ga ozei /I *oku kita.
(Many students came.)
(7/' and oku no can be replaced by takusan aru /I iru and takusan no, re-
II. 51'
spectively. Takusan can also be used by itself as an adverb.
[4] 1:C </>%I$§(l¢)
®’£-i‘II§(l~’1)I;tl9l.7b§£L\
l;t19Ln§£l.\ /I 1;
I; < '5AiF>?>°
é=/wit».
Kono heya (ni) wa tsukue ga oil oi / takusan aru.
(There are a lot of tables in this room.)
[5] :o%I$§(t:)e1%&r>‘§£L\
2:o‘é.=I§§(Ir.) I1'%">'$>b‘§§i.\ /1;
I I; < 3/vt.\»I.'>.
TEA/L\Zos
Kono heya (ni) wa gakusei ga oi oil/ takusan iru.
sitar; < Eh
[6] '9;£Fl:tT: an /I *£
*¥ < /*7c?%*'-?§'>b1I*%Qr.:.
/ *1<%'%"n¥%'>t‘:..
Kotoshi wa takusan I/ *oku /I *ozei yuki ga futta.
(It snowed a lot this year.)
III. Gku can be used as a noun but ozei and takusan cannot.
$500; < /*1<*%
[71 #$</>¥ I*1c%%* /I *1; < é=A.a1%r.-'.
éAn1%r.:'.
Gakusei no oku /I *ozei /I *takusan wa otoko da.
(The majority of the students are male.)
oku 357
gku
Qku 3=5(
$5 ( aux. v. (Gr. 1)
/\/\!\
2 do s.t. in advance for future con- do s.t. in advance; go ahead

venience 5% and do s.t.; let s.o./s.t. remain
AN\MyAAANW ZS IIC/It IS
[REL. aru’)
aru2]
§Key Sentence
QKey
Vte
I6’
abut;
ft. »°—=/=4-—
\
_F"
»\-7-»r— 25' 1'5
‘T75 are
OT 1:’-—1v
t:~—/v Q
1
E’
O
R-o'C
Eof JIM»? //J‘o€='iLT..
2‘<;v~7: Béi Lit...
.n i \
Ash/ta
Ashita pot:
pot/' b/ru 0o
o suru node biru katte ozta I/ okrmash/ta
oita okimashita.o-
i
3* _
(Since we are having a party tomorrow, I bought some beer for it.)
it)
m
Vte is <
oku
E5 I./C
I/C $5 < (talk in advance)
hanashite oku
Q/<1‘ :5
is < (eat s.t. in advance)
tabete oku
w %BuEK%#%oov§Cfi2$Emfisrfiwk.
Qflmémzfikéwcfidfikfifinfi&T£wk.
Kyo wa hiru ni kyaku ga kuru node hirugohan 0 o hayame ni tabete oita.
(Since I’m having a guest at noon today, I had my lunch earlier.)
M ¥$B$~fi<#&¢LB$%2%fiLTB€iTo
%$B$~fi<mewLB$%&%%Lrxss+.
Rainen Nihon e iku kara sukoshi nihongo o0 benkyoshite okimasu.
(Since I’m going to Japan next year, I will study a little Japanese ahead
of time.)
1. Oku as a main verb means ‘put’ or ‘place’. However, when it is

used with Vte, it is an auxiliary verb meaning ‘ do something in advance
and leave the resultant state as it is for future convenience’.
2. With a causative verb, Vte oku can express the idea that someone lets
someone or something remain in his /I its present state. Examples:
358 oku /I 0o ~ni naru
m a €%mfinrwamaLwe<EéerB:5.
%¥ufinrwamecde<Eéerx:5.
Nobuko wa tsukarete iru kara shibaraku nesasete oko.
(Since Nobuko is tired, let’s let her sleep for a while.)
h flekwtéfioeefismfiofleeresaéw.
flhtwaéooteflétfififlitrfiékéwo
Nomitai to iu no nara sukina dake nomasete okinasai.
(If he says he wants to drink, let him drink as much as he
likes.)
However, if the context is not clear, causative Vte oku can be ambigu-
ous. For example, the following sentence can be interpreted two ways.
m flnfi1mE—»2&§er$ut.
M flufiime—»2&$erBut.
Watashi wa Bobu ni biru 0o nomasete oita.
((A) I let (or make) Bob drink beer (for future convenience). (B)
I let Bob drink beer.)
3. Vte oku may be contracted into toku or doku in informal conversation.
(3) a. if ;s<
RT $5< -> E,
-—> R J;,5 <( (see ~ in advance)
mite oku mi toku
b. i,",%A,'(=- $5<
37%/V"? ;%5< -> 3%/V
$51,, E(
£( (read ~ in advance)
yonde oku yon doku
' ,
i
E E-
0o ~ni naru 23
is ~ 1:135
l:'.t;?5 phr-
Phr.
/'\/"\/\/\/'\ /\//\,/\/\//\r-'
a phrase which expresses the speak- 3 [REL. o

0 ~suru; rareru']
er’s respect for someone when de- 3
scribing that person’s action or state
’"\\./\/\/'\'"\/~\//\/\/-
\fiAA/ /'*./\ \/\/\/\/\/\4
0Key
QKey Sentence

EH ¢% fit;
&1IP5'a$ § ulat ta
1,5 is)
:s§ieu
jg El» u.¢r:/anion.
I: ffret:/trbibfco
0 7‘
Tanaka-sensei wa mo o-fikaeri
0-jkaeri ni natta Inarimashita.
/ narimashita.
(Prof. Tanaka already went home.)
o ~ni naru 359
Formation
is Vmasu ll’.
ll 7&6
7:6
- ni naru
‘- L,
Ilbgfil.» I2: 1:5
l: £143 (s.o. (will) talk)
o-hanashi ni naru
0-hanashi
f,_.;:Z.5
isfii (C. 23:5 (s.o. (will) teach)
0-oshie
o-oshie ni naru
m
m C®$&$oB%#K&9iLt#.
@ zoxesfinfienovxcnw.
Kono hon o mo 0-yomi ni narimashita ka.
(Have you read this book yet?)
M ¥wFvv%Edfl®%%2£EhK&¢t,
¢wFvv%imfio%m2xEnmoen.
Guddoman-sensei wa watashi no namae o0 o-wasure ni natta.
(Prof. Goodman has forgotten my name.)
In ordinary circumstances, 0-Vmasu

o-Vmasu ni naru is used when the speaker
describes someone’s action or state with respect. However, if a social
norm requires the speaker to talk in honorific speech, the honorific form
is used, even if the speaker does not respect the person he talks about.
tinni-
(For more detail, see Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness tiiiii

-i
-i
-—1
H
Q.-_
Q--_
-1_
-
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
-—1 i
Q--_
Q--_ i
i
and Formality.) Politeness is expressed in this form by two elements: Q.-_

in
Q--_
Q--_»
i
i
i
i
--—--11-i
--—--11-i
iii-i
first by the polite prefix 0-, and second by the verb naru, which describes
someone’s action or state indirectly. This indirectness is a common
strategy in polite expressions. (=9
(=0 naru)
There are some verbs whose honorific forms are expressed by special
honorific verbs.
(See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality.)
When a verb has the form “N suru” like kekkonsuru ‘marry’ and
denwasuru ‘call’ its honorific form is “go-
“ go- Io-N
/0-N nasaru”. Nasaru is
the honorific form of suru ‘do’ and a Gr. l verb. (Note that Vmasu
is nasai (masu), not nasari (masu).) Except for a handful of exceptions
which require 0-
o- (i.e., denwasuru ‘ call’, benkyosuru ‘study ’, ryorisuru
‘ cook ’, sentakusuru ‘ wash ’, sojisuru ‘ clean ’, sanposuru ‘ take a walk ’),
go- precedes N. (wt(i=:> 0-, REL.) Examples:
360 o ~ni naru/o
naru I o ~suru
m mm%iumHm:%%méM§T.
mm%immfiw:%%oéu$T.
Koyama-sensei wa shigatsu ni go-kekkon nasaimasu.
(Prof. Koyama will get married in April.)
M
m §$snms%%oéu§chm.
fi$émtB%%Héu$Ltm.
Morimoto-san ni o-denwa nasaimashita ka.
(Did you call Mr. Morimoto?)
Rarerul can also be used to describe respectfully someone’s action or state,

as seen in [1], although the degree of politeness is not as high.
(=:>
(=9 rareru',
rarerul, Note 9)
film H¢%ins5%en:Lnm.
[1] a. B1‘1l"5'6£I:.t I.) 5 I%6tti Lfcrfm,
Tanaka-sensei wa mo kaeraremashita ka.
(Did Prof. Tanaka go home already?)
b. ::v>1l§2 ‘b‘L '55 ifiihi
ZVJIIKE ioéizni LT:t)>,
Liar)»,
Kono hon o0 mo yomaremashita ka.
(Have you read this book yet?)
o ~suru is
$5 ~ 3'5 PI"-
Phr-
a phrase which humbly expresses [REL. o0 ~ni naru]
the speaker’s politeness to someone
when describing the speaker’s action
or state that involves or affects that
person
\/ \/. \r/.\1I4/\.1/\'/.\ r‘
§Key Sentence
QKey

Vmasu
ti §i1
Iii“.E 95¢
$ E </0)> 2-—‘7'r-—x
2-/7-2 2 2 to m LT:/tibia,
LT /tibia,
.n sh/mash/ta
\_
Watashz wa
Watashi? sense: no
sensei sotsukésu 0o o-.mochi sh/ta I shimashita.
o-Zmochi shita/
.mM$MW-
teachers suitcase.)
(I carried my teacher’s suitcase)
0 ~suru 361
m
W
is Vmasu 1'6
Ilb
SUTU
SU!'U
‘§
‘*-=‘ L,
I, TE;
‘T5 (s.o. (will) talk)
o-hanashi suru
Bfiti
EH1 1'6
1'35 (s.o. (will) teach)
oo-oshie
oshie suru
i
m
a %o:&ufl#H%LLiLr5.
%o:&uflfifi%LLiL;5.
Sono koto wa watashi ga o-hanashi shimasho.
(I will tell you about that matter.)
WH€fi%EK$&£%9Lks
wHfifi%Et$EB%DLk°
Yamamura-kun wa sensei ni hon o0 0-kari
o-kari shira.
shita.
(Mr. Yamamura borrowed a book from his teacher.)
O-Vmasu suru is used when the speaker wants to be polite when talk-
ing about something he or his in-group member did or will do. (For
more detail, see Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and
Formality.) For example, when a sales manager is talking to a customer,
the manager uses this pattern to describe what his salesmen will do for
the customer, as in (1).
W
(1) %v7wm%B5B®t—wxvv%BEHLi¢.
'9“ ‘/7°11/(1% El 5 B0)-t:-—/1/2 -v‘/n§$$El‘)‘ Life
-i
-i
H
___
-__
___
Q-_
--
i
i
—-
i
i
i
i
i
Sanpuru wa myonichi uchi no sérusuman ga o-todoke shimasu.

((One of) Our salesmen will bring the sample to you tomorrow.)
O-Vmasu suru is used only when the speaker’s (or his in-group mem-
ber’s) action involves or affects the person the speaker wants to be
polite to. Thus, (2) is unacceptable under ordinary circumstances.
*fL2b§t6$€=Li'I"..
(2) *?.L7)§$$$*é L3i‘§‘°
o-aruki shimasu.
*Watashi ga 0-aruki
(I will walk.)
There are some verbs whose humble forms are expressed by special
verbs. (See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and for-
mality.) The rule in Note 2 does not apply to these verbs. That is,
these special verbs are also used as simple polite expressions and can
be used even if the speaker’s (or his in-group member’s)
member's) action does
not involve or affect the person the speaker wants to be polite to.
362 o ~suru /I ~owaru
4. When a verb has the form “N “ N suru”, like shokaisuru ‘introduce’ and
denwasuru ‘ call ’, its humble form is “ go- I/o-N
o-N suru ” or, more politely,
“ go- I/ o-N itasu”. (Itasu
“go- (ltasu is the humble form of the verb suru, do’.)
Except for a handful of exceptions which require o- (i.e., denwasuru
‘ call’,
call ’, benkyosuru ‘‘study’,
study ’, ryorisuru ‘ cook’, soji-
cook ’, sentakusuru ‘ wash ’, soft"-
suru ‘‘clean
clean ’, sanposuru ‘take a walk ’), go- precedes N. (:>(Q o-,
0-, REL.)
Examples:
(3) _l;1“~l'é</1/’&C.'iI~f=’5l‘
J:1=~’ré A/E man Li?’ L35?’ / UT: L$'§'..
l,§'§'..
Uemura-san o go-shokai shimasu I/ itashimasu.
(Let me (lit. I will) introduce Mr. Uemura.)
w
(4) aLkB%%L$T/uhL$T.
29> L7‘:§$€§fi L35?‘ / MT: L35'<!'n
Ashita o-denwa shimasu I/ itashimasu.
(I will call you tomorrow).
0-Vmasu ni naru is also used to express politeness. However, o-Vmasu

0-Vmasu ni
naru and o-Vmasu suru are different in that the former is used when the
speaker talks about someone’s action or state with respect, while the latter
is used when the speaker talksl about his own action or state.
(Q Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality)
-mi-?
_ i
_ i
2
Z Z
—'$
_
1 H
i
— i
5
_
3 1
1
i
_
-_ i
i
-— i
E
1 Z
=
-——i__.
i
~0waru
~owar|,| ~§§195
»-$45195 aux. v. (Gr. 1)
\/\./\/‘\/\/..-
§ finish doing ~ 3§ finish; end

W M“~*M~“~“M""
‘”V“NV““"MNW’W“NW”W“’W“” [REL. shimau]
[REL. shimau]
(ANT. ~hajimeru)
~ha/imeru)
§Key Sentence
QKey
Vmasu
anna
iE£E%§§‘fit E‘%E
2 ‘(Jot fiflfibok/Fbvibts
%fiJ+l%’=<z‘o-sf:/ii-”=‘1‘>Dil,7‘:..
L I.
Gen//monogatan
Genjimonogatari 0o yatto yam: owatta /I 0W6fIITI8.S‘/7Il6
yomi owarimashita.'i
(I finally finished reading The
3" 1'5 Tale
*3E iiale of Gflljl)
Genji.)
~owaru 363
Vmasu #3
#.‘§ b
ib Z5
owaru
33 l,;(¢.4§b
l,§,5§b 25Z, (finish talking)
hanashiowaru
»g¢<§c_4§;}~)2_5
glqtgbzg, (finish eating)
tabeowaru
@
(3) @¢&%i&%%%bnkn
"l\5'O&%i72%%*‘§§l')Of.‘.'.o
Yatto ronbun o kakiowatta.
(I finally finished writing a paper.)
M
(bl Br5E:fi2fi*flbnta:ar+.
P) J2 '5 EC'filiEfi’\+i‘~‘§Il90fC<l: C. 5'("'f_o
Chodo gohan o0 tabeowatta tokoro desu.
(I’ve just finished eating my meal.)
1. ~owaru is an auxiliary verb derived from the intransitive verb owaru

meaning ‘‘end;
end; comes to a close’.
close ’.
2. ~owaru can be replaced by ~oeru in written Japanese. ~oeru, how-
ever, conjugates as a Gr. 2 verb.
i
iii
j-
i
n
— i
i
i -1
1
1
.1
H
i ._
_ ._
i
i ._
._
i
i -—
¢-I
i
i ._
._
—
i ._
--
mi
_.-.11-i
iii
364 nrarerul
irarerul
rarerul 511,5
511,25 aux. v. (Gr. 2)
% A state or an action cannot be con- be -ed; get -ed

s.t
trolled by s.o. or s.t. [REL. 0o ~ni naru; rareru2]
rareruzl
'\-"'/\./\/\I
\
’\
\/\/\/\/
/'\_/\/\/\_/'\_/\/\/\/\/'\/\_/\/\
OKey Sentences
§Key
(A)
I>
/-\ ‘run’
Topic (subject) Agent Transitive Verb (passive)
—EI§
—'
rm-».
7 (1 12%
E?-if+1 I; fiiiéflfc/fiiétwibfcn
Q Q
\
T:$'53’l/T' ri /T:$'é»‘l1/ibtln
/C/7I!'O'
/chiro wa Hanako
Hanakoi ni
9..
FT damasareta I/ damasa re ma s /"II ta
damasaremashita.
l
(Ichiro was deceived by Hanako.)
(B)
Topic (subject)
vs-via:1 71/-yr‘
7vvF§Ellr.
Agent
— a is-E-<
1; x%<v»~+i:
7»- l~ (C.
Intransitive
Verb
xenn/
(passive)
5E6n7‘:/
Jén §wa Fureddo ni yoru osoku apéto ni koraretal
korareta /
§ § xenxcn,
5E 6 fl. i L 71:,
‘ koraremashita.
(Fred came to Jane’s apartment late at night (and Jane was unhappy).)
(C)
Topic (subject) Agent Direct Ob J ect
Object Transitive Verb (passive)
n §u % inI v-a-§z
'7--A‘ E asenn/gaanxcn,
Iri /fifllbfbi IL,
fi'\Bih.T
i-
C“
0
W8l6S/II
Watashi wa
5
9+ ototo ni
R
H kéki o taberareta I taberaremashita.
taberaremashi ta
l
(Lit-gs
(Lit.. I got my cake eaten by my younger brother.
brother (=My younger brother
unhappy) ))
ate my cake (and I was unhappy).))
(D)
6
A e,\-'
Top i c (subject)
Topic (s u bjec t ) Verb (passive)
H¢%i
mwfii §i1 a$-
II].
~ neat/fienzcn.
nanr/%%nxLL.
f\
0
\
Tanaka 89/786!
Tanaka-sensei '
. IIIIIEIIIIICII
§,
9+
wa /VI/70/7 e
Nihon kaerareta I/ kaeraremash/ta
kaeraremashita.
(Prof Tanaka went back to Japan.
(Prof. Japan (Honorific))
rarerul 365
(i) Gr. 1l Verbs: Vneg HZ)

ih,Z>
reru
Ména
36 é in as ammo
(be told)
hanasareru
hahasareru
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem Bné
511,25
rareru
!'8l'€fU
fifi B it Z5
fifl I5 (be eaten)
taberareru
§lEZ> —>
(iii) Irr. Verbs: 5E6 -—> §lE61l%Z>
§lE63’bZ> (s.o. (X) comes to s.o. (Y) and Y is
kuru korareru unhappy)
1% —>
1-Z) -—> éné
énzi (be done)
suru
SUFU sareru
S6I'9I'U
w
@ cofiwuzfimmfirenks
:®EWdi¢fiKET5flkn
Kono biru wa ninen mae ni taterareta.
(This building was built two years ago.)
M
(b) zofimwwfinrxvwcwfiénk.
;:0)?l§Ii 1965 £Fl:.72' I) wvtfilfiéntas
Kono hon wa 7965 nen ni Amerika de shuppansareta.
(This book was published in America in 1965.)
M
(0) fiu;¢m;umonn,
fi.I;t:.£|Ei-‘q1]%l:§E1’.r:fL7‘:.,
Watashi wa ninen mae tsuma ni shinareta.
(My wife died two years ago (and gave me sorrow).) itai-
-iii
_
—
n
i 1-
-11- 11
i
M
W fiEébfifiébKEm:—fEEbnk,
i
fiméxu%éxn%w=—i&Ebnn.
i
i i
i 11
i 11
i i
i 11
i 1-
i 1-
i g
i
i 1-
1
1
1
Harada-san wa okusan ni takai koto o0 kawareta.

-I
ii-in
(Mr. Harada’s wife bought an expensive coat (and he is unhappy).)

@ H%iuB$ofi#o:&&%énn.
M %%£nH$ofi#o:&&%énk.
Hayashi-sensei wa Nihon no daigaku no koto o hanasareta.
(Prof. Hayashi talked about Japanese universities. (Honorific))
1. There are two types of passive sentences in Japanese. One can be

“ direct passive” and the other, “indirect passive”. The direct
called “direct
passive is similar to the English passive. (KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b))
That is, for every passive sentence, there is a corresponding active sen-
tence. For example, the active version of KS(A) is (1).
366 rareru‘
(1) TE?-li—-Eli? 7:1 i Lian
7fl5¥Ii—-El$Ef:Eil,T:n
Hanako wa /chiro
Ichiro o0 damashita.
(Hanako deceived Ichiro.)
As seen in KS(A), in direct passive sentences, the direct object in
active sentences is presented as the subject; the subject in active sen-
tences is presented as the agent and marked by ni. (==.'
(Q> nii‘)
ni3) Note that
verbs in direct passive sentences are always transitive.
2. When the speaker uses a direct passive sentence, he is making a state-
ment from the viewpoint of the receiver of the action. The agent is
frequently omitted when he/it
he/ it is not important and/ or unknown, as
in Exs. (a) and (b).
3. The indirect object in active sentences can also be the subject in direct
passive sentences. Examples:
(2) a. Active sentence
§avm%$wHMeLn.
§aVfi%EK§%ELk@
Jon wa sensei ni shitsumon o0 sh/ta.
(John asked his teacher a question.)
b. Direct passive sentence
%imvnvmE%2énn.
%EflVaVK§%Eénkn
Sensei wa Jon ni shitsumon o sareta.
(The teacher was asked a question by John.)
4. The agent in direct passive sentences can also be marked by other
particles, such as ni yotte and kara.
(3) Ni yotte
m C®%UEfi7E$OT#Wflkn
C®%fiEfi7E$OT#Wflkn
Kono e wa Pikaso ni yotte kakareta.
(This picture was painted by Picasso.)
b
b- %%n&»c;ot%%énkn
Qifili/</l/IZJI-:'C%5)~’léil’l.f:.,
Denwa wa Beru ni yotte hatsumeisareta.
(The telephone was invented by Bell.)
Ni yotte, meaning ‘depending on; owing to; by means of’, is usually
used in written form or formal speech when X in X ni yotte is a sort
of medium through which or whom something is done. When ni yotte
is used, X ni yotte is usually under strong focus. Therefore, the fol-
lowing sentences are unacceptable under normal circumstances.
rareru‘ 367
(4) a.
8.. *$Ll1?E¥|:J=o'C.81Tc.h.T.:.,
*$Ll:t2‘i5:.t'-lZJ1'J'Cl»¥7‘:1l1/Tc,
*Watashi wa Hanako ni yotte butareta.
(I was hit by Hanako.)
b.*M$ébfiwobfi$E;oTEbhTw5,
b.*m$ébuwo£&$c;otEbnrwb.
*Kawamoto-san wa itsumo shigoto ni yotte owarete iru.
(Mr. Kawamoto’s work always keeps him busy.)
Kara ‘from’ can be used in place of ni when the agent is a sort of
source, that is, when there is something coming from the agent.
(5) Kara
fi.Lli'l-‘}=-"ih\|‘5 |;1;j;;a)j<$'0)2:
a. %Ll;1:'§—.'-$75“; lEi2l§0)j<'%'-*0) 3; I:2: EBfl>§>21,7’.:.,
’&Bfltb>il"LT.:.n
Watashi wa gakusei kara Nihon no daigaku no koto o kika-
reta.
T916.
(I was asked by the students about Japanese universities.)
b
h iwanunnamefifianrwe.
iméxunnamaewénrws.
sonkeisare te iru.
Kida-san wa minna kara sonkeisarete
(Mr. Kida is respected by everybody.)
The following sentences are unacceptable because the agents cannot be
considered sources.
m)n.*%o%%n2aw5m5§xnxLn,
wla-*%o%%u2a&5m6§xn1cn.
*Sono tokei wa dorobo kara nusumaremashita.
*8ono
(That watch was stolen by a thief.)
b.*:o5Euflo£m5&enksocT.
b.*:o5EmfioQmB&Bnk$ocT.
*Kono shashin wa watashi no chichi kara torareta mono desu.
(This picture is the one taken by my father.) ii-
ii-
Q
ii.
ii.
Z
i
1
=
=:|
__
5 RE
i
Z
i
i
1;
11
1-
_i
i 1-
1_
i 1-
The other type of passive, the indirect passive, does not exist in English.
i 1-
Z
i
i
g
1-
W
i
Q-| i
i-ii-I
Q-1
The indirect passive is different from the direct passive and the English
passive in the following ways:
(A) The verb can be intransitive. (KS(B), Ex. (c))
(B) The direct object can remain as the direct object. (KS(C), Ex. (d))
The indirect passive describes an event (X) involving an action by
someone or something (Y) which affects another person (Z). As in
direct passive sentences, the subject (Z) has no control over the event.
(Q Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 5. Passive) Consider the fol-
lowing pair of sentences. (7a), a non-passive sentence, states simply
]iro’s beer. (7b), an indirect passive sentence, how-
that Taro drank Jiro’s
ever, expresses the idea that Jiro was affected by Taro’s drinking beer.
368 rareru‘
rarerul
It implies that Jiro was annoyed in some way by Taro’s action, perhaps
because the beer Taro drank belonged to Jiro.
a- :kEBtiv<EIW>I:“~—/weer/Uri.
(7) 1- i<El§li?kEIW>l:'—/1/Efik/vf.:'..
Taro wa Jiro no biru o nonda.
(Taro drank Jiro’s beer.)
b- iI<Er$i1:!:EBi:I:‘~—/vzfirinre.
b &%mk%mE—w&fiink.
Jiro wa Taro ni biru o nomareta.
(Jiro was annoyed by Taro’s drinking beer.)
6 In the indirect passive construction, Z is usually presented as the topic,
6.
marked by wa, and Y as the agent, marked by ni, as seen in KS(B)
and KS(C).
77. Since in many situations X negatively affects Z, this construction is
also referred to as “adversity
“ adversity passive
passive”” or ““suffering
suffering passive ”. (KS(B),
passive”.
KS(C), Exs. (c) and (d)) However, whether X affects Z negatively or
positively depends on the situation. Z is not always a “victim”, as
seen in (8) where Z is affected positively.
M
W %ménu%AKfim$enr====crwe.
EMébfi%AK$KE6nT::==LTw5.
b/Yin ni yoko ni suwararete nikoniko shite iru.
Takayama-san wa b/fin
(Lit. Mr. Takayama, having a pretty woman sit beside him, is
smiling happily. (=A pretty woman sat beside Mr. Takayama
and he is happy.))
88. In indirect passive sentences, the agent must be marked by ni. If a
passive sentence contains an NP ni, as well as an agent marked by ni,
M.
the agent must precede the NP ni. Example:
E Z
M a flufAcx7v—c€%énn.
fluiAcx7v—c€%énk.
Watashi wa Tomu ni Meari
Mean‘ ni denwasareta.
(Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).)
b-*nu;7u-ctacfifisnn.
b-*flux7U—tbAE%%énks
*Watashi wa Meari ni Tomu ni denwasareta.
(Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).)
9. Passive verbs are also used as honorific expressions, as in KS(D) and
Ex. (e), though the degree of politeness is lower than that of the ““o-o-
Vmasu ni naru” form and special honorific verbs. (Q (Q00 ~ ni naru;
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality) Polite-
ness, in this case, is conveyed through the indirectness of the passive
construction.
rareru‘ 369
10. Passive verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:
(10) Efiéné (nonpast-inf-affirmative)
hanasareru
"35 3 nf;
3% in T; (,\
L\ inf-negative)
(nonpast - inf- negative)
hanasarenai
is é ihrc
%ént (re-form)
Uehmv
hanasarete
33
33511.1;
3 inf; (past
(past-inf-
- inf- affirmative)
hanasareta
The potential form of Gr. 2 verbs is the same form as the passive form.
(Q
rareru2) Potential, passive or honorific structures are identified through
syntax and context. Examples:
[1] 5'E:iIiii‘i'l§'hifi*<6t1.?.5.. (Potential)

U]%£mW%#fi~&ne.WmwMU
Sensei
Sense/' wa sashimi ga taberareru.
(My teacher can eat sashimi.)
[2] 9155-lil:J:ili|j§'='¢'fi*<
5*;-,ii1fli|]§'Efi*< 6117;, 611,752,, ((A) Honorific, (B) Potential or (C) Indirect
passive)
Sensei wa sashimi 0o taberareta
((A) My teacher ate sashimi. (B) My teacher could eat sashimi. (C)
Someone ate sashimi and my teacher was unhappy.)
[3] §f;fi-El:l:$£-E|:i1il]§'Efi*< Bfbfco (Indirect passive)
filfgékiififi-El:i1il]§'Efi*<B3’l/T3,,
Sensei wa gakusei ni sashimi o taberareta. -Q-
—Q
Q
i
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q Q-
(The teacher had (his) sashimi eaten by his students.)

Q
Q Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
Q Q
Q Q
QQ
Q
ii
QQ
Q-Q
Q-Q.
Q-Q
QQ
Q-
As seen in [1], if the direct object is marked by ga, taberareru can only be
interpreted as potential; if there is an agent marked by ni, however, taberareru
expresses indirect passive, as seen in [3]. If there is no agent marked by ni
and the direct object is marked by o, 0, taberareru is ambiguous; it can be
either honorific, potential or indirect passive, as seen in [2].
370 rareruz
rareru2 511,5
i'5f|,5 aux. v. (Gr. 2)
an
an auxiliary
auxiliary verb
verb which
which indicates po— §I
indicates po- be
be able to do
able to do s.t.;
s.t.; Can do s.t.
can do s.t.;
tential g5 be -able; ~ can be done
""""""""""""’”‘
""""""""""""‘”‘ [REL. kikoeru;
(REL. koto ga
g
dekiru; mieru]
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Topic (experiencer) Object of Action Verb (potential)
iii
ii. gm:1 H1113?
efi gm
Basin >i= ii:au>e/sew:-re
.n..u>.>/:=....ii>s~i-.
".4: 7 =:-1:
Watashi ‘ wa
W6 nihon g 0 ‘ Q6
nihongo ga omerul/ Yyomemasu.
yameru
Y omemasu .
(I can read J apanese.)
(B)
1 Topic (subject) Verb (potential)
:</J
:0 rk
7k Ii new kw /nab inn .
§Jzw>t:v\/fikwi-u-/V0
Kono mizu Q
wa nomenail nomemasen.
nomenai /nomemasen.
I
(This water is not drinkable.)
(i) Gr. 1l Verbs: Vcond Z>

Z)
Q Q
ru
Q Q
1
Q Q
Q
Q Q
Q
Q Q
Q
33-Q-25 (can talk)

1
_ Ql
Q
--Q-Q
Q
EYE-ti“FZ>
hanaseru
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem r5h,Z>
5&6
rareru
EA’ 6 it 3.3
fifi 6&6 (can eat)
taberareru
(iii) Irr. Verbs: §lEZ>
5&5 ->—> §léI‘9h,25
$5535 (can come)
kuru korareru
1'15 -—>
‘T25 —> I:lj§lEZ>
l;fl§lE%'> (can do)
suru dekiru
/kareru is often used as the potential form of iku ‘ go’ (Gr. 1).
Ikareru
rareruz 371
i
(e)
(1%) 7’? '77 ‘/é
v 3 /vliii5'l§'fi3fi’< E-nen.
A/liilill-§'753fi'< Bfbée
Buraun-san we
wa sashimi ga taberareru.
(Mr. Brown can eat sashimi (=sliced raw fish).)
M #Eébm%;2#m%%.
#wseu+=z#wxe.
Terada-san wa tenisu ga dekiru.
(Mr. Terada can play tennis.)
(Q
(e) :®$u%w&w,
:0)$Iii’-5'-Etibt‘.:y\,
Kono ji wa yomenai.
(This letter is not readable.)
1. In potential expressions, if there is an experiencer, that noun phrase is

usually marked by wa and the object of the action by either ga or 0. o.
(Q ~ wa ~ ga) Compare (la) and (lb).
(1) a. Non-potential
flm%%§%LiTe
$Li:.t%Ti"i=’i’&3fiLi'i‘..
Watashi wa eigo 0 hanashimasu.
(I speak English.)
b. Potential
flufififi/Efiexf.
$Lii%T'i""éh‘ / Eifiefiis
Watashi wa eigo ga I/ 0 hanasemasu.
(I can speak English.)
2. In general, the choice between ga and o0 seems to depend on the degree Q-
Q
of volition expressed in the action the experiencer takes. That is, if his iii
QQ
B“
——
Q.-Q
QQ
Q.-Q
QQ
QQ
QQ
Q
volition is high, o
0 is preferable. Thus, in the following sentences, ga
ii
QQ
Q
Q
Q-
is unnatural.
(2)
Km Le- fluvwxo&%i&woc$%®&$%¢*#¢wena.
?1.i1»W>.i: 5 <':»@7?.ifl/\’J'C‘f>’9:’a3‘lllI$"i /*n<=<=v> one.
Watashi wa yameyd
yameyo to omoeba itsu demo ima no shigoto
0 /I *ga yamerareru.
(I can quit my current job whenever I want to quit (lit.
whenever I think I will quit it).)
h
b- %u¢o&w%wcE£€J*#néienk.
%liR°o 2: 0>E~\I"(‘ Efiii I *hi$5 3 i Bttfcn
Boku wa yatto no omoi de jibun 0 /I *ga osaerareta.
(I could barely control my emotions (lit. hold myself).)
3. Dekiru ‘ can do’,
do ’, however, always requires the object of an action to be
marked by ga, as in Ex. (b). Another example follows:
372 rareru”
rareruz
(3) fl.i1+eezn</*=&H:i§Ez>.
?L&:.t=I-1211*/*"a'-tH§lE%>.
Watashi wa chesu ga / *0 dekiru.
(I can play chess.)
4. The spatial 0 (i.e., 02) and the detachment 0 (i.e., 03) do not change
into ga in potential expressions.
(4) Space
a- ?Le1a></>&_.\@='&
$Li1&>¢>i§@"é /*rM§—-)\'<=fin‘ tw.
/ *1§<T§—)k'C'$h‘v‘.c\<\e
kéen o
Watashi wa ano koen 0 / *ga yoru hitori de arukenai.
(I can’t walk through that park by myself at night.)
b. r.2.’. mai
VJEE /*1§<
/*f)< < ozei: a=1‘i.:&n‘ 1+7)».
0?i'li7§='§‘l:'.$l)‘i'§‘7b>.,
Kono michi 0 / *ga kutsu 0 hakazu ni arukemasu ka.
(Can you walk along this road without shoes on?)
(5) Detachment
AFB ii
érlfi vi 5 152/*fi<tH
15%.‘-/*ffil:HF>i1.i1=r/V.
Panzer/ve
Kyd wa uchi 0 / *ga deraremasen.
Kyo
9
(I can’t
cant leave home today.)
If the experiencer is clear from the context and / or the situation, or if
the experiencer is a person in general, he is usually omitted and the
object of the action is presented as a topic marked by wa, as in KS(B)
and Ex. (c).
Non-volitional verbs like wakaru ‘understand,
‘ understand, be understandable’; iru
‘need, be necessary’; aru ‘exist’; aku ‘open (v.i.)’ and kusaru ‘rot
(v.i.)’ do not have potential forms.
The potential forms of miru ‘see’ (mirareru) and kiku ‘‘hear’
hear’ (kikeru)
are similar to the verbs mieru ‘be visible’ and kikoeru ‘be audible’,
respectively, but their uses are different. (=>
(Q kikoeru; mieru)
The idea of potentiality can also be expressed by Vinf-nonpast koto ga
dekiru. (Q koto ga dekiru)
(=>
Potential verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as
follows:
(6) Efitté
§’;§'tl.'Z> (can talk)
hanaseru
E5-Li-f;l,\
E3-tI_-f;L\ (cannot talk)
hanasenai
hanasanai
E5-ti"C
{%’Et*:'C (can talk and, (re-form))
(te-form))
hanasete
rareru2 / rashii 373
3311-1';
331?: 1': (could talk)
(Could
hanaseta
10. There is another potential form for Group 2 verbs.
(7) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem 11,5
111,25
reru
f6fU
3/< 25 -> 3&1‘, 2;,

taberu tabereru
This form, however, is used only in informal conversation.
[_,[,\
rashii 5 b(,\ aux. adj. (i)
/\/\
Z\-/'\I
an auxiliary adjective which indicates seem; look like; apparently; I

\‘ /"\/_\/./'\
that the preceding sentence is the heard
speaker’s conjecture based on what [REL. y6da (daro; séda2)]
s6da2)]
he has heard, read or seen
\\/.'\/
/.\¢4-"\/
\\.// \\// \\//.\\._p
QO Key Sentence
O
Sentence (1nformal)T
(informal)T in-iii!
aim
aim
aim
aim
? it
11 i
takai:/e ii 72“)iJ*\fi<
71 '11: ~ fi< l5Lv\/ ¢>i,v~r--reO
i i
i
T —i
1} ii/v ii |5l,v/%l,v\-t-;-
i
i _1
i
O i
i 1-
—_.
i _1
i 1-
i
i 1-
i
L ‘ii
—
iii -—-
I1
Matsuda-san wa Amenka
Amerika e Ikll
iku rash/1/rashndesu
rashiil rashiidesu.
I ii
iii-—|
iii
iii
I
O I
Mr Matsuda is
IS going to America.)
America)
I
(It seems that Mr. O O
TDa
’rDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.
m
Q
{V/Adj (/)1
(i) {V/Adi (i)] inf 131,1»
rashii
rashii
{E31
léfii‘ /{%;’fil_,7*;}
/§fil,f;} I5 l_,v\
6 LI/\ (It seems that s.o. (will) talk / talked.)
{hanasu /hanash/ta]
(hanasu /hanashite} rash/'i
rashii
{Iéil/\ /'%79~of:_}
i[fé,"v\ / ?é]2§~Qf;} I5 l_,v\
6 l_,\¢\ (It seems that s.t. is / was expensive.)
{takai / takakatta} rashii
374 rash/'i
374 rashii
[Adi (na)stem/N}
(ii) {Adj (na)srem/N} la/7507:}
lo/r;-:'>r.:} sew
151,1»
[a / datta}
{a rashii
rash/‘i
mm.
IE?‘/1* /fimfiokl
/r’i’l*/J*f:ToT:.l eew
5 LI/\ (It seems that s.t. is / was quiet.)
[shizuka / shizukadatta} rashii
{shizuka
{%$
l'§'|§:ilZ //%$
5'61-l5. fiOk]5LW
T5 o Tc] 6 Lin (It seems that s.o. is / was a teacher.)
[sensei / sensei datta}
{sensei rash/'1'
rash/"i
fiiéwutéaanecwvv.
@ iféliié/vii ii fifiiofclb l,v\'C*'§‘e
rash/"i desu.
Sugimoto-san wa mo kaetta rash/'i
(Mr. Sugimoto seems to have gone home already.)
M ewifiwkififiufiewatwa
%®$&®l$fi%fi%Lw%Lw,
Ano gakko no nydgakushiken
nyogakushiken wa muzukashii rashii.
(That school’s entrance exam seems difficult.)
M
(0) cmakvmaftfimeewci.
Z'..<7)Z’o7’c: D li<‘:"C ‘b?§70>l5 l,v\'("§‘.,
wa totemo shizuka rashiidesu.
Kono atari we
(This neighborhood seems very quiet.)
%®%u$%aewe
@ %®%m$%%Lw.
Sono hanashi wa honto rashii.
(That story seems true (lit. the truth).)
:1 :1 i;t'%1BE
@ 2: ii'%1‘5'& 15I5 L w,
v\,,
Koko wa gakko rashii.
(This place seems to be a school.)
1. Rash/'i
Rashii is generally used when the speaker makes a conjecture based on
some information which he has heard, read or seen. What he has heard
is especially important. Unlike soda’,
s6da2, which expresses a simple guess
based on what the speaker sees, rashii
rash/'/' is used when the conjecture is
based on more reliable information. (=>(Q soda”)
s6da2) (For a comprehensive
comparison of conjecture expressions, see yoda,
yéda, Related Expressions.)
2. If there has been relatively little conjecture in the speaker’s mind, rashil
rash/7
is almost the same as the hearsay expression soda‘. (=>
(Q soda‘)
s6da')
3. Negative conjecture is expressed by a negative predicate and rash/7,
rashii, as
in (1).
rashii 375
m w HnénnH—¥4—mfi#muaew,
mné»mfi—¥4—mfimuueLw.
Taguchi-san wa péti
péri ni ikanai rashii.
(It seems that Mr. Taguchi won’t go to the party.)
h
b. x7v—uE»#fi§uemuaew,
2' 7 U --ti I:’1l/2b‘§!1¥$ 1;;-.»f;(,\ 5 Lu»,
Meari wa Biru ga sukijanai rashii.
(It seems that Mary doesn’t like Bill.)
Another use of rash/'i
rash/'/' is as follows:
m
(2) k*é@m%5cw.
dvké A/ii% 6 Line
O'ki-san wa otoko rashii.
Oki-san
(Mr. Oki is manly.)
rash/'1' means likeness. That is, “X wa Y ras/vii”
Here, rashii rashi/"’ means that X
is like the ideal model of Y. (Of course, (2) can also mean “It seems
that Oki is a man.”)
rashii is an i-type adjective, it can also precede nouns, as in (3).
Since rash/'i
(3) ?Li1%5Ll.\)\7b§!l¥%7‘:’e
?Lli%Bl,l.\)\:b‘i!l3‘%f.f..
Watashi wa otoko rashii hito ga sukida.
(I like a manly man.)
The negative version of (2) is (4).
m k*snu%5L<uu.
k*é@m%6L<au.
O'ki-san
0'/ci-san wa otoko rashikunai.
(Mr. Oki is not manly.)
O'ki-san wa otoko (da) is negated, the meaning changes.
If Gk/'-san
iii
iii
m k*éhfl%B¢fiM&LWe
W k*éhm%B¢fiu%LW.
-|-—ii-Z--_
-I-xiii--_
-I-xiii--
i 1
i 1
i 1
1 Z
i
i 1
1
ii Z
i 1
ii Z
O'ki-san wa otoko janai rashii.

O'k/-san i
i
i I
1
(It seems that Oki is not a man.)

376 Relative Clause
Relative Clause
§Key
Q Key Sentences
(A) \-J’
Topic (subject) P d t
re ica e
Predicate
Relative Clause Noun
\
B5lFPé/v >93 fififc 2-7'-it ti %7b>oT:/}%7)>oT:'C"3‘.,
Tanaka-san ga tabeta suték:
sutéki 5:;
wa takakatra / takakattadesu
takakatta takakattadesu. _:+
Mr . \Tanaka ate was expensive.)
(The steak that Mr. expensive)
11.
(B)
5!
11>
/'\
Direct Object
Transitive Verb
Relative Clause Noun
2='1'"-=¥- 2);
2-7-5? rb isv\l,v\
2‘<>v\l,v\
yi
i/2l~§/
1/zb§v E 5H1E»f.cv\/fifllbitt/V 75>,
weep/wvaean O
Sutékl ga
Sutéki ga 0/shu
oishii resutora n
resutoran 0 shiranai / shirimasen
S/7If6fl8I ka..
sh/nmasen ka
VI
(Do you know a restaurant which has good steak (lit.
(lit iiI.in which steak is
- a-
a<><>d)’)
good)?)
Q
(i) {V
(i) {V/Adj (1)1 inf+N
/ Adj (i)} inf+N
{E3-i"
{',=;-*3? /25 1,7,1}
/§fil_,f;-_} A (a person who (will) talks /talked)
1-mi-
iii
hanashite} hito
L
taxi;
-iii;
i
i
i
i
/Eibwpfg}
{El/\ /§75>of;] 2152
2F (a book which is / was expensive)
i
i
{takai / takakatta} hon

Ii
[takai
ii
Rpm
iii
L.
(ii)
(ii) Adj (na) stem {tit /T.:'oT;}
{fit /foot} N
{na /datta}
{%7J>P’.£
{i‘§2')~7.£ /?¥‘75=f.:'ofc:'.}
/§7J~7‘.:'of:] i
'52‘ (a house which is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} ie
(iii) N{®/fiok/?%5/?%0K}N
(m)N{®/fiat/Tbé/?b¢t}N
{no /datta /de aru /de atta}
95$
5'55-E {OD /T325}
{VJ / '(‘&;Z.5} Bélrlilé/V
B31118/V (Mr. Tanaka (,) who is a teacher)
/ de aru]
sensei {no /de aru} Tanaka-san
5'55 {7’:'IoT:. / 'C'&)o7‘.:}
{T5071 '(‘$><>T:.} Hilflllé /V
B31115 A, (Mr. Tanaka (,) who was a
/ de atta}
sensei {datta /de aria} Tanaka-san teacher)
Relative Clause 377
Q
m
w
@ B$%Efiirw5%im¢#%&cTe
B$%afiirwa%Eumfi%$v+.
Nihongo 0 oshiete iru sensei wa Kobayashi-sensei desu.
(The teacher who is teaching Japanese is Prof. Kobayashi.)
¥:2#L$&A2fiir<fiéw.
M ¥:z#L$&A&&iT<fiéwe
Tenisu ga jozuna hito 0 oshiete kudasai.
(Please tell me of a person who is good at tennis.)
M isfifié/o>b§%%</)#ii15'.)\v~i';‘.,
(c) fiQan#E%@$im2Awa+.
O-to-san ga isha no gakusei wa sannin imasu.
(There are three students whose fathers are doctors.)
(<1)
(d) 7r‘L7)§v\f:|1ITl;t77F5i' l$’E7b§7at7b=o7.:e
%L2b§v\f;HIii?v‘€|$%’;n§f.:vb>of:°
ira machi wa byoin ga nakatta.
Watashi ga ita
(There was no hospital in the town where I lived.)
M fi¥#fi<$&flifiKbDiTa
@ E¥#fi<#&mfifima9a+.
Michiko ga iku gakko wa Tokyo ni arimasu.
(The school where Michiko is going is in Tokyo.)
m
M z+4—7#&mn@$E2e¢knxoucncim.
Z74—7#%@K®3EEEoKfif7fiCfl?TWo
Sutibu ga anata no shashin 0 totta
totra kamera wa kore desu ka.
(Is this the camera with which Steve took pictures of you?)
1. The procedure for making relative clauses consists of several steps-

The following steps show how to relativize sutéki ‘ steak ’ in (la) in order
ii-1
1-in-
ii-1
the-clause modifying suték/'

to obtain theclause sutéki in (lb).
1-in-
1-in-
i 1
i I
i =
N n
i
i --
L
11 --
i
i --
Z
i
i 3
:1
m vavuzi-#2fi<iLk.
m a §aVfi2?—$Efi4iLko
i
)-u
[-
in
Q
Jon wa sutéki o0 tabemashita.

(John ate a steak.)
b. —'£-o'>:<§'--=H:.tisv\ l,7§>of:'C'1‘.,
{-025-—=Fiii5v\ l,7b>of:.'("§‘.,
Sono sutéki wa oishikattadesu.
(The steak was delicious.)
Step 1: Delete the common noun phrase in the relative clause. ([ ]
indicates the relative clause boundary.)
(2)
(2) [va2 3/ii
[“/' ‘/ti 12>o Efifii
ea/<3: L,7‘:.]
Lf:]25'-—=l=li2*5‘\/\L7b><>T:'("§‘.,
ZF'—=l=lii5v\L7b=0T:.'C"?‘.,
[Jon wa 0a 0 tabemashita] sutéki wa oishikattadesu.
Step 2: Delete the particle which remains.
378 Relative Clause
(3) [=7 3a ‘/ii

[~‘/' vii o0 E/‘<=/"-="\-li$:3\1\l,70>of:.'C"3‘.,
2‘;-—-§Hii5v\ l,Z2>Q7‘:'C'1‘.,
[Jon wa a6 tabemashita] sutéki wa oishikattadesu.
SW9 3: Change the predicate into an appropriate form. (See Formation.)
M)[vavmfi4kJz¥—*uxwLm0nc+.
(4) [V 3 ‘/iifi'<T:.:] xa‘-—flH1$a'v\Ln>'>f:.'c'3'.
[Jon wa tabete]
tabeta] sutéki wa oishikattadesu.
$169 4: If the topic marker wa appears in the clause, replace it with the
51¢?
appropriate particle. (If wa follows another particle, delete wa.) In this
example, Jon is the subject; therefore, the particle which replaces wa is
the subject marker ga. (=:>
(Q ga; we
wa (|;J:))
(|j:))
5)[vav#&&nLwa—#mswcmanv+.
(5) [~‘/' a ‘/253$/<f.:] ;<=i-—-=\=ii$5v\ l,2b>»>f;'C"3‘a
[Jon ga tabeta] sutéki wa oishikattadesu.
(The steak that John ate was delicious.)
The clause in brackets in (5)(S) is the final form of the relative clause
when sutéki is relativized in (la).
As seen in the procedure for relativization in Note 1, the relative clause
construction in Japanese has several characteristics:
(A) Relative clauses precede their corresponding relativized nouns.
(B) There are no relative pronouns like which, that and who in
English.
(C) Particles which were affixed
aflixed to relativized nouns are deleted.
(D) The topic marker wa does not appear in relative clauses.
I-ii
I-ii
it
xgiiii
Z
_—_
i
No can also be used to mark the subject in relative clauses, as in (6).
i
i
i
i
(6)
W a ‘/hi / 0)fi*<f.:Z=z"--it
Vayfi/®fi&k2?—#
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ii
ii
mi
iii
ii-mi
Jon ga / no tabeta sutéki

(the steak that John ate)
No cannot be used in place of ga, however, if the subject of the sentence
is followed by a noun, as in (7a). If no is used in this construction,
the meaning of the sentence changes, as seen in (7b).
m m
(7) 8- bA#7vb%—»@@fi&&fik§m%
I»/-n<7~y |~r1~$-—-11/0>’élJ?‘~'f?»£*&)i;“'f:.tr0>¥
Tomu ga futtoboru no kippu o0 ageta onna no ko
(the girl to whom Tom gave a football ticket)
h kA®7vb£—»0wfi&%Ut#®¥
bA®7vb%—W®@fi€bUtt®¥
Tomu no futtoboru no kippu o0 ageta onna no ko
(the girl to whom (someone) gave Tom’s football ticket)
Relative Clause 379
Besides the relative clause construction explained above, Japanese has

a construction which looks similar to the one above. As seen in Note
1, in a genuine relative clause construction, the relativized noun (the head
noun) is part of the original sentence from which the relative clause was
derived. In this construction, however, the “head noun” is not part
of the original sentence. For example, in (8), nioi ‘smell’ is not part
of the sentence Sakana ga kogeru. ‘Fish‘ Fish is burning.’
(8) %n§::if%>l:isv\,
%n‘i;'_n"'?.5lc::‘av\,
sakana ga kogeru nioi
(the smell of burning fish (lit. the smell which fish burns))
clause”” and the “ head noun ”,
The relationship between the “ relative clause
as seen in (8), is as follows: Suppose that X is the “head
“ head noun ”.
noun”.
Then, X is something which was brought about by the event expressed
in the “relative clause”, but is not something which was explicitly
stated. For example, in (8) the “head noun ” nio/'nioi ‘smell’ is some-
thing brought about when fish burns, but is not an explicit part of the
original sentence. Here are some more examples of this type of con-
struction:
w
m nnm#a5m2is%
finmma5mafia%
dareka ga roka 0o hash/'ru
hashiru oto
(the sound of someone’s running in the hall)
w
(10) fiateennnv
3"-‘£2 iv?’ Lfcfiir 9
kami 0o moyashita kemuri
(the smoke which came out when someone burned papers (lit. ii
D--
j
1
i z
Z
i ._.
==R-Z
1 ‘—'__.
the smoke which someone burned papers)) i
j
i
j
__-
i
j
2
j
i
.-_-
__.-_.
.._.
.-_-
-_.
-_..
E
==
i '1-—
M
(11) wmfianfin
llliZ.§of:¥;§tt
yama ni nobotta tsukare
(fatigue which was caused from climbing a mountain (lit. fatigue
that (someone) climbed a mountain))
The following examples are usually considered to be appositive clause
constructions rather than relative clause constructions, because in these
examples what is expressed by the preceding clause is the following
noun itself.
M B$~fi<%E/%i/TE/§
B$~fi<%E/%i/%E/§
Nihon e iku keikaku / kangae / yotei / yume
/ schedule / dream that (I am) going to Japan)
(the plan / idea /schedule
380 Relative Clause
M H$~fi@K$%/flfi/fi/EWM
H$~fi@k$%/Efi/fi/Ewfi
Nihon e itta jijitsu / keiken /hanashi / omoide
N/hon
(the fact /experience
/ experience //story
story / memory that (I) went to Japan)
In relative clauses in JJapanese,
apanese, the restrictive use and the non-restrictive
use cannot be distinguished from the structure. It is usually determined
from the context and / or the situation. The following examples are
ambiguous.
amaieaazranniawvanaa<@%+a.
M flfiH$%EfiiT&dk7§7véhml<%%T&e
Watashi ga nihongo 0o oshiete ageta Buraun-san wa yoku ben-
kyosuru.
((A) Mr. Brown, to whom I taught Japanese, studies well.
(B) (Among those Browns we know the) Mr. Brown to whom I
taught Japanese studies well.)
w l<@<B$Am%&bn&e
M i<%<H$Am%%bn&.
Yoku hataraku nihonjin wa kira wareru.
((A) Japanese people, who work hard, are hated.
(B) Japanese people who work hard are hated.)
The ease of relativization of a noun phrase differs
difi'ers depending on the
particle marking the phrase. (16) shows the particle hierarchy. Here,
noun phrases marked by the particles in the upper position are easy to
relativize and noun phrases marked by the particles in the lower
position are hard to relativize.
ga>o‘>ni2>ni6>o2>e>de'>de2 (means)>kara‘ (source)>no'>
(16) ga>o‘>n/2>ni‘*>o2>e>de'>de2
kara‘ (starting point)> t02>de2 (cause / reason)>
p0int)>t02>d6'2 yor/'1
reason)>y0r/'1
Concerning the relativization of noun phrases in simple sentences, noun
phrases marked by deg (cause / reason) and yori‘
yoril cannot be relativized,
but those marked by the rest of the particles in (16) can.
-sa 381
-sa '5 suf.
’/'\/\/\/\
,/\/\/\./\ \A
g3 a sufiix
suffix that makes a noun out of an \./\.»
\/\.r -ness; -ty
32 adjective by attaching it to the stem [REL. -mi]
of an Adj (i)
(1') or much less frequently
,< to the stem of an Adj (na)
-\\
"'\\/‘\v,\'/\/.\ \./¢\,
\./\¢
Q Key Sentence
_ Adj
Adi (1)<"> stem; —
:. V) 5+9
co as <0V) i1::§a= iti1 was I/\l/\ / l/‘W -ear.
12:52 vw~/vw\'c~r.
Kono uchi no hiroisa wa chodo ii / i/"desu.
iidesu.
(The size of this house is just right.)
Q
m
Adj (i / na) stem .95
3
sa
*5
E3 (height)
takasa
fie
firm2)» é
3 (quietness)
shizukasa
m
D
@
(a) €im@%éuE®cewcTm.
E:l:|l|0)%] 3&1 E0) <" I5 v\'(‘*}‘7b>.,
Fujisan no takasa wa dono gurai desu ka.
(What is the approximate height of Mt. Fuji?)
-
iii
ii
-
Q?-iii
i 1
i I
i
i 1
M
(b) B$%o%LéM;<fi#9iLk.
Blliéét/);€ELé7)3J: < 925* 9 i bk,
i -
i -
_i I
ii
-
ii
ii
|
Nihongo no muzukashisa ga yoku wakarimashita.

(I’m now well aware of the difficulty
difficulty of Japanese.)
7xvwo;amfi4a=7-zevvrccao.
M 7fUn®léHfi4%=7-Xfivvbfbxoe
Amerika no yosa wa paionia supirirto
supiritto desho.
America’s good qualities is perhaps its pioneering spirit.)
(One of America's
1. The sufiix
suffix -sa is a very productive suffix that makes a noun out of an
adjective. Some typical examples are given below:
382 -sa
fif
fi L,
I, 3 (newness / freshness) jq 3 3 (size)
a tarashisa
atarashisa okisa
ii 3 (speed) 5'§
iii 3 (strength)
ha yasa tsu yosa
E3 (length) J:
J; 3 (goodness / merit)
nagasa yosa
E1 3 (whiteness) 3 (blackness)
sh/rosa
shirosa kurosa
2. Adj (na) stem+sa is not commonly used. It is suggested that the learner
avoid using it. Some of the most commonly used Adjs (na) stem+sa are
th e following:
the
{E1313
{iii} 3 (convenience) 115%
IEEE 3 (accuracy)
benrisa seikakusa
,'=@,€
,'=,§.¥ 3 (loyality) %¢<
7%/< 3 3 (perfection)
chojitsusa
ch 01/tsusa kanpekisa
0) E7)~3
E 23> 3 (calmness) ll’.
l: 3'4? 75> 3
3-Q@7)=3 (liveliness)
(livelmess)
nodokasa nigiyakasa
3. When an adjective can be paired with another adjectival antonym as in
okii ‘‘big’
big’ vs. chisai ‘small’, the positive counterpart, (i.e.,
(1 e , okii)
oku) tends
110 acquire a meaning of absolute degree when -sa is attached, as in
to
okisa ‘size’. Examples follow:
Positive Negative
L1
L-i
E3
E 3 (breadth) fi3
fi 3 (thinness)
‘Q:
5
I E
E
atsusa ususa
E _
; =
E3
E 3 (weight) $3
Q3 (lightness)
omosa karusa
%L
I, 3 (difficulty)
(difficulty) ~\‘J\‘>=~ 3 L
I, 3 (easiness)
muzukash/sa
muzukashisa yasash/sa
yasashisa
95 it L 3 (JOY)
(joy) iii I,
35 L3 (sadness)
uresh/sa
ureshisa kanash/sa
kanashisa
3&3 (depth)
iZq<°3 (depth) $3
E 3 (shallowness)
fukasa asasa
-sa 383
I O
Positive Negative
I
.
E3
‘E13 (height) {E3 (lowness)
takasa h/kusa
hikusa
%3 (heat) 3&3
9§3 (coldness)
atsusa samusa
£3 (density) fi3
$3 (thinness)
I
1&3
kosa ususa
O
£33
X3 3 (size) /133
/]~3 3 (smallness)
okisa chisasa
I
ok/sa ch/sasa
I
[Z13
JLI3 (size of space) §9{3
3&3 (smallness of space)
h/rosa
hirosa semasa
§fi3 (strength)
FJQ3 5'33
553 (weakness)
IA
‘
tsuyosa
rsuyosa yowasa
-sa describes, in an analytical manner, the degree of the state represented

by an adjective, but -mi, another noun-forming suffix, is a more emotive and
concrete characterization of some state (based primarily on direct perception).
Only a limited number of Adj (i)(1') can be used with -mi. Examples:
33;;
;)‘f<J1. (reddishness) iii
ii L3).
1,31. (sorrow)
akami kanashimi
|1§7)>J,i
B§;b>J1. (warmness) fiiy.
fie». (depth)
atatakami fukami
it-31
it-31
E}; 5559- (weakness)

-
E31. (thickness) 5531. -3-

i
i?
i-ii
i-ii
—
-i?
-2
ii-
i-i
ii-
atsumi yowami
3-ii
iqii
ii-
ii-
13-3-
13-3-
13-1---
,
151'};
"[3171. (sweetness) %'J,i
$.71. (bitterness)
amami nigami
%‘ 1,55:
3;” L31. (painfulness) 5'§J,i.
5'§J1. (strength)
kurushimi tsuyomi
Consider the following sentences in which -sa is unacceptable.
[11 §></>)\ir.’c:*5'l> LP.’>J+

[1] 2§>rD)\ti$5‘{> L51» / ‘wet, L63n‘§f.cv\t2..-.
*ni. L63rb§>*.cv\ta.
Ano hito wa omoshiromi / *omoshirosa
*omoshir0sa ga nai ne.
(He just lacks something that attracts people.)
384 -sa / -sama
[21 éiébia/*€-iél/él:L‘Cv\i*J‘e
%iéLJ+/*%?éLél:'.L'Cv\i'§'o
Tanoshimi / *tanoshisa
*tanos/visa ni shite imasu.
(I’m looking forward to it.)
In both [1] and [2] the -sa version is unacceptable because both sentences
express something concrete that can be expressed only by -mi. The fact
that nouns with the sufiix
suffix -mi indicate something concrete seems to be related
to a general tendency of nasal sounds.
(=£>
E
-sama ti Suf-
a suflix
suffix (originally meaning ‘ appear- %é Mr.; Miss; Ms.; Mrs.
ance’) that indicates the speaker’s]
speaker’s/ [REL. -chan; -kun; -san]
writer’s politeness towards s.o. jé
M
@
(a.) Ifioaaawoae.
EEl§V)Eii75ifV)HT:',,
m/‘mi da.
O-sama no mimi wa roba no mimi
(The King’s ears are donkey’s ears.)
(b) ?4*l%El€-.’l;i1'n~e
iEl“1F§’i'Fa'lL i'§'n>.-.
ii-
M-
ii-
Kami-sama 0o shinjimasu ka.
Kami-same
=:?
W?
ii
(Do you believe in God?)
M R¥Beu.%&ufiHfi%£Efi%%nwhi.
(<>) ?E¥’e»i>/ta. 4i*i’ii1tsJ%i3%t>t<sEl§§t>€=nv\ia:‘t.
Hanako-chan. kon'ya wa 0-tsuki-sama
Hanako-chan, o-tsuki-sama mo o-hoshi-sama
0-hoshi-sama mo kirei né.
(Hanako, aren’t the moon and the stars beautiful tonight!)
(d) isfitfi. E:'.lr.v~i=,o beam?
w B§§,E:mw6oLe5@?
O-ko-sama.
O-ké-sama, doko ni irassharu no?
(Mother, where are you going?)
(e) isgfinifiifclo
J3E1F§753R7?_Tc.J:.,
O-kyaku-sama ga mieta yo.
(Our guests have come.)
-sama 385
1. The reason why -sama ‘ appearance ’ is used to show one’s respect is that
-sama allows one to refer indirectly to one’s superior. For instance,
Yamada-sama is a more indirect way to refer to a person called Yamada
than to call him simply Yamada, because Yamada-sama literary means
‘‘appearance
appearance of Yamada ’. Note, however, that a personal name name+sama
+sama
is not used in conversational Japanese, except in highly polite speech used
to clientele by clerks / attendants of hotels, restaurants, travel agencies,
department stores, etc.
2. -sama attached to a personified object shows more endearment than
respect, as in Ex. (c).
3. -sama can also be attached to some action or state related to the hearer,
as in (1) through (5) below:
(1) I'.I'5tl1fil§('C‘L7‘.:)o
.:'5\afifi(~c1,r;).
G0-chiso-sama (deshita).
Go-ch/‘so-same
(It was such a treat.)
M
(2) Bfififintvibke
iilfiifililtl it D 3 Lfco
O-sewa-sama ni narimashita.
O-sewa-same narimashira.
(Thank you for all that you’ve done for me.)
(3) $5i¢J$§('C‘L7‘.:)e I./T:.)o
0-ki no doku-sama (deshita).

O-ki
(Lit. It was a pitiful matter. (That’s too bad.))
(4) :‘e=)fin§(-c1,r.:).
§57fit1.E('C‘L7‘::)..
O-tsukare-sama
O - tsukare-sama (deshita).
(You must be very tired.)
M.
.
-
w nmWficiic+.
-
(5) $57b=lfl§'C‘i't:7\'C‘3‘e ii
i
,__
M
W
M
M
i
M
iii
-ii
-ii
$7
W
ii
-ii
ii
M -ii
O-kage-sama de genkidesu.
M ii
M
M -_-_-
-ii
mi-
‘M-ii
.
(Lit. Thanks to you I'm

I’m fine. (I’m fine, thank you.))
4. In written Japanese, esp. after the addressee’s name in a letter, etc.,
-sama is used as in:
lilB3-—-El§1%
(6) lilEB—-Elil‘-LE
Yamada /chiro-sama
(Mr. Ichiro Yamada)
I. Two related forms, -san and -chan are derived from -sama through
386 -sama
phonetic modifications. -san is the informal version of -sama and there-
fore less honorific and more intimate than -sama. Except for Exs. (a)
and (b), in which the highest superiors appear, -sama can be replaced by
-san. -san can also be attached to names of occupations and titles as
in:
[1] Name of occupation+san
$53
Q53 A, (fishmonger)
sakana-ya-san
sakana-ya -san
i5§¥§3
Il=5§¥§3 A,
/o (confectioner)
o-kashi-ya-san
0-kashi-ya-san
E53 /V
A, (wine dealer)
saka-ya-san
[2] Title+san
B253/v
Bifié A, (prinaipal)
(principal)
kocho-sen
kocho-san
Tfifié /v
T553 (mayor)
shicho-san
/V
fifi 3 A, (section chief)
kacho-san
-chan is used with children’s names or in child-like language. Normally
suffix is attached only to kinship terms or first names as in:
this sufiix
[3] Kinship terms+chan
151:3: *5 ia /v
$5§i‘5'\‘>/\/ (fnnln)
(mom)
0-ko-chan
o-ké-chan
ii
L-ii
--3--1
--ii
1
1
Esi
Es‘
Z
J
nitah
rtsfic 15 ab /v WW)
(POP)
M
-ti-_—.
o-to-chan
is I:I; v\
in 5
15 ia
is A,
/V (grandpa)
o-ji-chan
ts ab *5
is if as 5 iata /v (grandma)
o-bo-chan
B ia A,
is I; *5 /v (uncle)
oji-chan
H15
is if ia /v
15 ta (auntie)
oba-chan
-sama / saseru 387
[4] First name + chan
215% *5 ab
W5? ta /v
A, (Hanako)
Hanako-chan
i<El§*5 inta A1
JKEIW5 A, (Tarn)
Taro-chan
II. -kun is a similar Sino-Japanese suffix which can be attached to a male
equal or male inferior’s first name and / or last name. It is sometimes
used to refer to a female or a male in an institution such as a school or
a company. Etymologically -kun has nothing to do with -sama and
its variants. (=>
(Q -kun)
gagefu
saseru 3-Q-5 aux. v. (Gr. Z)
2)
/\/\-/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/‘~./\/\/\/\/\/\J
E cause s.o. /s.t. to do s.t. or cause s.t . make s.o. /s.t. do s.t.; cause
s.o./s.t.
to change its state s.o. /s.t. to do s.t.; let s.o. / s.t.
'\.'\
\
-"\.'\/'\./\.-,
'\\,/\../'\/'\/\/'\/'\. '\. /\/L
do s.t.; allow s.o./s.t. to do

s.t.; have s.o. /s.t. do s.t.; get
s.o. /s.t. to do s.t.
Q Key Sentences
(A)
_ I . .
Topic (causer) Causee I t ‘(‘L’:1’s;Kieve)
Vera 't'
ii-iii
ama/V
é/o :1 UTVJ
ono 2& // I:tr. 2&3 ~ fir»+=_*r.=/fine:
K? ’\ filJ\-1237‘: / i'T7§\-Iii 1,1;-..
L7‘.:e E:
Z
E
1
=_
Suzuki-sang wa musume
Suzuk/-san 0 /I ni daigaku e ikaseta / ikasemashita. lb-=
(Mr. Suzuki made / let his daughter go to college.)
(B)
Topic (causer) Causee Direct Object Transitive Verb (causative)
ac :1
§i1 at ac. :51/e
I:° 7 / 2 Eber;/Ebeacr.
Eber;/Qbaaeree
.:
Chichi wa
Chic/1/'§ imoto
/moto ni piano o0 narawaseta / narawasemashita.
(My father made (or let) my younger sister learn to play the piano.)
388 saseru
(i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg -ti-Z;

—t!_-Z)
seru
E3 3 -ti
3% -Li; Z)
25 (cause to talk)
hanasaseru
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem 3-I;J_'Z5
311->5
saseru
fix‘ 3 -|if
fie: ;J_- 5
Z, (cause to eat)
tabesaseru
(iii) Irr. Verbs: §lEZ>
§lE?5 -—> §lEé't1_'Z>
Eléé-BIZ) (cause to come)
kuru kosaseru
1-55 -—>
1'6 -> 3&6
3-ii-J1, (cause to do)
suru saseru
W
@ Ué¥fifl2@6fito
Ué¥dfl2@6tke
wa watashi 0o komaraseta.
Hisako we
(Lit. Hisako made me have trouble. (=Hisako caused me trouble.))
w :0E—Am9Au%ttl5&%5.
® :@f—Am9Am%ke15&E5.
Kono gému wa Jimu ni kataseyo to omou.
(I think I’ll let Jim win this game.)
M fifififlK%v7&%bEke
EEfifiK%vf2%bfik.
Tomodachi wa watashi ni chippu 0o harawaseta.
(My friend made me leave (lit. pay) a tip.)
M
w 7v¥—yvéAu%%fiKfi%&fiH7427U—b2fi*étke
m 7v#—vvana%m§afisafinr4zau—a2e~aen.
i
Z
i
E
E
--
i
--
i
--
M
=
'-
W
--
i
--
M
--
i
3;
Andason-san wa kodomotachi ni sukina dake aisukurimu o tabesaseta.
Anda'son-san
--
M
--
i
(Mr. Anderson let his children eat as much ice cream as they liked.)
--
M
_-.
-ii M
iii
iii
iii
iii
@
(6) flm%fi$Tiw9E:BB%ko
$Ll;1:¥’r’;i§I$i'C" i /I/7 2 C16‘ F>1i‘f:o
Watashi wa reizoko de miruku o0 koraseta.
(Lit. I made milk freeze (=I froze milk) in the refrigerator.)
m %nuficéer<fisw.
%nufiuaer<fiaw.
Sore wa watashi ni sasete kudasai.
(As for that, let me do it.)
1. The idea that someone /something (=the causer) causes or allows some
saseru 389
one /something (=the causee) to do something is expressed by the caus-
ative construction. In the causative construction, the causer is usually
marked by wa in main clauses and by ga in subordinate clauses. When
the main verb is an intransitive verb, the causee is marked by either 0
or ni. The choice between the two particles depends on the following
general rule. When ni is used, the causee has taken an action intention-
ally. F or example, ni is ungrammatical in (1) because the causee didn’t
For
intend to go to the party in this situation.
(1) fitiiilflé /*lIir
5Cii?L"é /*l-CU D9 ‘Q’
’<° 9D /i-—-7
/*’-—-5‘ 4 -—~firb>+tf.:..
-’\i‘?7b=tt7‘;°
Ch/chi
Ch/"chi wa watashi 0 / *ni muriyari péri
péti e ikaseta.
(My father forced (lit. forcefully made) me to go to the party.)
Also, ni is ungrammatical in (2) because the causee is a non-volitional
entity and, therefore, has no intent (cannot take a volitional action).
(m flm»vw%&/Hcbwaan.
fiu»vw+§/Hzcweeno
Watashi wa hankachi 0 / *ni shimeraseta.
(Lit. I made my handkerchief get damp. (=I dampened my hand-
kerchief.))
O, on the other hand, can be used regardless of the causee’s volition, as
seen in (3) and (4). Whether a sentence expresses “ permissive” causa-
“ coercive ” causative depends on the context and / or the situa-
tive or “coercive”
tion.
(m
(3) w
11- Huw@#an¢c€J*cnv%9&#fik.
?Lli\r"?°7§3Z>U1‘C E /*lI?lJ* l) K’ ') i‘il31i'T:°
Watashi wa iyagaru musuko 0 / *ni muriyari oyogaseta.
(Lit. I forced my son, who resisted swimming, to swim.)
h
b. nuoxze/cfieafiunman.
$Llii’.t*!‘Z='¢“- / |:!l}’€=7.tf;'l‘)‘i‘ii<2?2§-l<.tf.:.,
Watashi wa musuko 0 //ni
ni sukina dake oyogaseta.
i-1-12:-i
i-1€j—-i-
(I let my son swim as much as he wanted.) E

i
-Z
=s=—
-=
$-
3
w
(4) m
a. &%m%%u$5bk<mw&§@tmfiufi#§/flxmw;
fi<¥l:t fifléfili 4, 5 L7‘; < icv\<‘:'§,‘oT.:2b‘5$Llif§jr='.»5 /*|:)<'il:.
fi7)>~t1:23 Z1 <2<‘: I:
fi20>1=.*.‘Z> Z‘. la: L720
Akiko wa benkyo wa mo m6 shitakunai to itta ga watashi wa ka-
nojo 0 / *m' *ni daigaku ni ikaseru koto ni shita. shira.
(Akiko said she didn’t want to study any more, but I’ve de-
cided to send her to college. (lit. make her go to college.))
u
b. n¥uto&%%cnw&§@nov.nufiti/cxfimfi
5IJ('¥‘li ‘L 0 Efiflffi l./7‘C.lr\ &§0TC'.V)'C‘, 5lELli&1l"&/ l.'ZjC"-"i-'-"lZ'.fi‘
n>1-rz>
2§~t*.'/‘.5 C.
Ck 3: Ir.
tr. Lfco
L710
Akiko wa motto benkyéshitai
benkyoshirai to itta node.
node, Watashi
watashi wa kanojo
0 / ni daigaku ni ikaseru koto ni shita. shira.
390 saseru
(Akiko said she wanted to study more, so I’ve decided to let
her go to college.)
If the main verb is a transitive verb, the causee can be marked only by ni,
as in (S),
(5), because 0 cannot appear more than once in a clause and, in this
case, there is already a direct object marked by 0 in the clause. (=> 0‘)
(Q01)
(5) -—-El$li'?_§'¥|.'. / *2
—'El§li§¥|I *’& I5‘-/I/Efi7(i~t!'T:.>
11'--/I/Efiti-1:1.-f.:..-,
Ichiro wa Yukiko ni / *0 biru 0 nomaseta.
/ch/r6
(Ichiro made (or let) Yukiko drink beer.)
Thus, when the verb is transitive, ni is acceptable even if the causee is
not willing to take the action.
"—'§l5li'§§¥lZ{r D9 ‘P D9 11'-ll/2fik3i%i'7‘:°
(6) —El§l:I'?§¥lZPl;r 11'-ll/‘EEK?-ttfc.-,
Ichiro wa Yukiko ni muriyari biru 0 nomaseta.
(Ichiro forced Yukiko to drink beer.)
When the main verb is transitive, it is often diflicult
diflicult to tell from the
sentence alone whether or not the causee takes the action willingly.
This must be determined by the context and / or the situation in which
the sentence is uttered.
Whether or not the causee is willing to do something is clear if one of
the set of giving and receiving verbs is used. (=> ageru2; kureru2;
morau?) Examples:
m
(7) flu%¥&fi—+4—mfima1¢¢t.
5FLli%:f'-*2/i-'7' 4 -lCI.fi‘7b=~'l"!_"C"\5OT:.,
Watashi wa Haruko 0 péti ni ikasete
ikasere yatta.
(I let Haruko go to the party.)
§Ci:t$.£.l:.?E"<2fiki-1;r'C(11.7‘:.-,
(8) 5Cli$LlC.i'EEfiXi1i"(' < 111:0
Chichi
Ch/‘chi wa watashi ni sake 0 nomasetenomasere kureta.
(My father let me drink sake.)
I
2 E
E
The causee’s unwillingness to do something, on the other hand, can be

iii-
more explicitly expressed by the causative-passive construction explained

in Note 7.
In causative sentences, the causer must be equal to or higher than the
causee in terms of status. Thus, the following is unacceptable:
(9) *$Ll15'E;ilC
(9) *$La15*E;$&.: // 214-7‘
z»<’—-a'- 44 --lC5EéttZ>0
—-a:.;laé1@:z>o 1.i> 9D 75°
rs.
*Watashi wa sensei ni/ ni / 0 péti ni kosaseru tsumori da.
(I’m going to let (or make) my teacher come to the party.)
Causative verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as
follows:
saseru 391
(10)
(10) 33
33 :5
é ~11-Z;
'12.‘ 6 (nonpast- inf-
(nonpast- afiirmative)
inf - affirmative)
hanasaseru
33 g ~11-f;;(,\
E5 é 11%; L\ (nonpast-inf-
(nonpast -inf- negative)
hanasasenai
E3 ~11-‘C
E5 3 't*:'C (te-form)
nanasasete
'33
E5 35 ~1<_¥_-1'
-1-2:1’;; (past - inf-aflirmative)
(past-inf-aflirmative)
hanasase ta
hanasaseta
6. There is another set of formation rules for causative verbs. (Causative
verbs of this version are all Gr. 1 verbs.)
(11) a. Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg -3"
1'
su
'53-3')"
53:51" (cause to talk)
hanasasu
b. Gr.22 Verbs:
Gr. Vstem $1"
:51-
sasu
Q/< 3:
fi& 1-
3 -§- (cause to eat)
tabesasu
c. Irr. Verbs: 5135
5E5 -—> 5E1!-§"
;Eé';' (cause to come)
kuru kosasu
1-35 -—>
1'2, -> $1"
,-5? (cause to do)
suru sasu
In general, this set of conjugations seems to express more direct causa-
tion. For example, in (l2a) tabesasu means ‘feed (with a spoon or ji-.
ji-.
ii
i =-
=
‘ make] let eat’,

something)’ rather than ‘make/let eat ’, while in (l2b) tabesaseru is W
1
Z
£8:
Z
Z
E
ii-—'
ii
iii
more general and means ‘ make / let eat (either by saying something like
“ Eat your meal” or “ You may eat your meal” meal ” or actually by feeding
with a spoon or something)’.
M m
& fiuvAu<fi$w2fi4$?¢tDfi.
flu9Am<fi$w2§4éTO$Dfi.
Watashi wa Jimu ni kudamono 0 tabesasu tsumori da.
(I intend to feed Jim fruit.)
h fluvAn<fiso2fi&$eé0s9fi.
nmvam<etoeasaeeotve.
Watashi wa Jimu ni kudamono 0 tabesaseru tsumori da.
(I intend to make / let Jim eat fruit.)
392 saseru / sekkaku
7. Causative-passive verbs, which are used in causative-passive sentences,
are constructed by aflixing
affixing the passive verb ending rareru to causative
verb stems. (Q rareru‘) Examples:
(13) E3
23 25 1;! B
3 -t-1' 1511, 6
11, Z; (be made to talk)
hanasaserareru
fix;-Q-5f|,5
E/<3-t-!'|'511,%, (be made to eat)
tabesaserareru
Causative-passive sentences express the idea “" be made to do some-
thing”. Note that they do.not express the idea “ be allowed to do
something ”. (14) and (15) show causative sentences and their
something”. corre-
sponding causative-passive sentences.
(14) aa.. &ufl2$wr%een.
§Cl;‘tiFL’./i'>fIiv\'C'l§'il‘Q-li'T:.,
Chichi wa watashi 0 aruite kaeraseta.
(My father had me walk home.)
h fiuxn$wr%aaenn.
b. fi.&:.t§Cl:$v\'Cl'|?r6-1é.- 61m‘.:..
Wa rash/' wa chichi
Watashi ch/chi ni aruite kaeraserarera.
kaeraserareta.
(Lit. I was made to walk home by my father. (=My father
made me walk home.))
(15) a. fifimH¥m@2fliak.
f|19&1iE¥1~‘1?E§:flri1=.*.-f.:..
Kazuo wa Natsuko ni sake 0 nomaseta.
(Kazuo made / let Natsuko drink sake.)
h E%um%m@2&:aann.
E¥mfi%m@&&ieenn.
Natsuko wa Kazuo ni sake 0 nomaserareta.
(Natsuko was made to drink sake by Kazuo.)
ii.
L
5
E —-:
1"
E Z
-.> 1J\ <(

sekkaku it 0 adv-
Some situation which seldom occurs with effort; at great pain; take
has now occurred and one can either the trouble to do ~
make use of it or, to one’s regret, [REL. wazawaza]
cannot make use of it. <
sekkaku 393
QKey
§Key Sentences
M)
1>
/"\ \/
Subordinate Clause Mam Clause

Main
tor» /\ 4-iQ!/\
-ti"->n=< s ~ llcfi-31..
Q
0.
fiof:\ (Di: 71:12 11 v~r.cra=-are/v~e=e~/or
Zviii I1 \
1,1...
I/\>‘.r:2f2=¢T:/I/\3£-ti"/o'C'l,7‘:.,
Sekkaku ar n1 itta
ai ni ma non:
noni tomodachr
tomodachi wa makatra
inakatta //masendeshrta
/ imasendeshita.1-
E
(I took the trouble to go to see my friend, but he wasnt
wasn’t at home)
home.) . Q
(B)
Subordinate
Subordinate Clause
Clause Main Clause
E-)n><
11-->n=< vw\ ii
wn iv? ts: )\->7‘;
ac lei; co <0 ff we
7;’ 2M5 J:< %5§'§‘Z.5
%5‘§*l‘6 0159
04,9
Sekkaku ii daigaku ni hairta
haitta no da kara yoku benkyosuru tsumori
fzf
7;’ / '<"§‘..
'61‘.-.
da / desu.
(I entered a good college with great effort, so I intend to study hard.)
(C)
Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
---I Noun
‘Ii’ 0 73* <
tr->n=< o
<0 BEE >1:
tr oi:
rm: at I/\ re/enaeer.
@;v\f.‘:/lil1*é'iLT:_.,
-Z
Sekkaku no nichiyébi
nichiy6bi na noni hataraita / hatarakimashira.
hatarakimashita.
(Although Sunday is precious (to me), I worked (all day long).)
M-—u
in
_—-—-i—-—-
i
1%
-_-, :=
Z
__-|
i. i-
-1- —-u
8
-1- —_"
Z
‘i jq
= _
@ 1»:-»>a~<
eam<?xunevfianom=1-a—amfinn<rfififien.
q-_-,
i-
(a) '7} 9 7Ji'C'f-T->f:¢'>l.::_=.—-21-9 llfilifx < Tiifitfiofco

-i—_.
is;
E ==
ii.
Sekkaku Amerika made itta

irta noni Nyfiyoku
Nydyoku ni ikenakure
ikenakute zannendatta.
(I went as far as America at great expense, but, to my regret, I couldn’t
make it to New York.)
m
(b) fi¢m<H$%EE$%$%fiLk®Em6.%#—EH$~fi@Tfikw
‘li'07§> < EIZIIEEEE-‘.iFF§l were Lr.:<or.in> I5. %3F—-IE Blliofio 'c1>~r.~;t~
&.@.v\i*J‘..
J:.'?~1v\i1‘..
Sekkaku nihongo o sannenkan mo benkyoshira
benkyoshite no da kara,
kara. zehi ichido
Nihon e /rte
itte mitai
mita/' to omoimasu.
(Because I studied Japanese for (as many as) three years, I would love
to go to ]apan
Japan once.)
394 sekkaku
M eam<omfi#fi%efiwcnvxun.
(0) -Its-7)= < 0)fiKfi7)3?r1"i"$-"i\.'(‘ fibblc it 9 1 Lfco
Sekkaku no ryoko ga byoki de dame ni narimashita.
(My long awaited trip had to be canceled because of my illness.)
w aom<c+#%Butu<rfin§an.
W eam<v+m%HumL<rfiu1en.
Sekkaku desu ga kyo wa isogashikute ikemasen.
I’m too busy to go there today.)
(I appreciate your most kind offer, but I'm
(e) &¢m<0++vzfi#5¥—bLt5E5?T#.
@ -li'o7b>< <05‘-—v ‘/22*;-Z‘7b=F>"7"— l~ LT:;E>E’)'C"§‘7)>.,
Sekkaku no chansu da kara détoshitara do desu ka.
(It’s a good chance, so why don’t you date her?)
m aam<v+#efi@u<wnmaa+.
eam<v+mefi§n<wnfi%a+.
Sekkaku desu kara. enryo naku itadakimasu.
/tadakimasu.
(Since you took the trouble to bring it to me, I’ll
I'll take it without hesi-
tation.)
Sekkaku tends to co-occur with noni ‘ although

although’’ or no da kara ‘ because (it
is that) ~ ’, as in KSs(A) and (B), respectively. Sekkaku no+N, however,
can be used as a noun phrase, free from any co-occurrence restrictions, as
shown in KS(C) and Exs. (c) and (e). Sekkaku desu ga (in Ex. (d)) is used
to politely decline s.o.’s kind ofi'er,
offer, and sekkaku desu kara (in Ex. (f)) is used
to accept s.o.’s offer.
Sekkaku is related to wazawaza, an adverb whose basic meaning is ‘inten-

tionally take the trouble to do s.t., although it is not necessary to do so’.
Ula
m a u»nMt*b€b#fi<eexnofimeavaun.
fiofiK/*b$b€fi<i?¥k®fi#6§9iLk°
M
M
i
chikaku made kita no da kara yorimashita.
Sekkaku / *Wazawaza ch/kaku
IT
:5
_.=
ig-
z
2
Ii
=
'Q
_
1
Z
.._...
E
%
.._..
(Because I came all the way to your neighborhood, I dropped by.)
E5 E
i
b.
b- babe/*ean\<%?uv~$2€ot:.
195193 / *‘l:!'o7'J\<%'fl-‘/‘$EE'>7‘C<.
Wazawaza / *Sekkaku atarashii
ararashii kuruma o katta.
(He went to the trouble of buying a new car.)
¢-
6- 195195 /*'t!'-.>7f>\<l"3'i'>'C5lE'C<21.'Ci9>
1'J$'1‘J'5'/*'t-!'ofJ‘(lE="i"->'C5lE'C 7);): 5°
< hf?) 9 flit
Wazawaza / *Sekkaku motte
morre kite kurete arigato.
arigaté.
(Thanks for your trouble in bringing it to me.)
sh/' 395
Shi L conj.
g a conjunction to indicate ‘and’ in 3§ and Whatis

Whfltis more; 110i
I10! only ~
an emphatic way i but also ~; so
$0
""""""""‘”"""“’“""""""""""""""""“’ [REL. sore kara]
O Key Sentences
(A)
I Verb
'9; ti =i-:12
'-#5 ii 6‘-:2 ii,ll.) L7‘: L. BRIE? ii ET
BIKE 1» /Eibfco
R7;/Eibfco
Kyo wa tenisu
IQHISU mo sh/ta
sh/‘ta s
shi. eiga mo m/ta
mita / m/mash/ta
m/‘mash/‘ta.
(I not only played tennis but also saw a movie today.)
today)
(B)
I Adj
Adi <0
(I)
.:.:
:1: :1 E ct1 2!»
v L, as
41
i 1- :1
ti 9;'%v\/;*;@wc-1-.,
fit, /flint-i"
.,_i
Koko wa natsu wa atsur
atsui siii‘
gr“
shi. fuyu wa samu/'
samul / samu/‘desu.
samu/desu
Ti-..' ''ri
s1- cold in the winter)
. OQ
it
(Here it’ss hot in the summer
summer,Q and what’s
what s more
more,I it
it’s winter.
(C)
3Q*
/-\
/'\ \-/'Q1
I Adj (na)
Adj (na)
co 7/<-I~
(1 7/\—W' v-' 01 anws
éhv . Ft 1,. 12w/$.=wc'-r.
‘iv /‘E\t\'C'l‘
‘I
I .0
' .1
Kono apéto wa k/re/da
kireida sshi. yasur
yasui]/ yasutdesu
yasuidesu.
"11
3. 53--.
(This apartment is clean, 'is.-~ - =9.
clean and what's I _ __,
whats more, its
it’s -2:‘ .O_ I’_
inexpensive)
inexpensive.) N
_—1
it 1
a_ Z
—_= 5
(D)
—-— Noun Copula
Lfi'£U=‘T.:v~ /V
filfifzl/\ /v -e-r/ ts 1:1
'61‘/T5 7)‘ Elbbfc;
hbfc (:1ii we
3% T.-I
T5 L %<t.cv~/
fistwl
Asobitai desu / da ga ashita W8
Asobirai n desu/ wa shiken da sh/' asobenail
asobenai /
iZi"i'< i -ii: /V0
i&*<i-E:/oo
asobemasen.
asobemas en.
(I would like to play, but there is an exam tomorrow, and I can’t fool
around.)
396 sh/'
W
(i) W/AQUH
(U {V/Adi(i)} L
sh/'
shi
{337
‘[337 /§3LT::}
/EfiL7‘.:} L (s.o. talks /talked and what’s more)
{hanasu / hanashita} sh/'
shi
{ENZQ
{fi*\’?.5 /Q/<72}
/fi*\’7‘:} L (s.o. eats / ate and what’s more)
{taberu / tabeta} shi
[taberu
_,_ ___ . . h ,
{£11/\ /FI13"n>oT:}
‘[f.%.]v\ /|e,ii>oT:.} L (s.t. is / was expensive and w ats more)
what’s
{takail/ takakatta} sh/'
{takai
(ii)
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {Ti
{ff / fiat}
fiofc} L
{da / datta]
datta} shi
[§§7b>T:I
{§§7)=f:I /I E?/ni;‘-;-7:}
E?*n=f:Z'oT.:} L (s.t. is / was quiet and what's
what’s more)
{shizukada / shizukadatta} shi
sh/'
lfilii
[955 ff / 95$
Ti 5'55: fio Tc}
T.-Io 7:} L (s.o. is / was a teacher and what’s more)
{sensei da / sensei datta}
{sense/' datta] shi
M
n fl$bhokL.%%bw%kL.&Tb5nLwT¢°
@ fi$$%¢tL.%%$w%kL.&T$5nLwcT.
Shigoto mo atta shi. kekkon mo dekita sh/',
shi. totemo ureshi/"desu.
ureshiidesu.
(Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm
I’m
very happy.)
m
(b) %BmiitwwL,E:#~fi%iLx5#°
'-%‘B tiiib VW‘ L. E C 2b='\i“'f% 1 L J: 5 15>.
Kyo wa tenki mo ii shi. doko ka e ikimasho ka.
//' sh/',
(It’s a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?)
it
it
M
M &oAu%AnL.fitww-
%®Afl%AfiL.fi$wwa
TE
I
-
n
.
p
3
i
--.
.-Q
Ano hito wa bi/'in
bi/‘in da shi. atama mo ii.
p.
i
q-_-,
(She’s beautiful and what's

what’s more she’s
-j—}
(She's she's bright.)

q-_-,
i.
q-_-,
ii
ii
w flfifiEoT%5L,%#EKfi%iL;5°
WHmEQT%6L.%#EKfi%iLx5°
Kippu
K/ppu wa katte aru shi. zehi mi ni ikimasho.
(I’ve bought a ticket for you, so let’s go see it, by all means.)
1. As in Ex. (a), shi

sh/' can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like
Vte ‘~ and’ can be repeated.
2. There are times when a sentence ends with sh/' in order to weaken the
sentence and obscure the cause / reason:
shi / -shi- 397
m A=nLn%Emfi%xenm.
A=&Lnm@mfi%senm.
Ashita eiga ni /kimasen
Ash/'ta ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to go see a movie tomorrow?)
BIi¢,%Lk?T#°&Lkfifi§fi&6L,-~
B 1 2.0, $>LT:'.'C*"'§‘7)*., $>Lf:.(i§iQfi7)§$>?.5 L, ~-
E, ash/‘ta
ashita desu ka. Ash/‘ta shiken ga aru sh/',.
Ashita wa sh/‘ken shi.. . .
(Tomorrow? I have an exam tomorrow, and
and.. . .)
3. When the speaker wishes to be very polite, the clause before shi sh/' can
be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in (2).
M %Hmii$wwvTL.E:w~fi%1L;5#.
(2) '-‘-*;El tifiéfii, vw\'c*T L, Er. 25>/\fi€,
Kyo wa tenki mo iidesu shi. doko ka e ikimasho ka.
(It’s a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?) (Cf. Ex. (b))
-shi- L
am-L infix
MM
J’_/'\/'\-./'\/ M
an infix attached to the stem of an

Adj (i) to indicate s.t. that one cannot
objectively measure on any scale (e.g. j
§g human emotion)
/V\AAJV\/w\/V\/V
/v\AA/v\/VVV\/V \.--
v
iii
if l, In
v (sad) < -‘(J L, tn
-‘P l, v~ (regrettable) 52$?) l,
17‘-6 L, In
v\ (scary)
kanashii
kanashu ku yashn
kuyashii osoroshii
osoroshu
% l_,
l, vin
I
\l
L, vv\
fig l, (enjoyable) -5'1)? L, In (strict)
if U\ l, fi (difiicult) I g
—
I i-
0 -_-_ nt-
tanoshu
ranoshii k/brshu muzukashii
muzukashn
. I
kib/shii
Q ii
8
— E
— i-
-_-_
q-_._ -ltl
-@-
i
i -in
i-
q-_-,
-1- i-
__.
.-I
1i-i-€_-—-
59 I5
F,-{=32 Ll/\
I
I5 L,\/\
F; l, v (seem) -'9 i l, v\ (envious) ‘{{‘
Z{J§ L,
L v\/\ (dear)
i I
rashii
rashu urayamashii
ura yamashn koishii
kotshn
F
Y
55i1l-V‘(haPPY)
I I
I is v\/\ l, In
Iv\ (delicious) U’ l, v\
3 U~ In (lonely) 21, L, v\ (happy)
00 ‘Io '0
0/shn sabishii
sab/shn ureshi/'
ureshn
I
\
J‘
0
oishii
°I
$5 l,
L vI/\
I
I I
E L, vin''JJ (painful) 1% L,
l, vv\ J (regrettable) 5, (intimate)
I
kurushu
/(U/'U$hI'i oshn
oshii shitashi/'
sh/tashn
I
11E ii, L
ii ‘b l,vv\3II~ (dependable)
(dependable) 1:17‘
#27‘;‘I?'-01- i l,v\
L v\ (enviable) 6?I414 Lv
\\
J’
\-
L In4'1J1,, Icool)
(cool)
0 0 '0 '0
natamashii suzushii
I.
.
tanomoshn
tanomoshii natamashu suzushu
398 -Sm: // shika
398 -shi- shika
(1') that do not contain -shi-

Adjs (i) -sh/'- are, for the most part, descriptive adjectives
that are dependent on the speaker’s objective judgment. In other words,
they are adjectives which indicate something that one can objectively measure
on some scale. Typical descriptive adjectives are. are:
a'r<v\
31%!/\ (red) (E v \ (low)
{E110 fit/\
fiw (blue) Q10
fit/\ (hard)
akai hikui
hiku/' aoi kara/'
ka tai
1: 2* v~ (big)
jqértn (bis) 7%!/\ (shallow)
7§v~ fin (light)
fit» E1 in (white)
En»
6/</1'
okii asa/'
asai karui shiro/'
shiroi
/]\év\
/]\ 3 \/\ (small) ,i‘§,v\
v \ (black) Ev‘ (high)
;é,‘v\ (high) 551»
ifjln (near)
chisai kuroi takai chikai
chika/'
525!»
Q-3',‘1'\/\ (short) fit»
fiw (thin) min
fit/\ (deep) Em
Ev‘ (long)
m/jikai
mi/'ika/' usui fukai nagai
flit»
if v\ (cheap) ;';i5;o>v\
i 6 7)=\/\ (soft) %\/\ (young)
fit» (young) ‘E10
i1,!.!*.v~ (thick)
yasui yawarakai
ya warakai wakai koi
shika L 1»
Jb\ P"-
Pri-
./‘_/\.r\/\/\.r\/'\/\¢\./
//\/\/\/\/\/'\%\1
g% a particle which marks an element nothing / nobody / no ~ but;

5 ?_
.._..=- \1\/\/\
=s;
E .__ 5 X when nothing but X makes the I only
i expressed proposition true

/-\ \_.-\.:'\/\/'\..-\/‘\-I "\l1"-\J/_\.,/\_.-/'\/.\/‘
[REL. bakari; dake]
Q Key Sentences
(A)
'3’
/\ \../
SubJ ect
Subject Predicate (negative)
a
Ffliéfi.
lifiiéh Ln~ '3-
TTali’:
fi 1...‘I 2 'Bibf.rv\/I22)/\i*l2.“/v..
'2Uof.r\i‘/‘E't\t‘i"li'A/
Toda I san
Toda-san sh/ka
shika tabako o suwanat
suwanail/ su/masen
suimasen.
I (No one but Mr
Mr. smokes)
C’, Toda smokes.)
shika
shika 399
399
(B)
Direct Object Predicate (negative)
BK“II
B-$5? I Ln~
'§'
nenw/none»
9El16>*.t\/\/9319i-ti:/vs
W8I88/7! wa
Watashi mhongo
nihongo shrka
shika S/7I!'6fl8I
shiranai / sh/r/masen
shirimasen.
(I know nothing but Japanese
Japanese.)
(C)
@
Q
/-\
/"K
Noun Prt Predicate (negative)
%h (1
Ycfl ii ;IDéA.
IIII3/.» I: L7)~ Efilxr v\f.cv\
EELT wtrl/~/v~1n“/o..
/ I/‘iii:/v
Sore wa Eguchi san
Eguchi-san ni shtka
shika /78/788/‘III6
hanashite H76!inai I/ /masen
imasen.
(I haven’t
havent told it to anybody but Mr
Mr.'"*3"Eguchi)
Eguchi.)
(D)
Quantifie Predicate (negative)
*~as
V -‘H-\ 1:’E
'E
(1
Cfili E —(;EL\
—(:-.£L\ Ln
Li» '1.._
Q/\>‘.cn=-31../Q Z,0_iii“/of L7‘._
fi'<>*.:7)>¢T.:/fi*<3i-1:1:/o'C'LT.:., ‘I
Watashz
Watashi wa gohan o
(I had only one bowl of rice.)
rice)
ag
ippat
ippai sh/ka
shika tabenakatta / tabemasendesh/ta
tabemasendeshita.
‘OI
.0
W
(i) N Ln»
shika
5'55};
9&5: 753
iii (Subject) —> 95$
96$ L7)~
Ln~ (no one but the teacher)
sensei ga sensei shika
95$ 2
E (Direct Object) —> 95$
95E L70>
Liv (no one but the teacher) ii
1
Z 2!-...
.1
:82-
sensei o0 sensei shika
=si
an
(ii)
ii) N+(Prt) L7)~
Ln*
shika
fifij
ii: A/(.1
’\/(J; (Direction) —> fijii
fifij ('\/It.)
(/\/(.2) Ln=
L7§~ (to nowhere but
Tokyo e / ni Tokyo (e / ni) shika Tokyo)
95$ I;
(:1 (Indirect Object, Agent) —> 95$ (l:)T L7)=
((1)1 [,2b=- (no one but
sensei ni sensei (ni) shika the teacher)
(TN/' cannot drop if X shika can be interpreted as the subject.)
EIQEI
Elfifi (J: (Time) —>
(C. -> (3%)?!
BEE ((1) L7§=
()1) L2b> (only on Sunday)
nichiyobi ni nichiyobi (ni) shika
nichiyob/'
400 shika
fiji-5 I; (Location) —> fijji‘

iii fijii (ll)
((1) Ln>
L7§= (only in Tokyo)
Tokyo ni Tokyo (ni) shika
(iii) N+Prt Ln=
L7)-
shika
if-1 '6
fig-3 ‘G (Location) —> iii-Z
KT? ‘G Lt!»
‘C’ L79‘ (only in Tokyo)
Tokyo de Tokyo de shika
E
Q '(=-
'6 (Means) ——>
-> 5E '6'
1- L7b=~
1,75» (only by car)
kuruma de kuruma de shika
|l1B]
|J_|BEl 25
3 A,
/V .1;
3 (Reciprocal) -> |jj5]
mfg 35,-5 A,
;V .1;
5 L, 7)»
;b= (only with Mr.
Yamada-san to Yamada-san to shika Yamada)
fijji‘
iii‘ nub
25>)‘; (Starting point /source) -—>
—> fifi ;b~|‘9
7§*E> Ln»
L7)~ (only from
Tokyo kara Tokyo kara shika Tokyo)
318% iv
313% (Ending point) —> EfiIB#
315% if
1'? L7b>
l/75* (only till five o’clock)
goji made goji made shika
(iv) Quantifier [,2b=
L25»
shika
’PL
’)‘L Liv
L7§> (only a little)
sukoshi shika
W
I
(a) 1*’—-5‘ 4 —-lCl1'i§
/4--5" Ln>;l€>‘.r 2)» ¢ 7.2.,
-lC.ti’$$ L7)‘§lE7JT7)>'9 Tao
Péti ni wa gakusei shika konakatta.
(Only students came to the party.)
M mHsnnv§¥Lmfi~mman.
HHéLu#§FLmfi&tmok.
Tamura-san wa sarada shika tabenakatta.
W?
(Mr. Tamura ate only salad.)
n
E Z
I-I
§
=
I 2
I-I
I
=
-
I
-
I
-
=
I
-1
‘
I-I
I
I
I
I
'IiI
II,
In-II-II
(0) fiuB@HGQu#%ansan.
M $1.t1H@H(t.:)Lz»;leen1a.-/V.
Watashi wa nichiyobi (ni) shika koraremasen.
(I can come only on Sunday.)
w
(d) :®$u:®@%fiUUL#$9ifih°
;:<o2|It:.1:;:¢>|2]%E§(t:.) Lina) D iii:/V.
Kono hon wa kono toshokan (ni) shika arimasen.
(Only this library has this book.)
@
(e) %:u$rLmfinnw.
% I: iii? L mfih‘ >‘.cv\,
Soko wa kuruma de shika ikenai.
(Lit. You can go there only by car. (=The only way you can go there
is by car.))
shika 401
m flnmmsmauwnauawo
(f) fidillllfl 25 lo 2: Ln=§i§E Lit)/\.,
Watashi wa Yamada-san to shika hanashi 0o shinai.
(I talk only with Mr. Yamada.)
®
(g) :@#§m$$#€ALmw&w.
r. ®'%é1l=5'&l:.t'i$b‘§E)\ L 2b=v\r.cv~.,
Kono gakko wa gakusei ga hyakunin shika inai.
(This school has only a hundred students.)
Shika
Sh/'ka always occurs with negative predicates.
I. Dake expresses a similar idea. (Q

(=> dake) However, dake and shika difier
difi'er
in the following ways:
(A) X shika emphasizes the negative proposition of “non-X”, while
X dake merely describes the situation in neutral fashion.
(B) Sh/'ka
Shika occurs only with negative predicates; dake, however, can
affirmative predicates. Compare the following sentences:
occur with afiirmative
[1] a. rl='7'1':'l‘l'5lE7‘:°
7Ji7'T:il'l'5lET:°
Bobu dake kita.
(Only Bob came.)
b. rfI7'L75\5lEf£7!)\oT:.-,
Fl? 7' L75\5lE7Zi.‘fJ\ 0 1:0
Bobu shika konakatta.
(Nobody but Bob came.)
M a rE7'f:El'f5lETa'I7‘J\of:¢
[2] 8. fiifififlfiwato
Bob dake konakatta.
(Only Bob didn’t come.) _____.__...__._
-i.__--
_i_..__
i.__--
-i.__--
__-—
__ 3
.._..
__ i
:=l -—
b.*£7L#¥h/$U(U#ok°
b-*%7LW¥t/¥H<U#at.
.i
-_-.
i
.i
?
.__..,
._
1
L-
2
.__...
__
-_..
-_..
__.-
.i
i
N
*B0bu shika kita / konakunakatta.

*Bobu
(Everybody but Bob came.)
(C) The verb kakaru ‘it takes (time)’ can be used with shika,
sh/ka, but not
with dake, as in [3].
m a flo§me#&srn$r£%L#wweaw.
Bla flwimaifiicmicifibwmmaawo
Watashi no /'e
ie kara gakko made wa kuruma de gofun
kakaranai.
shika kakarana/'.
(From my house to school it takes only five minutes
by car.)
4-02 shika
402
b-*flo%#e$&1ru$r£fifiH#n6.
b-*fio%me$&ivu$v£%fiHnm6.
*Watashi no ie kara gakko made wa kuruma de gofun
dake kakaru.
(From my house to school it takes only five minutes
by car.)
II. Bakari is also used to mean ‘ only ’ in some situations. (Q
(==:> bakari) Unlike
X shika or X dake, however, X bakari emphasizes the positive proposi-
tion of X, often with the implication that s.o. /s.t. does s.t. to X / with
X /. . .a lot or more than one expects. For example, [4a] emphasizes
the fact that Jim drank beer, whereas [4b] emphasizes the fact that Jim
didn’t drink anything but beer. [4c] is a neutral statement.
Hla
[4] a. vane-wwmvflnfi.
~‘/‘Ali l:'—1l/l:f75\ ‘JEK/of;’o
Jimu wa biru bakaribakan’ nonda.
(Jim drank only beer (and a lot).)
b. VA
‘J l:'—/P LTPBXE
A ii If.’-—1V Lfrfii 74?
>*.:2b><> Tao
75*-0 T2,
Jimu wa biru shika nomanakatta.
(Jim drank nothing but beer.)
e
c. vamE—»fiw&nfi.
2‘/“Ali 11'"-ll/1'§I‘l'fl/'vT:'o
Jimu wa biru dake nonda.
(Jim drank only beer.)
Note that X bakari cannot be used if X is a single entity. Thus, [Sa]
[5a]
is grammatical, but [Sb] is not.
a. #®¥lfn~9§l€7¢..
[5] 8- jc0)¥i:l5'2b>D5lEf:.,
Onna no ko bakari kita.
(Only girls came (and it was more than I expected).)
_i
n
-
1 it
b- *)z7 9'_'ijf7b)D%7‘:o
*7‘? I)“-lj€7b‘D%f:o
;
-X
S 1
*Mean' bakari kita.

*Meari
(Only Mary came.)
Note also that bakari cannot be used with negative predicates, as in [6].
[6]
[5] -'f"l¥éi§f:'I‘J'
¥l%5€i§f:El‘f / *|i15\
*l£1J\‘J‘J 5lE7§T1J\:>T:.-.
%f£75\oT:o
Kodomotachi dake / *bakari konakatta.
Kodomotach/'
(Only the children didn’t come.)
shimau 403
L35-'5
shimau Lie") aux. v. (Gr. 1)
fl
f v\A
v\A
5 an auxiliary verb which indicates g have done s.t.; finish doing s.t.;
é the completion of an action ég finish s.t. up
i’
"' """"""""""""""""'‘ [REL. ~owaru]
Q Key Sentences
6Key
M)
/-\
To P ic (subject)
Topic ( subJ ect ) Vtee
3>,
ama
mmfi iii 2; ID wreo $12 %hf
:n11?%o mhf Lion/uzvauc.
Lian/LswaLn.
/keda-kun m/kka de sono hon o0 yonde
wa mikka Y onde shimatta
shrmatta /shimaimashita.
/ sh/ma/mashzta
53- _
(Mr
(Mr. Ikeda finished reading the book in three days)
days.)
(B)
W)
Topic
(SUb_]€ClZ)
(subject) We9
""6
my
Hx~._
\-/ *\ ZnH w-A}-b¢>$W72 nae Liot/Livibt
W—Ai—kz>/wzé flht Lick/LiwiLt,
Ill
..,~,+-
5
Q \
l
O
W8I8S/7!
Watashi wa rfimumeto
rdmuméto no m/ruku
miruku 0o nonde shzmatta
shimatta / shzma/mash/ta
shimaimashita.
(I (mistakenly) drank my roommates
roommate’s milHF
milk.)
Vte
Vm LE 5
LE5
shimau
'53 L, 1'
35 ‘C l, i 5-5
L, 1 (have talked)
X
hanashite shimau L
E
i
‘Z X
13/<1 [,3
R/{T L, 3 -35 (have eaten)
tabete shimau
t5E%ELTLiwiLt#o
w s5fi%2LrL1waLnw.
Mo shukudai o0 shite shimaimashita ka.
(Have you done your homework yet?)
m fld%B¢K%@v£—b&%wTLiB5tE¢Tw6,
M flfi%B$K%®v£—F2%wTLi£5tEoTw5°
Watashi wa kyo/'0 ni sono repoto o kaite shimao to omotte iru.
(I think that I will finish (writing) the report today.)
404 shimau
M $<€fiEfi&TLiw&éw.
$<Cfi2fi~rLawaéw.
Hayaku gohan o0 tabete shimainasai.
(Finish (eating) your meal quickly.)
w
W v+=—2¢v+€rL1wsLn.
V%:—&WDT€TLiwiLko
Shichfi 0o tsukuri sugite shimaimashita.
Shichd
(I made too much stew (to my regret).)
1. Shimau is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte and expresses the idea
of completion in terms of an action.
action, Vte shimau often appears with
such adverbs as sukkari ‘ completely’, zenbu ‘ all’ and kanzenni ‘ com-
pletely’. Examples:
(1) a. v47u?o#DB$%EEnTLiok,
‘?/f 7 (11075) D l5l7l§§§§fIl§§7l1»T L35 07:,
Maiku wa sukkari nihongo o wasurete shimatta.
(Mike has completely forgotten Japanese.)
h
b. flmfi¢Twkw$2g%£§m&fiTLiot.
*Li'Ii!<rfOT l/‘TC§]§‘7¢If£i=IlV)‘ZI§lC2I?)l)"'C' Li OTC,
Watashi wa motte ita kitte 0o zenbu tomodachi ni agete
shimatta.
(I gave all the stamps I had kept to my friends.)
2. Vte shimatta also expresses the idea that someone did something which
shouldn’t have done or something happened which shouldn't
he shouldn't shouldn’t have
happened. (KS(B) and Ex. (d)) Thus, it often implies the agent’s re-
gret about what he has done or the speaker’s regret or criticism about
someone’s action or about something that has happened. Examples:
M
(2) &
a. v=U—m&¥—®v—#Efi&TLi@k.
~‘/‘:1: ‘J —(i*<=F—®'r—=’?’<i:fi/<'C Liofco
ii
ii.--._i_
E?
Jeri wa Pegi no kéki o tabete shimatta.
=
Z ii
(Jerry (mistakenly) ate Peggy’s cake.)

Z X
iF1.i1+Qn= ofizicaaor L32 01;.

b. $Lt:t15r)§5/<zl:§->'CLi->f;.,
Watashi wa chigau basu ni notte shimatta.
(I got on the wrong bus.)
Q
C- m#%oTLi¢t®vE7=w§mfiU&m@to
T=l§7§3l5§0T Li OTCWT‘ 11°? 5- ‘7 ? ll’-fi'.U'7iI7l7*0 TC,
sh/matta node piknikku ni ikenakatta.
Ame ga futte shimatta
(It rained, so we couldn’t go on a picnic.)
3. Whether a sentence with Vte shimatta is interpreted as simple completion
or regret (or criticism) depends on the context and/ or the situation.
For example, (3) can be interpreted in two ways.
shimau 405
m &mnE&flnrLian.
(3)
l¥li2i5iEEfl/i/'C" L35 QTCO
Boku wa o-sake o nonde shimatta.
((A) I finished drinking sake. (B) I drank sake (which I shouldn’t
have done).)
4. Te shimau and de shimau are contracted as chau and jau, respectively,
in informal speech, as in (4), and can be used by male and by female
speakers.
(4) 8- Efilxt
a. EELT Li 5 —> Efii,
—* EEL 15¢-’)
*:'>\'= 5 (have talked)
hanashite shimau hanashi chau
h fine
b- fik/we Li5-*fih'L¢5
1,15 -—> fit/V U45 mwe¢wm>
(have drunk)
nonde shimau non jau
Chimau and jimau, another set of contracted forms of re
te shimau, are
used only by male speakers.
I. Vpast can also express the completion of an action. However, it is dif-

ferent from Vte shimau in that Vpast expresses the completion of an
action in the past, while Vte shimau expresses completion regardless of
the time of completion. Thus, [la] is grammatical, but [lb] is not.
fl]m
[1] a. ::mswrs<&vz#fi4tL$5:.
: ctcztswris < 2: ~‘/'Ar)§fi'<'C Li’) 1..
Koko ni oite oku to Jimu ga tabete shimau yo.
(If you leave it here, Jim will eat it (up).)
*Z'.;';l::l>5v\'Ci$< 2:1‘/'.£>~7b3fi'<T:JZo
b. *::l:rsv~'t:‘s< <‘:~‘/'An§E'<f:.t..
*Koko ni oite oku to Jimu ga tabete
tabeta yo.’
yo._
(If you leave it here, Jim will eat it up.)
II Vmasu owaru also means ‘finish doing ~’. The difference between i
i
i_
i
i
i
ii--ii
iii a
-1
-1
-'1
X 1-
Vmasu owaru and Vte shimau is that Vmasu owaru indicates the action
i in
i in
i -1
*1.
-1
i -1
i -1
i -'1
i -1
I
_
_
of finishing something, while Vte shimau indicates the completed state

of the action. Thus, these two expressions correspond to the English
expressions finish doing and have done in that Vmasu owaru can occur
with a specific time phrase, but Vte shimau cannot.
[2] 8-
3- $0)
5'4) 5 %0)7-l§E§)$.¢71~$§1‘JoT:/*§fi/v'C* 1>1':°
‘E'®7l§€f§§?$§§190T:/*§%/\1'C' Li '.>T:o
Kino sono hon o yomiowatta I/ *yonde shimatta.
(I finished reading / *have read the book yesterday.)
b.
b. G)‘ éji_a¢;=i.:-<=<>
U’ 375-l1#lC.-{*0 2; w1%’-
I/71?‘-' l‘|~ €§%§§1'J'JT:
'5:%%¥21Eb->1:/*§L\'C
/*EL\'C Li of-;,,
012.,
ku/i ni yatto repoto 0o kakiowatta I/ *kaite shimatta.
Kesa ku/I
406 shimau / shiru
(I finally finished writing / *have finally written the report at
nine o’clock this morning.)
It is also noted that shimau can be used with noncontrollable verbs
like wasureru ‘forget’, while owaru cannot, as in [3].
W
Blwa &m+vv-oEfiaEnrL1an.
&m+vv-oEfi2Enrcz@n.
Boku wa Nanshi no /Usho
jdsho o wasurete
Wasurete shimatta.
(I’ve forgotten Nancy’s
Nancy's address.)
b.*&m+vv—®Efi&En%bot,
b-*@fl+vv—®EWEEfl%bat°
*Boku wa Nanshi no jiisho
/Usho o0 wasureowatta.
(*I finished forgetting Nancy’s address.)
shiru £125
£16 v- (Gr-
(Go 1)
\/\/
~../\/ /\/\///\"S
/-~/\/2/'-/\"S
S.o. gets information from some out- get to know

side source. [REL. wakaru]
F\-/\\/ /\\,‘\/r\\(p\,,-
/\®r\/\/@\/\/\l ‘-
/'\/'\/'\/\/'\/\/\/\-I
0 Key Sentences
Q
A:
5 i
E X
5 2
ObJ ect
Direct Object
H111 o caPr’.
0) \._ E 9:101" v~i1‘n~.
..i.
i/‘i I. *4.)9
F.’
.m
N/hon no koto
Nihon o sh/tte IITIHSU ka.
shitte imasu ka
(Do you know about Japan?)
B:
lit‘ §‘=I1<>‘C i/‘i’;.o/i/‘v\2-I
ii‘/\| vii’ /W/ix. 9619i-Ii-/V
iii‘?-ii/o
Ha:
Hai, 8/7lH6'
shitte l!778SUOW’.0 /le
imasu./ /e. sh/nmasen
shirimasen. .0‘V
(Yes IIdo
(Yes, do.'i//No
No, IIdont)
don’t.)
shiru / soda‘ 407
m
w *TéhE%¢TWiT#°
M xxszen-rws+w.
Kinoshita-san o shine
shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know Mr. Kinoshita?)
mnsno€fi%%2%¢rwi+#.
M mnsnoE%%%2%orw§+w.
Yamaguchi-san no denwabango 0o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know Mr. Yamaguchi’s telephone number?)
@ A=¢@fiE%@TWiTW°
M A=$E%2floTWiTW.
Chiigokugo o shitte imasu ka.
Chogokugo
(Do you know Chinese?)
B:wwi.flDitA,
B:wwi.fl9ith,
/'e,
Te. shirimasen.
(No, I don’t.)
w fiuiménflwxun~fian:a2wonnan.
fiuiménmzxvw~fion:a&w5em¢n.
Watashi wa Ueda-san ga Amerika e itta koto o shiranakatta.
(I didn’t know that Mr. Ueda had gone to America.)
GEE!
1. Shiru, a nonstative verb, takes the Vte iru form when it means the
stative ‘know’. (Q
(=> iru’)
2. When answering in the negative to the question X o shitte imasu ka ‘ Do
you know X?’, the negative nonstative form shiranai
shiranai/shirimasen
/ shirimasen is
used instead of shitte inai / shitte imasen, as in KS(B) and Ex. (c).
1:-—-I-it
1:-1-I-it
—__i.-i-
gm
i
E I 1
X ;
E %
=- S Z
i
gfjdal
$6d31 {-
f 5 ff aux.
an auxiliary which indicates that the I hear that ~; I heard that ~;

information expressed by the preced- People say that ~
ing sentence is what the speaker sddaz; yoda
[REL. soda’; y6da (daro;
heard Eé rashi/")1
rash/7)]
VvV»
\/N/\/'\¢
408 soda‘
QKey
¢Key Sentence
( informal )
Sentence (informal)
wmén
llllllé/V u17§vz%§:
ii 7-7/23%?4 |
%fiLt
iilfil/C (ma
l.\Z> %5fi/%5r+.
Y
%9f /‘E911’
['5
'1
0
O
Yamakawa san wa furansugo o benkyoshite

Yamakawa-san benkyoshlte I!’U
iru soda]
soda/ sodesu
sodesu.
O I
I
Mr Yamakawa is studying French.)

(I heard that Mr. . French) O
I
(i) {V/Adi (1)) inf ear:

(fiivwmflmifl eon
soda
{;‘§;‘fi'§"
[33-Q‘ /351,72}
/E3 1,7,3} -‘E 5~’) ff
It 7;’ (I heard that s.o. (will) talk /talked.)
[hanasu hanashite} soda
{féiw /Einokl
{Elm /"g7;~;7‘;} ‘E’
-‘E 5-5 T5
if (I heard that s.t. is /was
/ was expensive.)
{takai /I takakatta} soda
(ii)
UN {Adj (na) stem / N} {Til T:i'<>7‘:l
{f;'/ 7307:] J5 Ti’
% 5 7‘;’
{da / datta} soda
{,$y,.f;'
[§¥i7;~f_;“ / §'§;)=7;'
semi: -17;}
-_>f;} %
-2- 5 7;’
ff (I heard that s.t. is / was quiet.)
{shizuka da / shizukadatta} soda
{shizukada
{filgi
WEE Ti‘ / 5E$
T3 5'55; Ti‘ 0 Tc] ‘E '55 ff
7307;] T5 (I heard that s.o. is / was a teacher.)
{sensei da/
{sense/' da / sensei datta]
datta} soda
O
@)
(a. %ménun@2fisaw%5r+.
%msnusfi2&iew%5c+.
o—sake o nomanai sodesu.
Shimizu-san wa o-sake
(I heard Mr. Shimizu doesn’t drink any alcohol.)
m H$@Wn&rs%w%5fi.
M B$@Wm&Tt%W%5fio
Nihon no niku wa totemo takai soda.
(I hear that meat in Japan is very expensive.)
M fl¥anu%%#arsL$fi%5r+.
© fl¥énm%%#arsi$fi%ec+.
Toshiko-san wa eigo ga totemo jozuda sodesu.
(I heard that Toshiko speaks very good English.)
(d) it ‘/7’
@ ‘/ié A/l;t§’éE§i7)5E£l5f;’*'€' 5 f.-1.,
3 A/li§%’§0)5*&$7‘;'% T1’,
Kingu-san wa eigo no sensei da soda.
(I heard that Mr. King is a teacher of English.)
soda‘ 409
1. Sinf soda expresses hearsay. That is, this pattern is used when the
speaker conveys information obtained from some information source with-
out altering it. (Eb rashii)
(Q
2. Information sources are expressed
ex P ressed by
b Y N ni yoru
V oru to ‘ according
accordin g to N
N’.’.
m fi@t;6&7wu¥K§#%¢n%5fi°
fi%c;6t7nvfiE%#%ot%5fi.
Shinbun ni yoru to Furorida ni yuki ga futra
futta soda.
(According to the newspaper, it snowed in Florida.)
The hearsay soda (i.e., soda‘) and the conjecture soda (i.e., soda’)
soda”) are two
different expressions. Compare their different connection patterns in [1].
(Q soda2)
soda?)
[1]
[1] soda‘ (hearsay) sodaz
soda” (conjecture)
V before Vinf soda Vmasu soda
soda
soda (Em-3'51"/Eibr;
(Ex EH / as LT; -2 5 2‘:
It rs (Ex. za
as 1, Y:
‘E 5 rs
hanasu / hanashita soda) hanashi soda)
Adj (1)
Adi (i) Adj (1') inf soda Adj (1')
(i) stem soda
before (Ex. fé5"v\
'{é,]v\ //',l,‘i".*,‘;b>->7’:
|'*?'52b~o7‘: of ‘E 5 T3
7:’ (Ex- E
(Ex. E % % 55 T5
rs
soda takail takakatta soda)
takai/ taka soda)
Adj (na) Adj (na) stem {da / datta} soda Adj (na) stem soda
before (EX-. §¥*7b*f;'
(Ex ’€iwb~f.:’ / fi"%25*7‘;’of;
%wb>f.£-J T; '2‘
16 5 ff
ti (E><- fin»
(Ex. Y: 5 rs
aw» %
soda shizukada / shizukadatta shizuka soda)
soda)
N before {da / datta] soda
N [da V Z-E
i
fi
*-
|
i
1.-E
Soda (Ex. sew: /I fiairsar;

fieirs-.>r; %
=e 5 rs
i 1-I
.52“
— 1-
soda (Ex
i
i
—
i
i
_
i
i i
1.-E
1.-E
1-n
1-
1-
1-I
1-
1-
1-I
1-L
1.-iii
sensei da / sensei datta
soda
We
soda))
A
{Vmasu
[Vmasu / Adj (1')
(i)
before N stem / Adj (na)
stem] sona N
stem}
(EX- ?§i%
Fé3% 5 tr Eli
is
taka sona hon)
410 ~soda2
~s6da’ ~{5f_-j
~55da2 ~*'E'5f.:' ewe “di- (na)
aux. adj. (na)
/\/\-I
an auxiliary adjective which indi- look; look like; appear; seem;

cates that what is expressed by the feel like
preceding sentence is the speaker’s [REL. soda‘; yoda (daro;
conjecture concerning an event in the rash/7)]
rash//')]
future or the present state of some- ,
one or something, based on what the gé
/\',/.\/'\./\‘a./'\‘_.¢/\'./4r~\\./'/\- \/‘
\/\J\
speaker sees or feels >
9 Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Subject Vmasu
31>:as mu
W) aars/~25-c~r.
ears/~'e5*c=~*r
Ame ga fun’
furi soda] sodesu.
soda/
0 0
(It looks like it will rain)

rain.)
(B)
/-\ \-I
To P ic (subject)
Topic (subJ ect ) AdjJ (i
Ad ( 1 // na
na)) stem
E
3&0)
39¢?) E
E Ii Ea ‘E-575/‘E'5'C"§'°
I 1
% '2 T / % 5 ‘C 1'
fig
Q
Ano kuruma wa taka

take soda /sodesu.
/ sodesu . O
.
(That car looks expensive)
expensive.)
--ii-1
i
5
5 Z;
L
(i) Vmasu ‘E573

‘E575
soda
'5-5,51,
ESL -2 5'3 7;’
‘E ff (It looks like s.o. will talk.)
hanashi soda
fix Yq
QK % '55 Ti‘
7;’ (It looks like s.o. will eat.)
tabe soda
(ii) Adj (i / na) stem
(I/na) -E 5 7;’
{-575
soda
ff};
Ii}? %
"6 5'5 1;’
T5 (S.t. looks expensive.)
taka soda
~soda2 411
fin)»
fin» It 5 T5
-‘E 7;’ (S.t. looks quiet.)
shizuka soda
i
@
(1%) :@§m%wm#wwt6knn%5fi.
C ®5<’li5'§\r‘l§.l7b§lUU/‘fa 5f;rf51l't% 5 Tia
Kono ie wa tsuyoi kaze ga fuitara taore soda.
(It looks like this house will fall down when there's
there’s a strong wind
(lit. a strong wind blows).)
(b) ?§><7)z-7-—§H;t2‘6v\ l/E‘

3b0);<5'-~—-fiHi:l>5v\ Tiafco
I/E 5 Ti‘-.>T;o
Ano sutéki wa oishisodatta.
(That steak looked delicious.)
(0)
(6) I
C‘. 052917:
032%)’; 9D l;l:§i*7b*%
li§?*7§*’c 5 T50
Kono atari wa shizuka soda.
(This neighborhood looks quiet.)
1. {Vmasu / Adj (i / na) stem}

stem] soda expresses the speaker’s conjecture based
on visual information. Thus, this expression can be used only when the
speaker directly observes something. The speaker’s conjecture concerns
an event which might take place in the future or the present state of
someone or something. In other words, soda’ cannot be used to express
the speaker’s conjecture concerning a past event or state.
(Q
(=> rashii;
rashii ; yoda)
2. The adjective ii ‘good’ and the negative nai ‘ not exist / not’ change
exist/not’
to yosa and nasa, respectively, before soda’. Examples:
(1) :0)?’/3- l~lial‘1'<§%
C097’/5- l~liJ1$% 5 T30
71:’, :.___..._.
E 5
Kono apato wa yosa soda. g =
(This apartment looks good.)

m %%mué%5fi.
% 5 fie
Mondai wa nasa soda.

(It looks like there is no problem.)
m Hwéw@im&iD%L<fié%5fi.
Nwéb@%m&i9%L<Ué%5fi°
Mura yama-san no ie wa amari atarash/kunasa
Murayama-san atarashikunasa soda.
(Mr. Murayama’s house doesn’t look so new.)
3. N or N +Copula cannot precede soda2,
soda”, as seen in (4a) and (4b), but N +
Copula neg-nonpast can, as seen in (4c).
412 ~soda2
(4)
(4) a.
8- *1Jni1'§é /viiiéiz a6 Y:
*7Jl1ii'¥é/vlifiéli % 55 ti.
7.5.,
*Kato-san wa gakusei oer soda.
*Ka!o-san
(Mr. Kato looks like a student.)
b.*wfiému$ifi%5fi.
b. *7J[l}f§ 3 /i/li$E7’.-5% 5 Tia
*Kato-san
*/(ato-san wa gakusei da soda.
(Mr. Kato looks like a student.)
Q
e mfis~u#$u¢ué%5fi.
mEéwu#iUeHé%5fi.
Kato-san wa gakusei janasa soda.
(Mr. Kato doesn’t look like a student.)
To express the intended meaning in (4a) and (4b) rash/'/'
rash//' is used. (=5
(=>
rashil) (4b) is grammatical if soda means hearsay.
rashii) (=:>
(~=> soda‘)
4. In this construction, the negative forms of verbs usually don’t precede
sodaz. Instead, Vmasu so ni / mo nai is used. Examples:
soda2.
W
(5) 5uzm$a%9%5 c/b mu.
7'JXli$E%9%5 ll‘./‘B 1i.n.\.,
Kurisu wa kuruma 0 ur/' so ni / mo
o uri nai.
(Chris doesn’t seem to sell his car.)
W
(6) :®%%u#innw%%5 c/b
l®%Em#immw%%5 Eli mu.
Kono mondai wa gakusei ni wa deki so ni / mo nai.
(It doesn’t seem that the students can solve this problem.)
5. Soda is also used to express the speaker’s conjecture concerning his own
non-volitional future actions based on what he feels.
m %m:@5—#&%L%5fi.
(7) @9110)/7"-§r’&F§L%5f:'°
Boku wa kono keki o0 nokoshi soda.
(I’m afraid I can’t eat all this cake.)
-i
?-
(8) $141
iFLli t
<‘; ‘C M53176 I/"C T.:isJi.-"E 5'3 T50
I i
u
-
r
i
i
i
i
i
*l>fi1l1.'C\/\'CT:rF$1lL%
| i
» i
Watashi wa totemo tsukarete ire taore soda.

i
i
i
ii-ii
2|-i-——i
2|-i-——i
(I’m so tired that I feel weak (lit. like I’m falling down).)
6. Soda is a na-type adjective; the prenominal form is sona. Examples:
M
(9) %%5H$
taka sona kuruma
(a car which looks expensive (=an expensive-looking car))
W mmeoeaoa
(10) m#%o%5a§
ame ga fur/' sona sora
(lit. the sky which looks like it will bring rain)
sore de 413
sore de "E'11.'C‘
"E-fl'C‘ w"J'-
conj.
/\/\/\/\.r ./\./\./\/“/\J
/\./\/\./\./‘ _/\./\./\/\ /\/
» a conjunction to indicate that what and; because of that; that is

), is stated in the preceding sentence why; therefore; so
3 is the reason or cause for what is (REL.
[REL. da kara; node]
stated in the following sentence \./\\/\/\/\/\-/\/\-(
\4
\./\\
\¢ ./\/\/'\/\-/'\-/'\-6
< \/\/\/./\//\/\/\/\/\/\/\/
\/\/\fI\//\/\ ./\/ -/\/\¢\./\»
./'\/ ~/‘\/\./\./\a~
§Key Sentence
QKey
Sentence i
Sentence; I Sentence;
%®5&ifi%?2U%iLt.
aa>5 ii we 2 Uféibfc... anw?
-‘en 'c= %&a:WnfiA.vT.
#15? =2 ‘W/I/7‘: /V 1'5
h/k/mash/ta
K/no wa kaze 0 hik/mash/'ta. Sore de gakko 0 yasunda n desu.
desu
yesterday
(I had a cold yesterday. That’s why Itook
I took a day ofi'
off from school.)
school )
@
W B;o&fiWT$$fihDiLk.%nT%®5wtm¢kh?T°
b;o&kWTfi$#%DiLt.%nT%®5wtm¢tA?¢o
Osaka de yoji
Chotto Usaka yo//' ga arimashita. Sore de kino inakatta
inakatra n desu.
(I had some business in Osaka. That’s why I wasn’t here yesterday.)
w A:%o5uz;@akmv$$#av§cn.
(b) A:%®5ub:o&kWTfi$#%DiLk,
Osaka de yoji ga arimashita.
Kino wa chotto Cjsaka
(Yesterday I had to run an errand in Osaka.)
Br%%,%n?w%@La$&#¢tmT+n.
B12955), "i‘i1,'C'V‘IBo L5’ foY‘.t7§>of:'./o"C'*J‘1l€1o
A. sore de irassharanakalta
/T, irassharanakatta n desu ne.
(Oh, that’s why you weren’t here.)
m
(C) A=ao5mm%&Hv%v@fi%abnmfi.
A:ao5mMfi&Evfiv®fiaabnafi. —
—
—
-
ti-E1-ii
__-_
¢-1__-
11?-
______-
K/no Ogawa-kun to pinpon no sh/'a/'

shiai o0 sh/ta n da. 8?-
__-_
__-_
1-1}-
fi—
__-_¢—-
—fl
¢.___-
__-_¢—-
in
__-
¢—-
¢—-
it-_ij__
it-_ij__
iii
(Yesterday I played pingpong with Mr. Ogawa.) aim
‘E111’, 5'fiil§¥$iLv\5’r
B I *€>h.T', 9i'iifi$iLv‘5’7 ~y5 FI~ Ei"i/sf;/I/'C"i‘i.1o
2507’;/o'C"i‘zlaa
sensho atarash//'
Sore de, sens/70 atarashii raketto o0 katta n desu ne.
(That’s why he bought a new paddle last week.)
I. ““S1.
S1. Sore de S2” can be rephrased using node if sore de means cause or
reason. Note, however, that the node construction is a single sentence.
(=5 node) Example:
(=>
414 sore de /I sore de wa
M B
[1] be5tkW?fi$fl%ok®€€@5w&m@twT+.
.t 0 <‘: 1<l3i;'Z'C'}¥i$7§3$> 0 7‘.:0)'C' =5 0) 5 PW‘: 7)": T:/-/'C'*l‘,
Chotto Osaka de yoji ga atta node kino inakatta n desu.
(Because I had an errand to run in Osaka, Iwasn’t here yesterday.)
The difference is that sore de combines two sentences much more loosely
than node.
II. “S1. Sore de S2” can be rephrased using da /I desu kara, if S1
S, indicates
a reason or a cause for S2.
m
M BrotfiWTm$#%DiLtofi#B%@5Wt#okhTTo
b;o&kWem$fi&0abn.fim5ao5wemanav5.
Chotto Osaka de yoji ga ar/'mashira.-
ar/'mash/'ta.- Da kara kino inakatta n desu.
(I had an errand to run in Osaka. S0, I wasn’t here yesterday.)
So,
The difference between sore de and da kara is similar to the difference
(=5 karas;
between node and kara. (=:> kara’; node) Observe the following sen-
tence.
M aantuwcr.five/*%nc&cn%r<fi:w,
[W’%HUELW?Tafi#5/*€WE%Lt%T<fiéw,
Kyo wa isogash/i desu. Da kara I/ *Sore de ashita kite kudasai.
(I'm
(I’m busy today. So, please come tomorrow.)
‘E-?1.'C‘l:t
sore de wa ‘E-?‘l.'C‘I:t conj.
\/\/\/‘I
'\/'\/\./‘I
§ If that is the case, 5E if so; then; well then

WW“
VVW“ [REL. sore nara]
E.
ii.
1
§Key
O Key Sentences
—
II lg
_._:
I
gs;
A:
>
1
:0)
-0) 71'!/‘/‘I/I
71'!///Ii Ii 1@r<
fi'< tcw
'4
few ‘C1’
I
'61‘. 6
oren//
Kono oren//' amakunaz desu
wa amakunai desu. OO
sweet)
(This orange is not sweet.)
B:
I
%:h.'Cl1
‘H1. '6 Ii
' 6
(1 1h.i:t&')('C-§"2b)
lib ht E 5 (‘FT 15*).
I ~
6 U
Sore de wa kore wa do (desu ka).

ka) OQ
(How about this one, then?) .I

sore de wa 415
m
O
ww A=smasmtnwv+.
A:%nssmsfiwv5.
Boku wa sakana mo n/ku
niku mo k/raidesu.
kiraidesu.
(I hate both fish and meat.)
B:%nvnm2fi~anv+#.
B=%ncmW2fi&5kTTm.
Sore de wa nani o taberu n desu ka.
(Then, what do you eat?)
M AI
A=%Ho¢fia=z2bsan5.
'9,‘El ®1F{&=/"=2 E Li'li'/I/7)*a
tenisu o shimasen ka.
Kyo no gogo ten/su
(Wouldn’t you like to play tennis this afternoon?)
B:%a@$fimBro&fiéfi%wmvT#.
B: »9,*EI 0)4Ff£;l;t'E» J: O <‘;%‘|l',4;’,*7§‘§¥.v\/v'C'*J‘7)'i,
Kyo no gogo wa chotto tsugo ga warui n desu ga.
(This afternoon is not convenient for me, but. . .)
A: %fb'C'li2lb I/7‘:0)lF1§:ld:
AI %1l1fC'l:J:3?> Lf:.®lF-ffiii E 5 'C"§‘7)*.,
'C‘*J‘7)>.,
Sore de wa ashitaas/vita no gogo wa do desu ka.
(Then, how about tomorrow afternoon?)
M %i1»T’lI-ll:-"l“§}<’
%nvm:+fi¢bw%hib;5. E-I/‘i7l<~1/~i L J: 5°
Sore de wa n/juppun gurai yasumimasho.
yasum/masho.
(Well then, let’s take a break for about twenty minutes.)
(d) %nvn1n%fi0fiEHm%1+,
*'i‘h'6‘iii7‘:;E0)fi@Ell:'.;lEi'i‘.,
Sore de wa mata
mara raisho no kin'yobi ni kimasu.
(Well then, I’ll
I'll come again next Friday.)
ififil
JEEP
1. Sore de wa is contracted into sore /'a
ja or sore /a
jé in informal speech.
2. Sore de wa is often shortened to de wa, which is further contracted N..-.-
N..-
N..-.-
ii
i
E
_._
i
=
._..
12$
i 1i—
__._
8 ._..
__-
/a or ja.
to /'5 i
i
__._
i
_._
i
1
._.
__.
._.
._.
__.
3. Sore de wa is used in sentence-initial position, and sore ‘that’ refers to

that which is stated in the preceding sentence, as in Exs. (a) and (b), or
to the preceding context, as in Exs. (c) and (d). In Exs. (c) and (d) the
speaker uses sore de wa based on some nonverbal shared knowledge.
The shared knowledge for (c) aiid (d) could be ‘the fact of having worked
long enough ’' and ‘the fact of having finished today’s discussion and an
Friday’,’, respectively.
agreement for meeting every Friday
416 sore kara
ens“;
sore kara E-fl.fJ\»5 conj.
\/\/'\/\/\/\/'\/\»
g a conjunction that indicates (1) tem- E after that; and then; in addition
porally contiguous actions or states, § to that
jg or (2) a cumulative listing of objects, /v-./\ .l\/‘ \./‘\ . [REL. karai;
karaz; shi; soshite]
sosh/re]
§3 actions or states
/\/\/\/Q‘
QKey
§Key Sentences
(A)
__-
Vte
aw/>5 ii :H#F§1<'av~
an/>5a1 .:H%‘rF§1<'bv~ Zviii
325$ <2J: fir/ve -‘en
fizA.'c mes
~'ez1./Ms 515 is; Ii?=->r.:/
5'ai:l%or:/
n/jikan guraitomodachi
Kino wa n/j/kan gurai tomodachi to nonde sore kara uchini kaerral
kaettal
%9iLto
%9iLk,
ka erimashita
erimashita..
(Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours and then went home.)
(B)
Sentence;
I
Sentenceg
aw/>5 :1 :.u#F§l
$0501 :H¥'rFa'i <*ev~
<’i5v~ iii t<2 fik/V13. H1 2b=¢.>
fit/V15. an mo 1115 H.501
IKE ll $01
Kino
K/no wa nijikan
n/jikan gurai tomodachi to nonda. Sore kara hon-ya ni yotte
'5 f9
I5 lC
IC I1?-ioflo
fiivflo
uchz
uchi m
ni kaetta.
(Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours. Then I dropped
by a bookstore and went home.)
i
-E-
-E-
mi
-iii
I j
-
_ i
_-_
—
_ i
-
- 3
—
_
- E—
Q
- i
i
_ _-_
1%
- i
- i
-iii
mi
-X.-ii
mi
ii
((i)
i ) {Vte /I Vmasu} {'31 75* 15
{-31, 71* I3
sore kara
{ESL/C
[ESL/C /Efilsl,
/ESL}, {-11, 7)~l3
‘£11. 75-13 (s.o. talks, and then ~)
{hanashite
[hanashite /I hanashi}
hanashi}., sore kara
{fix-c /fifil, ‘Eh.
[fi'<'C /EA}, %fL #6
aw, (s.o. eats, and
(s.o. eats, and then ~)
then ~)
[tabete / tabe}. sore kara
{tabete
(ii) Adj (i)
(ii) Adj (i) stem
stem ((1), -‘Eh, #6
((1). %:h. 75>?)
ku(te), sore kara
sore kara 417
E]
éi ((1'),
<(T), {-31, 70"‘;
{TL 7)>r5 (s.t. is not only expensive but ~)
takaku(te).
takaku(ze), sore kara
(iii) Adj (na) stem “G,
‘G, {-11,
{-31, nu‘;
7)>r5
de.
de, sore kara
fi7)='C',
?f‘7§='C', {#1. 75*?)
{'11) #6 (s.t. is not only quiet but ~)
shizukade, sore kara
shizukade.
(iv) N1(<‘:)N2(k)
(iv) N1 (21) N2 (.2) an #15
{'11 we Na
N3
(to) (to) sore kara
$3?
fiifi (<‘:)
(k) EIIFEE
E11??? (<2),
(J1), %:h.
-‘en #15
#6 IPEIEE
'1=l£I%-‘E (English, Japanese and
eigo (to) nihongo (to). sore kara chogokugo Chinese)
@ +%iT@%&LiLkQ%h#b%EKfi%iLka
W +fii?@%2LiLk.%n#6%Etfi%iLk°
Joji
J0/'i made shukudai 0
o shimashita. Sore kara eiga ni ikimashita.
ikimashira.
(I did my home work until 10 o'clock.
o’clock. And then, Iwent to the movie.)
M
(bl %o5ufiflEKfior.%nmamE&Etfi@n.
‘$79 5 ii@5El§§lZ'-fi“*>"C, *'E'fb7)>B55l%@EE.lCfi'O 71¢
Kino wa asa Ginza ni itte, sore kara eiga o0 mi ni itta.
(Yesterday morning I went to Ginza and then went to see a movie.)
@ vxF7vTm2¥—%k#9§k%n#6%—f7—%EfiKiLk°
vzF5vfmz5—%&#5¥t%nmb5—f5—#2fi4iLka
Hesutoran de wa suteki to sarada to sore kara chizukeki o0 tabemashita.
Resutoran
(At the restaurant I ate steak, salad, and cheesecake.)
w moaumwu%<.%n5e&mavsbk.
M®@mflwu§<,%n#6§t&DiLt°
Mizuumi no iro wa hajime wa aoku.
aoku, sore kara midori ni narimashita.
(The color of the lake was blue in the beginning and then turned
green.)
E@.k@.%nma*@sarstbwv5.
@ Hfl.k@.%n#6*fi$&r$tuwv+. M
M
M.
Getsuyo. kayo. sore kara mokuyo mo totemo isogashiidesu. iii.

_.
MM
_.___
i___
_—
31
__
__._.
___.-
ii
(I am very busy on Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday, too.)

——
—
—
1-111-
—
—
-it-—-iii
it-—-iii
1. Sore kara can be used to indicate something which the speaker almost
forgot to mention, as in (1) below:
(1) ~‘/' a ‘/ k
<‘: 2' U9 — <2, Zib$>‘€'
'—<‘:, £5555’? 5 Ts’,
T5, %1I1,7)=E>rI$7'7)§5iE7‘:J:..
%1?b7§>Bvl'57'7)§5lET:J2a
Men‘ to. 5a so da.
Jon to Meri da, sore kara Bobu ga kira
kita yo.
(John and Mary and, oh yeah, Bob came too.)
‘ and then’ is often used by the hearer to elicit more infor-
2. Sore kara ‘and
mation from the speaker. Example:
418 sore kara
m
(2) A=%Hu£:~fi%abn5.
AI '9fEl ii <‘:'Z'_'\fi%i Liar)‘,
Kyo wa doko e ikimashita ka.
(Where did you go today?)
if§fiFU—KLDiLka
B: ‘3i'i‘§F'i1§' '7—l;_h9 i Liza
Mazu Tokyo tawa ni noborimashita.
(First we went up Tokyo Tower.)
A: %h#B?
%fri.h\ E: ?
Sore kara?
(And then?)
B: ififitfiéibko
¥fi?i'EElZ'.fi% i L 7:,
B/jursukan
Bijutsukan ni ikimashita.
(I went to the art museum.)
-z~n7»~ -2» P
A: %1‘l.iJ\ E» ?
Sore kara?
(And then?)
B: 5*’/i-— I~ l:.fi'*o’C. fiE'C'EI.'fifi’&fi*\'3-I L Tao
¥fi—FKfioT.fi§TEffiEfi&iLk°
Depoto ni itte,
Depato itte. shokudo de hirugohan o
0 tabemashita.
(I went to a department store and ate my lunch at the cafeteria.)
3. Vte, Vmasu, Adj (i) stem ku (re) and Adj (na) stem de do not have their
own tense. The tense is identical with that of the main verb.
I. Vte kara and Vte, sore kara are similar but not identical in meaning.
Vte kara expresses chronological sequence; Vte, sore kara expresses
chronological sequence and I/ or enumeration. For example, [la] expresses
purely chronological order and [lb], chronological order and enumeration.
M
M
it
-1
M
M
M
M
M
(=5
(=> karai)
kara?)
Z.
M 3
M
M
-1- M
M
M M
m m
a m¢éAmE%%dw7&LT#6—fi%%wfi.
it
M M
M
M mmsnu:%md»72crmB—fi%awfi.
in
M M
M
—M
M-
Yamanaka-san wa sanjikan goruiu

gorufu 0o shite kara ichijikan
oyoida.
(Mr. Yamanaka swam for one hour after having played golf
for three hours.)
h mmsunzfimdwvacr,%nn5—%%%wfi.
b. Ill‘? é /vl;tE.H#F§1 If/I/7 23: I/C, %1h.h\ I5—-B#FaEli’ii<v\T£o
Yamanaka-san wa sanjikan gorufu 0 shite.
shite, sore kara ichi-
jikan oyoida.
(Mr. Yamanaka played golf for three hours, and, on top of that,
he swam for an hour.)
sore kara /I sore nara 419
II. “Vte/Vmasu,
“VteIVmasu, sore kara”, “Adj (i) stem kute,
kure, sore kara” and “Adj
(na) stem de, sore kara”
kara" are very similar to shi when they express
enumeration.
M w §Hu?:22LT.%h#5%E$Rk.
file %Bm5:z2LT.%h#5%EbEk°
Kyo wa tenisu o shite,
shite. sore kara eiga mo mita.
(Today I played tennis, and I saw a movie, too.)
U
E %Hm5=zbLkL.%EbRk.
%Bm?:X£LtL.%EbRk°
Kyo wa tenisu mo shita shi. eiga mo mita.
shite shi,
(Today I played tennis, and what’s more, saw a movie.)
III. So shite /I soshite and sore kara are interchangeable when two events do
not occurs simultaneously. Compare the following:
M
W w %%2%wr.%5Lr@%¢a@#fian.
%%a%wr.%5br@%5ao#Hafi.
Ongaku 0o kiite. so shite benkyosuru no ga sukida.
(I like to listen to music while studying. /I like to listen to
music first and then study.)
%%e%wr.%nm5@%+ao#Hafi.
h %¥a§wr.%nm5%%+ao#fiafi.
kiite, sore kara benkyosuru no ga sukida.
Ongaku o kiire.
(I like to listen to music first and then study.)
sore nara ‘E-?‘l.fi."5

%?1.f.t5 W"!-
conj.
j "\"\"'\%"\/'\"\./\
)‘ '\./\I\/'\"\/\'\/'\/\~.l'\/‘\'\/'\/'\./'\/\/\/\
"\/'\’\'\'\/\'\/\ /\/\/\/\/'\/\’\/\./\/'\/\’\/\./\/\/\/\I\ /\./\/\
I\./\/\ /\./'\.
/\/\_
§ If that is the case, gj then; in that case

""”""'“""""‘"’""W"’
"’W"""""“"M’”‘ [REL. sore de wa]
§Key Sentence
QKey MM
{___}
—
MM.
MM.
MM.
Mi
;s§'
Mi
MM
____M-
MM
Ii
MM
MM
MM
MM
A: B:
515.
ER rbifiio/v't
3 1%!» /v '61‘.
iii "J1. iii 2 v
1&1 :3
I611. fa»; 'i‘<'E.:é
*l‘<’ ‘O
Ef.:z1$v‘..
Atama ga itai n desu. Sore nara sugu nenasai.
(I have a headache.) I (In that case, go to sleep right away.)
W A=mmanefia1enm.
A=%E2RKfi€i%bWa
Eiga 0o mi ni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to go see a movie?)
420 sore nara
B:%Lkfifi#%5kTT.
B I 37> l,7’:?i§7)3%Z> /o'C'“i‘°
Ashira shiken ga aru n desu.
Ashita
(I have an exam tomorrow.)
AI%h&B.%éoTfiE5TT#°
AI %1l1/=C 6- 55$ 'J'Cli E 5 "C"§‘7§‘a
Sore nara. asatte wa do desu ka.
(Then, how about the day after tomorrow?)
(m A
(b) A:H$muE®¢bwwiLtm.
= 52111101 Ev) <' I5vw\i urea».
Nihon ni wa dono gurai imashita ka.
(How long did you stay in Japan?)
B=:¢r+.
BIEETTQ
Sannen desu.
(Three years.)
A:%nas.H$o:&n:<%@1wavbi5n.
A1%hHB,B$®:&Ul<%oTW6TL;5h°
nara, Nihon no koto wa yoku shitte
Sore nara. sh/"tte iru desho ne.
(Then, you must know a lot about Japan.)
l. Sore ‘that’ refers to a previously-spoken sentence. In KS, for example,

1.
B’s sentence can be rephrased as (1):
sore refers to A’s entire sentence. B's
m
(1) fi#fiwnu6+¢Emew.
'5IE.n'§I§i?v\/of; 6'3‘ CE’: é \/‘O
Atama ga itai n nara sugu nenasai.
(If you have a headache, go to sleep right away.)
Nara in (1) expresses the speaker’s supposition concerning the truth of
A’s statement. (=5
(=> nara)
2. Sore nara has a more formal form, sore naraba, and a more informal one,
M
sonnara.
=-"
M 1'
M:
3. For restrictions imposed on the sentence that follows sore nara, see the
M
M M
M
— M
=: S -i
__-_
MM M
M
__._ M
_
MM M
M
_-. M
M
M
M
M
M
M
notes in nara.
Although sore nara and sore de wa are very similar, they differ in that the
former is dependent on verbal context while the latter is not. Thus, towards
the end of one’s visit with his superior or on an occasion when something is
[1a, b].
offered, sore de wa is used, as in [la,
[H
[11 a
a- %hfU#*%hU6%%LiTo
%h.'C‘li/*%h7JI59€i‘LLi*i‘a
Sore de wa /I *Sore nara shitsureishimasu.
(Lit. Then I must be going now.)
sore nara / soretomo 421
b- %h.'C'l;t
b. / *1-nf.:5i§r§:>*.c < werse
-1-n-eta/*%1tf.;-afizazc iv“.
v~r;r.:-5 an
Sore de wa
wal/ *Sore nara enryo naku itadakimasu.
(Lit. Then, I’ll take it (without hesitation).)
soretomo %f|,{;
soretomo ‘E'il'l,¢I =5
ii “"13
conj.
\/\/\/\/-
a coordinate conjunction which con- >

./\a.¢\a\.
or; either ~ or ~
1I
nects two alternatives expressed by (

<‘\
kall
[REL. ka‘]
g sentences éQ
-\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\/~./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\,\/\/\/‘\/\/\/\/\./\/\/" ./\/\/\,
"'\/\-/'\/'\/‘\/‘-/\/\/‘-/“-/\/\/\/‘ ./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\./\./\./\/\/~ /\/ ./\/\/xr
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Sentence; (informal)
Sentence,
1
:</J
\.-0) 21: 131 11525101
iii 75 75*<>'(' (Ms
W3) >§~ (%>h.<‘;t)
("i‘1lLE
Kono hon ga machzgatte /ru
machigatte iru kka (soretomo)
Sentence;
SCHICDCC2 (informal)
$1. rb1&1 iB7)3o’C

wt 9“,
vs 2»/rt was 1» 22(5))»
am,» 2‘rs/rc--r.
'61‘
fg‘
\-4 5.
6*.-
Watashi
watashi ga mach/gatte
machigatte /ru
iru kkaQ:v 6- dochrraka
dochiraka da / desu
desu.O_
I
(Its either that this book is wrong or that I am wrong)

(It’s wrong.)
(B)
/'\/-\5
3:’
an
at
hi.-ii
at
i
i 2
i_
_ _
---
i
_-_ -i
---
i ---
ti--_-—
tini-
_----—-—
i--_-—
—m
1-I-_-_
Question, Questionz
ini--1-i——n-ii
-._¢—-_-i-1;
-.-it-_-i-1;
-._¢—-_-i-1;
qi--.3,-i-—.i
WE’ E
gill? Q 7~tn
9-%_ii‘ 75%.
& fi’<i*i‘ 15 Ycitktb
%1L~‘:‘i, *3‘-é’<K°%
*i‘2?'?°% it;
ll Li?‘ Y575%
' £
Sashimi
i*
_
.S‘ash/m/ 0 tabemasu ka ka.OH. Soretomo ka.
sukiyaki ni shimasu ka O
IQ,
I
(Will you have sashimi,

sashzmz, or will you have sukzyakz?)
sukiyaki?)
¢‘-°'."
(8-) %>=;Ez> Mane ‘!>)1l~T5l1‘<'

(a) %v1;l&2s»=(%na (>)1=~t#zs/.,»=;(ez> @212 ez>='c*r°
1SA/rb3§lE?57§=E§ era»-c~r.
Boku ga kuru ka (soretomo) Murai-san ga kuru ka dochiraka desu.
(Either I will come or Mr. Murai will come.)
422 soretomo / soshite
M &oAm%$v+#.%ne$E%vT#.
a@An%iv+m.%nasE%c+m.
Ano hito wa sensei desu ka. Soretomo
Soreromo isha desu ka.
(Is he a teacher or a doctor?)
1. Soretomo combines statements (KS(A)) or questions (KS(B)).

l. In KS(A),
soretomo can be omitted.
2. In KS(B), if the context is clear, abbreviated questions may occur in
(1) may be used for KS(B).
informal speech. For example, (l)
irnti»,
(1) W15’? %11.&: '§‘=é’<>=é?
16, 'i'€~<=%?
Sash/"mi? Soretomo. sukiyaki?
Sashimi?
(Sashimi or sukiyaki?)
-El/C
soshite % l/C Conf-
“Inj-
a coordinate conjunction that con- gé and; and then
nects two sentences 3S [REL.
(REL. sore kara]
~/\/-./\./\../\./\/\ ./\/\/\/\.¢\./\/\/\/\/\./‘/\./\/
\
./\/\./"~../x/x/\./\./Q
-‘ii
-ii.
i
iii;
Q Key Sentence
5
I
1
1
i
_-—
_-—
—-—
i i
1 i
I qt
1
_ *
_-—
1 *
Sentence;
1 *
ESE
_
_
_
*
*
i
I
ii.‘
'-1‘ElIi E€i'i"'
’9fE1li iii Ill fiofc/fiéibfc
fiofc / i“T‘é'i Liza
I O
f‘.
Kyo wa Tokyo ni m lttal/ /k/mash/ta
itta ikimashita.\.
today \-
(I went to Tokyo today.
Sentence;
%l/C
‘El/C iii
Zviii I: éi-oT:./4-§\(\iLf:..,
éofc/4-f_=\i\iL7‘:.,
Soshire tomodachi ni atta / aimashita.
there)
And I met my friend there.)
\-.
soshite I/ sugiru 423
@ %®5m@iw7&LiLk.%LT¢&fi%:x&LiLk,
%®5m@dw7&LiLk.%LT4&u?:z&LiLk,
Kino wa asa gorufu 0 shimashita. Soshite gogo wa tenisu 0 shimashita.
(Yesterday I played golf in the morning. And I played tennis in the
afternoon.)
@ C®%Em0i8&w°%LT§T€6°
:®mEu0i%&w,%LTET§5.
tsumaranai. Soshite
Kono eiga wa rsumaranai. Soshire nagasugiru.
(This movie is uninteresting. And it’s too long.)
:®fiu%nwv¢.%Lriwv+.
M :®%m%nwv+.%Lr£wv+.
Kono hana wa kireidesu. Soshite yasuidesu.
flower is pretty.
(This fiower And it is inexpensive.)
1. Soshite and so shite are normally interchangeable, but if so shite is used

in the original sense of ‘ by doing so’, it cannot be replaced by soshite.
m
(ll %5UCV%LTETbT?#°
{'5 LT /*% l./CE'§‘/v'L"§‘h*o
So shite I/ *Soshite naosu n desu ka.
fix it by doing so?
(Lit. Do you fix (=Oh, that’s how you fix it?))
2. The two sentences in this construction can be combined using the te-
form of verbs or adjectives, as in (2). This version is encountered less
frequently than the above version and sounds a little redundant, because
the re-form
te-form alone can mean ‘ ~ and’.
m éifiliifilfifivf,
(2) aflmfifimfivr,tiur/tctfifiméwicn.
{'5 l/C / ‘E l,'C7ii¥l:§-F.-'\r‘i Lfcs
Kyo wa Tokyo ni itte.
itte, so shite /I soshite tomodachi ni aimashita.
(I went to Tokyo today, and I met my friend there.)
n
n
n
__¢
-__
—-1 1
=
_
—-1 1
i 1
i
—-1
Z
1
i 1
i 1
i 1
-_1 1
i 1
qi 1
A
-—1_@_i-
jim-
sugiru
5ug||'u 3'55
'§',_={i25 aux. v. (Gr. 2)
A/v
/\/\J\/\/\/\/'\/'\/\/‘ ./\./"~/\/\/\/\./'\/‘-/\-/'\-/NI
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ -
So /s.t. does s.t. excessively or is

S.o. \4\/\ too; do s.t. too much/often;
/N4
over-
I
in a state excessively. \‘A

/\/\4\4\/\
OV€ I'-
\/_\/\' /\./\./'\./r\/
VV
'\/\/
424 sugiru
Q Key Sentences
§Key
M)
(SUb_]CClI)
'74/1/7‘/é/v
'74/I///£15/v )1 ra 2E: as aaa/—ras+.
'l‘€Z.'>/'l‘€'i'J‘
U/ruson san
Uiruson-san 5
av;
wa n/ku 0
niku tabe sug/ru / sug/masu
sugiru sugimasu. O_
(Mr
(Mr. Wilson eats too much meat.)
meat)
(B)
. . Ad‘ '
>
TOp1C (subject)
Topic Noun Jstgéna)
djstgélna)
EH S. 7»—b§(1
7’/\~— '1'. fii
=i+L12
i ca:H-
HIP
FT.
E-=-
Jqi
'1 _ sea/+ae+.
‘T35 /'4'???‘
Kono apato wa W8f8S/7If8C/‘H
Watashitachi n1
ni wa taka sug/ru
sugiru / sug/masu
sugimasu
OI
(This apartment is too expensive for us.)

us.),_
\-/ _ _
GHHHMD
( i ) Vmasu -J“
T3’ -:5’ 25
5
sugiru
35- 1,
35-1, 1- =5’ 25
—;-325 (talk too much)
hanashi sugiru
Q/< -3-=,§'2_3
QA 1'-3'2; (eat too much)
rabe
tabe sugiru
ii) Adj (i/na) stem
(ii) -3-=5’>5
~;~=.§"5
Pi:
i __'—
5
;
5
2
an
3
Z
sugiru
_|.¢
,5, -§'=3'2_5
1'35 (too expensive)
_l_.
raka sugiru
taka
3'97).
}';'}7)= —;~§z;,
-;—=g' Z5 (too quiet)
shizuka sugiru
tfiflflfil
w flm4%E+§r#&ns<nn.
@ fim%@§T§T¥finB<nk.
Watashi wa kesa ne sugite gakko ni okureta.
(I overslept this morning and was late for school.)
sugiru 425
M comufiowéuufiexaa.
cwmuflonéuufiarsa.
Kono tsukue wa watashi no heya ni wa oki sugiru.
(This desk is too big for my room.)
M E¢%E®§¥fifiET€%®?%wiLk°
@ H¢%i@fi¥fik%+€aovywatn.
Tanaka-sensei no jugyo wa taihen sugiru node yamemashira.
(I dropped Prof. Tanaka’s class because it was too demanding.)
w fiekuxvrarwa.
fianuxvrarwa.
futon’ sugite iru.
Mori-san wa futori
(Mr. Mori is too fat.)
1. Sugiru, which as a main verb means ‘pass;

‘ pass; go beyond some limit’, is
used as an auxiliary verb with Vmasu or Adj (i / na) stem and means
‘ do s.t. excessively’ or ‘be ~ excessively’.
2. The stem of ii ‘ good’ changes to yo before sugiru, as in (1).
u):@nw*—M1hAnu&¢§%.
(1) :v>7'»<'—- Hi tt.m1.:~r-2'5.
apéto wa Tomu ni wa yo sugiru.
Kono apato
(This apartment is too good for Tom.)
3. The negative nai ‘ not exist / not’ changes to nasa before sugiru.
*<‘/li7J7§§7J-"5'§“§?5s
(2) /<‘/lij7r)§f.£é'T%'Z»..
Ben wa chikara ga nasa sugiru.
(Lit. Ben has too little power. (=Ben is too weak.)) '
m
(3) fi¥m§¥2fi~uéT€a.
7'i¥t:i:¥¥¥2fi'<fi' 3 '§“é='>5..
Tomoko wa yasai 0 tabenasa
rabenasa sug/ru.
sugiru.
(Tomoko eats too few vegetables.)
4. For in “ be too ~ for someone I/ something” is expressed by ni wa, as
iii
ii
iii
ii-
__i_-i
i 1
in KS(B) and Ex. (b). -_1

i
_-1
i
—-1
ii
iii
iii
j
i
i
j
-—
iii-
ii-ii
5. Sugiru is a Gr. 2 verb; the negative form is suginai, the polite form is
sugimasu and the re-form is sugite.
426 sukida
sukida '§'éT.-I
'§‘é7‘:£ @411 (na)
adj-
./"~/'\/'\./'\/\-/‘\/'\J
»AAA»»/v
§é S.t.
s.t. or
or s.o.
s.o. isis what
what s.o.
s.o. likes.
likes. §j like; be
like; be fond
fond of
of
"V"”””
"“N‘”W“'"’W”WW’”W"
\/'\/'\/'\/‘
(ANT. kiraida)
Q§Key
Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) Liked Ob]CClI

Object
$1. :1 xi-—-fie;
x%—# »= leer:/tear-—r.
fiéf/H51?
Watashi wa 8Ul6'kI
sutéki g
ga suk/da
sukida / suk/desu
sukidesu.
. O‘
-
steak)
(I like steak.)
(a) l£i1e¥¥=kr>§!r¥ar:.
M &u§fi#fl%fi.
Boku wa yakyo ga sukida.
(I like baseball.)
M
(b) Vavvvébmvrffififiécfo
9' a ‘/7 ‘/E55 /vii‘? 4' z“:o§7<;z¥%'c=--5-.,
Jonson-san wa jazu ga dai-sukidesu.
(Mr. Johnson loves jazz.)
1. Sukida is a na-type adjective which requires the “ wa ~ ga construction ”.

That is, the experiencer (i.e., the person who likes someone or some-
thing) is marked by wa and the liked object by ga. (Q (=> ~ wa ~ ga)
Note that the liked object is marked by ga not by 0.
2. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is also marked by ga, as in (1)
and (2).
A
n
E __€
__._
5
_
'
I
I
‘
C
-
Q
Q
:=
i
ZIIZ
-_
-_-_
__._
i
-.—
i
__._
m flfiz%—##H€&:&uhw&%oTw5.
fl#z¥—##fl%&:tmawt%¢Tw6.
1
Watashi ga sutéki ga skina koto wa minna shine

shitte iru.
(Everybody knows that I like steak.)
M vav#fi%mz£—vu§fiv+.
vav#fi€&2£—vm§fi?TO
Jon ga sukina supotsu wa yakyo desu.
(Lit. The sport John likes is baseball. (=]ohn’s favorite sport is
baseball.))
3. “ Like a lot ” is expressed by dai-sukida, as in Ex. (b).
sukunai 427
sukunaz
sukunai fbtxln
5L‘1::t\ “di-
ad] (I)
\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/v
I
small in number or quantity 2 few;

few, a small number of; little;
of, little
“MNW a small quantity of ~
[REL
[REL. wazuka]
(ANT
(ANT. oi)
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Topic (location) Subject
:0
0') WT
ET Eli vw\vzb5v§
I/W\ vz I~'7/ 1); /ytcw / 'P>*.:v\'c1".,
'P1‘.c\r\/’Ptrv\'C'l‘
mach:
Kono machi wa ii resutoran g
ga 8UkUfl8I
sukunai I sukuna/desu
sukunaidesu.
(Lit In this town good restaurants are few
(Lit. few. (=There arent
aren’t many good
restaurants in this town.))
town ))
w :ofi#m#¥#$#wmwv1.
®k$fi#¥$ia¢¢wf+
Kono da/gaku
daigaku wa /osh/gakusev
joshigakusei ga SUkU!78Id€SU
sukunaidesu.
(The number of female students at this college is small)
small.)
B$mm¥#¢&w.
) B1lIti5l1%vb'Pf.¢v\
NI/70!? wa hanzai
A/ihon hanzar ga sukunaz
sukunai.
(There are few crimes in Japan.)
Japan)
B$%#%na%@Amk§¢uw.
) B1li?fin=%h‘?55’ll§)kli7<Z')‘f:v\
Nihongo ga kakeru gaikoku/in
N/hongo raihen sukunar
ga/koku//n wa ta/hen sukunai.
(Lit Foreigners who can write Japanese are very few
(Lit. few. (=Very few
foreigners can write Japanese.))
Japanese ))
iii
Ki
iii-i
1 . Sukunal
Sukunai cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative clause where
sukunar is the predicate of the subject of the relative clause
sukunai clause.
(1)
(1 *:v>1<#(1&‘>::(\t<¥#$»=v\:*r.
*" ®J'<$ti&‘&l.\ir¥$i>b vii?‘
*Kono daigaku wa sukunai
$Ul(U!18I /osh/gakusei
joshigakusei ga /masu
imasu.
(Cp Ex.
(Cp. EX (a))
(2) 7l<7§ .’]/‘7a.L\l5Tl EB? < Eb
7l<7)3&‘7.£L\l‘1TlCiE-7><7‘; $9 9 i-Ii"/o
iii‘/vs
K1 ga sukunai
Ki sukunal machi
mach: n1
ni sum/taku
sumitaku anmasen
arimasen.
(I don’t
dont want to live in a town where there are few trees)
trees.)
few vs
2. The distinction between English ‘few’ vs. ‘ a few
few’ can be expressed by
sukunai sukoshi wa as in (3) below.
sukunar and SU/(O8/7! below
428 sukunai I/ suru‘
m
(3) 1
a. H$%#%ma7xvnAuwuu.
H$%Mfima7xvnAu¢uu.
Nihongo ga wakaru Amerikajin wa sukunai.
(Lit. Americans who can understand Japanese are few. (=Few
Americans can understand Japanese.))
b. B$%m%ma7xvwAu&Lmwa.
h H1li§§n§§3*2b=Z5'i'% I) 1a)\iw‘l,|:.tw.'>.
Nihongo ga wakaru Amerikajin wa sukoshi wa iru.
(There are a few Americans who can understand Japanese.)
Sukunai differs from a similar word wazuka(da) in both meaning and use.
The latter means ‘insignificant number or amount of ~’ and is used be-
fore a noun or in a predicate position or as an adverb. Only in [la] below
can wazukada be replaced by sukunai.
M 8-
[1] & %l\1)‘*l'—?‘r@'£'\/‘%’>;*o‘&li1'>?"iJ\f:'..
flfi%0TW5£$HbT#E.
motte iru o-kane wa wazukada.
Watashi ga morte
(The money I possess is very little.)
b?#UB$f§6LTwé.
h bfmuxacéaurwa.
Wazukana o-kane de kurashite iru.
(He is living with a paltry sum of money.)
0
m %@Aubf#@:&fT¢B:%.
%®AubT#®:&TT¢fi:éo
Ano hito wa wazuka no koro
koto de sugu okoru.
(He gets angry easily over a trifling matter.)
d
d. %®fi%fibf#U3fiovLt,
%0)H#filib'9"7'J\(l:)7‘<0'C'L7‘:..,
Sono toki boku wa wazuka(ni) murtsu deshita.
(At that time I was merely six years old.)
L-
?._._
n
— __%
‘L
: Z
5
- Z
_-
: Z
Z
is-?
suru‘
surul 3'5
3'25 v. (Irr.)
/\/\/‘u/\/\/\/‘\/\/‘/\-/“u'\~/‘-/\/'/J
/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/*/\//J \-/'
\/ /~/'-'\f;
/“~./'-/\/J
S o /s.t. causes a state or action to Eg do; make; play; play the role
take place. 3g of ~; wear
suru‘ 429
QKey
Q Key Sentences
(A)
M)
Wmen ewe» in +=z 322

i=2 +5/car.
To/Li
Nakayama san
Nakayama-san waQ) ten/su
renisu o suru I/ shimasu.
sh/masu
(Mr.
(Mr Nakayama plays tennis.)
tennis)
(B)
To P ic (subject)
Topic (subJ ect ) ObJ ect
Direct Object
~—2é/V
')—:<*é/v ii fiééro
seas E
0) 95515 E
=5: I/C v~Z>/v\i'f..
LT v~Z>/vi
R/zu san
Rizu-san wa e/go no sensei
eigo S8086’! 0 sh/re
shite /ru I /masu
iru/imasu.
(Mr Leeds is (lit.

(Mr. (lit doing) an English teacher.)
teacher)
(C)
Topic (subject) Direct Object (1) ste
Adj (i) stem
95$ (1 5'-X
=i-xl~ ~<=2.<l,
R’ L < (J;/1.11.1.1.
LT/Libii...
Sense:
Sensei wa tesuto
tesuro yasashr
yasashi kku sh/ta /I shimashita.
shita sh/mash/ta
easy)
(The teacher made his test easy.)
6
I5
(D)
\/
\-/
\_/
\:
Topic (subject) Direct Object Noun
am ii .15.? 2 '°flk Ea
Em i; L7‘;/Libico
LT°rt /Li L110 aim
aim
aim
¢
\ . El-=
K/guch/
Kiguchi wa musuko 0 /s
ishaa ni shlta
shita /I sh/mash/ta
shimashita.
E %
roat-. _-1
i
i
_i
oi
-1
I2.
—i -I——
El?.
9" 1-. .
i -1
—i =
..5E
-1
L -_—
—
—
¢
—
—
E.
FT.
(Kiguchi caused his son to become a physician.)
physician
(E)
(U
.3mg
_O . . .
Topic (subject) Direct Object Sgggggfigfi

S‘n°'-lapanes
Compound
#1.
ii-\
1*
.D
__ li =P..§ ~l~I5,,,
IE5 >5; aaa 1,1
%5'§ LT Ms I vii".
we/v $1‘
ss§_
sawa
U..,
tjmi
''~-5-
-. ~4-
- ._ . f‘
~0 I
Watashz
Watashi chugokugo
chogokugo Ro0- .t _ benkyo shzte
shire /ru
iru /I imasu.
/masu \.O
._
FE
‘ . -m. R‘,
O. mm“
(I am studying Chinese.)
430 suru‘
5
Ti-III
fit? iii *<nv\»:,_
i=m~>:¢
I‘ 7\11~—-7
211—7 2 I/C v\Z>/v 1')‘
LT v\Z5/v\i'§‘.,
Kyoko
Ky6ko§ 5;:
wa k/re/na
kireina sukafu P0i‘ S/‘HIE
shite iru
. I
/ru /I imasu
imasu.' o
scarf)
(Kyoko is wearing a beautiful scarf.)
m
m
@ B$AdkwTwiEB$&$2+6°
Bikutwrwififibfiiema.
Nihon/In wa ta/‘lei
Nihonjin taitei doyébi
doyobi mo shigoto o0 suru.
(The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.)
(b) 1:’/141/\l=~
l:"1l/Ii/~l>~ I/-7
1/ 9 I~l~ §:*J"Z>'>i>
’i"§‘%'>’> ‘B D9 Ti‘,
75.,
we Hamuretto 0o suru tsumori da.
Biru wa
(Bill is going to play Hamlet.)
(0) I$%¥&1%[SE’$:
l5%¥'Ii‘,¥[$§’Z: énwc
‘é1l”L\r\lC Lfco
Yoko wa heya 0o k/rein/'
kireini shite.
shira.
(Lit. Yoko made her room clean. (=Yoko cleaned her room.))
w %m;<§&fifiLi+°
%ux<$2@fiLa+.
Boku wa yoku kuruma 0o untenshimasu.
(I often drive a car.)
(e) —-%li7'2‘
—-%l;t7'2* U 71)\2§l:
iakéiic Lfco
amerika/"in o0 tsuma ni shite.
Kazuo wa amerikajin sh/ta.
(Lit. Kazuo made a wife of an American. (=Kazuo took an American
wife.))
(f) l/“/"F7
\(‘\/‘FEW 6'4 2
=5: I/Cl/\Z>iQ°
L"Cv\Z.5ia..
=
_
-
=
:1
=i
_.._
i
__
E.-;
/i nekutai 0o shite iru ne.
= 1-
E 2
E S 2
i__
__._?
i
mi
(You're wearing a nice tie, aren’t you?)
(You’re
iflfib
1. Suru‘ means ‘‘to
to cause some state or action
action’,’, and corresponds to English
make’.’.
‘ do’ or ‘ make
2. KS(A) and Ex. (a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t.
KS(B) as well as Ex. (b) are cases where the subject is playing a social
or dramatic role. KSs(C) and (D) and Ex. (c) have causative meanings.
3. KS(C) and Ex. (c) require that either Adj (1')
(i) stem+ku or Adj (na) stem+
ni (i.e., adverbial form of Adj (i /I na)) be used before suru. KS(D) and
suru‘ 431
Ex. (e) use a Noun+ni in front of suru.
The Direct Objects of KS(F) and Ex. (f) are items that cover a small
part of the human body such as nekutai ‘ (neck)tie’, tebukuro ‘ gloves’
and udedokei ‘ wristwatch ’. When used with such direct objects, suru
means ‘ wear ’.
The construction in KS(D) (i.e., N+nI

N+n/' suru) also has an idiomatic use,
meaning ‘ decide on ~’. (Q
(-Q ni suru)
Sino-Japanese compounds+suru such as benkyosuru ‘ study ’ and unten-

suru ‘ drive’ can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(E) and Ex. (d).
The Sino-Japanese compound itself can also be used as the direct object
of suru. For example, compare KS(B)
KS(E) and Ex. (d) with (l) (1) and (2),
respectively.
m flu$E%@@%&Lrw&.
flu¢E%o%%€Lrw5.
Watashi wa chogokugo
chdgokugo no benkyo o
0 shite iru.
(Lit. I am doing the study of Chinese. (=I am studying
Chinese.))
m %u;<$®@&&L1+.
%mx<$o@fiELa+.
Boku we
wa yoku kuruma no unten o
0 shimasu.
(Lit. I often do the driving of a car. (=I often drive a car.))
Note in Sentences (1) and (2) that the direct object in KS(E) and
Ex. (d) is connected to the Sino-Japanese compound by the particle no,
creating a noun phrase which is the direct object of suru.
In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use suru with loanwords.

The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. Some typical ex-
amples follow: E
it
=s==
1
‘SE
I:I; ~y l~*)‘Z>
}~ 1'25 (make a hit) / -y
~y 7
9 1'5
175 (knock on the door) ii-
hitto-suru nokku-suru
F§47+5
F -74 7’-3'5 wmeaao
(drive a car) sate
axis am)
um)
doraibu-suru kisu -suru
kisu-suru
a4¢+a
51 4 7°-J" Z; OHM
(type) X -3'25
/4’ z ‘T 35 (pass an exam)
taipu-suru
ta/'pu-suru pasu-suru
It is also common to use suru with sound symbolisms, especially pheno-
mimes and psychomimes.
(=I!
432 suru‘
U‘ < U‘
U! 1'5
U < 1-25 (be in fear) 75>»: J; -1'2;
75‘ 0 11 1‘ Z; (fiare
(flare up)
bikubiku-suru katto-suru
if/1,-ti» 9 ‘T6
ii’/vi’ 1-5 (be absent-minded) I1 -.>
ii I; kJ; 1“
T5 6 (be taken aback)
bonyari-suru hatto-suru
-2‘ 0 I;
56 1‘ Z;
<‘.1 1'5 (shiver)
(Sl'1iV€I') 15 In
in I5 in I5 1"
-I" 5 (become irritated)
zorto- suru
ZOHOHSUTU iraira -suru
Suru basically means some causative change that is under human control,
whereas naru ‘become’ basically means spontaneous change that is al-
most beyond human control. Since injury normally occurs due to human
carelessness, suru is acceptable, but naru is unacceptable, as shown in
(3) below. In contrast to injury, illness is assumed to occur regardless
of human carefulness or carelessness, so it should not take suru. But
in actuality it does. Illness can take suru when it is talked about as if
it were something under human control, for example, cases of past
illness (as in (4a)), apologies implying that one has caused illness due
to carelessness on one’s part (as in (4b)), and statements of one’s medical
history (as in (4c)). Otherwise, illness cannot take suru, as shown in
(4d).
(8)
(3) a.
a- first/:1»=z¢s.
¥?i€./Hr)§ET%>°
Byoki/kega
Byoki I kega 0 suru.
I sustains injury.)
(One becomes ill /sustains
¥fi%"i\/*o‘n‘i|:t;%>.
b- ¥P‘i%"i\/*n‘i>§|:f:%>.
Byokil/ *kega ni naru.
Byéki
(One becomes ill.)
(4) a. %\/‘liilil
3- *fiv\@1.l: < Ifiié LT: / ?l:f£o1':°
§l7fi%’é L1’: ?|:t;->T.:..
D
i
i
i.-ii
E.-ii
1
__ -.__"—-
-_-
byoki 0
Wakai koro wa yoku bydki o shita I/ ?ni natta.
1
—- __-
i
i
1
i
i
__
__
__
__
__
W
qi
L
-Z
—
H
qi
__-
__-
(When I was young, I often became ill.)
--A
H--ii
H--ii
H--ii
v\oMfi‘§’<tE l/C
b. w>Mfi%='& L'C / ?lZ7iI'9'C'i'59~i'l2l.'/v,
Piza-rctaaa-/V,
byoki 0
/tsumo byéki o shite /I ?ni natte sumimasen.
(I’m sorry that I always become ill.)
(I'm
¢- —-¢l~1fHlEl<’I>>v\¥€%"ii’¢= l,§T>b-/I ?|:fat
—-$l~’-'-IFIIEI <* F>\/\ir*'§"§iE l,$'4'rb= ?|:f;U§"§'>b>.
‘J $'§'rb=..
/chinen ninankai
ni nankai gurai byéki
byoki 0 shimasu ka I/ ?ni narimasu ka.
(About how many times do you become ill per year?)
d- *5") 5.%~lCI7P‘?%"i\.lCiJ-' ‘JU i LT:
=50 ’)%lC5IF'§§i.l~Z7§I I *"<£' Li Liza
L1’: /*2
kydni byoki
Kino kyoni byéki ni narimashita I/ *0 shimashita.
(I suddenly became ill yesterday.)
suru‘ 433
Suru can be used in the construction o+Vmasu+suru, a humble, polite
form of verb. The subject of this humble verb must be the speaker
or his in-group member.
W ?L7J§§$%%¥1~/%%
(5) nmafia/as/fiaczv./i'l~'i=B L$'§'.>
Watashi ga 0 yomi / kaki / machi
mochi shimasu.
(I will read / write/carry
write /carry it (for you).)
A further degree of humbleness can be expressed by replacing suru with
its humble version irasu
itasu / itashimasu. (=>
(=>o0 ~ suru)
Naru ‘ become
become’’ forms an intransitive-transitive pair with suru, although
they are not phonetically related. (In
(=> Appendix 3) Semantically, naru
seems more passive, while suru seems more causative. Compare the fol-
lowing pairs of sentences:
[1] 3- Llll3illif$'$lCf£o1':°
lllEElifi%3"ilCU_'oT:°
Yamada wa teigaku ni natta.
(Lit. Yamada became suspension from school. (=Yamada got
suspended from school.)
h iwummefiémcn.
b- $l‘5'Elilill35l’E:l"'%’$lL' Lfza
Gakké
Gakko wa Yamada 0 teigaku ni shite.
shira.
(Lit.The school made Yamada suspended from school. (=The
school suspended Yamada.))
[2] a. mmu$2%<:amu¢t.
lilB3&iI1l§’Z:%< 1: J: (ct;-Jfza
Yamada wa hon 0 kaku koto ni natta.
(It’s been decided that Yamada will write a book.)
b
b- mwu$2%<:amLt.
I-l-lEElli2l§‘5f%< I. <‘: ll Liza its-i
-
_i—-ii
_—-i-L-ii-?
i
i
g
Yamada wa hon 0 kaku koto ni shita.

i
i _
i
___ ..i-|
Z
i_ L
i
_ i
i “Ii-
-?
i i
i
_i ..i-
i i
Q? i-
(Yamada has decided to write a book.)

iii
_i-iii
_i-iii
in
_i-iii
(=> koto ni naru; koto ni suru)

(=!>
Suru can be replaced by its informal version yaru (Gr. 1 Verb) when it
means ‘do/play
‘ do/play s.t.’ as in KS(A) or ‘‘play
play a dramatic /social role’ as
in KS(B). Also, if suru takes a Sino-Japanese compound as its direct
object (as in benkyo 0 suru ‘ Lit. do a study of’), it can be replaced by
yaru.
434 suru2
suru? 3'5 v. (Irr.)
g S.o. or s.t. has some (semi-)perma- ég have

$§ nent attribute. 2 [REL. ~ wa ~ ga]
ga)
MNWWcWW.M.W3
AAAA
§Key Sentence
QKey
Topic (subject, - - N (bodily

possessor) Adlectwe part)
ii?
W? as
ti Ev
El/\ E 2
22 or we
LT v\%>/v\i*J".,
I wed‘.
Yoko we
wa nagai ash/'
ashi 0 shite iru //imasu.
imasu.
(Yoko has long legs.)
m
i
w —%Hi%&W2crw1¢.
@ —%fii%&¢2Lrwx+.
Kazuo we jébuna karada 0 shire
wa jobuna shite imasu.
(Kazuo has a strong body.)
.:v>1la1.l1;‘|,v\7f2’$: 1,n~z>.
(b) :HLi1>l1.v\7f22L,-cv~z>.
Kono rsukue
tsukue wa marui katachi 0 shite iru.
(This table has a round shape.)
l. The sentence pattern is:

1.
Topic (subject)+Adj(i / na)+ [Noun
{Noun of Bodily Part / Noun of At-
tribute} +shite iru /I imasu.
L.
ii.‘
A bodily part or an attribute must be inalienably possessed by the sub-
1‘
=—
Z
__
_..
='
i
__
___:
.__%
i
..__
1
1
i
i
ject. In other words, it must be such an essential part of the possessor
_..
=:
_._ 1
E
i
__ i
iii
i
i
Z_...__._._
A-1
-A-1 (=subject) that he //it
it cannot exist without the part or the attribute.
2. In the main clause the verb suru always takes the te iru form, but in
a relative clause te
re iru may be replaced by ta as in:
m E‘/\/‘E2
(1) Ewiecrué/Law?
l,'CL\%> / 1,12%?
Nagai ashi o0 shite iru / shita Yoko
(Yoko, who has long legs)
Sentences of this construction can be restated using the wa-ga construction

as follows:
suru2 / suru“
suru” suru?’ 435
N,
N1 wa
we Adj N2 0
o shite iru —>
-> N, wa N2 ga Adj.
N1 we
Thus, the KS example can be rephrased as:
ll] i/¥¥|1En<Ev\
ii-?|:&n<Ev\ / fivvc-<r.
E<v\r~r.
Yoko wa ashi
ash/' ga nagai / nagaidesu.
(Yoko has long legs.)
The only perceptible difference between KS and [1] is that the latter
sentence is more analytical than the former. In other words, in KS nagai
ash/' ‘long
ashi legs ’ is one unit, but in [1] ashi ‘legs
‘legs’’ is first presented as a
single unit and is then further characterized as nagai ‘‘long
long ’.
suru“
5u|'u3 T5
1'5 v. (Irr.)
"'\_/\/’\,/\_/'\./\./'\/\/'\/'\./\./\/"~ fJ\£/\/q\ w
35 S.t. is perceived by s.o.’s non-visual i§ feel; smell; hear

Q senses. 5S
V\/\£/@
J77/V
§Key
Q Key Sentence
Subject
0) _
—
wee
¥fi#i§ 0) 3-'* 2:1
hi Lfcl 1,1 1,1;-..
1,2‘:/Libfao
Kodomotachi no koe ga shire //shimashita.
shita shimashita.
(I heard children’s voices.)
i.
ii
P—
-ii
ii.- Z
_i_i-
ii-
i___
-1-? Z‘
Z
“ii
i
-ii 2
mi
ii.-
iu.?-
-ii
ii-i
-
(a) :</)£eu123>*.:lLl&r)¥l,;E'i"i.1.,
I.</Jfifilifi/.c&l&1b'1L*;.E*J‘i.1a
Kono sakana wa henna aji ga shimasu ne.
(This fish tastes funny, doesn’t it?)
(b) ;:</>.=5:u:1 -if 6 3'6
Z</)€1lLl;i:3'l5 $6 1/C!/\Z>°
I/Cl/\E>.,
Kono kire wa zarazara shire
shite iru.
(This cloth feels rough.)
(c)
(<1) :0>?E&iv~v\l:.isv\n§';-Z».
:v)2‘El:tu\v\l.:$<sv\r>¥1"1.'>,
Kono hana wa ii nioi ga suru.
(This flower smells good.)
suru“ /I suru‘
436 suru’
(<1) $Lli%i2b‘iLi'J‘..
w fifi%i#LiT°
Watashi wa
we semuke ge shimasu.
samuke ga
(I feel a chill.)
If s.t. is perceived visually, either the ~ o

0 shite
shire iru structure or the ~ we
wa ~
ga structure is used.
ge suru2; ~ we
(=> suru”; wa ~ ga)
m C0)
(1) covniuénwméébrué.
D /v::’ti%nW‘.r@"¢'- l/CL\%>.-.
we kireina
Kono ringo wa kireine iro 0 shite iru.
(This apple has a pretty color.)
m cwvvfiméfiénwfi.
(2) cw) U ‘/:=“|1€-..iJ<€=i1,v\r.:".,
we iro ge
Kono ringo wa ga kireide.
kireida.
(This apple has a pretty color.)
5u|'|_|4 3'5
5ur|,|4 T5 U. (Irr.)
v.
g a verb that indicates how much s.t. cost; lapse

costs or a duration of time
/\,\/'\/\/'\.,
§Key Sentences
QKey
E
M)
T0plC (subject)
Topic Quantity
ii
co<0 us%+ ti +7iPl -J-z>/can

i
we
L
E
1
-
—-
1-
Z
1
i
E
qi
Y
i
.__%
-_-
sq
-_-
2+ +7ilIl 1'25 / Lid‘
5
at
—-
- -i
:-
¢ -_-
Kono tokei wa /'0man'en shimasu.

- -i
-
i
A
A
A-A
__-
A
iii.-
toker /umen en suru / shimasu
(This watch costs 100,000

100000 yen.)
yen)
(B)
(B)
I Subordinate Clause Main Clause
ea
3+
rt —¢
—- ‘ -F?_ § LTB
e.
W0 the
iH
ti zine/mix.
fie ’<i:l:i:l%>/lil3i‘§‘
Ato ichinen S/7II8f6
shitara deigeku
daigaku 0 deru / demesu
demasu.
(In another year Ill
I’ll graduate from college)
college.)
suru‘ / suru to 437
h
W
(a) A: ‘kiwi so <' aw 1,2 urea».
@ A:%nu2o¢ewcackm.
Sore we
wa dono gurei
gurai shimeshire
shimashita ke.
ka.
(About how much did it cost?)
B=I+£fiH¢5wL&Lk.
BI-1'-+EfiI7iP3l<’ 5!/\L3E Liza
Ni/i7g0men'en
Ni/'0goman'en gurei
gurai shimashita.
(It cost about 250,000 yen.)
(b) lb '5'PL'i'iLlfi)\tb§i1?ro'Civ\
is 5’)‘L‘§'1l1.l:1:'$Ah'§l1?=»'o'CiI/\ D9 $11,
E12,
Mo sukoshi surebesureba shujin ge keerte meirimesu.
ga kaette mairimasu.
(In a short time my husband will be here.)
Wh en suru
When suru‘4'is used to mean *1
‘lapse o f’
apse of time ’ , it can only be used in a sub-
time’,
ordinate clause, as in KS(B) and Ex. (b). Therefore, the following sentence
in which suru‘ is used in the main clause is ungrammatical.
*1‘-‘.¢LiLT:.'..,
(1) *E$l,il,T:.,
*$ennen shimashita.
*.S‘annen
Cn zfinaatn.
Co Efitbibko
Sannen tachimashita.
techimeshite.
(Three years passed.)
__'=i'-
_
A
-ii
Y
i
—_
= S Z:
ii-i
i
Q? i
i
ii-
-ii
i
A i
i.
? i.
qi
-iiii
i
iii-
A
suru to ';'5<‘_-
‘$5.5 conj-
/\./\/\/\/'\/\/\/\
/\/\_/\ J ,-
a coordinate conjunction which con- thereupon ~; then ~; and ~

nects two sentences (The second [REL. sore de we;
wa; so suru to]
sentence either describes an event \_/ \./ \/' ~_/\-
\-/'\-/'\ -/‘s./\ -/\-/'
which takes place right after the event

described in the first sentence or it
expresses a logical guess related to
the event in the first sentence.) §F
~v/vvvvv
l'%A/\f€€\/Q sS
438 suru to
Q Key Sentences
M)
(M
Sentence, | SCHICIICC2
Sentence;
/a=\'-/7 E
~‘/‘"a¥‘/7' 2' iléibbibfi.
fifiwibfco ‘T25
T25 t‘:2: £'.'.'fi)i
3.'.'Eli 75315!/\L<
7)§$sv\l,< >’.£9iLT:.
?‘.tDiLT:°
Q
\
'5 'O
Jog/ngu
Jogingu 0o he/zmemesh/re
hajimemashita. Suru to gohan ga ge oishiku nerimeshite
narimashita. O,
jogging
(I began jogging. Then
Then, I began to have a good appetite)
C
appetite.)
(B)
/- U5
'4
I A:
>
'0
\-/ II
4 ID I1
hut: I
HEB TTI.
eta;
Q
Kyo wa
we getsuyobi desu yo
yo.0'.
(Today is Monday, you know.)
B:
1%
T25 a2: no§%#w~n
ilbv) We ‘C
-7‘-'/*’—l~ I1 bk?» ffta
Suru to eno depeto
ano depéto wa we yasumi
)/8SUl77I desu ne.
6. 'o
(Then
(Then, that department store is closed
I-
closed, isnt
isn’t it?) 3
\I
w flfifififiifiwibkaT5t%b&Lfl9iLta
W flméfiiefiwscn.T%&%s%L#vacn.
we jitensha
Watashi wa jirenshe o0 keimeshita.
kaimashita. Suru to ororo
ototo mo hoshigarimeshire.
hoshigarimashita.
(I bought a bike. Then, my younger brother wanted one, too.)
m
(b) fimfimenocrzeuv2&Ascmfi%&fiA#¢<m&9iun,
§Eh17'é|?n=oT.:0)'(‘7’ 2 l:° ‘J ‘./’<?:fiX=7>\i l,f::.,'§'Z> <‘:73i77+7b'iT<"JJ.:i 9 SE Lia,
1
1
1
1
1
___
A
i
___
qi
S
___
ge iteketre
Atama ga itakatta node asupirin
esupirin 0o nomimeshite.
nomimashita. Suru to itemi
itami ge
ga sugu
i ..__
1 A
tomerimeshire.
tomarimashita.
1
1 —
qi
1 -Z
A
Q?
-A-A
(I took an aspirin because I had a headache. Then, the headache dis-

appeared right away.)
M A=e%ue%&E¢v+.
A=e¥u%%fiE$c+.
we ima
Musuko wa ime koko sennen
sannen desu.
(My son is now a junior at high school.)
B=+ea.%$mfi%&$c+n.
B=+aa.%¢nfi$§§c+n.
Suru to, rainen wa
we daigaku/'uken
deigekujuken desu ne.
(Then, he is going to take a college entrance examination next year,
isn’t he?)
suru to 439
To of suru to is the conjunction to‘. (==>

(IQ to‘) Therefore, in KS(A), Sen-
tBflC€2 normally expresses an event that is beyond the control of the speaker;
tenceg
that is why Sentence; cannot be a command, a request, or a suggestion.
I. Suru to is the shortened form of so suru to. These two constructions

have identical meanings and can be used interchangeably. They are
related to another expression sore de we
wa ‘then’, but unlike sore de
we, the second sentence in the (so) suru to construction cannot be a
wa,
command, request, suggestion, or something which can be controlled by
the subject of the sentence. (==!>
(=> sore de wa)
we) Thus,
HlA=eHmmuwc+.
[1] A14-,*EH:.titL,v\'C*1".,
we isogashiidesu.
Kyo wa isogeshiidesu.
(I’m busy today.)
BB=%ncm/W&5Yrb&ecnfieiL;5.
= %11.'C‘li/*({'5)T%>ti¥>L7:ii‘€*iL; 5..
Sore de wawe /I *(So) suru to ashita
eshire ikimasho.
ikimesho.
(Then, let’s go there tomorrow.)
[2] A: (=same as [1] A)
BB=%ncm/WE5Y?e&ecn%r<fiew.
= %:h.'C*l3:/*(%5)‘J'%'>t2lbLf:§iE'C< rest».
Sore de we
wa I/ *(So) suru to eshite kudesei.
ashita kite kudasai.
(Then, please come tomorrow.)
A:%&k#%&w&@5hfT.
M A:b&t#%&w&@5bTTo
Anata
Anete gega konai
konei to komaru
komeru n desu.
diflicult if you don’t come.)
(It will be difiicult
B I1 'H1.'Eli
-Hircli / *(-I-'3)'d'%>
*(%5)'¢'%> t'I:l=%i£1_o
tfiéiio i
___:
i =
m
we /I *(So) suru to ikimasu.

Sore de wa
i
_ i.
_
i —--
is:
T
i ii
i
-|__
___ i
i
-|__i
-__ i
i i
-__
i i
i
(Lit. Then, I'll

I’ll go.)
i
-iii
i
xxx-ii
i
II. Sore de wa we ‘then ’ can replace the suru to in KS(B) but not the suru to
in KS(A), because sore de wa we requires that the speakers of Sentence; and
S€I'lI€I'lC€2 be different.
Sentence2
440 -tachi
-tech/'
-tachi ii
5; suf-
/\r‘\.
a plural marker attached to personal é [REL. -domo; -gate;

-gata; -re]
-ra]
pronouns or to human (proper) nouns
.\//\\/'\,/\‘//'(\\//'\~f\
Formation
( i ) Personal Pronoun+i£
rechi
tachi
$1.32
HE (we)
we teshitechi
watashitachi
a‘/>>*.c
ab it ti? (you [pl-1)
enererechi
anatatachi
*i§i£ (they [male]) Cp. IE’-2.4",
1&3‘; (they [male])
*karetachi
*keretechi kerere
karera
hjijrii
fflzjrii (they [female]) Cp. E11-Q’;
ifijrfié‘ (they [female])
kenojotechi
kanojotachi kenojore
kanojora
(ii) Human Proper Noun+i£
Noun +12
tachi
techi
|_L|BE1 é/vii
|i|EHé/Vii (Mr. Yamada and others)
Yemede-sen- tachi
Yamada-san- techi
(iii) Human Noun +1?
+
tachi
techi
¥{;i;i§
¥(iti§ (children)
kodomorechi
kodomotachi
%i§ (men)
orokotechi
otokotachi
iii
ii
Keno/'0 ‘she ’ can take -tachi, but kare

Kanojo ‘she’ kere ‘‘he’
he ’ cannot.
i
i
1 "
1 “
1 "
1 qi—
1 1-n-_
1 n|i—
1 “
1 i
1 i
1 qi—
1 -,1—
1 -|1—
1 -|1—
iii
ii
iii
In addition to -tachi
-techi there are three other pluralizing suFfixes:
suffixes: -domo, -gere
-gata
and -re.
-ra. -domo is attached primarily to formal first person pronouns, yield-
ing a humble ‘ we
we’,’, as in:
[11 ?L5HélifFl’i>T?l.'/iii"/vs
%L;¥i1fM>¥$1;2e/V.
Wereshidomo wa
Watashidomo we nani
neni mo zonjimesen.
zonjimasen.
(We don’t know anything about it.)
-tachi / tai 441
-domo can also be attached to a very limited number of human nouns such
as otoko ‘ man ’ and onna ‘ woman’,
woman ’, yielding the rather downgrading plurals
orokodomo ‘ men
otokodomo men’’ and onnadomo ‘ women’,
women ’, respectively. Although kodomo
‘child’
‘ child’ is ko+domo,
ko+d0mo, it is no longer used as a plural. Instead -tachi is at-
tached to it to generate the plural form, as in Formation (iii).
-gata is an honorific plural marker attached to the second person pronoun
you ’ and a very limited number of nouns such as 0-ké-san
anata ‘ you’ o-ké-san ‘ mother
mother’,’ Q
0-to-san
o-to-san ‘‘father
father’’ and sensei ‘teacher
‘ teacher ’.
M 8-
[2] m nmnfiuwewsecswasm.
35?‘: Tc7iliv\0v\ I5 o l,&~>v\i'<J'b>.,
Anatagata
Anaragata wa irsu
itsu irasshaimasu ka.
(When are you going there?)
b. 5'BE7'ilil/\ lb
5'E£E7il1I/\ 0 Le»
I5 o L-Q» ¢,>:cv\>'¢
I5 it \/WE 5 '61‘.
'C"§‘.,
Senseigata wa irassharanai sodesu.
(I was told that the teachers aren’t coming.)
The honorific plural form for hito ‘person’ is katagarakatagata (as in kono
katagata ‘‘these
these people’) which is the plural form of kara.
kata.
-ra is the least formal plural marker and is normally attached to personal
pronouns and names.
(lst Person) %% bf:
ab 2’: l,%
L% b l,1£*'
L %? *:bT:.
*Ib7’:<< LQ1‘?
Lg
bokura warashira
wa tashira washira *warakushira
* watakushira
(2nd
(Znd Person) fi%
§e'; fi%%
BET]? &nk%
$2/vT;'.'.5:_1'f *$>f;
*b&k% f;é__1'§
kimira omaera antara *anarara
*anatara
(3rd Person) fig (male)
(35% iijr’-*-.§€",.
i&i(% (female) Ii-31,4-L4",
7¢i1,§'{ (inanimate)
karera kanojora sorera
B3lIP$",.
Eflqlé-'5 (Tanaka and his company)
Tanaka-ra
-iii-i—
i i
i i
i i
i i
qi
i
-i
%
i
qi i
qi i
-i i
qi 1—
qi i
qi i
1
“
Z
i
_
tai f;-_(,\
f;(,\ aux. adj. (i)
Q an auxiliary adjective which ex- é

3UXlll3I'y 2l(l_]€CtlV6 want (to do s.t.); would like
presses a desire to do s.t. (to do s.t.)
”“““M"““M'“”“”*""””M”‘“”““’
\-/\/
"""'WW"" (REL hoshii‘;

[REL. hoshii‘: hoshi/'2]
hash//*1
442 rai
tai
QKey Sentences
§Key
(A)
ii.n §i:li a¢:~

Elli 1\ ma
Ff?
"' = /: '+.
kw
T Ir‘ /Tc!/\'("§'.,
T WT
Watashi wa Nihon e iki tai / ta/‘desu.
taidesu.
(I want to go to Japan.)
(B)
TOP“ <s"b1es> --
Topic (subject) Direct Object Vmasu
ta
1% § u:ii <%
4* as §a/~20"
° ' gt/»=
cw“ a~
as‘ / '+.
r.=»~/r;»~-c~-r.,
fa!/\ f:.v\'C
Boku
0 u
Bk wa
gwa ima
/ma
' piza
p/za
' 0 //ga
ga tabe
ta be tai'// ta:
ta! taidesu.
'desu .
(I want to eat pizza now.)
(C)
TOP“ <s"bi<="> :-—

ax:
%*é/V
5‘ /v 5inii 7}‘.1 7.7 ’\
~r><u11~ né
fie
'- rsn" / I/\ av.
>>=¢rv~z>/~~s~r.
7§30'C I/‘Z5
Suzuki-san wa Amerika e iki ta garte
gatte iru /imasu.
/imasu
(Lit. Mr. Suzuki is showing signs of wanting to go to America.

America
(=Mr. Suzuki wants to go to America.))
Vmasu T;
fewI/\
tai
Iai
ESL fit!/\
T1!/\ (want to talk)
hanashi tai
Q/< 7’:\/\
fi'< kl/\ (want to eat)
tabe tai
(a) &ii?=?;f:.v~1:"-—/1/=5;
fiiiiétfci/~1:’—/1/>,¥_» / 2)§fi(7+7‘:.v\.,
r)§flK71~7‘:.v\.,
Boku wa tsumetai biru 0/
0 / ga nomitai.
(I want to drink cold beer.)
tai 443
M enema/masnuvrm.
enema/#e~nwv+m,
Kyo wa nani 0 / ga tabetaidesu ka.
(What do you want to eat today?)
(c)
(0) Exisé/vt1$2Ev~f;zb§-)'cv~Z>.,
.'E-‘.7l<é*/1/(iii?!/\7*:2b‘i'>'C\/\%>.,
Miki-san wa kuruma 0 kaita gatte iru.
(Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.)
1. Tai is an i-type auxiliary adjective which expresses a person’s desire to

do something. Since Vmasu tai expresses a very personal feeling, it is
usually used only for the first person in declarative sentences and for
the second person in interrogative sentences. For the third person,
Vmasu ta gatte iru ‘lit. is showing signs of wanting to do s.t.’ is
usually used, as in KS(C) and Ex. (c). (=:>
(=> garu) Vmasu tai with the
third person subject is acceptable, however, in the following situations:
(1) In the past tense
fl%n&rsfi%nm¢t.
fi%uartfi%ko¢t.
Kazuo wa totemo ikitakatta.
(Kazuo wanted to go very badly.)
(2) In indirect /semi-direct speech
m
a. —%sfi%nw¢§¢tue.
—-El§l.>‘fi'€‘T;l/‘&'§"J'CL\%>o
Ichiro mo ikitai to itte iru.
(Ichiro says he wants to go, too.)
n fl¥nB$~%vnw%5E.
h W¥uB$~%vnw%5fi.
Toshiko wa Nihon e kaeritai s6da.
soda.
(I heard that Toshiko wants to go back to Japan.)
(3) In explanatory situations
§Néhm%tk&%Ltwhr¢;,
§Hému&&k&%Lkwhf?l°
Nomura-san wa anata to hanashi tai n desu yo.
((The explanation is that) Miss Nomura wants to talk with you.)
(=> no da) -é
=
=
1
_-
5
___i_
ji-
(4) In conjecture expressions

4
3- Hmé~uoD¥&%vnw5Lu.
1f'l'lJJé/-/I10) 9¥&FFfi') f:'.\/‘Ea LLM,
Murayama-san
Mura yama-san wa Noriko to odorirai
odoritai rashii.
(It seems that Mr. Murayama wants to dance with Noriko.)
b.
R $53 3 /vlII§- < 5<’li';€lC§v\f:{- 5 f:°.,
¥msxu$<%fin%wn%5£.
Hayata-san wa hayaku kazoku ni aita soda. s6da.
(It looks like Mr. Hayata wants to see his family soon.)
444 tai
2. In some situations, if the verb in Vmasu tai is a transitive verb, the

direct object can be marked either by ga or by 0, as seen in KS(B),
Ex. (a) and Ex. (b). In general, the choice between ga and 0 seems
to depend on the degree of desire. That is, when the desire to do some-
thing is high, ga is preferred; when it is low, 0 is used. Compare (4)
and (5):
(4) [Situation: The speaker has just run five miles.]
%1.mk1a</ ?=t2flt1»r;t~,
$Lli7l<fJ§/ ?"<£'fiI7>\T.:I/\,,
Watashi wa mizu ga
gal/ ?o nomitai.
(I want to drink some water.)
(5) [Situationz The speaker has been told by a doctor to drink as
much water as possible. That is, he feels he has to drink water.]
%Ll:t7l<§
$.Lli7l<‘& // ?1:<%<1»r;w>1.
?t)§&¥+f:.\r\7)'i. .. ..
Watashi wa mizu 0 / ?ga nomitai ga . . .
(I want to drink water but (my stomach doesn’t accept it any-
more). . .)
Under the following conditions, ga cannot be used even if the degree of
desire is high.
(A) When a long element intervenes between the direct object and the
verb:
(6) fliirka
iFLIi7k"<£ /*n<tti/1»n‘zsfifii.:fit1»m~,
/*1a<t:i:iri-n‘ %>ii~‘Ii:.fit1+r;v~,
Watashi wa mizu 0 /I *ga dekakeru mae ni nomitai.
(I want to drink water before I leave home.)
(B) When the main verb is in the passive form:
(7) iLli9E£’E_lCC.0)§‘-2='.§ /*2b<t1a1>&nt.:v\,,
7éLti5Eil::e>#.?-;='.»g /*f><t&eb Fshtcwo
Watashi wa sensei ni kono e o0 / *ga homeraretai.
(Lit. I want to have this picture praised by my teacher.)
(C) When the preceding noun is not the direct object:
Te
HE (8) a.
3- %Lt:.t$<
Hli-$-< :a>§$§
caagii /*1:<l§&
/*r‘JiI% D0 kw,
Tc.)/\,,
Watashi wa hayaku kono densha 0 / *ga oritai.
(I want to get oFf
off this train soon.)
b.
b- $Lli/AEE /*7b<ZiI=€=f.:v\,,
$Ll:lt’.1.§@"é /*fJi$%fc.l/‘O
Watashi wa koen 0 / *ga arukitai.
(I want to walk through the park.) (=> 02; 03)
(==t>
3. In the construction Vmasu ta gatte iru, ga can never be used to mark
the direct object.
tai I/ tamaranai 445
(9) Ei7l<é/vliii /*75<EI/\T:7)§o'CI/\?.'v<,
;-'.7l<é/vli$'£- /*fJ§Ev\f.:r)‘>‘--.>'C\/\Za.,
Miki-san wa kuruma 0 /I *ga kaita gatte iru.
(Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.)
4. Vmasu tai cannot be used to express an invitation. The following sen-
tences are inappropriate in invitation situations.
(10) a
m a. fi&—ficfianwv+m,
?L&—-$§l:fi=£<t.:v~'c~-§'2b=.,
Watashi
Wa tashi to isshoni iki tai desu ka.
(Do you want to go with me?)
b.
b- ;§>l,f:fi$l:;Ef;v\'C'-3-25>,
E¥bbf:fi$l:;lUc:v\'G'§”7)=._-,
Ashita shokuji
shoku/'i ni kitai desu ka.
(Would you like to come to dinner tomorrow?)
In these situations negative questions are used, as seen in (ll).
(=i>
(='> maSh5)
masho)
(11)
(ll) ?L<‘:—-i§l~3i'_I%$fl'/ohm
Tl\k—'i’~"§l~‘1'-i:I’<§$'t!'/vfJ\o
Watashi to isshoni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to go with me?)
The idea of ‘‘want’

want’ in English is expressed by either tai, hoshii‘ or hoshii2.
hoshii’.
Tai is used when the experiencer wants to do something. Hoshii‘ is used
when the experiencer wants something. H0shii2
Hoshi/'2 is used when the experiencer
wants someone to do something. (=9
(=0 hoshii‘; hoshii2)
hoshii’)
M.
ii
ii
gg
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
iiq
ii
ii
ii
._-ii
ii-
ii
immi-
-
tamaranai T:iI5£tl.\
T.:iI5f:(.\ phr-
Phr-
§ The speaker or whomever he em- unbearably ~; extremely; be
i
5 pathizes with cannot cope with a dying to do ~
8 situation expressed by the -te phrase. '
[REL. S/7!/(8I8
shikata ga nai]'
-'\/"¢\./ \/ .\'/.\' /“\
8/\
446 tamaranai
QKey
§Key Sentences
M)
(A)
- Adi <"> M -— Adj (i) stem
'-‘>5 Ii
#5:: 2 <1 r;aatav~/rcivie/V.
nxemw/navsen.
Kyo wa atsu kure
kute tamaranai /I tamarimasen.
(It is unbearably hot today.)
((B)
(B)
- Adi <"a> “em -— Adj (na) stem
5!?‘
Q? 1937) i H
fih L\ ‘G fcfliléaff In /f:.3iDi ~t'i'/V0
7’:il‘o>’.cv\/7’.:iD3E1z.“/V
Sdgaku ga
Sogaku kirai de tamaranai / tamarimasen.
tamarimasen
(I really hate math.)
KS(A):
(1) stem < —r1 ti
Adi (i) r;ai>a:v~
»>f.:v~
kure tamaranai
kute
g<
%( T
"C 7.135 15%;!»
hi rgfgw (s.t. is unbearably cold)
samukute tamaranai
KS(B):
'6‘ ti
Adj (na) stem '6 Big!/\
r;§r,f;v\
de tamaranai
7|IIE'6~
7[I{i'c+ 15?; in
kg t,f;v\ (s.t. is unbearably inconvenient)
fubende tamaranai
W
M
i
@
(El) :®$dB$L6<Tki9ith°
C'.0)2lil:L“i>$ ‘l> L6 < ‘(K32 9 it-1‘/be
Kono hon wa omoshirokute tamarimasen.
(This book is extremely interesting.)
M Q#Rnc.%u<rn1vaew.
w Q#Rb?,%L<TtiDi%bo
Chichi ga shinde, kanashikute tamarimasen.
(My father died and I'm
I’m awfully sad.)
(0) :t<;v~ l,v\;&ir>§fi=<t:. < ‘(itai D itt/V.
M BwLw%#§&t<TkiDitw°
Oishii sakana ga tabetakute tamarimasen.
(l’m
(I’m dying to eat some good fish.)
tamarana/'I
tamaranai / tame (ni) 447
m &u&o¥#H%rniaaw.
(d) %li&>0)¥-7)3!Ff% ‘Eki F>f.cv\,
Boku wa ano ko ga sukide tamaranai.
(I just love that girl.)
(e) §E.l:IEEl£P5'E£a'50)§¥2b§fi'C'7‘;iF>f.r7)>of.:.,
(6) EE,iiElE1IP5E£l50)I'§¥203)l%'6*f:.3-IF>?.r2b>of;:.,
An!
Ani wa Tanaka-sensei no jugyo ga iyade tamaranakatta.
(My older brother really hated Mr. Tanaka’s class.)
1. ~te /I de tamaranai is an idiomatic phrase used to express the fact that

some situation is unbearable in the extreme for the speaker or someone
with whom he empathizes.
2. The adjectives used before re
te I/ de refer to human feelings.
3. There is no affirmative
affirmative counterpart of this construction,
construction,*~te
*~te I/ de tamaru.
~te tamaranai (lit. ~ and I can’t stand it) can be replaced by re

te shikata ga
nai (lit. ~ and I don’t know what to do about it). The only difierence
difference is
that the former is more emotive than the latter. But when shikata ga nai is
directly preceded by Vte mo, it cannot be replaced by tamara nai, as shown
in [1].
Ic/vf.cI41i1‘s‘3%/v'c=t,l:t9’i2b<f.i"t\
[1] -'6/et.c71§1i1%,e~t/v'ct,li7i1»<t: u /I *fi/ircfzi
*E.%/wcrzi ~'5f.tt\..
=5f.:(.\..
Sonna hon wa yonde mo shikata ga nail nai / *yonde tamaranai.
(There is no use reading that sort of book.)
M-.1-1
tame (ni) 7:61)

7:85 (I-:)
(I-'1) "-
n-
/\/\/\_/\/\/\/\/\I'\/\/\/\/\./\/*
/\/\./\./\/\/\/\/\'\I\/\/\/\/\ /‘
a noun that indicates a benefit, a %g on account of~;for

of ~; for the benefit
purpose, a reason or a cause K(' of ~;
~'! for the good of ~; for
\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\I\-/v
1
the sake of ~; on behalf of ~;
for the purpose of ~; in order
to ~ ; because of ~ ; owing to ~
[REL. kara“; nii’;
nii; node; noni2]
noni?)
448 tame (ni)
§Key Sentences
QKey
M)
(A)
“Pic <$"bi@">
--—
ea
six §i1:1 an 0)¢> mo lI:a:
ms an-rs/nests-r.
%5'fi1"P.'>/@5‘fil,i-I".
Gakusei;
Gakusei wa shiken no tame ni benkyosuru I/ benkyoshimasu.
(Students study in preparation for exams. I/ Students study because there
are exams.)
(B
(B)
Subordinate
(purpose)Clause
Sub<()r<‘l1irnt1(tsee)Clause .
Vinf_ - Clause
Main
‘ Main Clause
P p nonpast
fi
$1. m m&a>;aa
Ii Elzli ma
0) ct '5: H115 noun ax-fi</near.
mo (L1) Elli -'\ i“'i< /fiéifs
Watashi wa Nihon
Watas/7'rwa I on no koto
N'h o sshiru
k otoo h'IFU tame ((ni) Nihon
n1') N'h
I on e Iiku / 1ikimasu.
'k u /'k' imasu .
(I’ll go to Japan (in order) to learn about Japan.)

(I'll
(C)
(C)
em
Sub
S b rd'
rdin tte Cl u e
(riiasonal caus:)S
»-Mi-1 :1 as 1:1 new

n:a§n=b1v
Vinf
W5f.ri.\
nomu rm
1
(ta) xx—a¥m%nw/
noun zflr— as H:l5lU.cv‘/
-
Mam Clause
Kotoshi wa yuki ga amari furanai tame (ni) suki ga dekinail

dek/'nai/
m%iex.
wfiaew.
dekimasen.
(Because it hasn’t snowed (lit. doesn’t snow) very much this year, we can’t
s 1.)
ski.)
(D)
Noun
--— Noun Phrase
HEA
5'l~EA (0
0) new»
-
Lbb 0) vW\fi%
y\t,\
345% asap/noses.
7) ‘Q f£ t,\ /$2 D id‘/vs
Gaikokujin no tame no ii jisho ga nai I/ arimasen.
(There aren’t (any) good dictionaries for foreigners.)
tame (ni) 449
{V/Adj (i)} inf fcbb

(i) (V/Adj Tabb I;
ls:
tame ni
{'§3'§"
‘(SET /331,711}
/351,11} Tabb L: (in order to talk/because s.o. talks/
{hanasu /hanashita}
(hanasu /hanashite} tame ni talked)
{Q-<25 /fififcl
{E45 /gar;-,} fab?)
Tabb I: (in order to eat /because
Ibecause s.o. eats I/ ate)
(taberu
{taberu /I tabete}
tabeta] tame ni
__n_. ._1_‘
{,5-,v \ /fé.§7)>of:}
~{',§,v~ Iislb § <>I-I.) Tabb
fab I;
l; (because s.t. is I/ was high)
{takai /I takakatta} tame ni
(takai
(ii) Adj (na) stem {tr {tit I/75/37:}
7‘.:’of:.] Tzbo
7:8) I;
l;
{na /I datta} tame ni
{§§7)=?.£
{§%7)~7.£ / §i*fJ~f:;'of.:]
§%iJ~t’;'o7’.:} Tabb Ii:
fab?) I: (because s.t. is I/ was quiet)
{shizukana /shizukadatta}
I shizukadatta} tame ni
(iii) N {O
(<7) Ifcfofcl
/2’.:'o7’:} Tabb I:
{no /I datta}
datta] tame ni
WEE
l5'f:£lE. 0) I/ 95$
955'; fio
fie 7;} fctb I:
fa} Tabb l: (for the sake of the teacherlbecause
teacher/because
{sensei no /I sensei datta]
datta} tame ni of the teacher Ibecause
/ because s.o. is Iwas
/ was
a teacher)
(iv) Demonstrative Adj fgbb I;
7‘;2sb L:
tame ni
(:0)
’ ) /1609)
{._</ / {-0)} fceb
7’; al) (C.
I; (for the sake of this Ithat,
/ that, because of this]
this/
{kono /I sono}
sono] tame n:
ni that)
M
W H$Am%&onwK:<@%xT.
@ H$An%&onwmx<maa+.
Nihonjin wa kaisha no tame ni yoku hatarakimasu.
(The Japanese work hard for the sake of their company.)
M gonwuaxmnwsmaeno
(b) %?,0)f:.&b(l:)'$1F5E)b§{7|<7+I:f;of:, M-
M-M
Yuki no tame (ni) gakko ga yasumi ni natta.

(The school was closed because of the snow.)
3%
@
(0) vx9vvéhum%@kwUUF4vmfi@t,
—\’ 9 7 ‘/3 /vlib}f§E0)f:bb (lc) F4 Vllfiofio
Jakuson-san wa kenkyti
kenkyii no tame (ni) Doitsu ni itta.
(Mr. Jackson went to Germany for the purpose of research.)
(<1) $1.t1§c:>=;e/vr.='r;x>(l.:)1<%l.:1wt.¢1>=@r;.,
m nuxfixxfinwunkimfinaman.
Watashi wa chichi ga shinda tame (ni) daigaku ni ikenakatta.
(I couldn’t go to college because my father died.)
450 tame (ni)
o We%<+enwuQfiB¢—»c&wvwe.
fiiflfi < 1'75 Tabb (l.:)’fl‘=H 7°-/1/C*i9}<v~'C'v\>5,
Karada o0 rsuyoku
tsuyoku suru tame (ni) mainichi pdru
poru de oyoide iru. _
(I’m swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.)
m fi7)§1il‘r)=»>f:f:bb(lC)¥l§1l%7)37’ibbl:>’.coT.:.,
fi#umannwuQ%fimfiwua@n.
Oya ga amakatta tame (ni) kodomo ga dameni natta.
(Because the parents were soft, the children got spoiled.)
® $#T¢anwHQAn%bnn.
ii?-n§‘F$f:f.:&b(lC))\l:%bi1,f.:,,
Ji ga hetana tame (ni) hito ni warawareta.
(I was laughed at because my handwriting is so poor.)
M 7§yzKfiok®d§*EE5kwfi°
7§v2tfiok®fi§*&E5t®fis
Furansu ni itta no wa kosui 0o kau tame da.
(Lit. It was for the purpose of buying perfume that I went to France.
(=I went to France to buy perfume.))
(=1
l. Tame ni expresses cause or reason when it is preceded by an Adj(i) or an

Adj(na), as in Exs. (f) and (g), or when the main clause describes a
noncontrollable situation and /I or when the tame ni clause is in the past
tense, as in Ex. (d). In these cases, it never expresses purpose. Con-
(l).
sider the additional examples in (1).
m
(1) m
8- fiswtwumsemosmmmawo
fi:$0)f.-zablzfiltsiin=e>$r)§H:l§lév‘.r\/‘O
Shigoto no tame ni nani mo hoka no koto ga dekinai.
(Because of the job I can’t do anything else.)
4*...-=l‘j:(7)7‘:6l')l.Z$,lln=F>BF13i'C‘I£l1I/\'C\/\Z>.,
b. 4§i=i0)f:ar‘>|:flz>>EBfiEi'C'{irI;v\'Cv~Z>.
Kaisha no tame ni asa kara ban made hataraite iru.
(He’s working from morning till night for the sake of his
company.)
mi
[cause interpretation, because the main clause de-
(la) gets the reason /cause
_
iii-ii
scribes a noncontrollable situation, whereas (lb) gets the purpose inter-

i
i
pretation, because the main clause describes a controllable situation.

2. The ni of tame ni can be dropped, as in Exs. (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (g),
if a phrase(s) intervenes between the main verb and tame ni.
I. When tame is used to mean reason or cause, it can be replaced by kara

or node. Thus, KS(C) and Ex. (d) can be rephrased as [la] and [lb]
[lb],
respectively.
tame (ni) 451
a %$m%#b$D%%&w#B/w?z#—#w%&w°
M & aiugfiaavfiaawoe/wcza—#m%aw.
Kotoshi wa yuki ga amari furanai kara I/ node suki ga dekinai.
(We cannot ski because it hasn’t snowed very much this year.)
h %Li1§ta1§E/or;-:‘ri~E>
b- flmxnwnnme/wckinfiooman./0>'c7<$t:fin‘t.ca>@t:..
Watashi wa chichi ga shinda kara I/ node daigaku ni ike-
nakatta.
(I couldn’t go to college because my father died.)
The difference between tame and other markers of reason I/ cause is that
tame is more formal than the others and is seldom used in informal
conversation. (=>
(=‘> kara‘);
kara3; node)
When tame is used to mean purpose, it can be replaced by either Vinf-
nonpast noni or Vmasu ni Vmotion. However, tame ni can be replaced
by noni only when one does something in the process of achieving some
goal. Thus, [3a] can be paraphrased as [3b] but [4a] cannot be para-
phrased as [4b].
M LL fi$&%*%tbEfi%2E5°
W fi$2%&otwtfi%&E5.
0 shiraberu tame ni jisho o tsukau.
Kanji o
(In order to find out about kanji I use a dictionary.)
b fiiemsawcfiéefio.
%$&%Aawcfi%&E5.
Kanji o shiraberu noni jisho 0o tsukau.
(In order to find out about kanji I use a dictionary.)
[4] a. W&fi<T6tbmfiHf—w?%wTw5o
We%<+etmmfiBx—»c%wcwa.
Karada o tsuyoku suru tame ni mainichi pfiru
poru de oyoide iru.
(I’m swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen
my body.)
h
b- NW&%<T5wc@Hf—»v%w1w6.
??I1l§’.»':5’fi < Tawlzfi E1 7°-1:/c~‘t¥i<v\'cv\2.'>.
??Karada o tsuyoku suru noni mainichi pfiru
poru de oyoide iru.
iii
(I’m swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen 1-

——_
ii-
ii-
—fl
my body.) %
Note also that tame can be replaced by Vmasu ni Vmotion only when
tame is used with a Vmotion. The difference between tame and other
markers of purpose is that tame is the most formal and least colloquial
of the three.
452 ~ tara
~tar3 ~ 1';
~tara f; 5 conj.
ég a subordinate conjunction which in- if; when; after

dicates that the actionlstate
action /state ex- i [REL. ba; nara; to‘; toki]
pressed by the main clause in a
sentence takes place after the ac-
tion /I state expressed by the subordi-
nate clause
§Key Sentence
QKey
(antecedent
Subordinate Clause (antecedent)
Main Clause (subsequence)
Sentence (informal past)
l-ll lll
lilEElrL</V
llllilé/V bi EH1“:
7) 5lET.. \
(3 #1.
TL (1 hi-rZ>/hi-r9i')‘
Ii l-$6/i%9i1'° O
Yamada san ga kita

Yamada-sanI
0
ra
\-/‘ watashz
watashi wa kaeru I/ kaenmasu
kaerimasu
(When /I If Mr.
Mr Yamada comes, I'll
0 V‘ Ill go home)
home.) cw
Q)
no
IEEEEI
{V /I Adj (i /I na) I/ N+Copula} inf-past 5
ra
§fil,f;|5
35-1,7;¢, (if /I when s.o. talks I/ talked)
hanashitara
"§;§sOf;_¢,
,§,7j.,,7‘;c,
__L¢
(if s.t. is I/ were expensive)
takakattara
g',a7)s75,,f;t,
§§t;)sf;',,7‘;|:, (if s.t. is I/ were quiet)
shizukadattara
shizukada ttara
95$
5'55]; I,-5-_>
ff-3 7315
7115 (if s.o. is I/ were a teacher)
-
mimi-
sensei dattara
u
(HERE!
M
@ %iK%Wk6T¢fi#ok°
(9-) 5’é£l:‘.l:Efiv\7’;F>'§‘<'§}7§=o7‘;.,
Sense!’ ni kiitara sugu wakatta.
Sensei
(When I asked my teacher, I understood it right away.)
W nuk#2mns¢#&@%$nevs+.
M nakfiemnamfimenimevaa.
Watashi wa daigaku o0 detara shogakko no sensei ni narimasu.
(I_’ll be an elementary school teacher after graduating from college.)
~ tara 453
M fiutcwvrme.nscan@ne%ax+#.nsua<&m¢ne
flti'ltLv\"c'§"1b>E>. is I, l,62b>o2‘.: 6§a%J+i'§“n‘i. is 1, L6 < >*.cz)>-.>2‘:. 6
§J'I=7fi"(i'/1/<Ilo
fioifibio
we isogashiidesu kara, omoshirokattara yomimasu ga. omoshi-
Watashi wa
rokunakattara yomimasen yo.
(I'm busy, so I'll read it if it’s interesting, but I won’t if it’s not in-
teresting.))
terestmg
w) %6wfi¢t6fiLT<fiéw.
‘5E>lr\T.:I‘of;6fil/C< r.:fé<v\.
Kiraidattara nokoshite kudasai.
(If you don’t like it, please leave it.)
@9 " 9 TC. E>§)‘7)*Z> kr%a3\l/‘ii’;-.0

figgfiiv liiigsl/‘§'I'a
E/go
Eigo dattara wakaru to omoimasu.
think I'll
(I thmk I’ll understand it if it’s English.)
1. The meaning of S1 tara S2 varies depending on the contents of S1 and

S2 and also on the situation in which this construction is used. How-
ever, S1 always represents an antecedent and S2 a subsequence. For
example, in KS, Mr. Yamada’s coming precedes the speaker’s returning
home. Likewise, in Ex. (a), the speaker’s asking his teacher precedes
his understanding something. If this relation does not hold, this con-
struction cannot be used. For example, (1) cannot be expressed by the
tara construction because the event of S1, the speaker’s going to Chicago,
does not precede the event of S2, his going there by car.
(1) When I go to Chicago, I usually go by car.
*iLlii‘/
*?.Lli #1 r1'¢\fi'o1’:
:‘/ 7‘J =1"¢\fi'<>T: B
5 fcl/\'C
t.:t\'cv\$'cfi%
I/\$'C'fi‘"5 id‘.
iii,
*Watashi wa Shikago e ittara taitei kuruma de ikimasu.
(In this situation, toki is used. (Q
(=t> toki)) For the same reason, tara
is ungrammatical in the situation in (2).
M
M M
(2) If you go to Chicago, go by bus. =-"- T ==-—

M -_i
*vnfl~fi@t5fi2ffi%&éW.
---"' E
*vnd~fi@h5H2ffi3&3w, M--M
I
*.Shikago
*Shikag0 e ittara basu de ikinasai.
ikinasa/.
(In this case, nara is used. (=='> nara))
(I:
2. In S1 tara S2, it is often the case that S1
S, represents a condition and S2
an event which occurs under that condition. Therefore, the whole sen-
tence basically means ‘ when S1 is satisfied, S2 takes place ’ or ‘ S1 brings
about S2’, as in Exs. (c), (d) and (e).
454 ~ tara
3. As seen in KS, tara may mean ‘‘when
when '’ in one case and ‘if’ in another.
Tara means ‘ when’ if S1 is a certainty;
certaint ; if not
not,I tara means ‘if’. Thus,
Thus Q
in (3), tara means ‘ when’.
(3) +3-lliillir '>f:'5lfi’=

+3-B=‘!'fIC7.£ OT: Biff? 9 ETD
$11,
Jtin/Ii
Jon/ji ni nattara kaerimasu.
(When /I *lf
*If it is twelve o'clock,
o’clock, I’ll
I'll go home.)
Mosh/' before S1 tara makes sentences unambiguous; it always means

Moshi
‘if S1’. Example:
m
(4) stmmacnxnananusx.
=6 LLllEHé</o7)35lET:'5TLIiI'§'rD $12,
Moshi Yamada-san ga kitara watashi wa
we kaerimasu.
(IfI *When Mr. Yamada comes, I’ll
(If/ I'll go home.)
4. In S1 tara S2, S2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invi-

tation or a volitional sentence.
(5) 'rJ:$2)§$<i&‘.§1>-.>T:"5I£v>5 fol;

f_lI$7§§§-<i‘~’§i)'>1':Bl§V)5 BI; ( a. not
5lU;: é1'5 V‘.
Shigoto ga hayaku owattara boku no uchi ni kinasai.
b. ale":
h < r.-1' s in.
%f<fiéw.
kite kudasai.
0
C. %k6E5TT
%t6E5TT
(
1)».
20%,
kitara do desu
ka.
d. Eléiti‘/v7)=~.,
§lE§'l§.'/v7)‘°
\ kflnasen
kimasen ka.
(If you finish your work early, a. come to my place.
b. please come to my place.
_i.—_.1
c. why don’t you come to my

place? ’,
d. wouldn’t you like to come
to my place?)
(6) fi:$rb‘1$<
f;lI$7§3§-< i%%b->t:62‘6
i‘§§boT:E>2’6 5 56:15
Ellis 5 rb=rb‘iv\
7)=7)§\/\ Lain
l,i*J‘° _
Sh/‘goto ga hayaku owartara
Shigoto owattara 0-uchi ni 0-ukagai shimasu.
(If I finish my work early, I'll
I’ll visit your place.)
tera S2 can also be used in counterfactual situations, as in (7).

5. S1 tara
tara 455
~ tare
(7) a- :‘<>'$rb¥&>oT:B:/w‘.c Bl:i1w‘.cv\,,

idfinifiiotzéz/of: 5 Bl@:I1v\f.rv\,
O-kane ga attara konna uchi ni wa /‘nai.
inai.
wouldn’t be in such a house.)
(If I had money, I wouldn't
u no%nene@t5B$~fi@rwnvc;6.
b %®%Bfi#botBB$~fiorwkcL;5a
Ano toki o-kane ga attara Nihon e itte ita desho.
(If I had had money at that time, I would probably have
gone to Japan.)
6. When S2 in “ S1 tara S2”

S2" represents a past action, the action cannot be
one intentionally taken by the agent after the action or event represfifltfid
represented
by S1. Thus, the (a) sentences in (8) and (9) are acceptable, but tho the
(b) sentences are not.
M w #&~fi@n5,¢5enimanu%¢n.
(8) 3- '5-'l‘5E’\fi"> 7:51 <" 5 ‘ti’/v_l::l33l é /M14’.-—:".>T:a
Gakko e ittara,
ittara. gfizen Ueda-san ni atta.
(When I went to school, I happened to see Mr. Ueda.)
b- *$BE*\fi<>f:l'5,
*$l=3E*\fi01':E>, _|:l5IEl<'i</v<‘;'E-';'3£'l,7‘:..,
_l;B3l é A/.1:’,'.'-ii}? Lice
*Gakk6 e ittara, Ueda-san to hanashi o shira.
*Gakko shita.
(When I went to school, I talked with Mr. Ueda.)
M w snencfieertsan.
a~ I./Iii)’:-o
O-sake 0o nondara nete shimatta.

(After I drank sake, I fell asleep.)
b. *£iE’&fiK/vT.:"'5ET;a
*:tsiE?~“:fiK/v1“:"5E7‘:°
*0-sake 0 nondara neta.
(After I drank sake, I went to bed.)
Ba, nara and to‘ have similar functions but they are different from rare
tara in
it!
the following ways:
I. In S1 tara S2, if the event in S1 precedes the event in S2, those e\/CHIS
events
can be past events. This is also the case with S1 to‘ S2, but not With
S1 b6
ba S2 and S1 nara S2, as
08/8 S2, in [1].
3S in
[1] 8-
I1] a- fiiiillfifll/‘t:B /F1'=3< t‘;.1; /*F1fll‘)‘li
5'Eil€|E'=fiV‘1':5/F=ll< /*F-firm: / *|E'1#El\r‘7‘:'.(0))7=il'E>'§“
*F=ll\/\T:(0))>‘.IE>*f<'6i>9*<’§)‘7)‘
'2 T2,,
7:,
Sense!’ ni kiitara I/ kiku to I/ *ki/reba
Sensei *kikeba I/ *k/'/'ta
*kiita (no) nara $11911
wakatta.
(When I asked my teacher, I understood it immediately-)
456 ~ tara
h
b. a+v—o7H—tmfiot5rfi<t/Wfnm/Wick
=¥x=‘/-097’/<'— l~lCi‘T'>7’:E> /if < J: /*i"T'l7‘ I33 / *f’ro i;
((D)7J'57'
(0>)7.tB7' ‘/7-‘Ur
vi-'4 —-r)‘iv\T:..
—a§t\r;.
Kyashi no apéto ni ittara I/ iku to /I *ikeba I/ *itta (no) nara
Andi ga Ira.
ita.
(When I went to Cathy's apartment, Andy was there.)
As stated in Note 4, S2 in S1 tara S2 can be a command, a request,
a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. This is also the
case with S2 in S1 ba S2 and S1 nara S2 but not with S2 in S1 to S2.
Example:
[2] in->r=5 /il7‘t1.l33/fl/‘(0>)>2i5

iii»-->r=~5 /innit /*iv\t;Ev\>'.cs in.
/ fi\o(0>)f.t5 /*%v\&§v\>*.cé v‘.
Yasukattara I/ Yasukerebal
Yasukereba/ Yasui (no) nara I/ *Yasui to kainasai.
(Buy it, if it’s cheap.)
Although S2 in S1 tara S2, S1 ba S2 and S1 nara S2 can be a command,
a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence, the mean-
ings are not exactly the same. The following examples show the dif-
ferences clearly.
Bla
[3] a. svm%n5.fln%va+.
“<2/7)35l€1':E>» ?.Llihi'~r9 $11.
Ben ga kitara,
kitara. watashi
Watashi wa kaerimasu.
(When I/ If Ben comes, I’ll
I'll go home.)
h
b. &vfi<nw.flm%9iTa
¢<‘/rb‘i<ttl:-15. fllilfiib ii‘.
Ben ga kureba.
kureba, Watashi
watashi wa kaerimasu.
(If Ben comes, I’ll
I'll go home. (If not, I’ll
I'll stay here.))
e sv#%ewDH5.flmB9a+.
c. -<:/>§*§lE%>(0>)f.t»3, TLl;tl'?rDi*§‘°
Ben ga kuru (no) nara. Watashi wa kaerimasu.
nara, watashi
(If it is true that Ben is coming, I’ll
I'll go home.)
As seen above, [3a] is ambiguous; it is not clear that Ben is coming. If
Ben’s coming is certain, [3a] indicates the time the speaker will leave.
Ben's
If Ben's
Ben’s coming is uncertain, [3a] indicates the condition under which
the speaker will leave. In both cases, however, Ben’s
Ben's coming precedes
the speaker’s leaving. [3b] is similar to the second case of [3a] (i.e., the
case in which Ben’s
Ben's coming is uncertain). However, [3b] focuses more
on the condition. That is, [3b] implies something like ‘the condition
under which I go home is Ben'sBen’s coming here ’.'. In [3b] also, Ben’s
Ben's
coming precedes the speaker’s
speaker's leaving. S1 in [3c]
[Sc] also indicates the
condition under which the speaker returns home. In this case, how-
Ben’s coming does not necessarily precede the speaker’s
ever, Ben's speaker's leaving
~tara]
~tara / ~tara do desu ka 457
because the condition under which the speaker goes home is that Ben’s
Ben's
coming is true, not that Ben comes (to a certain place).
IV. As stated in Note 5, S1 tara S2 can be used in counterfactual situa-
tions, and so can S1 ba S2 and S1 nara S2. However, S1 to S2 cannot
be used in such situations except for the idiomatic expression S to ii
if /I
yokatta ‘ It would be good I/ It would have been good if S ’. Example:
[41 zbmfli-"r2‘<>‘&>b§zb->f:5
[4] eoflatsema-.-r=~5 // Zbnlai
and/as-areas
/ §>»>7:f£B /*zaz>2;
/*zbZ>t Hair:-zfi->
Eillilcfie»
'Cv\7‘:f::f75
‘C inf: T56 55°O
Ano toki o-kane ga attara /I arebal
areba I atta nara /I *aru to Nihon
ni itte ita daro.
(If I had had money at that time, I would have gone to Japan.)
(IfI
~f.:E':E5't"J'h\
~tara do desu ka ~T.:6<‘;‘5'C"§'fJ\ PI"-
Phr-
a phrase which expresses a sugges- ég Why don’t
don't you do ~?; What
tion (Lit. How would you feel if about doing ~?
you do s.t.?) [REL. ho ga ii]
oKey Sentence
OKCY
—_— Vinf-past
’{>'><‘:
br-><‘: Bil?
Elli <7)
0) Eli 2
7451 5: 5%/vT:'
5%/vi‘: F; ‘P1’ 73%
E5 '6')“ 75%
Motto Nihon no hon 0 yonda ra do desu ka. 21-2
Z 2
M
(Why don’t you read more Japanese books?)
M
Vinf-past F; E5 '51‘
B '6')‘ 75*,
73>,
ra do desu ka.
531,7‘:
ifil/TC. 6 E5
E 5 '61‘
'6')“ 7)=.,
75%, (Why don't
don’t you talk ~?)
hanashite ra do desu ka.
hanashita
458 ~tara do desu ka/
keI ~tari ~tari suru
Q/<7‘;
KKK F; '5 E5
E5 '6'?"
‘GT 73*,
75>, (Why don't you
(Why don’t you eat
eat ~?)
~?)
tabeza
tabeta ra
re do desu ka,
/<6,
iflflflfli
M
M
W roxseenezocrn.
#§¥hfi&k6E5TT#a
Serade mo tabetera
Sarada tabetara do desu ka.
(Why don’t
don't you eat salad, too?)
@ mfifiiumwkezovrw.
(b) lll1l~1‘§'i3§al~1F=Flv\7: 6 E '5 '<‘1'7b=..
Yamamura-sensei ni kiitere
kiitara do desu ke.
ka.
don’t you ask Prof. Yamamura?)
(Why don't
iflii
1. Vinf-past ra
re do desu ka is an idiomatic phrase derived from the “ S1
tare S2"
tara S2” construction and expressing a suggestion. (Q ~tara)
2. The informal version is Vinf-past ra
re do? More polite versions are
Vinf-past re
ra do desho (ka), Vinf-past ra
re ikage
ikaga desu ke
ka and Vinf-past
ra
re ikaga
ikege desho (ka). (Q daro)
Ho gage ii also expresses suggestion, but this phrase is close to a command (es-
pecially when it is preceded by Vinf-past), and, therefore, is stronger than
tara do desu ka.
tare
~tari ~tari suru ~f::

~T: D ~T.:
~f: D 3'5
T25 PI"-
Phr-
a phrase which expresses an inex- do things like ~ and ~; some-
0
. -
. 1
. -
.
a
C
haustive listing of actions or states times ~ and sometimes ~

/\/\/
/\/Q/\/‘A-5\./\/\./'~ '\.'\//\\’-m/‘-//''\\./‘/\a/utp
'\/'\/\
QKey
Q Key Sentences
M)
(A)
S Topic (subject)
fig
rL is §uIi
Vinf-past
fiat
at '2 1.."
Iii
n 1..0
9/ .
Vinf- past
fiat
*2 " 0
9 tn/tack,
LIZ‘.
Lil/I'C'.
Watashitachi
Weteshirechi wa
we utatta
utatte ri odorta
odotta ri sh/‘ta /shimesh/'te_
shire /shimashita,
(We did things like singing and dancing.)
~tari ~tari suru 459
(B)
_ _ {Adi (i(I I/ ne)/
na)/ {Adi (i / na)!
na)/
Topic (subject) N + Copula} N + Copula]
Copula}
inf-past inf-past
co 1/:<|~7v oV) Xv‘

CV) l/2l‘§I/ as
SK:/""4? =1ll 7(§'fJ\oT:
X§'7‘J\o1'; 0l) /l\$f.)\*:T:
/l\ 3 75\ 0 1':
Kono resutoren
resutoran no sutéki we
wa okikatta ri chiseketta
chisakatta
M. 1 _
are // cad-.
#1:» Lid‘.
ri suru /I shimasu.
(Steaks at this restaurant are sometimes big and sometimes small.)
(C)
A:
EH
fin -7——7°
=7-~—7° 2 rial/~r we-as 7:».
fltlwc wad" n»,
Mainichi
Meinichi tépu 0 kiite imasu ka.
(Are you listening to tapes every day?)
B1 {V/Adj (i/ne)/
lV/Adi(/'/na)/ V/Adj (Hoe)!
{V/Adi(i/n@)/
pm
N +Copula}
N+Copula} N+Copula}
inf-past inf-past
l/‘l/‘it.
\r‘l/‘X. liill.\1':
llfll-\T.. ‘) liilfJ\7.IfJ\o1':\
I
l"ilfJ\7a-i)\oT... l) ‘('11,
/-e.
\|5° kn ta
kiita ri krkanaka tte
kikanakatta ri °desu.
~».esu
.\ .;‘*
(Lit. No, I listen at one time and don’t
don't listen at another (=only
(= only off
and on))
M
{VI Adj (i/
{V/ (II ne)
na) /I N+Copula}
N+Copula] inf-past D (-j'Z>)
(T25)
ri (suru)
E-1'fil_,I;-_')
E5-l,7‘;l) (T75)
(T29) (s.o. (does) things like talking)
heneshiteri (suru)
hanashitari Big
3%
En@tv(xe)
IQ. Z!) 0 I: I) Z9) (s.t. is sometimes expensive)
takakattari
takekattari (suru)
1‘1’%;0=I_-I-;I;D (T6)
§$\75-7;’-;7*;D ('§“Z>) (s.t. is sometimes quiet)
shizukadattari
shizukede ttari (suru)
9555 I5’-_>I;D
5'55}; f;'¢7;D (T25) (s.o. is sometimes a teacher)
sensei dattari
datteri (suru)
460 ~tari ~tari suru
M
(a) >FLl1:.;.--zi--7'C'i
iFLl:.t_—;.-=.--:~i-9‘Gi 1--~‘/‘ii/1/&E.7‘.:
.=.--~‘/"#1/I/éfijc. D :1 ‘/*9"-—
‘/-*7“— lI~~ 25$]!/\T: Liz,
EH-fiv\t: D Lt,
Weteshi wa
Watashi we Nydyoku de myd/ikaru
myojikeru 0 miter/'
mitari konseto
konséto 0 kiiteri
kiitari shite.
shita.
(In New York I did things like seeing musicals and listening to con-
certs.)
(b)
M bAu%k9%nwan9+a.
l~ J-Iieléfc; D §lEf.r20>->7’; D 'I'Z>.,
Tomu wa
we kitari
kiteri konakattari
koneketteri suru.
doesn’t at another time.
(Lit. Tom comes at one time and doesn't (=Tom
doesn’t
doesn't always come.))
W atnumfifianvenfivxavtso.
(c) 3) Lfctififiirbiliéofc 9 ‘Q’/of.f ') '§‘Z>'C‘ L J: '50
Ashite wa
Ashita we ame
eme ga
ge furteri
futtari yenderi
yandari suru desho.
(It will probably rain off and on tomorrow.)
W I.
;®E®%u%L#okDE#okDT&°
0)J§<7)%l1%?Ln>o 7‘; 9 'i§7.'J*07'C. D 1'60
Kono mise no sakana
sekene wa
we etereshiketteri furuketteri suru.
atarashikattari furukattari
(This shop’s
shop's fish is sometimes fresh and sometimes old.)
@
(6) H$%®%$uB$AnanvrxuwAnan0ca+.
l5I74§§§0)5l'5EIi El?l§)\7’.:‘Io 7’; ') 7' 2‘ ‘J 7J)\7’.:fo 7’; D L3rZ'§“a
Nihongo no sensei wa
we nihon/"in
nihonjin detteri
dattari emerikejin
amerikajin detteri
dattari shimasu.
(Teachers of Japanese are sometimes Japanese and sometimes Ameri-
can.)
(f) Eménuxnvfiemanvverueeow.
M EMému%kD%&mot9c&Tm&6&w.
/shikewe-sen we kiteri
/shikawa-san wa koneketteri de ere
kitari konakattari ate ni naranai.
nerenei.
(Mr. Ishikawa doesn't
doesn’t come regularly and we can’t
can't count on him.)
1. The “X teri
l. teri suru"
tari Y tari suru” construction generally expresses an inexhaustive
listing of actions or states. “Inexhaustive"
“Inexhaustive” means that in a given
situation there may be additional, unstated actions or states. (The ex-
haustive listing of actions or states is expressed by the re-form.
te-form. (Q -te))
to‘;; ye)
(Cp. to‘ ya)
2. Suru usually follows “X teri
tari Y teri”
tari" regardless of the part of speech
of X and Y, and expresses the tense, the aspect (e.g., progressive, per-
fect) and the formality level of the sentence.
3. This construction usually lists two actions or two states, but it can list
more than two actions or two states, as in (1).
~tari ~tari suru I/ -tatte 461
m $&%wfi9.%E2En9.r—f2%wt9LrB$%2%%L
(1) 7412'?-if/V7.5 9. B5kE€E.7‘:.D. -‘7--7°?£|%'E]v\7’:. D L'C E1113?’-£@5'fiL
'C\r‘Z>.,
‘(W250
Hon 0 yonder/',
yondari. eiga 0 miteri,
mitari, tépu 0o kiiteri
kiitari shite nihongo 0o ben-
kyoshite iru.
(I’m
(I'm studying Japanese by doing things like reading books, seeing
movies and listening to tapes.)
Sometimes only one action or state is listed in this construction, as in
(2).
fimefinnvcrfifinxeoenarwn.
m %%&%hfivLrfiEfi%eo2%erwk.
Shinbun 0 yondari
yonderi shite tomodachi ge
ga kuru no 0 metre
matte ire.
ita.
(I was waiting for my friend to come, doing things like reading
a newspaper.)
4. If ““X
X tari
teri Y teri
tari suru”
suru" is not the final segment of a sentence and the
predicate is an adjective, suru may be omitted, as in (3).
(3)
l3) §R'JII.'.9E@'JI'C.9(I./'C)Z'C‘I>§-'iél./7)>'JI1'..,,
QXOTCUEQOTC U (LT) c'_1T'f>§‘i'él/7§*'J7‘C.1,
Utetteri odotteri
Utattari odottari (shite) totemo tenoshikette.
tanoshikatta.
(We did things like singing and dancing, and it was a lot of fun.)
If the predicate is a verb, however, suru cannot be omitted as in (4).
(M*fifim?:22LkD%Wfi9UtWflfibfi.
(4) *r1.5§a1-7-= 2 2 L7: 0 i9)<V‘7‘:I 9 LT /*e IE/t/I-fa
*Weteshirechi we
*Watashitachi wa tenisu 0 shitari
shiteri oyoidari
oyoideri shitel
shire] *e
*o asonde.
asonda.
(Lit. We played doing things like playing tennis and swimming.)
5. As seen in KS(C) and Ex. (f), a slightly different pattern, X teri
tari Y teri
tari
de, is also used in some situations. This pattern is used when a speaker
da,
describes someone’s or something's
something’s inconstant state.
.
Z-iii
iii
iii
ii-M
1; yq
1; 1-
1; 1-
1; 1-
1; 1-‘-
1; 1-
M 2-
M 1-
1; —1
1; 1-I
11 1-
1; 1-
— 1.-
i 1-
i 1-‘-
iii
i-M-in
I; o
-tatte 7; ‘C
0'C conj.
wry’-
/\/v
/'\./'\/ \/\/\/\/\1\/
\/'\/\/\/\./\/\/\/\/
~./\/\./ ./\./\./‘\/‘\./'\/\/‘\./"\/\_/\/\\/\.o’
/\./\/'\/~./\/~/\/-\/\/~/\/\/
i even if s.o. did s.t. or s.t. were in even if ~

gj some state (the desired result would [REL. te mo]
é not come about) or even if s.o. or
st is in
St IS In some
SOITIC state
SlI3lI€ \'\.¢\/' '\./\.'/\./-\/ ,'\/
\-
\
vv\/Vxr
rAfivv\
462 -tatte
Q Key Sentences
§Key
(A)
Topic (indirect object) Vinf-past
5) U) A
so ccLli
" li tat. 7.:o'C
tai, rC. OT aaa;
> 7' ll‘ /emu:-e/V.
a>»~¢2r.¢v~/aim»:-e-/1,.
>
Ano hito ni wa
we hanashite rte
hanashitatte wekerene/'I
wakaranai / wekerim ese n.
wakarimasen.
(Even if I tell him that, he won't understand it.)
(B)
Topic (subject)
-12 Adj (i) stemi
at
B §i1H %<o
e ® an-'i
were2 a-'§<
.a§< TCQT
* kof E5/§!i\i'§‘.,
E9/E
' w ea-.
Boku we
wa sono kippu o0 teke§l<u
takafku tette
tatte kau I/ keimesu.
kaimasu
(I will buy the ticket even if it is expensive.)
M
(i) Vinf-past of
U6
[[6
3% LT:/J ‘C
Efibfco “C (even if s.o. talks /talked)
I talked)
heneshitette
hanashitatte
fififco ‘C
£47520 “C (even if s.o. eats I/ ate)
tebetette
tabetatte
(ii) Adj (i)
(1') stem < 7‘:-.>'C
7’:/>'C
kutette
kutatte
EM
%< 7':/If
7’:-.>'C (even if s.t. is /I were expensive)
takakutatte
tekekuterte
(iii) {Adj (na) stem /I N}
[Adj (H8) N] 7";'o (I10)
T50 (7:0) T
‘C
dat(tat)te
det(tet)te
We §%7)>-ffo
i'1'%7)*f;' (Tao) “C
0 (7:0) ‘C (even if s.t. is /I were quiet)
shizukadat(tat)te
sh/'zukedef(te t)te
913$
5’i3£l-L T50 (f:.o)'C
fio (7‘.:o)'C (even if s.o. is Iwere
/ were a teacher)
det(tet)te
sensei dat(tat)te
(a) iifihiii-"9
(H-) senate 0 of: o'C$liEv\7’:. < 7’.:\¢‘a
Tc o'C$t:.tE\/‘Ts. f,1:v\,
O-kene
0-kane ge
ga etterte
attatte kurume
kuruma we
wa keitekunei.
kaitakunai.
(Even if I had money, I wouldn’t
wouldn't want to buy a car.)
-tatte 463
-rerre
M $aEonar.tL<r%waw.
W $eEener.tc<r%wew.
Hon o0 kattatte,
kerrerre, isogeshikure
isogashikute yomenei.
yomenai.
(Even if I buy books, I'm
I’m too busy to read them.)
(0)
(<1) i’-_*7’;t’.r
‘é=7’::.7’.£ < 7‘:/)'C7)*3iIi\§-Ii‘/1/.,
T.:¢'C7)>iv\i-ti.‘/1/.,
Kirenekurerre kamaimasen.
Kitanakutatte kemeimesen.
don’t care even if it is dirty.)
(I don't
w
(d) E<T$EfioT?4'$—AH5#§Wi€he
i._a< 'C7Ff§7‘.:'o'C"?/I - a--wit: Ian-awe-1~rAo.
Tokure fubendatte
Tokute fubenderre mai
mei homu nara kemeimesen.
kamaimasen.
(Even if it is far away and inconvenient, it doesn’t matter if it is ‘ my
home’.)
(e) E/of.crcv~v\5'&ir.;'e'cB$/z
(B) E/Vt: F-1'iEv\i'J'.,
l:vw\9a$f;’ O TH‘-ik f's'iEv\i'§‘.,
Donne ni ii sensei datte
Donna derre tokidoki
rok/doki machigaimasu.
mechigeimesu.
(No matter how good a teacher may be, he sometimes makes mistakes.)
-rerre is used strictly in informal spoken Japanese, and is used to indi-

1. -tatte
cate something counter to fact. However, the counterfactual (or subjunc-
tive) nature of this construction is not very strong. See Ex. (a).
-rerre can take donna
2. -tatte donne ni (as in Ex. (e)) meaning ‘ no matter how ’.'. More
examples follow.
(1) m
m a- Eh&t%itoT9m5&wx.
EA)ti."|:%>”tt:-a'C6)>b=~Ia>‘.cv\.t.
kengeeratre wakaranai
Donna ni kangaetatte wekerenei yo.
(No matter how hard you think, you won't
won’t understand it.)
b. Ehfic%<t¢tfii%T+o
h e‘/vr.1":|=a<r=-s"c1<:t9e-<=~r.
Donne ni samukutatte
Donna semukurerre dei/obudesu.
daijobudesu.
(No matter how cold it is, it’s all right.)
-rerre can be replaced by te

-tatte re mo. re mo can be used in
The difference is that te
spoken and written language and that it is less emotive than -rerre.
-tatte. Thus,
if Ex. (a) is replaced by the following sentence, the counterfactuality of having
BL;
money is nullified, and the entire sentence sounds much less emotive.
H]Bfi#&¢T£$uEwk<&wa
[1] i5fin3$>o'C’biliEIi\7‘: < >'.irv\o
O-kene ga
O-kane ge atte
erre mo kuruma
kurume we keirekunei.
wa kaitakunai.
(Even if I have money, I don’t
don't want to buy a car.)
464 -re
-te
te ‘C te
re-form
orm
\/\e\/\/\/\r\
\/\'\./\/\/\'\ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ /-\/-\/\/\./\I\./'\/\/\/\ '\/\./\/'\/\/\/\/\/*,
Ix/~../\/-s./\./-./\_/x/\ /-\_/-\_/'\/\./\/'\./\/\"\/\ I\/'\/\r\/\/\/\/\/s,
3 thee te
re-form
form ending of verbs and i- 1- § and;
and -ing
ing
type adjectives (The te-form
re-form endin
ending(IQ
of na
na-type
type adjectives and the te
re-form
form
\/\/\/v\
}
Q Key Sentences
(1) {V I Adj
(i(I / na)/
oe) / N
+Copula} re
te
/A ti
./‘A ca It '\
His A fie-c
i'_I':'C new /flsacacr...
ieisatr./nastier. \
we Nihon
J/mu wa N/hon e me
itte benkyoshlre I/ benkyosh/mesh/re
benkyosh/ta benkyosh/mash/ta
(Jim went to Japan and studied (there))
::.a> 7<"r"-9?
11¢) x-7-~—fie ti §<-c
§('C :‘<>v~l,v\/rs:/\L,wc'§‘
rsv\i,v\/isv\l,v\'c<;-
surékr wa
Kokono suteki we yesukure
yas uku te 0/sh/1/0/sh//desu
oishii / oish//desu
I .
(Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious)
I‘.-'1 7»~—
‘7;\- 3. \'C
fifpf I/W) I/ \/W\'C
t(\i,\ i,\i,\-f-f 3*=
Kono epéro
apéto a shizukade
shlzukede 1/ I/ndesu
ndesu1--'.
3_
(This apartment is quiet and good)
EQE $1.
$11 to fit
4) fic Ii ii FEE 1'.n%'1I=5‘& ‘C %’§Efiz'c v\z>Iv\i'§‘
55$ T T-'%'?l3E'C§’§E$tx_-C v\Za/vii‘
I’
Watashi
.1
_Q
Wereshr no C/7IC/‘II
chichi we
. Q
wa sense:
sensei de koko de e/go
..5".f\
‘nu . ‘.
eigo 0o oshzere
oshiete I!’U
/ru I/ /mesu
..
imasu '0
‘ .O O
-E
.7, ";
.
(My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high school)
(i) Gr
Gr. 1 verbs
verbs:
(a.)
(a) su verbs
su-verbs: 3151' ——>
—+ 315
f‘ LT
‘C (s.o.
so talks and)
henesu hanashite
(b) ku verbs
ku-verbs: B< —>
—> $1/"C (s.o.
so walks and)
aruku eruire
Exception:
Exception fi' < -—>
—> fiat’ (s.o.
so goes and)
iku irre
(c) gu
gu-verbs:
verbs pk <" —>
-> i5i<v\'C‘ o swims and)
(s.o.
oyogu oyoide
-te
re 465
(d) mu /I bu /I nu-verbs: EH1:

am- 1)
-—)
fik/we
at/V-<- s.o. drinks s.t. and)
nomu nonde
fits:
iii!-4 —-D
—') 5&1/1/6
£5/1/‘C: (s.o. plays and)
esobu
asobu esonde
asonde
Rx;
IE8; -P
ii
H5/we
FE/1/‘C’ (s.o.
s.o. dies and)
shinu shinde
(e) rsu
tsu /I u /I ru-verbs: 13110
fife -—)
1%’: ‘C
i~*f'>'C s.o. waits and)
matsu
mersu metre
fl78if6'
E5 -—)
-—P E0T s.o. buys s.t. and)
kau kerre
katte
H315
B)ZZ> -—) $01’
HY’)-C s.o. takes s.t. and)
(s.o.
IOTU
fOI'U IOIIE
IOII9
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs

Verbs: Vstem ‘C
T
I6
Q/<1
fix-c (s.o. eats s.t. and)
rebere
tabete
iii) Irr. Verbs:
(iii) §l€Z> —>
5E6 -—> §lE'C (s.o. comes and)
kuru kire
kite
-5'5 —> l/C
T25 LT (s.o. does s.t. and)
suru shire
shite
(iv) (1'):
iv) Adj (i): Adj (i) stem < T
‘C
kure
kute
1g,< T
'1é‘1( (s.t. is expensive and)
rekekure
takakute
(ne):
(v) Adj (na): Adj (na) stem -G
‘G
de
§§I)>'(=
fir/J»? (s.t. is quiet and)
22
ti it
i M
i_ M
—
— L
g
shizukade -M
(vi) N+Copula:
vi) N + Copula: N'c'
N ‘(=-
de
96$
95$ -c
“G (s.o. is a teacher and)
sensei de
M
4 66 - I8
-te
M
rm:I-' *-
ifltli - l\|~ §fll$i,\r"C'/\
anstw-c»~ :/11*-(:2)-0‘
I/71'-lC.7)=l)‘ re.
T1,,
Wereshi we
Watashi wa koro
koto o0 nuide hanga
henge ni kaketa.
(Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.)
vevanererfinnw.
M v4vaflh+§rfi#fiw.
Wein 0o nomisugire
Wain eteme ga itai.
nomisugite atama irei.
(I’ve drunk too much wine and have a headache.)
(I've
fio%§uea<r%w.
floH§mni<T%ws
Wereshi no heye
Watashi we semekure
heya wa semakute kurei.
kurai.
(My room is small and dark.)
@ :@x—ium6<Tflw&wa
:®z—fm#6<Tfiw&w°
Kono sopu
supu we
wa kerekure
karakute nomenei.
nomenai.
(This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can’t eat (lit. drink) it.)
nue=x#kHavr<E§e¢e.
flur:x#Xfl%cl<Efiti%.
Wereshi wa
Watashi we renisu
tenisu ge dei-sukide yoku romodechi
ga dai-sukide tomodachi ro
to suru.
(I love tennis and often play with my friends.)
ee%nek$2$c$&uB$i%r+.
@#¥fi%fi#E$T$KdH$i$?Ts
Yumiko we
wa ima daigaku
deigeku sennen
sannen de senko we
wa nihonbungaku desu.
(Yumiko is a junior at college now and her major is Japanese literature.)
@§%$fi%fifi%v.mb9KHH%$#fiik.
@fi%ifi%fifiiT.mb9KHE%$#fiita
we konsho byoki de.
/to-sensei wa de, keweri
kawari ni Murere-sensei
Murata-sensei ge
ga oshiere.
oshieta.
(Prof. Ito was ill this week and Prof. Murata taught for him.)
re-form functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last

The te-form
element of the predicate of a clause is the te-form,
re-form, it means that that
clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause
iii
iii
—--ii-_-
ii--_--i
follows it. For example, in Ex. (b) the last element of the predicate
1-1.-iii
_._
_._ _1
—
of the first clause is sugite,

sugire, the re-form
te-form of sugiru ‘ do s.t. too much ’,', and
_ ——
__ i
M j:
--—
-__ ——
i-
—
11
— ——
——
—
1-‘ 1
j-
--— —
sugite is followed by another clause atama

sugire ga irei
eteme ge itai ‘lit. (my) head aches ’.
The meaning of the re-form
te-form varies according to context, but generally,
it corresponds to and or -ing in participial constructions.
When the re-form
te-form links two predicates, the relationship between the
two is often one of the following:
(A1: the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A2: the action
or state expressed by the second predicate)
-te 467
-re
(A) A1 and A2 occur sequentially, as in KS(1)
KS(l) and Ex. (a).
(B) A1 and A2 are two states of someone or something, as in KS(2),
KS(4), Exs. (c) and (f).
(C) A1 is the reason for or the cause of A2, as in KS(3), Exs.(b), (d),
(e) and (g). (This usage of the re-form
te-form is very common.)
(D) A1 is the means by which someone does A2 or the manner in
which someone does A2. Examples:
(ll
(1) f¥li2l§l,\'C'l'rfr'> 71°
‘§I2lIff~'l-\'C"Ifj'-IOICO
we aruite
Boku wa eruite kaetta.
keerre.
(Lit. I walked and went home. (=I went home on foot.))
m
(2) @:u%ucrfi2fiKk,
fii-(1.?-§1L\'C' ;'.'EliEfi*<7’:..,
we isoide gohan o tabeta.
Kenji wa rebere.
(Lit. Kenji hurried and ate his meal. (=Kenji ate his meal
in a hurry.))
(E) A1 is contrasted with A2. Example:
(3)
(3) %i19l'c*@u.\'c.
%li5'l~'C‘@JL\'C- t<i15*5'c~fi<.
B-‘li"5"5'C'E.lI<a
Otoko
Oroko wa
we soto de harereire.
hataraite. onna wa
we uchi de hataraku.
(Lit. Men work outside and women work inside.)
(F) A2 is unexpected in terms of A1. Example:
(4) -Mil/"9 ‘{>fih‘EL\'C=i'
l~ AliIi\’J (>55/i.:'€'L\'C‘i'" X
2 l~ 7b3I:H§lEZa.,
7)§l:tl§lEZ5.,
we itsumo
Tomu wa irsumo asonde
esonde ite
ire tesuto
resuro ga
ge dekiru.
(Tom plays around, yet he always does well on tests.)
re-form can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the
The te-form
to‘ makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the re-form
particle to’ te-form can list
verbs and adjectives exhaustively. (Cp. ~ tari
teri ~ tari
rari suru; ya) Ex-
ample:
M 1i—u%u<r%e<rAmfiwfi.
m 1i—fi¥L<T%5<TAKfiWEa 1-g
-
ii
ii
we ursukushikure
Emi wa utsukushikute ekerukure
akarukute hiro
hito ni shinsersude.
shinsetsuda. § i
(Amy is pretty, cheerful and kind to people.)

Te-form verbs are also used with such expressions as iru?
iruz ‘ be doing ~’,
kara
kere ‘after’ and we
wa ikenei
ikenai ‘‘must (Q> Appendix 4, Con-
must not do ~’. (==.'
nection forms of important expressions, F. Vte+
Vre+ )
468 te
re mo
te ITIO
I8 mo 'C=b
Ti) ¢0"i-
conj.
Iy/\/\/\/\/\/\/x/\.rc/\/\./-/\./\/\/\/\/-./\/\/\/\/\/\/\'\'\ "\/\/\I'\./\/ I
’\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\/‘c/\/\/\'\./\./\/\/\./c/\/\/\/'\/\/\'\'\'\ ’\/'\/\'\/\/
iI Te mo is used when that which is even if; although

expressed in the main clause is not [REL. keredo; noni‘; -tatte]
what is expected from the content o -*1--I N/\/ \./\ /'\ \/-J/\
the dependent (re

(te mo) clause. \/\/\
'\-./\./\
(-\/~
(‘\/\ .r-/\./\.r~./\/\r\/\/\-
ff/
Q Key Sentences
(A)
'1‘<>Pi¢<$“*>is*> --—
Topic (subject) Vte I
rt.
$1. 11
gt: 1:rfi1 is
Hotr O
it‘ls n</near.
/-" /-"'
1“? < / fie ii}
Wereshi
Watashi we
wa eme
ame ge
ga futre
futte mo ikul/ ikimasu.
iku
(I'll
(I’ll go there even if it rains.)
(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (i / na)te
$1. :1 s'§<'c
£<'c tii, H11»-we /Hiemirra
l:l:ln>n‘5 /Hi>b~o‘a*h.
We reshi I we
Watashi semuku re
samukute mo dekekeru /I dekekemesu.
dekakeru dekakemasu.
(I’ll go out even if it is cold.)
(I'll
(C)
--_ Noun
1%
Ii? as
79 ‘i l~A
|~r- -c1
“C1 i.
is I311;
F11;
H :2; 2 Lf.:7‘.fZ>9/‘E'L.1:')a
tr; rsao/-euro.
' '
ge
Boku ga Tomu de mo oneji koto
onaji koro o0 shita
shire daro I desho.
daro]
(Even if I were Tom, I would probably have done the same thing.)
M
(i) {V/Adi (i/na)lte
(i/ne)lre 4,ts
mo
33)/t
;%l/C ii,
it, (even if s.o. talks)
hanashite mo
-gar 4,
Q-<1 it, (even if s.o. eats)
rebere mo
tabete
f;§< “C
f;‘{< 1' ii,
1, (even if s.t. is expensive)
rekekure mo
takakute
re
te mo 469
§inb='G
%'167)~'C‘ ii,
is (even if s.t. is quiet)
shizukede mo
shizukade
(ii) N ‘C’
'6 ‘{>
lb
de mo
5'51-E
9131-E 'C‘
T‘ is
(1 (even if s.o. is a teacher)
sensei de mo
@ ¢manu$aEart%aaen.
M wmexnfiafiertfieaee.
Nakayama-san
A/ekeyeme-sen wa
we hon o kerre
katte mo yomimasen.
yomimesen.
(Mr. Nakayama doesn’t read books even if he buys them.)
m flfiE%%$WT$finU#0K°
(b) fi.r:.tB%‘1=Fa"i$v\'ct>!fii"tr.c:b>-ste.
We reshi we
Watashi wa yojiken eruire mo tsukarenakatta.
yojikan aruite rsukerenekerre.
didn’t get tired although I walked for four hours.)
(I didn't
M fFIEfi'<'C
(<>) neaersawtner.
‘i> $5!» Lv\'C"l‘.,
Nani
Neni 0 tabete
rebere mo oishiidesu.
(No matter what I eat, it tastes good.)
(d) r;'ttl:|*i.E1v~"ci,§)2b~r5>*.i:r)=-27;,
7‘.ffLI:Fl1flv\'f)l>63*70>I51’.C7b>-37:0
Dare ni kiite
kiire mo wakaranakatta.
wekerenekerre.
(No matter who I asked, I couldn’t get the answer.)
(e) A: Tali: ET»)
ETQT T 4, vw\'C";'n~,
*{,vW\'C"I“7b>.,
Tebeko o0 sutte
Tabako surre mo iidesu ka.
ke.
(Lit. Is it all right even if I smoke? (=May I smoke?))
B: til/\,
liln, vw~-c-;-,
vw\-c-I-O
Hei. iidesu.
Hai.
(Yes, you may.)
M
W 2caua¢nmnt<rteoraa+.
Eh&tB$%fifiL<Th¢oTHiTa
Donne ni nihongo ga
Donna ge muzukashikute
muzukashikure mo yatte
yerre mimesu.
mimasu. ii-ii-in-ii
|
|
i
difficult Japanese may be, I will try it.)

(No matter how difficult
®
(8') Ennmiirtwmuizonkfimwwo
EA/it l:j;5’&'C‘ ‘MZIKIC (15.20 D‘ t.-.7§rbIv\v\,
Donne ni jobude mo karada
Donna kerede ni wa
we ki 0o tsuketa
rsukere ho ge
ga ii.
you’d better take good care of your-
(No matter how healthy you are, you'd
self.)
M fiisnnfificsennaavéootvn.
#Lae#%fict%nnea9§5o$9fi.
Inoue-sen ga
/noue-san ge senpai
senpei de mo boku wa
we hakkiri
hekkiri iu tsumori da.
de.
(I intend to speak straightforwardly, even if Mr. Inoue is my senior.)
470 te
re mo
1. The basic meaning of re

te mo is the same as the English phrase ‘ even
if ~’.
~re mo iidesu ka
2. ~te ke as in Ex. (e) is an idiomatic expression used to request
permission to do s.t. If the answer is in the affirmative,
affirmative, it is “Hai.
“Hai,
iidesu.” (Yes, you may.) If it is in the negative, it is “ /'e,
iidesu." /'e. ikemesen.”
ikemasen."
(No, you may not.)
3. WH-word ~ re te mo means ‘ no matter WH-’,
WH-', as in Exs. (c), (d), (f), and
(g). ' Typical usages are listed below:
I,-f:h, I;
1';':h. I: 331,/C
Efil/C =5 (no matter who s.o. talks to)
dare ni hanashite mo
{BI
{ii >5;
>3 f=;§l_/C
i-=,’fil,'C =5 (no matter what s.o. talks about)
nani o hanashite mo
E; “G
"G fight
E3 [,1 =5 (no matter where s.o. talks)
doko de hanashite mo
(,\'_)
i,\-3 331,1
331/C =5
{, (no matter when s.o. talks)
irsu hanashite mo
itsu
E-'5 33;-[,1
E5 33 1,1’ =5
{, (no matter how s.o. talks)
do hanashite mo
E/pf;
E/1,1‘; I: Efil/C
35-[,1 =5
{, (no matter how much s.o. talks)
donna ni hanashite
donne heneshite mo
Te mo is comparable but not identical to keredo ‘ although ’' and noni ‘ in spite
of the fact that ’.'. The semantic difference is exactly that of English ‘ even
if’ vs. ‘‘although’.
although ’. (=>
(Q keredo; noni‘) Thus,
M ¢manu$eE@te/Eowna/Eowufiaaen.
Wmeamiafiere/Eonna/E5ou%eaex.
Nakayama-sen we
Nakayama-san wa hon o katte mo Ikeu
/kau keredo Ikeu
/ kau noni yomi-
masen.
mesen.
doesn’t read books even if I/ although he buys them.)
(Mr. Nakayama doesn't
However, if te
re mo is used with a WH-word, it cannot be replaced by keredo
or noni.
[Z1 Miners
[21 naesrs /*a'<2s|1nE
/*fi»<z>|1t|.E / *fi'<Z.>0)|:isv\L\7\'C'd's
*fi'<%>0>|:m~ Ll/\'C"‘l‘°
Nani o0 tabete mo /I *taberu
*raberu keredo I/ *raberu
*taberu noni oishiidesu.
(No matter what I eat, it tastes good.)
~temo
~ remo ii 471
~te mo ii ~‘C=£;l.\l,\
~'C=£1l.\t\ phr.
~/'\/\/\/\/\4\r
\J /\/\../\c/'\./N/\/‘/\/\/“/‘./\/\/\
//\/\/‘/./\/\/\
a phrase which expresses permission may; It is all right if

or concession > (ANT. ~ we wa ikenei)
ikenai)
‘\-'/~\/\ '/.\,/"\.//'\\--
V\AA/v
§Key
QKey Sentences
(A)
(A)
A:
3; ;-_-_
CC '6 far
“G jf -I. E’
7:11’: E:
Vte
%'ro'C
Q01
iii lb
‘L mm '6')‘ 75>,
1/‘!/"6'?’ 71",,
B:
(iv,\ vvw\-0*;-,,
til/\, \ v \ “('12,
Koko de rebeko
tabako o surre
sutte mo iidesu ke.
ka. Hai.
Hai, iidesu.
(May I smoke here?) (Yes, you may.)
(B)
{Adj (i / na) /N+Copula] te
E
i%'<< 'c
‘C Q, vw\/ \r‘\/"€*'5‘a
\<‘\r‘/ v\v\'c*<;~,,
Tekaku re
Takaku te mo
m ii I/ iidesu.
(It is all right if it’s expensive.)
its expensive
$2
"NI '6 4, vw\/ vwvc
v~v\I vw\-61-,,
Gakuser de
Gakusei
|-E., ‘Ii
u.
(It is all right if you are a student.)
student)
E‘-'EII
mo
m nii/I 1/desu
iidesu.
Formation
[V /I Adj (i I/ na) /I N+Copula}

N+Copula}te
re ‘ls w/~
1, I/W\
mo ii
iiec-c
E51/C ii we
4, (Mn (may talk; It is all right if s.o. talks.) ii
xniituuuiql
ii-it--_
1;
M
—
hanashite mo ii
heneshire
"1''r§i<'€
,=‘§§< T 11, win
‘b PW‘ (It is all right if s.t. is expensive.)
rekekure mo ii
takakute
fin-re
fij%79>'C’ (1
is I/W\
\/W‘ (It is all right if s.t. is quiet.)
shizukede mo ii
shizukade
96$
92$ "c iifa we
1* (It is all right if s.o. is a teacher.)
sensei de mo ii
472 ~ temo ii
~remo
(a) :_a>v\-<;-iiyfi-s'ci{,v\v~'c=~-;"r)=.,
.‘;0)v\';‘2E/)'C1l,v\li\'C"i‘h>.,
rsukerre mo iidesu ke.
Kono isu o tsukatte ka.
(May I use this chair?)
M eaofinuwicr.fi<rtwwv+#xttawoa%wr<fia
QHQEEHWXTTOfi<ThwwcT#£BL5w0&%wT<fié
l/‘O
V\°
shukudei wa
Kyo no shukudai we sakubun desu. Mijikekure
Mijikakute mo iidesu ga
ge omoshiroi
keire kudasai.
no o kaite kudesei.
(Today’s homework assignment is a composition.
(Today's It is all right if it’s
it's
short, but please write an interesting one.)
M
(0) A=?=22Li%b#,
A1-7-r-XE: Lift/on~°
shimesen ka.
Tenisu o shimasen ke.
(Wouldn’t you like to play tennis?)
(Wouldn't
B : ‘F$'C'
‘|=$'r=~r,vw\'c=-<;"2b>.,
i, vw\'C~;->9»,
Herede mo iidesu ka.
Hetade ke.
I’m poor at it?)
(Is it all right if I'm
(d) IrTIh=?'f-§T:v\'l>0)5;fi7+T:v\/'o'C"I'7)'$.,
A: fiTI7)~?*‘1-}T:v\‘l;r7)’¢i:fi7+T:v\/1/C"i‘n§.,
Nenike tsumetai
Nanika rsumerei mono o nomirei ge.
nomitai n desu ga.
(I want to drink something cold.)
l:'."—-ll/’(="{,\7\l/\’(“'§"7!)>,,
B : l:'—-/l/'C"{,l/‘I/\'C"§‘ZP°
ke.
Biru de mo iidesu ka.
(Will beer do?)
Piores
re mo ii is preceded by a verb, it means permission.

1. When te
~nekure mo ii, the negative te-form
2. ~nakute re-form with mo ii, means ‘It is all right
~’ or ‘do not have to do ~’. (Cp. -wnakerebe
if ~ not ~' ~nakereba naranai)
Examples:
fln%ofifia§no<reuu.
m flu%®fifia§uu<reuu.
Wereshi wa
Watashi we sono shiken o ukenakute
ukenakure mo ii.
(I don't
don’t have to take the exam.)
m fiib
(2) %L<u<reuucT.
< fa? ( 'C£»L\l.\'C"§'°
Arereshikunakute mo iidesu.
Atarashikunakute
(It is all right if it’s not new (or fresh).)
m #$uea<reuucT.
#Euet<r%uucT.
Gekusei janakute
Gakusei jenakute mo iidesu.
you’re not a student.)
(It is all right if you're
~temo iil
~remo ii / to‘ 473
3. Other expressions like yoroshii(desu), the polite form of ii ‘good, all
right’, and kamaimasen ‘ don't
don’t mind’ can be used in place of ii(desu).
i/'(desu).
The degrees of politeness in these expressions are as follows:
(4) i/(desu) > kamaimasen > yoroshii(desu)
ii(desu)
less polite more polite

Examples :
senwavtxaewvxwo
m ncnwncsxacwcfm.
Ash/‘ta yasunde mo yoroshiidesu ka.
Ashita
(Would it be all right if I take a day off tomorrow?)
(6) Tali:
Tali; Erfiof
2%/QT is n~3iv\iii‘/1/n>.,
‘B fJ=iv\i-El.‘/1/7b>°
Tabako o0 sutte mo kamaimasen ka.
Don’t you mind) if I smoke?)
(Do you mind (lit. Don't
Note that kamau ‘‘mind’
mind’ must be negated in this expression.
4. Te mo ii sometimes appears with WH-words like nani ‘ what’ and ikura
‘ how much ’. In this case, the expression means ‘ It is all right no matter
what / who / how much /etc. ~’ or ‘ It doesn't
doesn’t matter what / who /
how much ~.’ (See te re mo, Note 3.) Examples:
(7) %ni1f;'11.ia<L'Ci>vw\'c*i‘.
*'E'i”Ll2lI1';':11»fJ{L'C’i.>l/‘lr"C"‘i'o
Sore wa dare ga shite mo iidesu.
doesn’t matter who does it.)
(It doesn't
m L\<
(8) H<Bfi&T£WWFT°
Bfifif 1l>vw\'C"i“.
Ikura tabete mo iidesu.
(It is all right no matter how much you eat.)
== T Z
i E
m1¢
to‘ A: PM
Prt-
'\/\/\/\/\
"\/\/\/\/\ /\/\/\/\
/\/\/\/~
a particle which lists things exhaus- and

tively /7/ (and); I02;
[REL. I7! to’; ya]
\fi/\/Y
474 to‘
QKey Sentence
§Key
Noun
—-_ Noun
749
'7 47 <‘:
<‘: 9'4-27
F4-27 (E)
(<‘:) l111 ii 7:’/‘('11,
Ti/‘GT0
Maiku to Dikku (to) wa gakusei da / desu.
(Mike and Dick are students.)
W
M
w flu%%aB¢%&%+.
M aaxneaxnanr.
Watashi wa eigo to nihongo o0 hanasu.
(I speak English and Japanese.)
M iwféwn%$F4v&7?vz&z&4v~fi<0BDfi.
(b) "311!/2'35/vli§lE4}‘5F‘/f ‘7<‘: 7"} ‘/2 <‘:Z'</f ‘/*\fi"<'>'(, D T5,,
Do/‘rsu to Furansu to Supein e iku tsumori da.
Miruzu-san wa rainen Doitsu
(Mr. Mills is planning to go to Germany, France and Spain next year.)
@ zr—au+47e7¢—rcn~a.
m z¥—#m+47a7¢—acfi~a.
Sutéki wa naifu to foku de taberu.
Suteki
(We eat steak with a knife and a fork.)
@ w$éb&xixéw#¥:2ELTwb°
w mfiébtzixébflizzébfwéo
Yamamoto-san to Sumisu-san ga tenisu 0o shite iru.
(Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis.)
(e)
(6) Hrlséat
Blliifik |~/v=i§§i:tlli'Cv\>.s.,
l~1l/==;%§l;t{1,‘l'CI/\Z.'a.,
Nihongo to torukogo wa nite iru.
(Japanese and Turkish are alike.)
GEE!
1. To is used to list things exhaustively. The final to is usually omitted,
but the others are not. Thus, “A, B, C and D” D" is usually expressed
as “A to B to C to D.”
2. To connects noun phrases only. Thus, it cannot be used for and in
sentences, as seen in (1) — (3). (I=> -te)
(Q
(1) *:
*1’. Z1
‘C. <0/~
0)/\ ‘//<— rf—i:t'£&v\¢ v\v\,,
*//<-->‘1'~—t1§v\t l/‘\r‘.,
*K0ko no hanba'ga'
*Koko hanbégé wa yasui to ii.
(Hamburgers here are cheap and good.)
oi*v4»vvanna¢~fiane*Hanuaan.
(2) M7411/Y T/$5/ii BI4§’\‘f:1.'0TC.t7l<H'éA/iC.‘;f;-‘QTCO
*Uirus0n-san wa Nihon e itta to Kimura-san ni atta.
*Uiruson-san
(Mr. Wilson went to Japan and met Mr. Kimura.)
[01
to‘ 475
B)*%%u=vv—tufiakao9¥mmEmfi@n.
an*%%u=v#—rmfi@n&@9¥m%@mfi¢n.
*Haruo wa konséro
konsa'to ni ma
itta to Yuriko wa eiga ni itta.
(Haruo went to a concert and Yuriko went to a movie.)
N3. . .)"
3. “ N1 to N2 (to N2. .)” is a noun phrase; it can occur anywhere nouns
can occur.
4. When N1 to N2 is used as the subject of a sentence, the sentence may
be ambiguous. In Ex. (d), for example, without adequate context we
cannot tell if Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together.
If the predicate contains reciprocal words such as niru ‘ resemble
resemble’,’, 0naji-
onaji-
da ‘be the same’ and kekkonsuru ‘marry’, however, sentences with
“ N1 to N2"
N2” in subject position are not ambiguous, as seen in Ex. (e).
I. When Ex. (d) means ‘ Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis
together’, it can be restated using to’
to? ‘‘with’,
with’, as in [1].
M La m¢é»mzszsae¥=z2trwa.
W m$anuzszanar=zatrwa.
Yamamoto-san wa Sumisu-san to tenisu 0o shite iru.
(Mr. Yamamoto is playing tennis with Mr. Smith.)
b
b. zi2ébflw$ébt?=2ELTM6,
z "I. 235/vl:l:lJJ7l§1é.</vé:’z‘*-1'-7K5:L'Clr\Z.'>.,
Sumisu-san wa Yamamoto-san to tenisu o0 shite iru.
(Mr. Smith is playing tennis with Mr. Yamamoto.)
Note that if the speaker states [la] or [lb] instead of Ex. (d), he is
speaking from Mr. Yamamoto's
Yamamoto’s or Mr. Smith’s
Smith's viewpoint, respectively.
II. Ya is also used to list things, but that listing is inexhaustive. Examples:
[2] 8- i"Ti /I/2'5
/l/2'25 /MP/~
A/15/~ ')U 2
X3é< A/7b§5lET:;.,
/1/rb§§lU.:.,
Miruzu-san ya Harisu-san ga kita.
(Mr. Mills, Mr. Harris, and others came.)
h :nux¢—v¢7¢—9vfi~&.
:nmxf—vb7a—9cfi~o.
Kore wa supon
supzin ya féku
foku de taberu.
(We eat this with utensils like spoons and forks.)
III. The particle ni can be used to combine two or more objects that usually
come as a set.
W w fi%h%%t/tdfiafide.
U]& fi%A%%E/t:%Efi&6o
Ma/‘asa
Maiasa misoshiru nil
ni / to gohan 0o taberu.
(I eat miso soup and rice every morning.)
476 to‘ /I to’
to”
b. .b<r>Ai1v\ot,|1;|v\~‘/+
3b</>Miv~*>'!>Bv~~‘/=v ‘VI:
vi: / tfi‘fiv\a‘
.\;a‘Rv~% a3 v9 it a%'rv\z>.,
fie &%'Cw:5..
Ano hito wa itsumo shiroi shatsu ni
nil/ to akai chokki 0o kite
iru.
(He is always wearing a white shirt and a red vest.)
The difference between ni and to is that ni always implies that one or
more than one object has been added to the first object as an indis-
pensable member of the entire set. To, however, does not necessarily
carry that implication.
to“ é
to’ A: Pr!‘
Prt-
\/\/\/\/
T
a particle marking the NP which with; as; from
maintains a reciprocal relationship [REL. n/'4 to']
ni‘ ; to‘]
with the subject of a clause (
"\_/‘\_/'\
"\./\/\ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/X
/~/\/\/\/\/\/K/N
§Key Sentence
QKey
—I_ Noun
H
$11 ti 77¥'4-
'7‘/9'4— .1:J: -" tfit Z /*"--7'»r--
——%ElC /4'--—'f»r— I: fiat:/fiiiibfco
ll fiof:/fi"53€LT:,
Watashi wa Andi to isshoni péti
pati ni itta / ikimashira.
ikimashita.
(I went to a party (together) with Andy.)
M
(a-)
(*1) I~l~ii~‘/'3
l~1~li§a ‘/.1;.1:
‘/<‘;J: < -'f::<2*l‘Z£>°
7-I-z’i"§"%>o
E Tomu wa Jon to yoku tenisu 0o suru.
(Tom often plays tennis with John.)
—%uAEve%fiun.
M —%naE9e%%bn.
Ichiro wa Midori to kekkonshita.
/chiro kekkonshite.
(Ichiro married Midori.)
M
@ :o§n%oE&fluc+.
:w$u%@$&fitcT.
Kono kuruma wa boku no kuruma to onaj/‘desu.
ona/idesu.
(This car is the same as my car.)
to? 477
M
(d) Bxoaaovurxuaoasovewbenwar.
Hllioéo 5 M172‘ 1) 1:<0%~4> 5 D <‘:wl,t=.>n‘§v\i*J'..
kyfiri wa Amerika no kyiiri
Nihon no kyori kyfiri to sukoshi chigaimasu.
(Japanese cucumbers are a little different from American ones.)
l.
1. When Y is the subject of a clause, X to indicates that X and Y have a
reciprocal relationship. For example, in Ex. (a), the fact that Tom
often plays tennis with John necessarily means that John often plays
tennis with Tom; in other words, it means that they have a reciprocal
relationship. Thus, to often corresponds to the English ‘ with’, as in
‘in the company of’. To also appears with such reciprocal verbs and
adjectives as kekkonsuru ‘‘marry
marry ’, kenkasuru ‘‘quarrel’,
quarrel’, hanashiau ‘discuss
with ’, niru ‘ resemble ’, chigau ‘ differ ’' and onajida ‘‘be same’.’. (See
be the same
Exs. (b), (c) and (d).)
2. In reciprocal sentences, the subject and X in X to are interchangeable.
For example, Ex. (b) can be restated as in (1).
m a2om—%e%%bn.
tn n2vu—%e%flcn.
Midori wa Ichiro to kekkonshite.
kekkonshita.
(Midori married Ichiro.)
Ex. (b) is described from Ichiro’s point of view, while (1) is described
Midori’s point of view.
from Midori's (I=i>
(Q to‘, REL. I)
Expression]
Some reciprocal expressions take X ni or X to depending on the meaning,

as in [1] and [2].
M w E%n%ie%Ln.
film E%m%£a%Ln.
hanashite.
Masao wa sensei to hanashita.
(Masao talked with his teacher.)
b. IE%li5E£l:§i§Lf:..,
IE%li5'13El:E$L7‘.:., i
i
Min?-
Min?-
€
1i-
Masao wa sensei ni hanashite.

hanashita.
(Masao talked to his teacher.)
[2] a. fJE]liE'?é:-S4’:-n=o7’.:.,
5)5]liE':F‘t¢Si’Jn=-o?’c'..,
Akira wa Kimiko to butsukatta.
(Akira bumped into Kimiko.)
b. l5§5]l2lIE'¥'lZ/S§’.)7’J><>TC°
l?951lrJ:€¥l:-Si07)>of:.,
Akira wa Kimiko ni butsukatta.
(Akira bumped into Kimiko.)
478 202
toz / to“
to”
The difference is that to implies a “ bidirectional”
bidirectional" action while ni implies a
“ unidirectional”
unidirectional " one. For example, [Za]
[2a] implies that both Akira and Kimiko
were moving, whereas in [2b] only Akira was moving. Thus, to is unaccept-
unaccept
able in [3] because hashira ‘‘post’
post’ is immobile.
[3] Efilifilz / *¢;,$4o2b>of.:.,
H1q:1&|:/*a.s:mo=»,r;.
Akira wa hashira nil
ni / *to butsukatta.
butsukarta.
(Akira bumped into a post.)
to“ J;
A: P"-
Prt-
(/\./\/\ / fi / A /\/“/\/\/N/\/‘./"\/\ ‘\.-\
(/\/\/\/'~./\/"./\/'\/“/‘\/'\/\./\/"./"‘/'\ '\/\ /\/'\/\ “"‘
/\./'\/'\ A
/~ r A
/~/\ /\ /~ )i
3 a particle which marks a quotation, j that; with the sound of; in the
3‘J
sound or the manner in which s.o. / I manner of

2 s.t. does s.t. <2
§Key Sentence
QKey
Quotation, sound
or manner adverb
1:/vé.=/V ii
I:/I/<"§/v:1 itl.
fit ac: El7l51§§
lC. 5:41;;-‘E '5'
"e "CA/l:.*b ii°_|
'_C'./villi) l1°_| .2
-3.; -§;»)r.-;/
'§'0TC/
Hiru-san wa watashi ni nihongo de "” Konnichi wa." to ittal
itta/
?-2'1/\ i Lia,
'5'!/‘i Lfco
iimashita.
(Mr. Hill said to me in Japanese, “ Hello!")
Hello!”)
Formation
(i) Quotation 5
1;
IO
"fit
"$1. ti
li ‘ii
ii 'C"i'o_| <‘:
“G-§‘,_1 1‘; (“I am a student.”)
student.’
" Watashi wa gakusei desu." to
iFL
$11 ti
ii ii
if-13 7:1’ <5
7;’ .1; (that I am a student)
watashi wa gakusei da to
toil
to“ 479
(ii) Phonomime <1;

J;
H9
IO
/<5/<5 &
/<51/<51 3 (with a clattering noise)
batabata to
(iii) Phenomime 7‘;
.1;
H9
I0
o2<ve
14>»; < 9 <2 GMMW
(slowly)
yukkuri to
(iv) Psychomime J;
.1;
IO
H9
5-5 =5
=3 5 gr
3 9;
J; (cheerfully)
ukiuki to
M
(a)
M l~J_\tiEl:1lI*\4*?=éf;v\<‘;"§,'»)'tv\>!£>.,
bAmB$~fi%kwg§¢rw5.
Tomu wa Nihon e ikitai to itte iru.
(Tom says that he wants to go to Japan.)
m :nu+fiB&mgrenk&%wrn9ar.
M :nu+fififimErank&%wr%DiT.
jfirokuseiki ni taterareta to kaite arimasu.
Kore wa jurokuseiki
(It is written that this was built in the sixteenth century.)
M
(0) flnnzrfizoeno.
%Ll:.t/<2'6'fi"Z'. 5 <‘:.@.5°
Watashi wa basu de iké
iko to omou.
(I think I will go by bus.)
W ¥%ém»afi¢e£9@@k.
M ¥@énAa»atE9@ok.
Kodomotachi wa batabata to hashirimawatta.
(Lit. The children ran around with a clattering noise.)
M
@ Ew¥ubamneno$an§an,
Ew¥ntQm0efl@$2c§¢n. ii.
—
I
Machiko wa shikkari to watashi no te o nigitta. 1; M
—_=TE
(Machiko grabbed my hand firmly.) M —'é

{_-
(f)
(I) /<‘/liijrafiflD Eljlj-0'CV\5°
'<Vl2lZU0’) &Jgl§o'Cv\Za.,
Ben wa muttsuri to suwatte iru.
(Ben is sitting sullenly.)
Pqotcs
1. To is basically used to mark a quotation; the literal meaning of ~ to

iu is ‘ say with (the sound) ~ ’. This use of to, however, has been ex-
480 I03 / to‘
to3
tended further to cover indirect quotations, as in Exs. (a) and (b), and
even thoughts (i.e., internal voice), as in Ex. (c). Note that in Japanese
to is necessary for both direct and indirect quotations, as seen in KS
and Ex. (a).
2. To is used to mark the content of such actions as omou ‘think; feel’,
kangaeru ‘think (with the intellect)’, kaku ‘write
‘write’,’, kiku ‘hear’ and
setsumeisuru ‘ explain '.’.
3. To is also used with phonomimes, as in Ex. (d). Again, the idea is that
someone /something makes the sound marked by to when doing some-
thing. Note that sound symbolisms in Japanese are not children’s
children's
words. Rather, they are an important part of the Japanese vocabulary.
4. When a sound is repeated twice like batabata in Ex. (d), to can be
omitted. When a sound is not repeated, however, to does not drop.
Examples:
(1) 8-
a. ffltiili/*6’/Wt
flaltiili/<9/<6't /6 fiblil/)f:;.,
iE9lEloTC°
Kodomotachi wa batabata to / o0 hashirimawatta.
(Lit. The children ran around with a clattering noise.)
b. 1E%i1,<a
IE%&i/<5’ ~/3 /*a Frafifivbre,
‘/.1;/*6 F'i'&BFlbbf:..,
*0 doa o shimeta.
Masao wa batan to / *6
(Masao slammed the door (lit. closed the door with a bang).)
5.
S. The use of to with phonomimes is extended to phenomimes and psy-
chomimes, as in Exs. (e) and (f), though these are not representations of
actual sounds.
tQ4 (I;
104 g ronj.
conj.
g a subordinate conjunction which if; when

§g marks a condition that brings about tara (ba, nara); toki]
[REL. tera
éE an noncontrollable event or state g
“VV
to‘ 481
QKey Sentence
§Key
<1nfo?§@1fif%‘aw~ I
Sentence
(informal, noiipast)
.~:.=.-ra-9 ll fi<
;=—a—9lCfi< <2e iHm£w\E“n§k<&b%o/hflifo
Semencez
2‘si>L5v\ IE ni r:-.<é/1, aw/mt:-<r.
N"h1
Nyoyoku
yuyo m iku
ni Iku w oomoshiroi
to m osnI!'0I""
mise
ITHSQ ga ta kusa n aaru
takusan ru /'8!'Ifl76SU .
/arimasu.
(If you go to New York, there are many interesting shops.)
EEHMMD
[V / Adj (i / na) / N+Copula} inf-nonpast .1;
2;
Z0
IO
E3-<1"
E31‘ <‘:
.1: (if s.o. talks)
hanasu to
]I§‘,v\ k
E1!/\ (E (if s.t. is expensive)
takai to
$1117.;-I
|é"it7)*f::' <‘<‘:_: (if s.t. is quiet)
shizukada to
96$
95$ 75 .1:
7:1 <‘: (if s.o. is a teacher)
sensei da to
tfiflfifli
@ %i1.l:t5E§l:F1Fl<
(8-) %nu%§em<a+¢aman.
&'i‘<’§:)2b>-37:,
Sore wa sensei ni kiku to sugu wakatta.
(I understood it immediately when I asked my teacher.)
m
(b) ¢4vmEwe&s&wv+:.
6'4 *\’liEv\ <1; 3b-S§P'.iIv\'("i'J1.>
Taiya wa furui to abunaidesu yo.
(Tires are dangerous if they are old.)
fi7§‘3€= ¢>li\7‘:'
(0) fihifé 6v\f:f<‘: E1711/\fi"o7‘:'.B#@ D9 i‘?‘h*?
1‘: l37l§’\i?o7‘:B#@ i-1"»? -
2-I-2
iii-
i
Sakana ga kiraida to Nihon e itta irta toki komarimasu ka.?

(If you don’t like fish, will you have trouble when you go to Japan?)
ii
M
(<1) eeeeammsosr.
git: E’-i§'l'_5'|7b3§> 9 $13
Gakusei da to waribiki ga arimasu.
(If you are a student, there is a discount.)
GEE!
l. In S1 to S2, S1 must be nonpast even if it expresses a past event or
1.
action, as in Ex. (a). Tense is expressed in S2.
482 to‘
2. In S1 to S2, S2 cannot be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invita-

tion or a volitional sentence. The following sentences are all ungram-
matical.
m
(1) fi$#$<%b%tfi®5Bt
41$»; < i'=%bZ> tflo 5 Bl: (m
a. *§l&f..c
*§lEtr 3 In.
Io.
Shigoto ga hayaku owaru to Watashi
watashi no *kinasai.
uchi ni b
b- We-r
*§lE'C < res
Tc’ 3 In.
I/‘O
*kite kudasai.
"‘kite
t
c.
e. *§lET:
*§l€i: 6
BE<‘:' 5 '(“'§'7)*,,
'("i‘7)=.,
*kitara do desu ka.
d. *5lEi-ti"/o7)>,,
*§lEi~)i'/1/75>,
. *kimasen ka.
(If you finish your work early, a.
'a. come to my place.
b. please come to my place.
, c. don’t you come to my
why don't
place?
d. wouldn’t you like to come to
( my place?)
in*&$#$<%baex5ems5mmwta+.
(2) *{;l:$r)i-$ < i%‘§1bE> t id 5 folliki‘ 5 7)=i2§v\ L iii.
*Shigoto
*Sh/"goto ga hayaku owaru to o-uchi ni o-ukagai
0-ukagai shimasu.
(If I finish my work early, I’ll
I'll visit your place.)
(For the correct structures, see tare,

tara, Note 4.)
-A-Semantic Derivations of To
*Semantic
( Accompaniment ) to2:
to"':
_, i<El§l2lIYE¥'tE§0TC.-,
t Efi O 1:0
Taro wa Hanako to odotta.

Z:2
i
Z-M
(Taro danced with Hanako.)
(Reciprocal relationship) toz:

1:02:
2Zhli2bt1.<‘:l3lILi;'°
Ci"LliZ§>i”L<‘:l'5llLT5a
Kore wa are to onajida.
(This is the same as that.)
to‘ 483
(Exhaustive listing) to‘:
-—-P
%aW%ernseaa~n.
&ufl%&rn$a&fi~n.
Boku wa sashimi to tenpura o0 tabeta.
(I ate sashimi and tempura.)
(Direct quotation) to“:

~—>
l~l~li
lnlsli “CA/lC*;li.,_1 2:?-.=f:.,
"1';/vlC1bl:l:,,_| <‘;T='%T<>T:'.,,
Tomu wa ” Konnichi wa." to itta.
(Tom said, “ Konnichi wa.”)
wa.")
(Indirect quotation) to3:

to“:
l~.lsli$Ef.:'é:§-sic.)
l~l~l:l:#£‘l5f:T<':'%;%‘of:,,
Tomu wa gakusei da to itta.
(Tom said that he was a student.)
( Thought ) to”:
(Thought)
—%ufiiifitEQk.
-‘E|§li7€3t5Q T5 cl; E '9 7:0
Ichiro wa da/jobuda
dai/'obuda to omotta.
(Ichiro thought that there would be
no problem.)
to3:
(Sound symbolism) to“:
_> Jkfillli/*5’ If 5' J:
1'CEl§l:l:/<5?/36' E’) 71'-O
iki-27:,
Taro wa batabata to hashitta.
(Taro ran with a clattering sound.)
(Manner of action) 1'03:

to3:
Tl§¥'l2li ll O
TE'¥lIlZ 0 2: 13'1") 'C\(\TC,,
E ii-"f0 ‘Cl/\TC1,
Hanako wa jitto matte ita.
=_
(Hanako was waiting quietly.) = __._
(Condition of noncontrollable occurrence) to‘:

_ ==—a—a~fi<&wwv2t§v#Bs.
==—a—a~fi<&wwvzt5vfi&a.
Nytiyoku
Nydyoku e iku to ii resutoran ga aru.
(If you go to New York, there are good restaurants.)
484 ~to ieba
~to ieba
~t0 ieba ~&'§ili
~&".*-="."i.l;tT Phr.
i an expression which presents as 3 Speaking of ~
the topic of a following discourse a 5 [REL. ttara; tte]
phrase which has just been uttered j
\/‘~/\‘ ./‘/\./\./\" ./\
§Key
Q Key Sentence
A:
..
2:0) 111:1
211 ti E18/.,il%vt/V
B16113/V 1: {%9f: /V 'C"l'a
Kono hon wa Tanaka-san ni
nt karita
kar/ta n desu.
desu
Mr Tanaka.)
(I borrowed this book from Mr. Tanaka)
4>
1 s T-H ini 4» ‘O .
B:
B51111:/V
E8413/V et‘: €‘i'.lf
E-frcti so iii ti i"'aQ2‘..
{>5 Tf§?. 17‘|‘:"'JT; o
0) faawe
L ‘J
Tanaka-san
SI6b8
to ieba
Hiil4 byo/<1 wa naotta no kashira
mo byoki
-W.
‘O
Mr Tanaka,
(Speaking of Mr. d' - gotten over his illness yet.)
Tanaka I wonder if he's
hes yet)
(E2333
M
M
w A=&oB%Bunn~fi<osvfi.
A=&oB@Hnfifi~fi<o8vfi.
Tsugi no nichiyobi wa Kyoto e iku tsumori da.
(I’m going to Kyoto next Sunday.)
(I'm
B=fifl&%xu.%%mfi%k$oA%fi§ufian%5n.
Brfifikéifi.%¥fifififi#®1#fi%Kfiok%5fi.
ieba, Haruko ga Kyotodaigaku
Kyoto to ieba. Kyo todaigaku no nyogakushiken ni totta
soda.
(Speaking of Kyoto, I heard that Haruko passed Kyoto University's
University’s
entrance exam.)
it-M
Q-it-it
Q-it-i-_
ii
ii
M A:¢EBux<%nni.
A=mfi%m;<Wnni.
Konishi-kun wa yoku yasumu né.
ii
i-pi
ii
ii
__._
ii
M1-1
M-M
ii
ii
ii
__
ii
(Mr. Konishi is absent frequently, isn’t

isn't he?)
ii
i
-
B=r<Wn&§2d.m$%s%fiRxenn.
B : J: < WU téitf, Ill7l§E"l>%5fIE.i'Ii'A/ii.-,
Yoku yasumu to ieba. Yamamoto-kun mo saikin mimasen ne.
(Talking about (someone’s) frequent absences, we don't
don’t see Mr.
Yamamoto these days either, do we?)
JEEP
1. To ieba literally means ‘if you say that ~ ’,', but it is used as a topic
~ to ieba 435
presentation expression meaning ‘speaking of’.
2. Usually a noun phrase is presented by to ieba, but any sentence ele-
ment is possible. For example, in Ex. (b), a verb phrase is presented.
3. The informal form of to ieba is tte ieba.
There are several other expressions used to present topics.

I. Ttara is the abbreviation for to kitara or to ittara and is used to
present noun phrase topics in informal conversation. It is more em-
phatic than the topic marker wa and sometimes means something like
‘‘when
when it comes to ~ '’ or ‘in the case of ~ '.’. Example:
M lbfloteficuflbébowoxo
;Lflot5flmmW%§b&w@;,
Yoshie ttara watashi ni wa nani mo iwanai no yo.
didn’t tell me anything, you know.)
(Yoshie didn't
II. Tte, the abbreviation for to iu to ‘when you say ~ ',’, or to iu no wa
‘what you say (or call) ~ ',’, is also used to present topics in informal
conversation. Like to ieba any sentence element can precede tte, and
that element is usually a part of the conversation partner’s
partner's previous
utterance. Examples:
~='/--1:’-Efil/\iLf:..l:..
[2] A: ~‘/-—I:'~—EE\i\iLT;.J:.,
Shibi o kaimashita yo.
(I bought a CB.)
B:V—€—oT?
B:9—€—oT?
Shibi tte?
((What do you mean by what you call) a CB?)
W
M A=%fime%%afixanc+.
A=%fime%%2fiieneT.
Raisho kara eigo o oshieru n desu.
MM
(I'm
(I’m teaching English from next week.) MM
MM
M
M
M
M
M.
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
__- M
Mi WM
M M
M M
B=%%efiieor.finm2
B=%%afixasr.finn2
M M
M
MM
MM-
MM
E/‘go o oshierutte. dare ni.?

Eigo ni?
(Teaching English? To whom?)
486 ~to
~ to iu
~to iu
~to iu ~<[-_t,\-'5 phr.
phi’.
'\/\/\/‘ "‘
\
-I II -
O 0
I
a phrase marking information which called; that says ~; that

identifies or explains the noun follow-
ing the phrase \/\.¢
‘\./\1. \¢\r/\
\‘/\/ \\I//.\/\'/\\/./4\¢\
'\/\/'\ /\ ex/~.»\-P
/\/\»\» /\/'\./\./\./\/'\/'\./\/\/\'\./'\..-
/\./\/\/\r\/-\/\/-\/\/'\'\/\'
QKey Sentences
§Key
(A)
Noun
Fl‘
""E'[§J
'_"§l33lJ W")
2:
\i\ 5
Pt" M534,
/FER *E
Pt E1:/of
%/1/7;’fr, /3-a’"E¥+iLT..,
/ 35:17/~i Lice
E~" Yukiguni"
Yuktgum
U1“ .
to iuE‘, shosetsu o0 yonda / yomimash/ta
\_
yomimashita.
(I read a novel called Snow Country)
Country.)
(M
(B)
Message
-— Noun
|lIlEH 3 /v 793
ll-I538/o )\l$’E LT;
703 Kl5;"El.-T: k In‘5
2: V") in '7>‘ti'
2111511‘ 5' EH I/*7: /E8 ‘éibfc O
5: fi'ilv\f:/Eiléibics
Yamada-san ga nyoinshita to iu shirase o0 ki/"ta
kiita / kikimashita.
(I heard the news that Mr. Yamada has been hospitalized.)
‘(I
(C)
(C)
__-
Noun
we a1M1='¢>t.c< r ti ( t.:¢>>*.i:v~ ) e W5 §\.ifi'ft)

soe#n&e&<ruaeaw)e;w5 1:‘; tars / an er.
fies msa/soar.
Motto ganbaranakute wa (naranai) to iu kimochi ga aru / arimasu.
(I have the feeling that I have to keep hanging in there.)
it
(a)
(9-) '—I:M>H=i 2:e 1/‘
'-'l§AVJf?ff_i in '55 ll9&l§l75:E.7’;C
Wfiefirec .1:e #536ma) 9l) s—r»~.
i'l‘75‘.,
"” Shichinin no samurai"
samurai " to iu eiga o mita koto ga arimasu ka.
(Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?)
M
(b) V=—v#H$~fi<&W5fifi$%fT#°
-1- ‘/flil37l1'\fi"< <2: '1‘ 5§$li7l§%i'6"§‘n=o
Jon ga Nihon e iku to iu hanashi wa honto desu ka.
(Lit. Is the story that June is going to Japan true? (=Is it true that
June is going to Japan?))
~ to iu 487
~to
M %oAmawk<awaw5i§emr<fiwvas.
%@AK%wk<aw&w5ifieux<Qm9if.
Sono hito ni aitakunai to iu kimochi wa yoku wakarimasu.
(I am well aware of your feeling that you don't
don’t want to see him.)
m fi§#%H%5&w5:&aTamDEnrwk.
M fiEm%H%aaw5:ee+am0Enrwn,
Tomodachi ga kyo kuru to iu koto o sukkari wasurete ita.
(I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.)
1. To iu is a combination of the quote marker to and iu ‘call, say ’.'.

(Q toi)
to”)
2. The head noun in KS(B) is a noun of communication, such as hanashi
‘ story ',’, nyosu ‘ news ’,', shirase ‘ information ’,', tegam/'
tegami ‘ letter ’ and uwasa
‘ rumor’. The head noun in KS(C) is a noun of human emotion, such
sadness ’, kanji ‘feeling’,
as kanashimi ‘ sadness’, ‘ feeling ’, ki ‘feeling’,
‘ feeling ’, kimochi ‘‘feeling’,
feeling ’,
osore ‘fear’ and yorokobi ‘joy’.
3. To iu is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which
represents a quotation, as in KS(C) and Exs. (c) and (d).
4. When to iu is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay (“ I heard
that ~, They say ~, It is said that ~ "). The sentence-final to iu is
used only in written Japanese, as in (1). (Q soda‘)
Qionmiaeamfiiufiififififimiifieufi.
m Qioncrsaawfiiufiifinfifiniifiaui.
Gakusei no hanashi ni yoru to Yoshida-sensei wa oshiekata ga
hijoni
hi/'oni jozuda to iu.
(According to the students, Prof. Yoshida’s
Yoshida's teaching method is
very skillful.)
M
M-M
it-M-M1
MM-1
488 toka
¢;7§\
toka 5; f_)\ conj.
a conjunction that lists two or more and; or

items, actions or states as inexhaus- [REL. tari; ya]
/\/\‘./\/\/.»\.
tive examples
\._\\/,\~\/.\
\-/\
-\
‘
QKey
§Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (subject) Noun Noun Noun
it
H gt:
li »
/8'//\
/iv/\ an
era» ~
=6-—“/7'11/I~
~'E--‘/'i'/l/ t aa>
an» s ~— t --/<‘/
*<-—l~--¢<‘/
Watashi wa Bahha toka Motsuaruto toka Bétoben
at
a nara / tear--r.
net/Herr
fl.
i
sukzda /I sukidesu.
ga sukida sukidesu
(I like Bach
Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, among others)
others.)
E
(B)
/'\
Sentence Sentence
tint;
fi
Vi . Tfi _
:3; 5%
Bf (1
ti 165151116
ioflgl )\Za IO-
.1;are
7b ‘ $< Hz»
5-< E5 ea»
ti» Lt'.:é\i‘°
Laé
f lr ‘O
Tsukareta toki
tokt wa o-furo
0-furo n1
ni /78IfU
hairu toka hayaku neru toka shinasai.
(1-_
(When you are tired, do things like taking a bath or going to sleep early)
early.)
KS(A):
N 127)»
&7b> N 3;7)>...
51)»...
toka toka...
$513
ii 3;
t 79-
70* 51155-jg
5'61-ii 3; 7)». .. ..
k 75>. (students and
(students and teachers.
teachers. .. .(among
.(among others))
others))
gakusei toka sensei toka. . .
KS(B):
Sinf gm
gr)» Sinf .1229» —;->1,
£7)» 1'2;
toka toka suru
-7-I/1:’
5‘ I/1:’ E R25
E/B ea» 71$ E
&7b> 7l§ i-i*i‘c‘I.(’ 9171*
Z’ §'}"c'U t7b> TF5
‘T25 (do such things as watching
terebi o miru toka hon o yomu toka suru TV or reading books)
toka 489
M
W
@ H$@§fiam$H%&mw5so&x<%emw°
w H$@%fiem$H%emw5toe;<neaw.
ikebana toka iu mono o yoku shiranai.
Nihon no sado toka /kebana
(I don’t know much about things like the Japanese tea ceremony and
flower arranging.)
flower
(b) A: 8:’/of:
Ar E/vi: E12li0)B9&E&E.i Liam,
H2l>i<7JB9&E&E.i l,T:>b>°
Donna Nihon no eiga o0 mimashita ka.
(What kind of Japanese movie did you see?)
B=%moFtAo%JamF&%aJamF%fi%J2E§tn,
B = §'l!2i1i'v> F-t:Aa>{:“1=J ea» '—$E’§'Z>_| er» “East?-Zu ens 1.1:...
Kurosawa no ”.S‘hichinin
"Shichinin no Samurai" toka ”/ki/u"
”/kiiu” toka ”Kage-
musha " o mimashita.
(I saw Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai, Ikiru and Kagemusha.)
(<>)
(Q) AA11 HEB mi
lcli E/Vte:
E/me: .1;k 2
E L'Cv\3i'§‘>b=°
L'tv\i'§'n>..
Nichiyobi ni wa donna koto o shite
sh/re imasu ka.
(What sorts of things do you do on Sundays?)
B=%%e%<em.$e%oemcrwir.
B I ‘é‘éi'éEfiF1< km. 1liE%%f:tvtr)>l,Tv\i'!"°
Ongaku o kiku toka.
toka, hon o yomu toka shite imasu.
(I do things like listening to music or reading books.)
1. The conjunction toka is a combination of the quote marker to3 to’ and kal,
ka'_
That is why toka is often followed by the verb iu ‘say’,
‘ say ’, as in Ex. (a).
When toka is followed by iu, as in (1), it is not a conjunction; it is a
quote marker. The ka indicates the speaker’s uncertainty about the
quoted report.
m Efié~umL<rfinmwa#§@rwk°
&%éuntL<rfiHnw&m§orwk,
Sato-san wa isogashikute ikenai to ka itte ita.
(Mr. Sato was saying he can’t go there because he's
he’s busy or
something.)
N1 to ka iu N2 meaning ‘ N2 that is called N1 or something like that’

2. N;
is another example of toka used in the above sense.
(2) 5?lIIé:2b\L\5)\7J§§l€f.:°
5flIle‘:7‘J\L\5)\ib35lET:;°
Noguchi to ka iu hito ga kita.
(A person named Noguchi or something like that showed up.)
490 toka /I toki
3. S toka S toka suru is used when a statement refers to something in
general rather than to something specific. Thus, this structure is inap-
propriate in (3). (See Related Expression.)
(3) A1 1‘-1-3-—7'C‘li<!:'A/f.rC<E?»2Libf:>b>,
-'1--=1--—-E1-I-—-7'£‘ti<‘_"/1fi.:Z'.t“.£’l.,il,T:.2b>._-,
Nydyoku
Nyoyoku de wa donna koto o shimashita ka.
(What sort of things did you do in New York?)
*5; 1-~‘/'71/I/EE.%'>t7b\¥iPFifiElC1“'f<
B I *i .1-971/I/’i'E.Zath\¥fiFiEElCfi"< é:7fi\Li
tfrbi Lit...
bfco
*Myojikaru 0o miru toka bijutsukan
*My0/ikaru bi/'utsukan ni iku toka shimashita.
(I did things like watching musicals and visiting art museums.)
Ex pression]
~tari ~tari suru, like S toka S toka suru, indicates an inexhaustive listing of
differs from S toka S toka suru, however, in that it can be
examples. It difiers
used in both general and specific statements. As noted in Note 3, the toka
construction can only be used in general statements. Thus, the grammatical
version of (3B) is [1].
[1] i"3. =1.-—~‘/'
.1 --‘J 7‘!
71 /l/ER)‘:
it/?»’_*E.1': U ¥fi‘?€§lCfi'>T:
ififififillfivfz U Li Liza
l/1:0
Myojikaru o mitari
Mydjikaru mitan’ bijutsukan ni ittari shimashita.
When ~tari ~tari suru indicates alternative actions or states, it cannot be
replaced by toka.
[3]
[2] ¥l#a>b§¥»‘l$§EfliT:
ff-1l1'%h§‘é‘l3§’$_*i‘.iiT: U /*tH?>
/*i'IliZ> é: 1J\ Raf:
£75‘ Jko 1:. U /*)\75
/*Jk%> <':i‘J\
J: 1b\ L/CL\Z>s
l,'CL\6°
Kodomo ga heya o detari / *deru toka haittari / *hairu toka
shite iru.
(A child is going in and out of the room.)
toki B-=.!3"'1=; ~-tr-

/\/\/\/'\/\
f/\&&fi
a dependent noun which indicates at the time when; when

the time when s.o. /s.t. will do / [REL. ~tara; to‘)
does / did s.t. or the time when s.o. /
s.t. will be / is / was in some state
\/\/\/Y
toki 491
Q Key Sentences
§Key
(A)
_ Subordinate
Topic (subject)
TOplC Clause Predicate
(informal)T
(informal)1'
El‘
$L Ii
fl B as
-H" 1:
I: u;
L\ T: as
H -14+ 50¢) ms\ efiar./%v~:
l) 16% 5: 5150?;/5£'v\i
’ Lia,
Lt,
-H] .“+ .ri
Watashi wa Nihon I1!
ni tta
ita toki (ni) o-cha o0 naratta / naraimashira.
naraimashita
(I learned the tea ceremony when I was in Japan)
Japan.)
TDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and no, respectively.
(B)
Topic (subject) Noun Predicate
0 8 L :1
oa1,§ i1 :-an
aaa
- a>
o is §(a.:)
as .1
(t) » ' 2 ow;/o=s:1,r;.,
7:-+2
ne§:owr/0% ; a L-1-.
Hiroshi wa
Hirosh/'§ shiken no toki (ni) kaze o hiita / hikimashita.
h/"kimashita.
(Hiroshi caught cold at exam time.)
M
W
H8
(i) {V/Adj (i)} inf B3?
toki
{fifirf
(E5? ‘,3;-=,’fil,f;}
/ E3 l,7‘;_] B#=
B?-i (when s.o. talks / talked)
hanashita} toki
{-,§,t~ /'1§1n=of;]
{'1§'1v\ /fé}7)~;f;_] B3
H? (when s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} toki
(ii) Adj (na) stem {fir /T5-pic] H1?
{fg /75071:} 11%
{na //datta}
datta} toki
{*11"¥75*-it
lfitfwfat / %%7J*7.:'o
fi%n>T.fo T:T; Bi?
B? (when s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} toki
(iii) N [05 / fiat]
{0) Ti-ni;} B#
Bi?
{no //datta]
datta} toki
[9555
{#555 0) //E55
913$ fioicl
Tick} H3?
B? (when s.o. is / was a teacher)
[sensei no / sensei datta}
{sensei datta] toki
M
W
@ fiiéhuflffikfifiéfiwobivfizfibo
W fiiéhufidfiififléfiwotrvfiafié.
Matsumoto-san wa asagohan o taberu toki itsumo terebi 0 miru.
(Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his breakfast.)
492 toki
® ?U—fl§1—Xfi£W%Kk<éhEoTBWk,
(b) 5* I) ~—ti='/".=i~—2n‘i£v\B-.=!‘1=t.:r.: < 5/vE»>'Cisv\f:.,
Teri wa /'0su
josu ga yasui toki ni takusan katte oita.
(Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.)
M
(0) %Hfi#tfiLm$&%iuw.
%ti%r)=f;B#L1)>1lI&§i’cif.cv\a
Boku wa shizukana toki shika hon o yomanai.
(I read only when it’s quiet.)
w
((1) fi#fi$Efiok§%fiifiE0fioto
if "3 TCl'1#i77'lEli 35 Tf.':':.’.)T.'.2' 0 T1,,
Watashi ga da/‘gakusei
daigakusei datta toki imoto wa mada mittsu datta.
(When I was a college student, my sister was only three.)
@
(e) :nuw%ofimbnLi+.
'C.Ii"Lf;lZl;l:l%0)li#lCbT:Li'i‘a
Kore wa shuppatsu no toki ni watashimasu.
(I’ll give this to you when you leave (lit. at the time of your departure).)
l.
1. Toki, by itself, means ‘time’,
‘ time’, but when it is used as a dependent noun
with a modifying phrase or clause, it means ‘at the time when’ or
‘ when ’.
2. The clause preceding toki is a type of relative clause; therefore, the
basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. (Q
(=> Relative
Clause) The following two rules are particularly important:
(A) If the subject of the toki clause is different from that of the main
clause, it is marked by ga. Compare (1) with KS(A):
m
(1) iTv—mflfiH$nwkfi7§v2mwk,
1 7' ‘J —l1iLb<B2klcv\f;B#7 9 ‘/xl:v\2‘;.,
Meari wa watashi ga Nihon ni ita toki Furansu ni ita.
(Mary was in France while I was in Japan.)
(B) The predicate form is usually informal except that da after Adj
and‘ N changes to na and no, respectively.
(na) stem and
3. The particle ni after toki is optional. With ni, time is emphasized and
sometimes comes under focus. Compare the two sentences in (2).
m
(2) m
3- flu#§o%x<%%un.
iLli$E®B#JZ<@5'§LT:a
Watashi wa gakusei no toki yoku benkyoshite.
benkyoshita.
(I studied hard when I was a student.)
h flu#&o%c;<%%tn.
flu#i@%c;<%%cn.
Watashi wa gakusei no toki ni yoku benkyoshita.
(It was when I was a student that I studied hard.)
toki 493
4. If S2 in S;
S1 toki S2 is in the past tense and S1
S, expresses a state, the tense
of S1 can be either past or nonpast, as in (3).
m m $141
(3) a. fluaxmue/ut%w¢%&u%¢t.
B2l§lCL\Z.>/L\1':B#l5H"P5’EElC%‘oT:a
Watashi wa Nihon ni iru I/ ita toki Tanaka-sensei ni atta.
(I met Prof. Tanaka when I was in Japan.)
b. |*»E]ni-'1-§1'L\ /I '|§—;]7'J\1>1':B3§l1fi‘{>'fi7§>o7’:,,
[#]7§3'|%]L\ '1%1'IJ\-:1':B3‘rlifi11{>'11'é.*1’2b>~oi:.,
takail/ takakatta toki wa sakana mo rakakarra.
Niku ga takai takakatta.
(When meat was expensive, fish was expensive, too.)
S1 in S1 toki S2 expresses an action, the meaning of the sentence
5. When S,
changes depending on the tenses of S1 and S2.
(A) When the verb in S1 is not a movement verb:
W
(4) m
a. fin€fi&fi46%$&%5o
fLt:.t::'fifi’é:fi'<%>B#$’&55E5..
Watashi wa gohan o taberu toki re te o arau.
(I (will) wash my hands (right) before I eat my meal.)
8 flu€fi&fi4tfi$2%5o
U fludfi&fl&tfi$&%5.
Watashi wa gohan o tabeta toki te
re 0o arau.
(I (will) wash my hands (right) after I’ve eaten my meal.)
Q
9- fiu€fi&fl46fi$&%oto
9r‘LliC."fiIiEfi’<75B#$’i’55E':T:a
Watashi wa gohan o taberu toki re te o aratra.
aratta.
(I washed my hands (right) before I ate my meal.)
d.
d- fLliC"fi7i§tE’<T.':B#$?i'§$E'>T:a
TLII-ICifiliEfi'<T:B#$§:;'5'i;of:°
Watashi wa gohan o tabeta toki te re 0o aratta.
(I washed my hands (right) after I ate my meal.)
(B) When the verb in S1
S; is a movement verb:
W
(5) a
8- flmvnd~fi<%ruefiAaoeHE.
?Ll1~‘/71 =T'*\fi( Bi-’i=‘?‘l.,&fi'<Z>’J’l5 "J1':'o
Shikago e iku toki sushi 0o taberu tsu-
Watashi wa Sh/kago
mori da.
(I’m going to eat sushi (A) (right) before I leave for
(I'm
Chicago. / (B) on the way to Chicago.)
h finvwd~fi¢tfiTL&fi461£UE.
flmvnfl~fiot%+L&E4é0£Ufi.
Shikago e itta toki sushi o taberu tsu-
Watashi wa Sh/‘kago
mori da.
(I’m going to eat sushi after I’ve arrived in Chicago.)
m fiuvnfi~fi<fi?L&fi4t°
Q flmvnfi~fi<%rLefiAn.
Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki sushi o0 tabeta.
494 toki
((A) I ate sushi (right) before I left for Chicago. (B) I
ate sushi on the way to Chicago.)
¢ fluvwd~fian%+L&fi&t.
d. ?.Ll1~‘/i1 =1"\fi':T:fi‘1‘L£'E'<T:o
Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki sushi 0o tabeta.
(I ate sushi after I arrived in Chicago.)
(C) When the action in S1 and the action in S2 take place simultane-
ously or concurrently:
W
m w
a flmvwd~fi<fififfi<.
fluvnd~fi<%$efi<.
Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki kuruma de iku.
(When I go to Chicago, I go by car.)
b-*fiuvnd~fi¢kfi$vfi<.
b-*flmvnfl~fiak%$Tfi<.
*Warashi wa Shikago e irta
*Watashi itta toki kuruma de iku.
Q
c- fiU9fi5~fi(%$TfioE2B#$'C'.'?'-5")’.-:0
Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki kuruma de itta.

(When I went to Chicago, I went by car.)
d.
¢ $Lli~‘/7JI1'*\F'o1':B#$’C‘fio1'.:a
flflVfifi~fiat%$Tfi0t°
Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki kuruma de itta.
(When I went to Chicago, I went by car.)
[Related Ex pressions]
Unlike when-clauses in English, toki-clauses do not indicate condition. In

other words, toki-clauses are genuine time clauses. In order to indicate con-
dition as expressed in when-clauses, conjunctions like ~tara and to are used.
(Q ~tara; to‘) Thus, if [1] expresses a condition which causes the hearer
(=>
surprise, toki cannot be used.
[1] You will be surprised when you see it.
In this case, tara
rara or to must be used, as in [2].
%n2{§.1=5 /nae
[21 enetfir.-=-5 /Ea: /*§.z>%/*,e.r.-.B#lia2aaa~r.r.
/*E.Z.'>B%/*E.7;B%l:‘<>‘.1;'6%i'r.l:..
E
—
M
Sore o0 {mitara
[mitara / miru to I/ *miru toki I/ *mita
*m/‘ta toki} odorokimasu yo.
(You’ll be surprised when you see it.)
tokoro da‘
dal 495
tokoro da‘ <‘;C.Z>T.:'

&:C'.5T.-I Phr-
/'\/\/\
/\./\/\ x/-\/'\.
\/X/'\§
i A place is in a location which takes 3 ~ is (in) a place where it takes

QR,: a certain amount of time to get to. j§ ~ to get to
I
e/K/\ /\/\/\/\/\.-\
Q Key Sentence
§Key

(lggggn) Means Noun
(dfiggign)
#1.
fl o§»a§i1
0 5% gm: an
Qt M»
ins mm
$ut +s—>
-+9 o
(D
Watashi no uchi wa eki kara aruite juppun no
J;e;: 6 T5/er.
75 7:’ /(~to
tokoro da /desu.
(Lit. My house is in a place where it takes ten minutes to get to from the
station on foot. (=On foot my house IS is ten minutes from the stat|on.))
station.))
M
@
w #&u5%maRzv:+fioa:av+.
#&u5emefize5+fime:av+.
Gakko wa uchi kara basu de sanjuppun no tokoro desu.
(Lit. My school is in a place where it takes thirty minutes to get to from
home by bus. (=By bus it takes thirty minutes to get from home to
school.))
m %@fi%u::ms$v+£9@a:an.
%@fi%u::ms$n+£fi@e:6fi.
Sono byo'in
byoin wa koko kara kuruma de jugofun
jogofun no tokoro da.
(Lit. The hospital is in a place where it takes fifteen minutes to get to
from here by car. (=By car the hospital is fifteen minutes from here.))
Tokoro da is a simplified form of tokoro ni aru ‘be located in a place -
MM
M-M12
M M
(where).’ This expression can be simplified even more, as seen in (1).

M 1'-
u)#&u5zme»zv:+9mw:aH:
(1) #82:: 5 ems/<:<'c=~E.+5>( <2 : >5) rs.
-M-1-1
Gakko wa uchi kara basu de sanjuppun (no tokoro) da.

(By bus my school is thirty minutes from home.)
496 tokoro da2
daz
tokoro da”
da= &C.6f.-5
£267.-I Phr-
'\/\ f
S.o. /s.t. is in the state where he / it be just about to do s.t.; be in

g is just about to do s.t., is doing s.t., the midst of doing s.t.; have
5g has done s.t., or has been do in g st
doing s.t.
. . ('\/‘\/ '\/‘~/\ /\r
just done s.t.; have been doing
N\N\'\N“N\ NAM‘ s.t.; almost did s.t.
[REL. bakari; toki]
Q Key Sentences
QKey
C:
Topic (subject) Vinf-nonpast
Vinf nonpast
atT;. >3 zffiii

(1., Eli 2 filvé
$46 Pr£16
(1 0* rH. 1 3+
75/'61‘.
Harue §
arc ban9 ohan 0o
bangohan taberu tokoro da / desu.
desu
(Harue is just about to eat her supper.)
(B)
Topic <s"*>i@"> ‘__-

Topic (subject)
. __. A
Vte
V‘ ., T, .6
fin:
$112 = :1 warai
Hfizefifi e>5; as-c
Q 'c was25 aaa
ax-6 rs/pr.
../ '4".
Harue wa bangohan o0 tabete iru tokoro da / desu.
(Harue is in the midst of eating her supper.)

Vinf-past
:'fifi
HE E fi'<T:
'\ “i".. .216
0* T5/‘("91
2‘ "C :5‘
Harue 5 bangohan 0 tabeta
tabete tokoro da / desu.
desu
is
is
(Harue has just eaten her supper.)

is
ET;
T?
T2
(D)
TOPIC (subject)
Topic Vtee
“ii
‘iiiF
F4- rm
("Eli
fY, &Er fi'<'c
s'00
' '\'C
HIP W‘; .216
I\"04
-~.(1
fr, r:/'61‘.
Tifr. T
Harue 2 S
E
FlF1
wa bangohan o0 tabete 3'
"Pita
=.~CbR5.
(1 tokoro da / desu5+.
desu.
(Harue has been eating her supper.)
tokoro da2
da” 497
(E)
Topic (s ubject) Vinf- nonpast
#1. :1 4.5
§e1 4,5 we -e
"c 13%
15% e12 Ems
Ené £16 T:.">7’:/
2;:-.5 T.f0T;/
Watashi wa mo sukoshi de shukudai o0 wasureru tokoro datta /
5’ TLKO
'6 L 7;,
deshita.
(I almost forgot (lit. was about to forget) my homework.)
(F)
Topic (subject) Adj (i / na) Prt
#1.
$1. ia
§i1 as.s=m~ £16
&s.s=1::u .2:-_z> 2 =2-V l: Bimr
~‘/“—-1'/kt. wmr r.e2r=/
i>s@r:./
Watashi wa abunai tokoro o0 Jin ni tasukete morattal
'5 bbwibko
’l>F>v\il..7:.,
moraimashita.
(I was saved by Gene when I was in a crisis (lit. dangerous state).)
(G)
Noun
-
Prt
B li$=l=
$$i:l:$=l= m
0) J;tcé
:6 &
k '*J‘¥+ sew 0
*;'7+it1:/V.
0-shigotochfi
0-shigo tochfi no tokoro 0o sumimasen.
(I'm sorry to bother you in the midst of your work.)
(I’m
m
M
.215 7;’
(i) Vinf 2:15 rs
tokoro da
Nj1
11
21%
11
‘ii.-
{E5-5" Efibfg} J; Z
;'_'_ 6 Ti (be just about to talk/have just talked)
—
ii-
.__T
lib‘? / Efibfcl 2: 7:.’ ii
ii
,_ Z
ii
ii ii
/hanashite} tokoro da
{hanasu /hanashita} _i__i_
{QA35 /fi'<T.:]
{fi*<Z> /fiafcl J:
<‘: C6 7;’
Tc’ (be about to eat / have just eaten)
tabeta} tokoro da
{taberu / tabeta]
ii) Vte {was
(ii) {v\?5/v\T:;} 51:6 T5
/ wt] é::6 2%.-I
{iru //ita}
ita} tokoro da
{ggb-(
{E-=I€L'C mg, /331,1
wz, /331,1 ;,\7;]
mt} <1;<‘: :6
; 5 7;’
Ti (be in the
(be in the midst of talk-
midst of talk-
{hanashite iru / hanashite ita} tokoro da ing / have been talking)
498 tokoro da”
da2
[K/<'C
{Q/<1‘ W25
M5 /Q/<1‘ I/\f:}
I/\T:} £15 7;’
kl?) Ti eating]
(be in the midst of eating/
{tabete iru /tabete ita} tokoro da have been eating)
(iii) Adj (i) inf-nonpast & :5
3
tokoro
1*]: 1,!/\
11: Ll/\ 3 ;C7)
<‘; '_'_ Z5 (the state in which s.o. is busy)
isogashii tokoro
(iv) Adj (na) stem 2:;
2*; 5;
315:5
na tokoro
jq$ f; 3
j<;f;f; 5 :75
:6 (the state in which s.t. is important)
da/jina
daijina tokoro
(v) N £16
0) 9:116
no tokoro
{1I<J5~
{»l<;9~ 0) & :16
:75 (the state in which s.o. is ofi'
off duty / on vacation)
yasumi no tokoro
m %u%mmH5&:6c?.
(a) &l1’9;l:H7)=l)‘ Z5 <1: T. 6'C‘1"o
Boku wa ima dekakeru tokoro desu.
(I’m just about to go out now.)
(I'm
M
(b) 7U—k%0TW5&:6&1—#KE&flTLiok2
"7' ‘J -—<‘:Efi¢>'tv~Z5 t Z62-1-—")‘lCE.F.>1l’L'C Liofczs
Teri to odotte iru tokoro 0 Mésa ni mirarete shima
shimatta.
tta.
(Lit. The state in which I was dancing with Terry was seen by Martha.
(=Martha saw me when I was dancing with Terry.))
@ :%2fi~%b0na:amiv¥#nfn<%n.
:fi&&~%b¢n&:an&v¥#nfnrxn.
Gohan o tabeowatta tokoro ni Mariko ga tazunete kita.
(Lit. Mariko came (to see me) at the state in which I had just finished
my meal. (=Mariko came to see me when I’d just finished my meal.))
w
(d) E§§T%hfikC5T§TLi0ko
E.€i'E'§-fin/Ti <‘: C. 6'C"'§’C Li 07:0
Sansho made yonda tokoro de nete shimatta.
(I fell asleep when I had read up to the third chapter (lit. in the state
in which I had read it up to the third chapter).)
M flub$&<£En5&:6fi¢ko
(6) flli 35,511‘: < $5lI2l'L6 2: C 5730 7:,
Watashi wa abunaku oboreru tokoro datta.
(I was almost drowned.)
tokoro daz
da” 499
BfiLW&:6&E5$b0#t5€€wiLk,
£tLw&:6&E5$bD#&5€€wiLt°
O-isogashii tokoro o domo arigato gozaimashita.
(Lit. Thank you very much (for helping me) in the state when you are
busy. (=Thank you very much for sparing your precious time with me.))
fl%d—fifi$&&C6Tl<%%L&Wok#BWbfiWB&<&oTL
fl%n—§k$&&zécx<%%L&motm6M$fimB&<&oTL
32 0
E '9 T2,,
T20
Toshio wa ichiban dai/'ina
daijina tokoro de yoku benkydshinakatta
benkyoshinakatta kara nani
mo wakaranaku natte shimatta.
(Lit. Toshio has come to the point of not understanding anything because
he didn’t study well in the state where (the class) was the most im-
portant. (=Toshio has gotten totally lost because he didn’t study hard
when it was most important.))
Bwnmtzékihitho
§$i7l<¥i~0) 2: C 6 2‘???/~E~Ii‘/as
O-yasumi no tokoro o sumimasen.
(Lit. I’m sorry (to disturb) the state in which you are off
ofl duty. (=I’m
sorry to bother you when you are ofl' off duty / on vacation.))
‘ place ’, but it can also mean ‘‘state

Tokoro itself means ‘place’, state ’ or ‘time ’ when
it is used with a modifying verb, adjective or noun.
As seen in KS(A) - KS(D), verbs which precede tokoro are either past
or nonpast and either progressive or non-progressive, and each one of
the four verb forms expresses a different aspect of the action.
As seen in KS(B),
KS(E), when the preceding verb is nonpast and non-pro-
gressive and the following copula is in the past tense, the sentence may
mean ‘ someone or something almost did something.’ (The literal mean-
ing is ‘someone or something was about to do something.) When to-
koro datta means ‘‘almost
almost did something’, such adverbs as mo sukoshi N
de ‘just by a little’ and abunaku ‘nearly’ are often used also, as in

KS(B) and Ex. (e). ig
Tokoro can be followed by either the copula, as in KS(A) - KS(B),
KS(E), Exs.
(a) and (e), or such particles as o,
0, ni, e and de, as in KS(F) and KS(C),
Exs. (b) —- (d) and (f) - (h).
When adjectives or nouns with no precede tokoro, tokoro is usually
followed by a particle rather than the copula, as in Exs. (f) and (h). The
following sentences are ungrammatical:
500 tokoro daz
da”
(1) a-
11- *%L:1'%~ltLv\.2 :6'G1'..
*fi.ii'9,*'I‘l’_jLv\ J; L’. Z>'C"i'o
*Watashi wa ima isogashii tokoro desu.
b.*flm%WAoa:ac+.
b- *%1.a14H>l<1»o .2 : arr.
*Watashi wa ima yasumi no tokoro desu.
I. When tokoro is used as a dependent noun, its function appears to be

similar to that of toki. However, these two expressions are different
in that tokoro basically indicates a state, while toki indicates a time.
Thus, [1] makes sense by itself, but [2] does not.
Ul%u%%2mna&:aE.
[1] fiélifiéfié Ma‘ 1:» A: .: 51:‘.
Boku wa denwa o kakeru tokoro da.
(Lit. I’m in the state where I’m going to place a call. (=I’m just
about to call someone.))
[2] *{£i1‘%§52n~u2:>B%r=‘..
[21 *{%t1@E%fi& 7a>-waist.-I.
*Boku wa denwa o kakeru toki da.
(*I am when I'm going to place a call.)
Vte iru / ita tokoro da is similar to Vte iru / ita. The difference is that
the former focuses more on the state or the scene while the latter con-
centrates on the action. Compare the usages of the two expressions in
[3] and [4].
[3] as.
3), 9' 3a ~/»§$»>'cl.\%> /*$»>'cuz> é; :CZ-wfio
‘.'/20?-;Eo'CL\25 /*iEo'CL\%>é: 615.
A, Jon ga hashitte iru / *hashitte
*hash/'tte iru tokoro da.
(Look! John is running.)
[41
[4] .’_¢)i-'3-Eli'$E7)§7
I'_0)5Eii'$'E7)‘57 vI) 2 15-
15-22 1,-cue
L'Ct\Z.> A:a :..: 5-c-1/* ucuzrr.
6'61‘ / * L,'Ct\i'§'..
Kono shashin wa gakusei ga furisubi o shite iru tokoro desu]
desul
*shite imasu.
(This picture shows students playing frisbee (lit. is a scene of
students playing frisbee).)
Vinf-past tokoro da is similar to Vinf-past bakari da. However, their
implications are different. That is, the former indicates that someonel
someone]
something is in the state of having just done something, while the latter
implies that someone /something did something and not much time has
passed since then. Thus, tokoro da is strange in [5] [S] because isshdkan
isshukan
mae ‘ a week ago’ is too far in the past to be used to express “ have
just done something”.
tokoro da2/ ~to shire
shite 501
[5] flum$%§mu—fim%u@¢nu#9fiV*e:5fi.
W $141 |i|1l=9E$t:t1-—Fs'ii‘aTn::zb "3 rt-.|:.t'n\ 9 1.-5 / * 2; :: 51.-5.
Watashi wa Yamamoto-sensei ni wa isshdkan
isshukan mae ni atta bakari
da/
dal *tokoro da.
(I met Prof. Yamamoto only a week ago.)
~to shite ~&:

~é: LT
LI‘ Pr!-
Pri-
i§ a compound particle which indicates i5 as; in the capacity of
the capacity, role or function of s.o. 5i
or
01' s.t.
S.t.
J \_€
Q Key Sentence
—-— Noun
H W éhili
B5iFPé</v Ii t-»2v/ ‘
t—)l'Z'-77 t or
2: l/C fifié nr:/éhi LL'0
T’ éhfc/éhibfao
Tanaka-san wa sérusuman to shite saiyosareta / saremashita.
(Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.)
N .1:<2 L-c
LT
to shite
95513
5155'; & l/C
k L/C (as a teacher)
sensei to shite
(a) %Lt1[’£%"<‘:
(11) ?Li:.t[’£%"<‘: I/C&>>‘.c7:lr_§v\i'?‘.,
L'CE'i>f.tf:i:',%‘v\i'§‘s ii
i
—
i
i
-
3.?-in
—
-
i
i
—
i
Watashi wa isha to shite anata ni /imasu.

i i
iimasu.
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
ii-in
(I’ll tell you (this) as a doctor.)

m *H$hZHK§£LTO%%oTW6fiUTT°
@ *HéhtUEE&LT0%%oTw6fiUTT°
Kimura-san to wa tomodachi to shite tsukiatte iru dake desu.
(I’m just keeping company with Mr. Kimura as a friend.)
(0) C0)¥s‘l3§lill%E<‘:l.,’C{§o'C\r\?5.,
C0)¥l§§li4=hE<‘: l.,'C{§o'Cv\?.'>.,
Kono heya wa monooki to shite tsukatte iru.
(I’m using this room as a storeroom.)
(l’m
502 ~to shite wa
~to shite wa ~<‘;

~<'; L‘CI;t
L,'(|;,t P"-
gi a compound particle which indicates for
a standard for comparisons [REL. ~ni shite wa)
wa]
"‘\/'\/\./
'\/\/\-/ ./‘./'\/\./\/\/\./\./~./~/-.»\./xr
./‘/\/\/\/\./\./\/\/\4*.»\/\/* /v /‘./\f~/‘./‘
/\¢ ./‘./‘\./'-./"/‘ E
Q Key Sentence
__- Noun
__a>
""
:0 xv
“ - flea:
27--1-ti Ed;
Elli 0) Z5-—$
2 5- - # a3; LT
[,1 at
(1 i I/\ lfi I/\ 'c-;-.,
it/\/it/\'C";'.,s
Kono sutéki wa Nihon no sutéki to _<;/me W3
shite we yasuil
yasui / yasuidesu.
(This steak is inexpensive for Japanese steak.)
Formation’
N ae Lxc
ura:ii
to shite wa
95$ 3 1,-( )1
9; L-q ti (for a teacher)
sensei to shite wa
$90581
M
m
(a) §av7VéhfiB$%®—$i&LTfiB$%#i$fi°
3 ‘/7 :/é /vii Ei1l§§§0>—-$i& lxtti EII4§E§rbi~_l:$f.:“..
Jonson-san wa nihongo no ichinensei to shite wa nihongo ga jozuda.
(Mr. Johnson is good at Japanese for a first-year student (of Japanese).)
w
m :ndB$®7fi—hkLTfifi%wfiTTo
:nfiB$®7fi—bkLTHfi%wfiTTo
Kore wa Nihon no apéto to shite wa okii ho desu.
(For a Japanese apartment, this is one of the bigger ones.)
Ni shite wa is also used to present a standard for comparisons. However,

Hg
it is different from to shite Wa wa in terms of the speaker’s presupposition.
H1
That is, sentences with X ni shite wa presuppose that the person or the thing
|-1--H
t
-1-up
2'1‘;
: —
ET; referred to by the subject is X, whereas those with X to shite wa have no

such presupposition. In Ex. (a), for example, Mr. Johnson may or may
not be a first-year Japanese student. However, if ni shite wa is used, it is
presupposed that he is actually a first-year Japanese student. The two ex-
pressions are also different in that ni shite wa can be used when the speaker
doesn’t know exactly what he is comparing with the standard he presents,
but to shite wa cannot be used in such situations. For example, suppose
that someone receives a package and doesn’t know its contents. In this situa-
~to shite wa I/ tsumori 503
tion, he can say hon ni shite wa, assuming that the package contains books,
but he cannot say hon to shite wa, as in [1].
[1] zmizklz
Cfbiillill Lxclz
L/Cid: / *&
*2: l..'Cld:fi'i‘z-’;='Z>i2..
l,'Cl2l£§'J‘%’?Z>i?-is
Kore wa hon ni shite wa / *to shite wa karusugiru ne.
(This is too light for books, isn’t it?)
tsumori Oi, D
mumofl'D§D "-
4
/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/
an intention or conviction of a intend to ~; be convinced that

speaker (or a person with whom the ~; believe; feel sure that ~;
speaker can empathize) about his be going to; mean
future or past actions or current [REL. hazu; ~yo to omou]
SIBIZC
state \-f
\.
/\/\/c\/'\/\."/\//\'\/"\//.
\-1'
\
/\/
"\_/\"./\ /\-/\.4‘\-/'.\/n-/\ /'\

/\ /'\/‘\./\/'\./\./\/\./\/\/\_/\_/\/\/\_/\/\/\
Q Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Vinf- nonpast
fl. (1 akai-iii E1516

FET6 ow
0 is 9 Trs/~c-~r..
‘CT
Watashi
l/l/613$/7!. E wa
W6 rainen
f8iI78I7 kekkonsuru
k8kkOfl$UI’U tsumori
[Sumo]; da / desu.
d3/degu
(I intend to get married next year.)
(B)
CO11>
\-/\../
/"'/'\
\~
Topic (subject
(subject)“"9+ Adj
11> dj (i)
(1) inf-nonpast
inf nonpast
’Q g M 9%- Tii
ifi >5- 1*".1-‘
fiu qgp
0 ‘L 9 TE/v1,
fir. \..__ 1"?"
s
E~ _
f'*
><’
it
. . ii
Chichi
C/7IC/7! wa mada
mada wakai
waka: tsumori
[SU/770” da // desu
da desu.°o-.
(My father is convinced that he is still young.)
504 tsumori
W)
Vinf-
*1. in .t< as/tr:

=5r ?~. “'2
all
. : />4.»
’J ‘ii 9 7;’/‘GT0
T’ "GT
-..
Watashi waQ394- yoku yonda tsumori da //desu.

desu .0
Z
(I m convinced that I read it carefully.)

(I'm carefully)
Q
U
(®)
/-\/-.
Topic (subject
(subject) Noun
zn
riV_ § u an
’“‘Y”
0 osv
O D E/Ti.
T’
ft '\. '61"
Kore wa o-rei
0 - re: no
D tsumori da/ desu.
da/desu
e=--
.
~.5-9'=_'-P
€-B’
‘I’ .33' /\ . '.
(
o
(Lit._
(Lit
#fi . This is my intention of appreciation.
- ,' appreciation (=This is a token of my ap-
ap |
preciation ))
prec1at1on.))
M
(i)wm eta
<i)wm esu n
tsumori da
(2%?
{$3-§' /%5‘l,T:.]
/;1,’£l,7‘.:} ii, D
0 Q, ff
7;’ (intend to talk / s.o. is convinced he
hanashita] tsumori da talked)
(ii) Adj (i) inf-nonpast oi, D T5
tsumori da
5%!/\
5&1/\ oi, D T5
T3 (s.o. is convinced that he is strong)
tsuyoi tsumori da
(iii) Adj (na) stem >5: oi,
2*; oil, D 75
Ti
na tsumori da
j_1§€,f;
'7T;€,f;: oi, D 7;’ (s.o. is convinced that he is healthy)
genkina tsumori da
(W)N o oto
0&0 2
E
no tsumori da
5E$
555-l:‘. 0) -Oi,
<7) 01, D T5 (s.o. is convinced that he is a teacher)
sensei no tsumori da
M
i
M
w WhKfiWET6o$DTT#°
WBKfiWET60hDTT#a
Yasumi ni wa nani 0o suru tsumori desu ka.
(What do you intend to do during the vacation?)
tsumori 505
M &uk¥ufi<osvmaw.
&uk¥Kfi<osvuew.
Boku wa daigaku ni iku tsumori wa nai.
(I have no intention of going to college.)
%htAcfih5%b&wOhD?Ta
M nhaAmub5%b&wotvvr.
Anna hito ni wa mo awanai tsumori desu.
(I do not intend to see that kind of person.)
w flmeniimotvfi.
fluifiiieosvfi.
Watashi wa mada genkina tsumori da.
(I’m I’m still healthy.)
(I'm convinced that I'm
@ %LnotvrLn#.%éum¢nnv+n.
%LkOhD?Lkfl.%é&m¢kbTTh.
Hanashita tsumori deshita ga.
ga, hanasanakatta n desu ne.
(I thought I talked to you, but I didn’t, did I?)
m
W C®fi$fifiU®0bDTT°
C®&$fifiU®O$DTT.
Kono shigoto wa asobi no tsumori desu.
(This work is intended to be a pastime.)
%nv%%LrwaoL9c+m.
@ enrflfiurweotvvrn.
Sore de benkyoshite iru tsumori desu ka.
(Are you sure you can study like that?)
1. Tsumori is a dependent noun and must be preceded by a modifier. The

minimal modifier is sono ‘ that ’.
m A=fi<0$DvTm.
(ll AI ?T<’>)l> D'C"i‘7)>°
/ku tsumori desu ka.
(Do you intend to go there?)
B:ii.%00£WeTP%i,0£Uv¢.
B 1 ii. ‘E004. U '61" / *;?.:?_, 0%. ‘J'C'*i‘..
F. sono tsumori desu / *L-7,
*F, tsumori desu.
(Yes, I do.)
2. The subject of a statement containing tsumori da must be the first -1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
i
__-
__-
__-
%
-1 i
-1
_- -i
i
person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In a question,

-1
-1 __-
-i
-1
M -i
-i
-1
-1 i
-i
1_i.i_;.-
iii.‘-
-M-_-
however, the subject must be the second person or someone with whom
the hearer empathizes.
(2) a
m a. &W§Hfi¥H&o#5u—vuPwutueseosvfi,
at /E1/7ii¥/*i>0)'b‘5 u -vv /*2i57aT1':iifi*<Z;'>’> 'i.) 9 rs.
Boku / Haha]
Haha/ Tomodachi / *Ano sarariman I/ *Anata we
wa
taberu tsumori da.
(I / My mother / My friend / That salaried man / You in-
tend(s) to eat it.)
506 tsumori
b-*E/fl1PfiE/mméh/nutueseosovrm.
E»*E/W1FfiE/mEéh/hohuasaotvctm.
*Boku / *Haha / *Tomodachi / Yamada-san / Anata wa
taberu tsumori desu ka.
(Do / Does I / my mother / my friend / Mr. Yamada / you
intend to eat it?)
3. Tsumori da can be negated in two ways. The verb / adjective in front
of tsumori can be negated, as in Ex. (c), or tsumori can be negated as
tsumori wa nai (not *tsumori de wa nai), as in Ex. (b). The difference
between these two negative versions is that the second version implies
stronger negation than the first one, as shown by (3) below:
A=a%o%¥%nfi<osvr¢w.
m A=s%o%¥%nfi<otvr+#.
Konban no ongakukai ni iku tsumori desu ka.
tonight’s concert?)
(Do you intend to go to tonight's
B=ifi;<9#Di%h#,%fi,fi#Uu0£D?T/"fi<9
B=ifil<fi#Di%b#.§%,fi#fiu0tD?T/"fi<9
‘b D I13:
‘B It $5 D Ifiko
i tha
Mada yoku wakarimasen ga.
ga, tabun, ikanai tsumori desu]
desu/
??iku tsumori wa arimasen.
(I can’t tell for sure now, but probably I'm
I’m not going there.)
[Related Ex
Expressions]
pressions]
I. Tsumori should not be confused with hazu which means ‘‘expectation’

expectation’
rather than ‘ conviction ’. (Q hazu)
II. Tsumori da is comparable but not identical to yo to omou. Firstly, yo’
yo
to omou can replace tsumori da only in KS(A), that is, only when a
verb precedes tsumori da. Secondly, yo to omou indicates a spur-of-
the moment decision while tsumori da indicates a more stable convic-
tion / intention. Thus, if you are shown a car by a car salesman, you
can say:
M =1.
[1] m :@$ulé%5t®vEB5tEu§?mw<sci».
:<D$i1.1:é%5>’.r0)'GE3‘55<E.%1L\§'§‘7b§\/‘< 5'61-n».
2-re
E
E Z
iii
Z
L_-i-1::
N.
Mit-.
Kono kuruma wa yosasona node ka6 to omoimasu ga
ikura desu ka.
(This car looks nice, so I think I will buy it, but how much
is it?)
But it is strange to say:
B
h N:0$m;é%5t0vE5o£U?T#w<prim.
n:@$u;s%5aovaaosuc¢mw<ers».
??Kono kuruma wa yosasona node kau tsumori desu ga
ikura desu ka.
tsumori / -tte‘
- ttel 507
(Lit. ??This car looks nice, so I intend to buy it, but how
much is it?)
Or, if you see an interesting ad for a stereo set in the newspaper, you
[Za] but not [2b].
can say [2a]
film
[2] a. xiv¢o£%&ETEB5tfioteiwmfifiénk.
27- l/>i'<7)ii.I‘t-’i2ETE§5 '3 J:.‘J.5'\':7‘:E>'5'<'l7‘1i~‘liJTL'$(=lé<i1.7‘:..
Sutereo no koko/cu
ko'koku 0o mite ka6 to omottara kanai ni han-
taisareta.
(Lit. Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I thought I would
buy one, but my wife objected to it.)
b. ??;<-7‘ l/7i"VJ ii§‘éi2E.'C
??x'7- I/71'?) ii§‘t§’5:E.'C E501»
550%» ‘JUT.-501:6.
f:'o1’:B. ’%'<"|7‘!l~'l
'5<'V‘1l~‘-'- iiifiiéh
iiiliétb
Tc,
7:1,,
??Sutereo no kokoku
??8utereo kdkoku 0o mite kau tsumori dattara,
dattara. kanai
ni hantaisareta.
(Lit. ??Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I intended to buy
one, but my wife objected to it.)
-tte‘
-tte‘ -rc
9 ‘C prt.
prt.
AA /\,\/\,\/\./\,.»/\,/~./-
./\r\/'\J\/\/'\¢.1./‘\.-_/“./-
§g a colloquial topic-introducer §,é Speaking of ~

“""""""’“N“’W“l
"‘M""”""M”“’ [REL. (no) wa; ~to ieba
(ttara)]
9 Key Sentences
Q =
N-
—=
M)
(A)
7x
Noun
7><u1:A
umk
M
of 7/|~a-r-»
“>1 7*? mt-1v a; §lfé'T:T/3'1f€<'C"i‘ ta.
:>=!1¥ar;'/!1¥a='c'—r 1:.
Amerikajin I18 futtoboru ga sukida / sukidesu ne.
(Speaking of Americans, they love football, don’t they?)
508 -tte‘
-tie‘
(B)
.2%?S*=""="<=' = —
Sentence
§=iai 1%
.-aitzs
2 aaa er
0 Pi itfifi‘/7<%'C"i‘
1&1:/1&1-1“ ita..
is.
Kan/1 o0 oboeru
Kan/i tte taihenda / taihendesu ne.
(Lit. To memorize kanji, it’s terribly hard, isn’t
isn't it? (=It’s really hard
to memorize kanji, isn’t it?))
M
KS(A)
N OT
QT
U9
U6
95$ of (speaking of the teacher)

sensei tte
KS(B)
{V
[V / Adj (i)} inf-nonpast of
-of
[I8
H8
35"?‘
35'?‘ of (to talk (topic))
hanasu tte
‘fit/\ of
E55!/\ /rt (to be expensive (topic))
takai tte
M
@
(3-) fiiaffihbéwciis
i§$'JT2f5 ‘is I/51/"C"f'Jle
Kanji tte omoshiroidesu yo.
(Speaking of kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.)
M
ii-Q-.-Q
(b)
M i37l§)\o“CJ: <5E’<i_'ifi9 i'§‘ia°
B$AoTl<5EEfi9iTms
Nihonjin
Nihon/in tte yoku shashin o torimasu ne.
(Speaking of Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don’t they?)
5'l@'<"%?6*J'*>T%Li/‘ii-\..
(<1) 5/l~El'C'§6'i' Q Tfi L i/‘#2..
Gaikoku de kurasu tte muzukashii ne.
(Living in a foreign country is hard, isn’t it?)
(d) 7l<r>¥§v\a'cv\v\i,0>2‘;'ia..
7|<:b‘i§v\@'cvw\i,0>2‘.-ita.
Ki ga oi tte ii mono da ne.
(It’s good to have many trees, isn’t it?)
-tte‘ 509
(e) 2';-'<'z)§;i.'v\/>"cv\v\*e1-ta,
’;§&”;b'$iL,"l/\o'CIr\\r\'C“'§‘:l:.\,,
/e ga hiroi tte iidesu ne.
le
(It’s good to have a spacious house, isn’t it?)
1. You should not use Adj (na) stem tte, unless it is an Adj (na) that can
be used also as a noun as in: kenko ‘ healthy / health ’, kodoku ‘ lonely /
/ kindness ’, etc.
loneliness ’, shinsetsu ‘ kind /kindness
m
(1) a
3- @§oT%9fikWTThe
fii§'J'C2b9h§7‘:lr\'C"i'i2\o
Kenko tte arigatai desu ne.
(Health is a precious thing, you know.)
b. *7_if:€,o'C$) D h§7‘:\/\'C"§‘1;\..
*T;io'C2F> 7)§7‘:v\'C"i'1i1\.,
*Genki tte arigatai desu ne.
(Health is a precious thing, you know.)
2. You should not confuse -tte‘ with -ttez
-tte? of hearsay. (Q tte?)
tte2) Consider
the following sentences:
(2) a. |JJlli§7)§E%l:f.:o7.:c'C2l§%i'C*'§‘i)=,,
|_L|ll%ih§E%"l:'.f.;:oT:o'CI4I¥-.-i'C"i'h>.,
Yamazaki ga isha ni natta tte honto desu ka.
(I heard that Yamazaki has become a medical doctor, but is
it true?)
B
h B$®m#%weT.E®¢5w§wuT+#,
B$om%%wer.E@¢BwEwwc¢m.
Nihon no niku ga takai tte dono gurai takai n desu ka.
(I heard that Japanese meat is expensive, but how expensive
is it?)
3. -tte‘ tends to co-occur with the sentence-final particles ne or yo.
Ex pression]
When -tte is attached to a noun as in KS(A) and Exs. (a) and (b), it is close N
-iii
1-M-ii
M-ii-i
ii
.___i
-_--_-
1-1?-
-1
.-ii
i--1
in meaning to the topic marker wa. When -tte is attached to a sentence as -ii
-ii
M11-
ii
ii
ii-
ii-
ii
M-
in KS(B) and Exs. (c), (d) and (e), it is close in meaning to ~ (to iu) no
wa. -tte, however, is more colloquial and emotive than wa or (to iu) no wa.
In fact, if the predicate does not express the speaker’s emotive judgment]
judgmentl
evaluation -tte cannot be used. Thus,
[1] m
M a. I-Ulilé/vlili/*0'C§'Eii'C"i's
mnsM1Her%&r+.
Yamaguchi-san wa / *tte sensei desu.
(Mr. Yamaguchi is a teacher.)
510 -tie‘
-ire‘ / -tte2
-H62
h masho/er%uAvrn.
mnstm/srE&Ac+n.
Yamaguchi-san wa / tte henna hito desu ne.
(Mr. Yamaguchi is a strange person, isn’t he?)
o ‘C
-tte’ 0 "C prt.
\,\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/~
\/N/\/\./\/"./\/\/'\/\/‘
9 a colloquial quotation marker i that

(/\./\/\/\
r/\/'\./K/'\
N“ *’“""""""N”‘M” [REL. soda‘; to“)
0 Key Sentence
QKey
Topic (subject)
ihrw/iii
§:_Vi u neaw
memo QT.
0
Jén
Jen wa odoranai "9.
(Jane said that she wouldn’t dance / They say that Jane won’t dance.)
£2553
awugmwear.
@ amugflmaar.
Konban wa yuki ga furutte.
(They say it’s going to snow tonight.)
M {£(>fi':'_
(b) fibficfimorfiwiuts
5 7)>»)'C.%.'.v\i Lice
Boku mo iko
i/<6 ka tte omoimashita.
(I wondered if I should go there, too.)
(ENE
iflfii
1. Quote+tte2 is a colloquial version of Quote+to3.
Quote+to“. (Q toa)
to”) Any quota-
tion which can precede toi‘
to” can precede -tte.
2. When there is a human topic in the -tte construction as in KS, the sen-
tence is ambiguous as to whose quotation it is. The person who is
quoting can be either the topic person or ‘they’. But if a reporting
verb iu ‘say’ is used after -tte, then the sentence means ‘The person
(topic) says that ~ ’.
-tte2 511
-ttez
M
(1) §1—vu%5&weT§otM6l.
“/":=-—‘/i;‘iE§1l57J?\/\o'C‘,%‘o'CL\%>JZa
Jén wa odoranai tte itte iru yo.
(Jane is saying that she won’t dance.)
3. When -tte is not followed by a verb, the understood verb is iu ‘say’.
Other verbs (i.e., omou ‘feel, think’) cannot be deleted after -tte, as
shown in Ex. (b).
I. /tta /iimashita
/ iimashita ‘said’,
‘ said’, itte iru //imasu
imasu ‘is saying’ or itte ita / imashita
‘ was saying’ can be deleted after -ttez,
-tte”, as seen in KS and [1] below, but
not after to“,
toa, as seen in [2].
[1] a.
3- ~‘/'==-2/l:J:EfiE>>‘:v\o‘C'%'o7‘:,,
*‘/":2-‘/iI.lZEfil’9?’.;?lr\')'C",-§f'.>T:.,
Jen wa odoranai tte itta.
Jén
(Jane said that she wouldn’t dance.)
b. ‘)’;I2""/iiBfil‘9fJ:l/"J-co
fjlli-"":/i1E'§tJfJ:l/‘U-C0
Jen
Jén wa odoranai tte.
(=K5)
(=K$)
[2] a. ~9‘==-—‘/liE@F>f.cv\¢%'=;o2‘.:.,
~‘/"=1-.-2/iiE%l5>*.¢'/‘.L'€‘.'oT:.,
Jén wa odoranai to itta.
(Jane said that she wouldn’t dance.)
b.
lJ- *~‘/"=n—‘/liE§I5f.;t!/\&,,
*4./".I“_:/f1E§BfJ:v\to
*Jén wa odoranai to.
The difference between -tte2
-tte? and to3
to” is that the former is more emphatic
and emotive owing to its glottal stop.
(wt
II. When the subject of the understood iu is an unspecified person(s), as in
the second interpretation of KS, -ttez
-tte” is similar to the hearsay soda‘
‘they say ~ ’. -ttez,
-tte”, however, is more colloquial and informal than soda‘.
s6da') X ga itte ita kedo ‘ X was saying but’ or its variants are used
(Q s5dal) ii
when specifying an informational source in the -tte construction, not the E

§E
usual X ni yoru to, as shown in [3].
[3]
M m a. 5 ‘/hi?-s'CL\f:|H:’. ~='/“==--‘/t1E§F>>*.:v\—s'C.,
9av#§atutHE,91—vfi%Btwot.
Jon ga itte ita kedo, Jén wa odoranai tte.
(According to JJohn,
ohn, Jane is not going to dance.)
b. 5a */|:J:Z>&. =/*=—~/i1Rfi¢>f.cv\i-515/*->'C.
Vllatébi "‘/“:i:--‘./li3fiF>1’.i?lr‘{"'57‘.'I / *'J'Ca
Jon ni yoru to. Jén wa odoranai s6da / *tte.
(According to John, Jane is not going to dance.)
512 uchi ni
UChi ni 5'5lC
uchi conj.
i during a period when a certain situ- E while; before; during

ation remains in effect [REL. aida (ni); mae ni; chu
chi]
\
-~/~/\/\/\./\/~./\/\/~./\/\./~./\/\/\/\,
"\/‘/'\-/\./\./\./‘./\/‘/‘_/\/\./‘./\/\/\/“\1 \/‘/1
\_/"/‘/ //\/~'
_//'\J"‘-—
("/)1
(/")1
0Q Key Sentences
(A)
(A)
_ _ Subordinate Clause
Topic (subject) Main Clause
Verb (stative) -
Fiifliié/..
iiiillis/V in
§i-.1 71911:;
rxvaa it; we
(M5 arse:
515 ll fits 1b'i_hEl7=i.:
333% 7); _l:$i:
gwa Amerika ni
Maeda-san Zwa iru uchi ni eigo ga jozuni
5 fink/&9iLk°
it '2 TC / 74? 9 E L 7‘:
, natta / narimas
narimashita.
h ita
(Mr Maeda’s
(Mr. Maedas English improved while he was in America.)
America)
(B)
Subordinate Clause _
_ Main Clause
Vinf- neg- nonpast
(HI
(WI =1.1. L1‘.-iIl.\
L1‘.-i:l.\
0
5*,
515 ll
tr; ea:
*-4% ‘it.L. fféboic/if-fébflibfco
iii-Fbofc/ii5§b9iLT:,
shma:
Nani mo shinai UC/7/ ni
uchi I7! kotoshi mo owatta / owar/mash/ta
owarimashita
Q U I I
Q .O I O
I
*'0
(Lit Before I’ve
(Lit. I Ive achieved anything,
anything this year is over.)
over) 'I
Q
(C)
M1;-|-M
-ii
lause
Subordinate Clause
-ii
1 :1
_-. *1
Main Clause
Vte
I8
1'
iE-at
E->'C (M5
WE» 96!
5*) i: 2‘<>tc:b
:‘<§?.c2)~v 25hivs ié?<f.c-sf./f.c9iLf._
?3?<f.r'>7‘:/isbibfco
i
O
'\
Hashrtte
Hashitte \u
iru uchi fll
ni onaka ga /takunatta
itakunatta I/narimashita.
nanmash/ta
U
*0
.l
O
. v
(My stomach started to ache while I was running)
running.)
ucni ni S13
(D)
Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Adj (i)
Adj (1) inf-nonpast
inf- nonpast -
%i\
'"'l.\
=6 952 l:
" B is: It 5'22 Tc.
751 r¢<< $1.. %1+>*..:a<v~..
3 /U 5*
am?+ f41$ v \O
Wakai uchi ni hon o0 takusan yominasai.
(Read many books while you’re young.)
M
( i ) Vinf-nonpast 5 15
t, (5;
l; (V: stative)
uchi ni
M25
I/\?.'> 5-5 B it.
I: (while s.o. is there)
iru uchi ni
3511-5
E311-Z, 5-‘j 15 l;
L: (while s.o. can talk)
hanaseru uchi ni
(ii)
(ii) Vinf-neg-nonpast 55
515 l:
uchi ni
§§g>:;v\ 5 B it;
§§g<f.;:v\ ll (before s.o. talks)
hanasanai uchi ni
g.<r;v\ '55 B fl’.
Q/<f;I/\ L: (before s.o. eats)
tabenai uchi ni
(iii)) Vte
(iii I/‘Z> 515
we 56 l;
ls;
iru uchi ni
Efiljt
E-."'fil/C W25 5 B ll
I/\Z> l: (while s.o. is talking)
hanashite iru uchi ni
Q/<1‘
E/<1‘ 1/\Z>
I/\Z> 5 B
T5 l:
(C. (while s.o. is eating)
tabete iru uchi ni
(iv ) Adj (i) inf-nonpast
(iv) 5 B L:
I;
uchi ni
Pg!/\ 5 i)
E!/\ 15 l;
I; (while s.t. is expensive) :1];
iii?-I
iii
ii
iii
iii?-I
iii
M-1-1--3
takai uchi ni
_
-
-
it-1--3
(v) Adj (na) stem 2‘;

(V) fg 5-515 (:1
15 l:
na uchi ni
§¥~;b=f,;:
fifth); 5-5 15,
B j;(C. (while s.t. is quiet)
shizukana uchi ni
514 uchi ni
(Vi) N 0)
0') 5
'9 6
f) I;
ii‘.
no uchi ni
(7|<1;.
(>l<.7+ q) 5 5 )5;
4) jg; (during the vacation)
Yasumi no uchi ni
w f:IEi7)§Fél5f.rv\
(a) fi#%B&W5BK?=2&LT%iTa
5 Bi:-7:: 2 '5' L'C§lEi'i".,
Ame ga furanai uchi ni tenisu o shite kimasu.
(I’ll go and play tennis (and come back) before it rains.)
.‘i45n?.cv\ 5 BiC'§'o'CIi6%7‘:)/\Z.
(b) Eibiilr‘ Bi:-5'->'C£€=2‘:.v\: tJ: rb‘$a>Z>.
75§2bZ;'>e
Wasurenai uchi ni itte okitai koto ga aru.
(There is something I want to tell you before I forget.)
M %iTw%56u9m&t<&@k.
%irw55Bt%#6a<&¢k.
Kangaete iru uchi ni wakaranaku natta.
(While thinking about it, I got lost.)
%ua5Bwm%afin@%nw.
W wfiéébtmfiéfififiékwo
Hatarakeru uchi ni dekiru dake hatarakitai.
(I’d like to work as much as possible while I can work.)
M i573)"/‘
(9) fimw56m&bT<fiéw,
5 "olCfi7(/vT' < 73$ i/‘O
Atatakai uchi ni nonde kudasai.
(Please drink it while it is warm.)
m wao5am;<§rnae+.
Wao5am;<§r2%i+.
Yasumi no uchi ni yoku nete okimasu.
(I’ll sleep a lot during the vacation.)
1. The uchi ni clause expresses the general time during which a given
action or state occurs. Uchi ni is preceded by verbs describing states
or progressive actions, or by adjectives, or by nouns expressing duration
such as haru ‘spring’, hiruma ‘day time’ and shtikan ‘week’.’. (For
shukan ‘week
examples, see KSs(A), (C), (D) and Ex. (f), respectively.)
ii
-
i
i
2. The tense before uchi ni is always nonpast, regardless of the tense of

the main clause.
3. The verb before uchi ni is frequently negated, as in KS (B), Exs. (a)
and (b).
uchi ni 515
I. When it indicates an interval of time, aida refers to the ‘time space’

between two points, i.e., the beginning and the end. In other words,
the time space indicated by aida can be measured in clocktime. Uchi,
however, does not refer to such measurable time space; it simply means
‘time space within’. Thus, in a situation where a mother wants to
read books while her child is away at school, either uchi or aida can be
used, as in [la]. However, in aasituation
situation where we want to play tennis
before it rains, we cannot substitute aida for uchi, as in [lb], because
it is impossible to specify a time boundary.
ll] 3-
Ill 8- ¥i3l&t)§¥f’>'EiCi‘?'> Tl/‘6 5'3 ‘Bl:
:f"l35€?5'3’$i’>'Ell'-fi'9'€'\/‘Z-'1 BIZ / l'a'l|-ill‘-3’./i‘?-i"i'i'i7>#i'i‘a
l’e'l|:1l§&i~fi¥+i')“..
Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru uchi nil
ni / aida ni hon o vomi-
yomi-
masu.
(I read books while my child is away at school.)
b- Fl?1>b‘$%l5f..-cl/\
Ffiz>‘iM:e>*.:v\ 5-3 5|:
Bl: /*r§1|:-7:2
/ *|'e1l:=/'-:2 2
E err.
Lit.
Ame ga furanai uchi ni
nil/ *aida ni tenisu o shimasu.
(I’ll go and play tennis before it rains.)
¢- ?%r.:v~
<=- rem -35 5|: /*r=1|: i:“—-/wear/./e
5|:/*|%1l: 15-/v 2%:/or < r.-5
rs s2 lo.
v\.
Tsumetai uchi nil
ni / *aida ni biru o nonde kudasai.
(Please drink the beer while it is cold.)
II. The uchi ni construction cannot be used for situations where a noun is
an event noun such as jugyo ‘ class ’, kaigi ‘ conference ’ and shiai ‘‘game’.
game’.
[2] a-
a. i§¥<l>ra'1|:/=P(l:)/*0>5
i%¥0)|’e1|:/"P(l:)/*0)-3 *5l:.1:
*sl:.t < QFS2
QFEIE Liz,
we.
Jugyo no aida ni
nil/ chi? (ni) / *no uchi ni yoku shitsumon
o shita.
(He frequently asked questions during the class.)
b.
l). I%‘i§é§*(7)|'a'll: / '=P(ll') / *<D5 5l2Fl?l7)§l%'>'C§lE7‘.'_.,
§i§€1‘U)l'B1lZ/ffffll)/*(D‘5 'f:'>lZEl§li)§|5@'J'C§lETC.o
nil/ chi? (ni) / *no uchi ni ame ga futte kita.
Shiai no aida ni
(It started to rain while the game was going on.)
SI6
S16 wa‘
wa‘ I:
lat P"-
/\/\/\r\'\l'\ '\/\I\/ /\/\/\»\»\/~
/'\/\/\/'\I\/'\"\./\I\/ /\’\ A/\r /'\/'\/\
/\./\../\/'\f\/\/\/‘\"\_/\/ /\ '\/\
é a particle which marks a topic or talking about ~; as for ~;

~ ; the
O
§y a contrastive element [REL. gal]
I'x\"/\.'/'/\."\-/\./\
/x,/\/\/\/\/\/\/-\/x/\./\./\./\/\/\_/\/'\I'\/\.
/\.
QKey
§Key Sentences
M)
I>
/"\ \-I’
Topic (subject)
Hi ii ii
*5 filer.
T /‘C *5‘
fig
Watashi
Wa tashi wa Q6/(U89! da / desu
gakusei desu.
student)
I (I am a student.)
W)
Contrastive Element, Contrastive Element;
Element2
teas/V
VH3»
\\ ii
2 u asst 79*
fi%2+a§
\13
.
ti.
H ii
Em tease/V
fiéaau.
Sugita san 5 §”
' Eas
Q'
ikimasu ga watashi wa ikimasen
ikimasen.
(Mr. I ..
IOO go.)
(Mr Sugita will go (there) but I wont
won’t go)
o
w §a—vféwd%B$%2@%LTw6.
§s—vfébH%B$%2%%LTw5.
Jonzu-san wa ima nihongo o benkyoshite iru.
(Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.)
M cwmmukifizonoo
comnnkfifizoaa.
Kono machi ni wa daigaku ga futatsu aru.
(There are two universities in this town.)
M flue—»n&e2+#@n&a22n.
flnE—»n&ai+fl%n&hxeh.
Watashi wa biru wa nomimasu ga sake wa nomimasen.
(I drink beer but don’t drink sake.)
%%mnA%&.fl%cn&$aawn.
W §%uuA%2.fi%uu%$22un.
Haruko ni wa ningyo o, Akiko ni wa ehon 0o ageta.
(I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.)
EH5)
1. The origin of wa can be traced to the conditional marker ba. (Com-
pare the spellings of wa (ii) and ba (ii).) (Q
(=i> ba) However, in con-
wa‘ 517
temporary Japanese, wa is used, in general, to mark information which
the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer’s register. In other words,
when wa marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hearer knows
what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by wa in
ordinary circumstances are as follows:
(A) Common nouns whose referents have already been introduced
into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. Example:
m ‘§’*’»
(1) %#.—A®BUuéh#EwcwiLk,
-')WJ3*$l1L\3/viJifI/u'C'I/\&LT.:..
Mukashimukashi. hitori no o-ii-san
0-ji-san ga sunde imashita.
(Once upon a time, there lived an old man.)
Btuéhu2r$@éLwAruk.
B l.Zl.\3A/l2lI<‘: ‘C ‘l>"i’é L WA’? Lia,
0-ii-san
0-ji-san we
wa totemo yasashii hito deshita.
(The old man was a very gentle man.)
(B) Proper nouns. Examples:
(2) 7;! I) 7;
71 ‘America’; Xi 23/v
23/V ‘Mr. Smith’
Amerika Sumisu-san
(C) Nouns whose referents can be uniquely identified (that is, they
are one of a kind). Examples:
(3) iqlig
i<F% ‘sun’;
‘Sun’; § ‘Sky’
‘sky’
ta/‘yo
ta/yo sora
(D) Generic names. Examples:
(4) A ‘man’; E ‘car’
hito kuruma
It is noted that wa never marks WH-words such as nani ‘‘what’
what’ and
dare ‘ who’. Thus, (5) is ungrammatical.
*r.-£m1»=--~"i- 4 -llfléi
(5) *f:'11.ii/4'-*7 ~—-inks |,r.:1>>.
L7‘.:7)*2
*Dare wa pati ni kimashita ka.
(Who came to the party?)
This is because WH-words do not refer to a known thing and, there-
fore
fore, their referents can never be in the hearer’s register.
More specifically, wa marks a topic and/or a contrastive element.
When wa is used as a topic marker, as in X wa Y, X is something the EWE
M
-ii
ii
ii-
_
—i-ii-1
—
M-1-1--i
in-1-1--3
rest of the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls
on Y or part of Y. (Cp. gal) go‘) The topic X wa normally appears at
the beginning of a sentence.
518 wal
wa‘
3. Wa is also used to mark a contrastive element, as in KS (B), Exs. (c)

and (d). However, whether wa is being used as a topic marker or as
a contrastive marker is not always clear. This is not clear particularly
when there is one element X marked by wa but there is no other ele-
ment Y explicitly contrasted with X. Here are some general rules for
determining whether a given wa is topical or contrastive.
(A) When more than one wa appears in a sentence, as in “X wa Y
wa Z wa. . .”, the first wa is usually understood to be the topic
marker, the second wa is more contrastive than the first one, the
third one is more contrastive than the second, and so on. Ex-
amples:
(6) i<El$lI-12'7" :2 2 ll-iilifiléi To

i<El§lIlZ"7":-XlIlIlil5lE$'i'a
Taro wa tenisu wa dekimasu.
(Taro can play tennis.)
(7) l£lJZ'i‘,‘EilIlI‘7"-"I-7\l2lILP’.t\/‘O
(iii?-I El I317-:1 Zli Lit)/‘O
Boku wa kyo wa tenisu wa shinai.
(I won’t play tennis today.)
(B) When X wa is pronounced with stress, it marks a contrastive
element. Examples:
I
W
ts) flu—¢r+.
Hiat-£’i3'<"i‘..
Watéshi we
Watashi wa ichinen desu.
((I don’t know about other people but, at least) fI am a
freshman.)
’.
w
(9) t—wU&hE?2
,§
I: —-It/lIlIfi~7+i'i'a
Biru wa nomimasu.
((I don’t drink other drinks but) I drink béer.)
4. When wa is used in negative sentences, it marks the negated element.

This is a special use of wa as a contrastive marker. Compare the
following sentences:
(10) 2
M a. flmé05%zbv~fi#km¢k.
Htiao 5 rfiz |~ ‘/¢\fih=?.ch='>f.:.,
Watashi wa kino Bosuton e ikanakatta.
(I didn’t go to Boston yesterday.)
h
b- fiu%@5m£2bv~fim&mQk,
Tliliéffl) 5 (11152 l~ ‘/*\fi7)>i.:2b--pic,
Watashi wa kino wa Bosuton e ikanakatta.
(I didn’t go to Boston yésterday.)
wa1
wa‘ S19
519
c. $Li1=év>
fitiérv) 5 rfiz
vi-I2 I~ ://\l1fi:b=f.cib=-ste,
‘/¢\l1fi2§>f.:2f)=-sic.
Watashi wa kino Bosuton e wa ikanakatta.
(I didn’t go to Boston yesterday.)
(10a)
(l0a) simply states that the speaker didn’t go to Boston yesterday. (l0b)
negates yesterday, implying that the speaker went to Boston on other
days or that he usually goes to Boston on that day but didn’t yesterday.
Likewise, (l0c) negates to Boston, implying that the speaker went some-
where but it was not to Boston.
There are rules for particle ellipsis when wa marks noun phrases with
case markers (i.e., particles such as the subject marker ga (=ga') and
the direct object marker o (=o')).
(=o‘)).
(A) When wa marks X ga or X o,
0, ga or o must drop. (Exs. (a)
and (c))
(B) When wa marks X e or X ni“ (location), e or ni optionally drop.
(EX-
(F-X- (b))
(C) When wa marks X ni‘ / ni2 / n/'3
ni3 / ni‘ (time, indirect object, agent,
contact), X de, X to, X kara, X made or X yori, the case marker
usually remains and wa follows it, forming a double particle.
(Ex. (d)) More examples follow:
(11) :
I: :'Gl:-i:f.:if:'_
:'Glif;ti": 2%bt.:v\'e
&I£2bf.c\/\'e < T5
7;’ 3 l/\,,
W,
Koko de wa tabako o suwanaide kudasai.
(Please don’t smoke here.)
M
(12) w¢en2u1<%w2+.
B3“Pé</vtl2lIJ: < 42?‘/‘3i'i'a
Tanaka-san to wa yoku aimasu.
(I see Mr. Tanaka often.)
The topical wa does not appear in subordinate clauses, as in (13).
(13) 11- fffi‘¥lifl\iJ)
7iE¥ii$Lhi / *l2t€= v) fiiééfl/vii:
*lI=lI€\'0) 5iE’$:f;k/ori: <1:<‘: ’&9EI1->'Cv\Z>..
Eéfil->'Cv\Z>..
Hanako wa watashi ga / *wa kino sake o nonda koto o0
shitte iru.
(Hanako knows that I drank sake yesterday.)
b. il5LiJi/*l;l:‘?’.-Ea?/i/f.:'7l§1li
$Lh</*|1%t'/Vrizlm F‘?-§@J “BE ''61",
c=~;-.,
Watashi ga / *wa yonda hon wa "“ Yukiguni"
Yukiguni " desu.
(The book I read was Snow Country.)
520 waz
1-)
W32 19 prt.
A/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
/\/\"\I\/\/\/\/\/'\ /\/\I\'\./\/\/\-'\./s./\./s./\/x/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\'\'\
. E
/\/\"\'\/\/\/\'\'\/'\/\/\'\/\/\/\»-\/\/\/\
a sentence particle used in weak as-

sertive or volitional sentences by a
ZE female speaker é
/\/\/\-\./-\-ex»-./\/\/x/\./\/\/\/\/\./\/\/'\/'\/\/\./'\
/\/\/\I\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\./'\/5
QKey Sentence
¢Key
Sentence
H
fi i>%Lk¢)fi—74—(Zfi<
’i) St l./ Ft 0) /“"":7-if
'-\
""' l--
it_ \ _
b.
Ibo
Watashi mo ashlta
ashita no péti
pat: ni I/(U
n1 iku wa.
(I’ll
(I ll go to tomorrow’s
tomorrows party, too.)
too)
w fi*émfit5%9iLtb°
k*snna5%9sunb.
5/ti-san wa mo"
Uki-san mo kaerimashita wa.
(Mr. Oki has already gone home.)
m A¥nifi$§c+b.
M A¥m2fi¥&vrb.
Hisako wa mada gakusei desu wa.
(Hisako is still a student.)
(0) C.i7J¥.‘I§§ii/l~é<v\b2
~.";®%l§Eii/l~éI/\b..
Kono heya wa chisai wa.
(This room is small.)
1. The sentence particle wa is used only in female speech and expresses

the speaker’s weak assertion or volition. In addition, wa sometimes
expresses the speaker’s intimacy or friendliness.
2. Wa can follow any declarative sentence, but cannot follow the volitional
forms of verbs. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.
u)*fl#fi%$Lx5/fi:5b.
lU*fi#fi%§Lx5/fi;5b°
*Watashi ga ikimasho]
ikimasho / ik6 wa.
(I will go.)
Note that wa cannot be used in questions.
(2) a. *~‘/’-V? I/'3/'oii"$E'C"i‘7!)>b.,
**‘/'—\'9 7 ‘/'é‘A/l:-I’iE'C"§"2b>b.,
*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu ka wa.
(Is Mr. Jackson a student?)
waz / ~wa ~da
wag/~wa 521
b. *~‘/’
*"/“-v—\r 7
9 7
V ‘/F5
I/é /1/ii$i'C"i‘bz‘)=.,
A/li'¥E'("l'b2b>.,
*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu wa ka.
c.*9+97véhfl#ET+b?
C. *~‘/'~\'9 7 I/F5/vli'“$ET"i"b?
*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu wa.?
3. Other sentence particles such as ne and yo can occur with wa. In this
case, wa must precede these particles.
(3) $L(>fi<1l'>12\..
1‘LM='r < 19120
Watashi mo iku wa ne.
(I’ll go there, too. All right?)
w iFL'b?’r<
(4) flsfi<b;. 1941..
Watashi mo iku wa yo.
(I’ll go there, too. (Emphatic))
~wa ~da ~|.:-t

~|;t ~75 str-
sir.
/\/'\v'\"\/\/'\.I'\/\’
/\/'\ \ \/\/\/\/\,
g S.o. or s.t. is/was s.o. or s.t. or

’ is/was in some state, or will dol
do/
gE does / did s.t. 8
\/\/\/\/\'\./\/\/\/\/\-/\/‘\/\./\/\/'\/'\/\'\/\'\/\/3
¢Key
Q Key Sentences
(A)
TOP" <$"*>r¢*>
I
I
_ |
i
Z_
i
i
ii.‘-
--_-
i- %
-1
.1
-1
.1
:n.§n1
Ch ii
Q
x
2|; E/TTO
if/'C"i‘°
Kore wa hon dal desu.
da/
(This is a book.)
522 ~wa ~da
(B
(E)
Topic (subject) Noun Prt
=va—+ §u
=v#—t§ W 1w#
Afi ¢~
"9
#5 T5/*1,
T
E/Ti.
Konsa'to
Konséto gwa
W8 hachiji
hachiji kara
kara da /dew.
0'8 /desu.
(Lit. The concert is from eight o’clock. (=The concert starts at eight
o’clock.))
tfiflflfll
b@Au%ifi.
W $)®Ali5lF;§T:',
Ano hito wa sensei da.
(That person is a teacher.)
M
(bl fLl;)I“/'
if!-tlif/I a2 "-
'-' I/Z"C’1".,
‘/>'§"C"§"o
Watashi wa Jonzu
Jdnzu desu.
(I am Jones.)
M §¥um%2vr+.
§¥dflfiiT?Ts
Jugyé wa yoji made desu.
Jugyo
(Lit. My classes are till four o’clock. (=I have classes till four o’clock.))
w afiofiéuvvvbvfiitfio
W Qfiofiéuvvvtvkfitfio
Kondo no shiai wa Washinton
Wash/‘mon Daigaku to da.
(The next game is against the University of Washington.)
ENE!
1. “A wa B da ” is probably the most basic sentence structure in Japanese.
The very basic meaning of this construction is “A is B”. However,
this pattern can convey more than that meaning. For example, the
second sentence in (1) literally means ‘My wife is tea’, but actually
means ‘ My wife drinks tea.’ Here, the copula da is used in place of
nomu ‘ drink ’.
m fiufifi=—e—2&o.%mmfl%fi.
flufifi=—e—2&o.%WuH%fi.
--ii
-3
kéhi 0o nomu. Kanai we kécha
Watashi wa maiasa kohi kooha da.
=I =-.
i‘
2w:
(I drink coffee every morning. Lit. My wife is tea. (=My wife
ii
drinks tea.))
In fact, this structure is used frequently in conversation, as in (2), where
the copula desu in B’s sentence means ikimasu ‘ am going’.
~ wa ~da 523
(2) A1
AI $1-J1/\
Hli/\ '7/f “(T5 3511,
74 “ii”? $11,
Watashi wa Hawai e ikimasu.
(I’m going to Hawaii.)
(I'm
BB=fim7wu#e¢.
I flit? =1 ‘J §"'C"4'..
Watashi we
wa Furorida desu.
(Lit. I am Florida. (=I’m going to Florida.))
In general, the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the mean-
ing can be understood from context. Note the following examples:
:0 vx
(3) :0) 1/2 lI~~ "2
9 :/I11"
A11" Lrfiisw
L>§§tsv\l,v\., ba; vz I~l~ 5"=2 ‘/I11‘/W51
Lu‘. be) ‘/(rt/Ws1F>f:'.,
61‘.-5..
Kono resutoran wa sushi ga oishii. Ano resutoran wa tenpura da.
(Sushi is good at this restaurant. At that restaurant tempura is
good.)
(4) 7:4 ‘7~299 I12
fix’;-—
7- I‘l~r)¥_l;$2‘;'.,
7)'3_l;‘.$T:'., 71%’-—/1/l1z=t~—-T:'..
rl?-/l/l12=¥-—-1'50
Dikku wa sukéto ga jozuda. Pdru wa ski da.
jézuda. Poru
(Dick is good at (ice) skating. Paul is good at skiing.)
»7+'>¥l:.t$$El=é bflifiifio okirlifififiéfi/Tia
(5) J+'>¥li;l=$EIré</v7)§77Piif:'., 0 £1 Irl1:F$§Cé A/T50
Mitsuko wa 0-ké-san ga byoki da. Tsutomu Tsuromu wa 0-to-san
o-to-san da.
(In Mitsuko’s family, her mother is ill. In Tsutomu’s family, his
father is ill.)
What the copula da means may be understood from the linguistic con-
text, as in (1) —- (S),
(5), or from the extra-linguistic context, as in (6).
(6) [In an order situation at a restaurant]
%m5&§fi.
%m5&€fi.
Boku wa
we unagi da.
(Lit. I am an eel. (=I’ll have eel / I'd like eel.))
2. ln
In “A wa B da”, B may be a noun phrase, as in KS(A) or a noun
phrase with a particle, as in KS(B). General rules about particle el-
lipsis and retention in this construction follow:
(A) Ga, 0, e and ni (time (=ni'),
W (=n/"), location (=ni°))
(=n/“)) must drop. (See
(1) -" (6)-)
(6))
(B) Ni (indirect object (=n/'2),
® (=ni2), agent (=n/'3), (=n/")) and
(=ni3), direct contact (=ni‘))
de (location (=de'), means (=de2)) may drop. Examples:
A=%m&vct@afi.
m A=&u&vck0nfi.
Boku wa Ken ni tanonda.
(I asked Ken.)
S24
524 ~wa
~ we ~da
BB:I ‘£117
{;%|17 ‘/7-'4
‘/-‘i*'»r -(t:)f;'..
-—(|:)f-5.
Boku we Andi (ni) de.
da.
(I asked Andy.)
(8) A: {£017/<’—
{,%a11'»<'- l~'E‘§‘l1.5'§'i"?5e
|~-c*@5'§*rz>.
Boku we epero de benkyésuru.
wa apéto benkyosuru.
(I study in my apartment.)
B =I l.%|:l>ZI%fiE(-e)r.-5.
l%l:;:l2I%fi’E('C*)f:'.
wa toshokan (de) de.
Boku we da.
(I study at the library.)
(C) De (reason), to, kara

kere and made usually do not drop. Examples:
W A=&u%icw»n.
m A=%u%icWefi.
Boku we
wa byoki
byéki de yasunda.
(I was absent because of illness.)
B=%mu#c/?M1&
B = 1%|1ma=-e I PM ii.
Boku we
wa kege
kega de / ??a da.
de.
(I was absent because I got injured (lit. because of an
injury)-)
ifliury)J
m A:
(10) A:flu—%&%vaLn.
mi-EB&E% D i Lr.:.,
Watashi
Weteshi we
wa Ichiro
/chiré to odorimeshite.
odorimashita.
(I danced with Ichiro.)
B = %L|1l'E=:i%e / ??¢ 'c+‘4'.
B=flm%%&/Nari.
Weteshi we
Watashi wa Nobuo to / ??a desu.
(I danced with Nobuo.)
3. When the copula is used for a predicate, it usually appears in the non-
past tense regardless of the tense of the predicate, as in (7) and (9).
4. In “A wa
we B dade ”, A wa
we may drop if it can be understood from context,
(ll).
as seen in (11).
M A=%nmmv+m.
(11) A: ’cm:t{HIT~J-25>.
Sore we
wa nen
nan desu ka.
(What is that?)
B: (:nt1)fi¥%'c=-;-.
B=cuunfi%v+.
(Kore we)
wa) Jisho desu.
(This is a dictionary.)
~ga 525
~wa ~ge
~wa ~ga ~|; ~;§<
~|;t ~jfi str.
'\'\/\/\/\'\
"'\. "\/\/'\/\"\ '\'\/\/\/\’\/\/\/\
"\/'\/\/'\/'\/‘X/'\/\./\ "\'\/\/\/\/\/\/\
/\/\/'\.
é a construction which relates a non- i

3 controllable state of s.t. or s.o. to a i
gi topic
§Key Sentences
QKey
_ _ Predicate;
(sub_iect|)
Topic (subjectl) _ _
SubJ ect 2
SUl)]€ClI2 Predicate;
(1) $1. ti fit-2%

“£3? vb‘ §>a=z>/éwv
6&1) 1+.
as /mi 0 rt
Watashi wa eigo ga
g wakaru / wekerimesu
wekeru wakarimasu.
(I understand English
English. (Lit
(Lit. To me, English is understandable ))
understandable.))
m W? 5 u 5 E # énwfi/énwvio
‘5Ii’Ll/ T / =éii.v~'C'l‘
Hanako wa me
m ga kireida / kire/desu
k/re/da kireidesu..0o.0
(Hanako has pretty eyes
eyes. (Lit Speaking of Hanako, her eyes are
(Lit.
Pretty ))
pretty.))
(3)
ElE
QT. #95? ' mHm.
I7 7'7. 9-—
'7::7'Z§*-' 75 I1\\r\ / vwvt
ll\Il\/I/‘I/"C'*;"¢, O0
H
ii
~i% :M
J18/70
Jisho 51:1;
5;:5:1 Webusuré
Webusute gamusmus‘mus 1/ii / IId8$U
iidesu..‘+i
v
+1
il i-li. <05
ai--<Qa-
(Talking about dictionaries, Websters
Webster's is good)
good.)
..V. -4
m
w KWLfl?;2fii$fio
(a) T::i>=Lii—7'~=Jw!>'3_l:$f:’..
Tekeshi we
Takashi wa tenisu ge jézude.
ga jézuda.
(Takashi is good at tennis.)
M
(b) fiu£—47vvF#&Lw.
Hlztrii-—/f 7 l/V F7)'$l1 LI/‘O
Watashi we
Weteshi wa béifurendo ge
ga hoshii.
(I want a boyfriend.)
(0) %li7
(°) QM? v*7 l~ rl¥—/vb‘??? ff.
71'?-—/l/7)3!l¥%T:'°
Boku wa
we futtobéru ga ge sukida. ii
1 a
(I like football.)
(d) Qliéfiifivn,
Zilififiifil/‘O
Z6 wa
we hana
hene ga
ge negei.
nagai.
(Elephants have long trunks.)
526 we ~ga
~ wa ~ge
(e) $Lli:f<5>‘:7)~fi3';'v\7‘:.,
(6) $Li1:‘»sf.¢2b=:b'i*;-v\f;.,
Watashi we oneke ga
wa onaka ge suite.
suita.
(I am hungry.)
(f) '2i 5“
7- 3 A/l:.t’I§2b'iEv\,,
8 /t/li1§>b§§v\,,
Mire’-sen wa
Miré-san we se ga ge takai.
tekei.
(Mr. Miller is tall.)
(8) EI2l53liZ'7"-=Y'7)3Fé]\(\,,
Bllitiz-7--—fle>b§'§v\,,
we sutéki ga
Nihon wa ge takai.
iekei.
(Steak is expensive in Japan.)
ifii:.tB2lii§r)'=1%i1.v\T.£.,
(h) ifi&1H1l=i§r)§%nv~r;'.,
Umi we
wa Nihonkei
Nihonkai ge kireide.
ga kireida.
(Talking about the sea, the Japan Sea is clean.)
(i) H2I=1¢)!¥£RliEC7!>§5’§v\'C'*J'2fi=.,
H2lI0)¥¥E}ZI1<‘:'Z"..703§fi\/\‘C*"§‘7!i=.,
Nihon no yakyd
yekyd we
wa doko ge
ga tsuyoidesu ke.
ka.
(Talking about baseball in Japan, who is strong?)
we B ga
1. “A wa ge C” is one of the basic constructions in Japanese. In this
construction, C usually expresses something about B and ““B B ge
ga C”
expresses something about A, as illustrated in (1).
(ll
(1)
W8wa Q8ga
Ti;
Q;
L__. iii}
2. Sentences utilizing this construction may be categorized into three classes:

(A) A is human, and “ B ga
ge C ” expresses A’s physical and / or mental
state, for example, ability or desire, as in KS (1), Exs. (a), (b)
and (c).
(B) B is part of A, and C expresses something about B, which, in
turn, expresses something about A, as in KS (2), Exs. (d), (e), (f)
and (g).
-M
M
|i..;.-_-_
n i
(C) B is a member of A, and C expresses something about B, as in
5 M
- M
KS (3), Exs. (h) and (i).

i
3. Listed below are the verbs and adjectives which usually require the
“A we ge C” construction. (Sentences with these verbs and adjec-
wa B ga
tives belong to Class (A) in Note 2.)
~wa
~ wa ~ge
~ga 527
(2) Ability:
§}7)=25 (be understandable; understand)
§:}7)=Z>
wekeru
wakaru
Hj;IE25 (can be done; can do)
lfi5lEF5
dekiru
I5 21.25 (can)
611,25 E71
E12525 (be visible) BE] Z; :1 25 (be audible)
B5125
rereruz
rareru’ mieru kikoeru
13$ T5 (good at)
_l:.$T;' T$7‘;' (P<>°'
‘Fifi’ (poor al)
at)
/ozuda
jdzude hetede
hetada
igrfiff (pI'0UdlY
i%'=fiT;' 800d at)
(proudly good Eifi
%$7‘i (ashamedly poor at)
tokuida
tokuide nigateda
nigetede
(=:>
(=> kikoeru; mieru; rareru’)
rereruz)
(3) Desire / Need:
Ii Ll/\ (desirable; want) kl/\ (want to)
f:\/\
hoshii lei
tai
M25 (be necessary; need)
WE; 4Z.¥r;" (necessary)
ilZ~¥T:'
iru”
iru3 hitsuydda
hitsuyéda
(=:> hoshii‘; iru“; tei)
(¢ tai)
(4) Fondness:
i1¥€Tf
15% T5 (be liked; like) 3' Fp\(\T;' (be disliked; dislike)
3 Fat/\7’:'
sukida kireide
kiraida
(=:> kireide; sukida)
(=> kiraida;
(5) Emotion:
ii ';‘7b=
Ii 1‘ 7)= 1, \/\ (embarrassing)
L I/\ 7;:
>320'3 79>
70> L
L, \/\
In (nostalgic)
hezukeshii
hazukashii netsukeshii
natsukashii
ll’. < 6
ll F2 Lin
LI/\ (hateful) 3%
$5 '2' Z;
6 Lin
L In (dreadful)
nikureshii
nikurashii osoroshii
;'_ bl/\
Q: bw (fearful) '5-5 F;-‘(>1
F>'<’i [,1/\
L v\ (enviable)
(enviable)
kowei
kowai ureyemeshii
ura yamashii
ii
ZZ
‘P L I/\ (vexing)
< Q’ 2...?
kuyashii
kuyeshii
528 ikenai
~wa ikenei
~wa ikenei
ikenai ~|ztl.\l)‘I.‘;(.\
~l:t\l3‘ti':t\ phr-
Pi"-
/\./\/\
»\/\/\
\¢\¢~)
\¢-)
\/'\al\I4\r\¢r
a phrase which indicates prohibi- g
Fl" on
tion
I-no
MW? /
\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\./\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\’\/\/\/\_'\’\/\/\@/‘K
cannot do s.t.; must not do s.t.;
Don’t do s.t.; should not do s.t.
[REL. ~wa naranai]
¢Key Sentence
QKCY
—_
Vte
:10
1:0 ‘H55 I:
$3 E tr. )\0'C
A -.>‘C Ii v\h‘>’.¢v\/v\n‘i11“/V.
li I/\l 1 f.i:v~ / Wtii -it A.
Kono heya ni heitte
haitte we
wa ikenei
ikenai / ikemesen.
ikemasen.
(You must not enter this room.)
Vte ti
ii v\n‘=*.rv\
v\h‘tcv~
we ikenei
wa ikenai
ifil/C
§SL'C ii
Ii wt)‘ iii/\
l/\l‘)‘>’.;I\/\ (must not talk)
we ikenei
hanashite wa ikenai
fi1\*'C
fi*\“'C ti I/\l7‘?’..¢l/\
\/\l7‘7£\(\ (must not eat)
tabete we ikenei
wa ikenai
@ fiiesoeasruwnsen.
(1%) $(§'C"I>V)Efi'<'Cl;t\/\l7‘i~t!'AJa
Kyéshitsu
Kyoshitsu de mono 0o tabete wa
we ikemasen.
ikemesen.
(You must not eat (food) in the classroom.)
w
M %¥m§fi@&&nvuww@w,
%¥u2fifi2&mcmwn&w,
Heneko wa
Hanako we mada
mede sake
seke o0 nonde wa
we ikenai.
ikenei.
(Hanako must / can not drink alcohol yet.)
we ikenai,
1. In Vte wa ikenei, the second person subject is usually omitted, as in
KS and Ex. (a).
we ikenai
2. Vte wa ikenei is often used as a negative answer to “Vte mo iidesu
ke. (May I ~?).”
ka. (=> ~te mo ii)
(=9
Vte wawe naranai also expresses prohibition. we naranai, however, sounds

Vte wa
we ikenai.
a little stronger than Vte wa ikenei.
wakaru 529
wekeru
wakaru §}7f)\5
§}f)\5 v.
iv. (Gr. 1)
can figure out (spontaneously) vari- be comprehensible; understand;

ous facts~——such
factsisuch as content, nature, /‘\/\./\'/\/.\-
can tell; figure out
value, meaning, cause, reason, result [REL. shiru]
\/.-\,/\/1x/\.~-'\/ \,
—about
-——about s.t. whose existence is pre-
supposed
¢\\
"\"\/\.//'\\//'\“/“
A/\
'\/\ vv:
J\/I
Q Key Sentence
-
- (experiencer)
Topic O ' f
Comgl-lfifiggion
#1.
H (Ir-) ea
§wfl§i1 :_a> 5%
:® "éfi §»=:aweew/Amazes.
1): §>>a=a>*.¢t~/§)>>=va-a/...
Watashi (ni) we
wa kono kotobe
kotoba ge
ga wekerenei
wakaranai / wekerimesen.
wakarimasen.
'- __ '.
(Lit. To me this word is not comprehensible. (=I don’t understand

this word.))
fluu:®%@@fi%#Q#6&w,
@ flnu;om@@§%#9memw,
Weteshi
Watashi ni we
wa kono eiga no imi ge
ga wekerenei.
wakaranai.
(I don’t understand the meaning of this movie.)
M
(bl :®%%u%L<rfiweew.
31 ®F=ElElifi L < T6??? F; 1‘: I/‘a
mondei wa
Kono mondai we muzukashikute
muzukashikure wakaranai.
wekerenei.
(This problem is too difiicult to understand.)
eLnxvm:o&$#m%emE5wfim9sen.
M hLki?t:®&$fim%6mE5#fi#Ditbo
Ashite made
Ashita mede ni kono shigoto ga
ge dekiru ka
ke dd ke wakarimasen.
do ka wekerimesen.
(I can’t tell if I can finish this work by tomorrow.)
w
(d) A=H$éw&%¢Twi+m.
A153‘-P3/v2931o'Clr\i"i‘7b>.,
Teneke-sen o0 shitte imasu ke.
Tanaka-san ka.
(Do you know Mr. Tanaka?)
B:2z.%¢rwi+#.&oAm25t;<%m9ian.
B: 2.2., %i1o'CI/\i'i'7)§, Zbwlkli E '5 ‘is J: < 5}?!» D i-1:1:/no
F, shitte imasu ga,
F. ge. ano hito we
wa domo
ddmo yoku wekerimesen.
wakarimasen.
(Yes, I know him, but he is somehow incomprehensible to me.)
1. The basic pattern for this verb is the ~ we

wa ~ ga pattern. (=>
(Q ~ we
wa
~ ga)
ge) The experiencer of wakaru takes ni optionally, as in KS.
530 wakaru
wekeru
2. Because wekeru
wakaru is already a potential verb, it cannot take the potential
*wekereru ‘ can understand ’.
form *wakareru
3. Wekaru
Wakaru normally takes ga to indicate the object of comprehension, but
must take o0 when ‘ non-spontaneous comprehension
comprehension’’ is involved, as in
causative sentences ((1a)) or sentences in which the experiencer makes a
conscious effort
efiort to understand something ((1b)).
(1) a. fimfii.£- /*n</ha
%$_e>§E=' 1»-T—{;tl:.6)>v~ ette
/*2‘J</be v\¥{;ti:'.'.§}2b= rs-ea, 0
o iamt LI/)0
:.t;-.;’iE Lin,
Oya no shi 0 / *ge
*ga chisai kodomo ni wekereseru
wakaraseru no we
wa
muzukeshii.
muzukashii.
(It is hard to make a small child comprehend the death of a
parent.)
b.
b- :7"? '2
~‘/“-\' '7 9&1 I/§"0)€(¥é"rB='& / */2<6)~n=Z> 5 <‘k: l,::¢v\,,
7&1 U ‘/§"¢J§"i(1’:*r1l5E/*iJ<§}7J>Z> L>fi¢b\,,
Jekku
Jakku we
wa Rinde
Rinda no kimochi 0o I/ *ge
*ga wekero
wakaré to shinei.
shinai.
(Jack does not try to understand Linda's
Linda’s feeling.)
Wekaru indicates ‘the process of figuring something out’ and is different

Wakaru
from shiru which basically means ‘to
‘ to get some raw information from some
outside source ’. The primary difference between the two verbs is illustrated
in the following sentences:
ll] Z<ti£i.:a.a»~-c2kei=a>,~;<=.:i§a>:.
[1] 7,ii£l:F§1v\'c7<¥?v>;-I,-51:5:/J: .<1:1; E3510 -cur; I/ *n<&):b~-.>
Efll-J 'CL\f: *iJ<$5~ia\-J 'CL\T:.
'Ct.\f:.,
Tomodachi ni kiite Gno no kekkon no koto 0
o shitte itel *ge
ita/*ga
wakatte
wekette ita.
(I knew about Ono’s marriage by hearing it from a friend.)
[21 .1.1: < %2.ne£&>1J~~)

%2_i~i.i.rs>a~'-J sir
it / *si1'
*9EI1U-J 5E'§'.t.
$11.
Yoku kengeerebe wekerimesu I/ *shirimesu
kangaereba wakarimasu *shirimasu yo.
(If you think hard, you'll understand / *know it.)
[3] A: v\< F>zi=§):b=
Ar \/\< F>r)=§}>b=DD E-rib».
aw».
lkure ke
/kura wekerimesu ke.
ka wakarimasu ka.
(Can you tell how much it is?)
B :1 lilo.
iii». %*<tLlf65*1J\")§'4'
%’<1ILlf$§7'J\")$T I/*iI1‘J§'§'s
*£1lJ§‘4'.
Hei, shireberebe
Hai, shirabereba wekerimesu
wakarimasu / *shirimesu.
*shirimasu.
(Yes, I can tell / *know it, if I check into it.)
H1A=emm2+eosvv+m.
I4] A1’-‘—’fB5l1fFI’¢~':*i'Z>’>‘l> 9 T"3‘?§‘s
Konban nani o suru tsumori desu ke. ka.
(What do you intend to do tonight?)
wakaru I/ wake de
wekeru da 531
B :1 iT:'$}7'J\") i’¢A, I/ *iIJ‘)
if:‘$&ia\'») it/v *9i1°J i’d'/vs
ita‘/o.
Made wakarimasen
Mada wekerimesen /I *shirimesen.
*shirimasen.
(I don’t know yet.)
wake da iolifi
blifi Phr-
\/\Z /'\/\_I‘\/\./\./\/‘\./'\/\./\/'\/\/'\./’
I\/\/\/\/‘ /./\/\~
/~./'\./\ I
/\_
/
\- the speaker’s conclusion obtained no wonder; so it means that ~ ;
r
\/\
through deductive, logical judgment that’s why; should ~; I take it
or calculation on the basis of what *\/‘./\ ‘_/\ /~
that ~; naturally
l\/'\
"\/'\./'\._’\/\""/'‘
he has heard or read (REL.
[REL. hazu da]
»~
\.\-
Q/\/\./\
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Sentence;
EB EH#Ft-'1 1. H2i=§§
Es??? tzzzéfiur we
El1F=§ 2 fiafiaixc ws /V
/uT"'i'
11- /1/»..
Meinichi sanjikan
Mainichi sen/iken mo nihongo o benkyoshite I!'U
iru n desu ke
ka.
I
Sentence; -
Vinf
J:
9-‘,
\_/ A-$t
< iTlZ'i5lE35 bl?‘ T3‘ is
IiJo \
Y0/<0
Y0/(U dekiru wake desu ne
ne.
studying Japanese (as long as) three hours every day? N

(Are you studyi_ng Noo wonder
your Japanese ISis good )
good.)
(B)
»-\/-\ 5’
3’
Sentence;
Sentence, | Sentence; Adj (,) inf ii
MM
MM
ii
MM
M
M
M M
M
M M
M —
M
M M
M
M M
aw;rt'm iaitfi
are '01-
1+ 7:». l:=<=a>
use arr: 11:1,!» bl)‘ ''c~r 1;.
M M
out 11> '-Qrflfia 'l'CLL\ c=—r is

Mi
M M
M
M M
. . m. M
M M
M
MM
M
Ash/ta sh/ken
Ashita ke
shiken desu ka. 'O
0 Je'
Jé konban isogeshii
isogashii wake desu ne
ne.
(Do you have an exam tomorrow? 0 O
. Then
Then, you must be busy tonight)
tonight.)
.
S32
532 wake da
1%
W
(i) WJA®}®iM
(H {V/Adj} (i)inf no
bfi rs
fi
wake da
4351-
I331" /-331,73}
/Efibfcl my 75
mi 7;’ (I take it that s.o. talks /talked)
-[hanasu
{hanasu /hanashita}
/hanashite} wake da
[gag /gait}
(gag, /fiat} bi)‘
bu 7;‘
7,5 (I take it that s.o. eats / ate)
{taberu / tabeta} wake da
{El/\
{gt/\ /E79»/;7‘;}
/Eipqfg} bi) 7;’ 7;‘ (I take it that s.t. is / was expensive)
-[takai/
{takail takakatta} wake da
W)A&vmswnla/nan}bw n
(ii) Adi (na) stem {tr /T;"JTC.'.I bl)‘ if
{na / datta} wake da
{fi2b>f_g
{|§7)~f; /|%7b>f;f»;7‘;}
/|$7j>f;'=;7‘;} bi)
bi") T;-f
7;’ (I take it that s.t. is / was quiet)
[shizukana / shizukadatta} wake da
{shizukana
Gmlqltwfi/fioklbfi
(iii) N {at/~5 /1:91;} no n
rs
{to iu /datta} wake da
l%i
{figi ag v5/%$ fioklbfi
\,\ 5 /95$ ff/,f;} E
bl) ff (Imwhdmsoiwww
(I take it that s.o. is/was
{sensei to iu /sensei datta} wake da a teacher)
@ Xi2éhfi+$%$?:2&Lk®fi#6i$&bUfia
(a) xiXébfi+$%h¥=Z2Lk@fi#Bi$fibUfia
Sumisu-san wa jdnenkan mo tenisu o0 shita
sh/‘ta no da kara jozuna
jézuna wake da.
(Mr. Smith has played tennis for ten years, so he should be good at it.)
A: §lEH
(b) AI aléfil 2b>E»lE>b=E
a=¢>a=-fivat ‘/2lCfi%i'§'..
7 7 ‘/xlcfiéifs
Raigetsu kara yonkagetsu Furansu ni ikimasu.
(I’ll go to France next month and stay there for four months.)
B +5&.fifim%¢r<5bHv+h.
B:: ‘T5 Z» 7'§}3I lC.9l%')'C < 5bU'C"*i"i3a
Suru to,
to. rokugatsu ni kaette kuru wake desu ne.
(Then, I take it that you’re returning here in June.)
@ E El 7'-11/-c=i*i1'<v~-t= v\z> /.,-e1~a=-. 3t§€1’£bU'£"§"i11o

(0) fiH7—»ffiwvw5bvT#.iktbfiffno
Mainichi pdru de oyoide iru n desu ka. Jobuna wake desu ne.
(Are you swimming in the pool everyday? No wonder you’re healthy.)
W
(d) %®5HE%%L#ET“@W°fiETEWbUfia
%®5mE%%L#fiTW&w.EfieEwbufi.
Kino wa sanjikan shika nete inai. Dori de nemui wake da.
(Yesterday I slept only three hours. No wonder I am sleepy.)
wake da 533
(e)
(B) 5%./.>?
iv? E1'zé</v:b§)\|F3"'aLf:./v'c'§‘r)>.
/‘i1'ZléAnb§)\l3;"EL7:A¢I"i‘7)*a »<’--5'4
/4'-"74 --l:§lEf.c2b=~o7‘.:bUf;f.
~—lC§lEf.c7b~o7‘cbD‘7‘;’,
E? Adachi-san ga nydinshita n desu ka. Péti
Pari ni konakarta
konakatta wake da.
(What? Was Mr. Adachi hospitalized? No wonder he didn’t come to
the party.)
m A=mméwm¥%w:ammc$wo1wa+.
M Armwéwmfifiwcemfivtflorwifa
Yamada-san wa eigo no koto wa nan demo shitte imasu.
(Mr. Yamada knows everything about English.)
B:$€$@Hw\5bUT?W5
B11-|5%$'3|&v\ -5 bl)“ 'G'§'f».,
/ki jibiki to iu wake desu ka.
(You mean he is a living dictionary?)
380)?‘ 5 J:
(8) 6667?") C .1;.1;r>¥§}n~F>f.cv\2>n‘ft1>’.¢v\ifi,
>b‘i5}>'1~6f.cv\bn‘ 'C*lif.:v\n‘i, E ''33 LT ‘bl£%l:fa:
‘l>l.%l%t~1f.i‘ D') T:
7‘; < f.;:v\,,
fJ:l/‘O
Chichi no iu koto ga wakaranai wake de wa nai ga, doshitemo ddshitemo isha
ni naritakunai.
(It is not that I don’t understand what my father is saying; I simply
don’t want to become a medical doctor.)
1. Wake can be used as a full noun, meaning ‘reason’ as in (1) and (2)
below:
m %&&%wk%5fi+fl,%@bH&%meT<fiéw.
(1) 4:<“"ii:2‘(°¥>T;% 5 ??ni, %0)bl'f&Ffi>fi>-ti-‘C < T58 I/)0
Keisha
Kaisha 0 yameta sodesu ga, sono wake 0 kikasete
kikaseze kudasai.
(I heard that you quit the company. Let me hear the reason for
that)
m
(2) ccuxkbwméiifiwo
1';C.l:;lU:.bl'fli§ii-I21:/vs
Koko ni kita wake wa iemasen.
(I can’t tell you the reason why I came here.)
2. Wake de is the re-form
te-form of wake da.
m
(3) n&éna:Afiuv+m.%5w5bwr%%w%&wnv+#.
$553 /v <EI.J\T.;’U'C"i'fi*a % 5 v\ 5 1'>l'l"E‘¥§ll§H:l§lEY‘£\/‘/v'C"'§'i5=.,
O-ké-san to futari dake desu ka. S6
so iu wake de kekkon deki-
nai n desu ka.
(It’s only you and your mother? For that reason you can’t get
married, eh?)
Hazu da ‘ expect ’ is similar but not identical to wake da. Hazu da can ex-
press a speaker’s expectation when there is no preceding context; wake
da cannot. In other words, wake da is highly dependent on verbal context.
(Q hazu da)
(=>
534 wake da
[1] a. 3?: Lf:l1i§¥n3f.cv\ld:‘4’/*1'>l1'G'§'J:°

3) Lf.:lii%¥h'31‘.,cv\l1T/*19l'f'G'§'JI.>
jugyo ga nai hazu / *wake desu yo
Ashita wa jugyd
(I expect that there is no class tomorrow.)
b. E§)®Ali%v\l1'§’/*19l'f'C"i'JZa
8M)Ati%v\li'4‘ / *bl1'C"§‘J:..
Ano hito wa wakai hazu / *wake desu yo.
(I expect him to be young.)
ii-ii
—
_
‘i- 11
-iii
ii
-ya 535
-ya E
..ya suf.
(~/\/~../\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\./\./'\r\»\/'\/\./\/\/\/\/'\. 4"-/\/'\/'\
Z a suffix
suflix attached to names of stores, store
SIIOTC
E inns and Japanese-style restaurants
or to persons engaged in certain oc-
% cupations
\/\./\/ .\/ \/ \, \/4 \./ \ /~'\"a/\ '
W
i
W
(a) E5
TEE (florist)
hana-ya
hana -ya
$5
$5 (bookstore)
hon- ya
£5
%§ (drug store)
kusuri- ya
WE
W5 (butcher)
niku
niku-- ya
9“ ‘/ =1
/4’ 7- :1 5
E (pinball parlor)
pachinko-ya
pachinko- ya
/4’
1*’ ‘/5 (bakery)
pan- ya
£35
$5 (fish monger)
sakana-ya
E5 (liquor store)
saka-ya
M
(b) fi§émc%%LrE—»&:¥—zfi¢r%r$eat,
i/E53 A/lcfiéfi I/C 1:’-—-zl/%;_"—1-‘.§1'— ;<fio'C§lE'C 1, F; 07;,
Saka-ya-san ni denwashite biru 0 sandésu motte kite moratta.
(I called the man at the liquor store and had him bring me three dozen
beers.)
@ aoAu&%%vum<r&%§fi.
M aoAufl%%cmm<rfl%§fi.
Ano hito wa sei/'ika de wa nakute seiji-ya da.
(He is not a statesman but a mere politician.)
ii
—_ i-
i‘
Z Z
__-
sulfix -ya is sometimes used to downgrade a person.

The suflix This use, how-
? i-
i E
i
q i-
g
—
i- i.
__-
i __._
ever, is very restricted. Examples follow:

536 -ya / ya
(1) &:H’2b=L2b‘=1
ii-;‘2b> L7)§ DDE
5 (a shy person)
hazukashigari-
hazukashigar/l ya
W1’
mi’ D E (a haughty person)
ibari-ya
ibari- ya
9%!
’?\H3'l 9 5
E (an affected
afiected person)
kidori-ya
Note that these examples are all derived from Vmasu+ ya, as in hazukashigari
hazukashigarl
+ ya, ibar/'+ ya and kidori+
kidor/'+ ya.
ya -‘p
-‘D conj.
a coordinate conjunction that is used 3 and

to list two or more items (nouns or [REL. to‘; toka]
noun phrases) in an inexhaustive Qg
fashion <<
\/\/V./\W' ./\ /\ /\ ./\ /\
\ r’
Q Key Sentence
Subject
Noun
-
Noun
mean
I-I-I535 e
Q’ /\1|
I I3 A,
dmmn ,§ ax
m kl 5lE aw; O
fit/%iLks
§l€
Yamada-san ya Ogawa-san ga kita / kimashita.
(Mr. Yamada and Mr. Ogawa (and others) came.)
(11)
@ lllilié A/ex i z 3/mi-7:2 2 L'cv\%>..
wiéhyzizéhfiizzébrwéa
Yamamoto-san ya Sumisu-san ga tenisu 0o shite iru.
(Mr. Yamamoto, Mr. Smith and others are playing tennis.)
(b) &l11:'-11/*<=v»r
(b) ~/Mk/ers.
fililf-/I/"(°‘7»f‘/Efili/v7‘:'°
Boku wa biru ya wain 0o nonda.
(I drank beer, wine and things like that.)
©
@ imaumkman¢%*s@e$fl2%wk.
ims»mkméA¢%*é»m%fl&%wk.
Tsuchida-san wa Gkawa-san
Oikawa-san ya Suzuki-san ni tegami 0 kaita.
ya 537
(Mr. Tsuchida wrote a letter to Mr. Okawa and Mr. Suzuki (and
others).)
l. Ya is used to combine two or more nouns or noun phrases.

1. It cannot
be used to combine predicates. Thus, (1) is unacceptable.
u)*ao5m¥fl—twfieaLk¢%@eRacn.
u)*%o5m¥fl—tmfi%aLnemE2EaLn.
*Kinc5 wa depéto ni ikimashita ya eiga 0 mimashita.
*Kin6
(Yesterday I did things like going to a department store and
seeing a movie.)
Instead of (1) we have to use ~ tari ~ tari suru to express an inex-
haustive listing of predicates, as in (2). (Q ~ tari
tan’ ~ tari
tan’ suru)
(2)
(2) 30> 55&1-"i-‘Vi’-—
=34) I17’/*’— l~l~ lC?T'>1’:
llfiofz 'U-J BREERT:
BREERT: U Li LT:.-.
l..T.-:0
Kino wa depéto ni ittari eiga 0 mitari shimashita.
2. N ya N can be used as a noun phrase in any position where a single
noun can be used. It can be used as the subject, as in KS and Ex. (a),
or as the direct object as in Ex. (b), or as the indirect object as in Ex. (c).
3. N ya N cannot appear in the position of X in the X ga Y da construc-
tion, because ga in X ga Y da is a highly exhaustive listing marker.
(=>
(Q ya‘)
(3)
(3) *~‘/'==-*/pi
*2‘/i :1: '- 3/‘I5 3 -7 ~'/=11/ia<'¥$'c~'r.
‘7 “/ :1: /l/f)i'iE'C"§'o
*Jén ya Missheru ga gakusei desu.
(*Jane and Michelle and only they (and others) are students.)
This idea can be conveyed using the construction in (4):
(4)
(4l géiilllif/‘:1: '—
fiélilif/'1 '-' Vlbi
V‘\5"3 ‘7 2‘/:1".
i'/ :1: ll/'C:"§'°
ll/("To
Gakusei wa Jén ya Missheru desu.
(The students are Jane or Michelle (and others).)
Toka is used to make a rather general, inexhaustive listing of items as ex-

amples, whereas ya is used to make an inexhaustive listing of items related
to a specific time and place. Consider the following examples:
m m A:zi2émuWidEm&B$fififi%?T#.
[1] a. A: 2 ‘ii 2 é/vli{&1]i'.l:.fEAJ.¢ El2l§fi7bi5'5"é'l"§'7b>.,
Sumisu-san wa tatoeba donna nihonshoku ga sukidesu ka. ¢i--111i
--nai-1-|i-|
ii
i
i i-
__.-
§Y§
i
i N
-i
(Mr. Smith, what kind of Japanese cuisine do you like? i

i
_
i
11
_
i
i
-i
lit
-i
-i
1
__-
__-
—
Give me some examples.)

538 ya / yahari
B=eav+n.raeaaawveraeaaawtvaavan.
31% 5‘E"l‘hs TiwS1l’o<':7'J‘/ ?‘\5'i"é"?°’é'£:fJ\/ ?'\5il5ll5'T’*l'i€»\o
$6 desu ne. Tenpura toka / ?ya sukiyaki toka I/ ?ya sashimi sashiml
desu ne.
(Well, I’d say tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).)
h
b. A=a@5fl&§vmea~acna.
A: $0) 5 il‘5lE§'C'(FI&fi’'\5/ ???t1J\'3‘"é'~‘<°’é"\5/
'C/b,SiF;'\5/ ???l:fJ\'i'€"‘§°€'*\5/ ???<‘:75‘$'l§"i’fi*<i
???<‘:1J\iii'l§'5:fi'<i Lfca
I/7:0
Tenpura ya / ???toka sukiyaki ya / ???toka sashimi 0o tabe-
mashita.
(I ate tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).)
(bl: D
yahari tbli adv.
f\/\
an adverb indicating that an actual still; also; after all; as expected;

CD ituation expectedly / anticipatively
situation you know
conforms to a standard based on past [REL. kekkyoku; sasuga (ni))
experience, comparison with other (ANT. masaka)
\-/
'\/\z\/\P./\‘I~\!\./‘.v
./\
people,
P eople, or common sense
\/v-x\"'/ \'/.\“n/\' ./\_/\. \.//
\.,-’\\/_/'\, \/\,*/\¢,'~/\
QKey
§Key Sentence
Topic (subject)
~4u—a»§
/\*4 ‘J -- av;
/ u
a emu‘J
"W1 xaaan/maapvtn
X: n.
f 20>-o r/%aeuvtn2%
._
Beiri-san wa Y3/78"’
Y8/78"’ konakatta /kimasendeshita ne.
(As expected, Mr. Bailey hasn’t come, has he?)
@ %¥auuevt¢uuanwv+.
$¥éua%vteavenwv+.
Yukiko-san wa ima demo yahari kireidesu.
(Yukiko is still pretty.)
M nRamma=x#L$v+#.%enteowvL$c+:.
sRéwaa=z#L$v+#.%awse@w0i$c+:.
O-ni-san wa tenisu ga jdzudesu
jozudesu ga. ototo-san mo yapparijdzudesu
yapparijozudesu yo.
yahari 539
(The older brother is good at tennis, and the younger brother is also
good at it.)
M $flDB$@E-WHBWLWTTMO
@m0H¢@H—»uswLwc+n.
Yahari Nihon no biru wa oishiidesu ne.
(As expected, Japanese beer is good.)
w %fl$fiD%%T6:&KLiLta
m %meav%%Te:amLaLn.
Boku wa yahari kekkonsuru koto ni shimashita.
(I’ve decided to get married, after all.)
l. Yahari is a speaker-oriented adverb because its use is based on the

speaker’s subjective and presuppositional standards. Its overuse in con-
versation makes a discourse overly subjective, but its proper use in
conversation makes a discourse sound like real Japanese.
2. Yahari can be positioned sentence-initially or sentence-medially, just
like other adverbs. Thus, in KS yahari can be positioned in two ways.
ll)
(ll 8-
11- '\5li"J'</f ‘)"-3/oli§iE?‘£7)>o7‘:ha
‘\5l1‘)'</f ')—éA/ti§lE7‘£Z>>o7:.t:1s
Yahari Beiri-san wa konakatta ne.
b.
b- /<4
’‘.£7)>o7‘;t:.1.,
I’) §iE7<C 75> 0 7:120
Beiri-san wa yahari konakatta ne.
¢.?&4U—é&m%mm0kn.¢HUa
C. ?/<4 ‘) -é/oli§l€>‘.:7)~»)f.:i2, bit‘),
?Beiri-san wa konakatta ne.
ne, yahari.
The sentence-initial yahari is more emphatic than the sentence-medial
yahari. The sentence-final yahari as in (lc) sounds like an after-thought,
and its usage is slightly marginal.
3. Yappari is a more emphatic and emotive version of yahari, owing to its
-pp-.
glottal stop —pp-.
I. Sasuga is an adverb / adj (na) whose meaning is similar to yahari. Sa-

suga, however, has only one meaning ‘ as expected ’ and indicates that
the speaker is very much impressed or surprised by the given situation.
film
M eT#uUB$Aa;<m<.
m $T#unB$Am;<@<.
Sasuga(m') nihonjin wa yoku hataraku.
Sasuga(ni)
(Truly Japanese people work hard!)
540
S40 yahari
b. a='4"1»<(|:)'rx 9u 11tiJf.\r‘s
3'§'1J<(|:)"r>¢ iatiifin/\,,
Sasuga(ni) Amerika wa hiroi.
(Exactly as I expected, America is huge.)
.S‘asuga(ni)
Sasuga(ni) can replace yahari only when yahari means ‘ as expected ’, as
in KS and Ex. (c).
II. The adverb kekkyoku ‘ after all, in short’ can replace yahari only when
the latter means ‘after all’, as in Ex. (d). More examples follow:
filmm @k¥2&wfifi¢mU/fifikpmwaks
W @e%e&nfi#¢au/fifimeamon.
/roiro kusuri o nonda ga yaharil
yahari / kekkyoku naoranakatta.
(I took all kinds of medicine, but I wasn’t cured.)
b. -t>t1'-J
‘Will /$§Efi:b>f.cv\;:
/t§)5fir)>>t:v\: kE ts;
I; Lt.
Lt,
Yahari / Kekkyoku ikanai koto ni shita.
(After all, I decided not to go there.)
In [2] kekkyoku sounds more formal than yahari, because the former is
a Sino-Japanese word, while the latter is a Japanese word. Yet both
can be used in conversational Japanese.
III. The adverb masaka ‘by ‘b Y no means
means,,_ on no account,
account > surely
surel Y not’ is used
when a given situation is far from the speaker’s expectation. In that
sense, it is an antonym of yahari. Masaka is used with a negative pred-
icate or is used all by itself, meaning ‘ Unbelievablel,
Unbelievable !, You don’t say! ’.
W a i
[3] 11- i$m¢ménm%§mas&u@bam@n.
'5 1J\/]~)Il é /o75§5E£l_=_l: 22%: 2: li.%1bf.¢7)>o 7:,
Masaka Ogawa-san ga sensei ni naru to wa omowanakatta.
(I never expected Mr. Ogawa to become a teacher.)
h
b- AIbAfiA%Lk%5fi°
AI l~A7)§7\l33"ELf.:% 5 Tia
Tomu ga nyfiinshita
nydinshita soda.
(I heard that Tom was hospitalized.)
13135313‘!
Bliétpl ita)-5—7=:2>Z:L'tv\2‘:.l:.
8057-=z>5:L'Cv\T;J:°
Masakal Kind
Masaka! Kino tenisu 0 shite ita yo.
(You don’t say! He was playing tennis yesterday.)
--yasui
yasui 541
.ya$ui \'!>'§‘(,\
.yagui ¢\':>'§‘(,\ aux. adj. (i)
'\'\'\"\/\r\_/\ '\/\/3
j S.t. or s.o. is easy to ~. easy to; ready to; be apt to;

./\/\./‘./\/\/\/\/\/\/\./“-/‘
M”
‘MN prone to; do s.t. easily
(ANT. -nikul)
-niku/)
O Key Sentence
QKey
'1‘op' c (subject)
Topic (subject) Vmas
Vmasl
—
:@
<0 E?
(1 1%? 5m
,} Eietw/erupt.
ii ~?°'§‘v\/ K°'t'v\'c't'.-.
Kono ken]:
kanji gt:
wa obo yasui / yasuidesu.
(This kanji is easy to memorize.)
Vmasu Q»
~‘{= -§—
1‘ v \
yasui
5%
E5 L -‘(=1
at»-;-v\
In (easy to speak)
hanashi yasui
Q/<-?>'§"v\
fi¢<»(=-it/\ (easy to eat)
tabe yasui
tabeyasui
w noAo5aufioue+w.
aoAo52uEouerw.
Ano hito no uchi wa mitsukeyasui.
(His house is easy to find.)
M Efi%im%c@+wv1.
&$%$m%Le+wc+.
Sato-sensei wa hanashiyasuidesu.
(Prof. Sato is easy to talk to.)
M :®&vd%%$+w,
C®*vfl%%%TWa
Kono pen wa kakiyasui.
(This pen is easy to write with.)
(d) J:¥?é~'ioli—-i=§l:{j;$7)3LJ<='l'7b>of.:.,
J:¥¥é‘A/li-%Elc:(;|;$n3L~‘{°'§‘2b>oT:.,
Ueno-san wa isshoni shigoto ga shiyasukatta.
(Mr. Ueno was easy to work with.)
fiaaaveaw.
@ fifiufiD$Two
Tofu wa kusariyasui.
To/u
(Tofu rots easily.)
542 -yasui
1. Vmasu yasui is an i-type compound adjective and conjugates as an Adj (i),

(1),
as seen in the following:
1- Informal Formal
Nonpast 331,-‘(>'§'l/\
3% L ~<° '3‘ V ‘ §';§1,-Q>'§'l/\'G"§‘
3% L -<°'§‘ V ‘ T‘ 1‘
AH hanash/'V<9$”"
hanashiyasui hanashiyasuidesu
Aff.
' Past g3t,»<=~;~>o»/art.
3% L ‘Q’ ‘T 75> 0 TC aat»=:=~r1>»/st;-<=~r
3% L ‘Y’ ‘T 75* 0 TC T’ ‘T
hanashl' Vasukatta
hanashiyasukatta hanashl' yasukattadesu
hanashiyasukattadesu
Nonpast §'fiL'§°'§'<
Efi laflr‘
L "PT < it \/\ E3!/“\‘°'i'< >’£v\'U"i’
%L%T<&wTT
hanashiyasukunai hanashiyasukunaidesu
33 L -$1” < 3?:
ESL-(°'§‘ $9 D9 31-E."/V
i -B: /V
Neg J
Neg. hanashiyasukuarimasen
Past '§i§L~‘i°'i'<
5‘-£3 L -Q’ 1' < tr vb» O 7;
1‘.cr)>-of: §°,!';l,*<>'t'<?.cn~oT:'G'§'
EEL-(“T < 74? 7§*')TC'C"i‘
hanashiyasukunakatta hanashiyasukunakattadesu
%Le+<bvaenvcn
ESL-(“T < Z9 D iii"/1/C L7‘. 9 0
hanashiyasukuarimasendeshita
2. The following sentences (1) - (4) are closely related to Exs. (a) - (d).
(d)
z>o)\o5 raefiouzs.
(1) a>oAo5 “ea-fi.<>nz>. (Cp- Em
EX- (a))
Ano hito no uchi o
0 mitsukeru.
(One locates his house.)
(2) EEEEIZEETO
l%'F:E¥=%ilZ.§€'l'a EX- (b))
(CP- Ex.
Sato-sensei ni hanasu.
(One talks to Prof. Sato.)
(8)
(3) :@<vc%<.
;:a>»<~/c%<.. (QmEm@»
(CP- Em (c))
do kaku.
Kono pen de
(One writes with this pen.)
112:: /v<*:—'i?§l~’llil3$$_'
(4) 1:53 /.,&—t=%a.:l:|:$& Lfca L7‘:.., (Cp. Ex. (d))
(CP.
Ueno-san to isshoni shigoto o shita.
(One worked together with Mr. Ueno.)
—€: The noun phrases in (1) through (4) above, such as the direct object
Y2E o, the indirect object ~ ni, the instrumental phrase ~ de, and the com-
~ 0, com
=='
=‘=‘ itative phrase ~ to are the sources for the topic (subject) of Exs.
Exs (a),
(a)
- yasui / yo 543
-yasui S43
(b), (c) and (d), respectively. It is important to note that all these
particles drop in the yasui-construction, and that the topic is the new
subject of the yasui-construction.
3. If the subject of the yasui-construction is under focus, it is marked by
ga.
ga, as in (5)-
(S). (=> gal)
(=:> 98‘)
W
(5) A=Eo%i#%be+wr+#.
AI <‘:'V>5lT1fi-lE75i3€L-?°'l‘l/"C"l‘i.l*°
Dono sensei ga hanashiyasuidesu ka.
(Which professor is easy to talk to?)
B 1I l£§5'E:ii:<3%L%*l"v\'c'i'..
l3'"|:fi%EfJi3§LK°'§”l/\'G"i”a
Sato-sensei ga hanashiyasuidesu.
(Prof. Sato is easy to talk to.)
4. The antonym of -yasui is -nikui ‘hard to ~ ’, and is used in exactly
the same way as -yasui. (|$ nikui)
(=> nikuf)
yo
Y0 J: prt.
~/\./\/‘./\./\./\-/"./\/“ /\/‘./'-./"./"/"
a sentence-final particle that indi- I’m telling you; you

I tell you; I'm
cates the speaker’s (fairly) strong con- know; contrary to what you
viction or assertion about s.t. that is think
assumed to be known only to him
'\."/v\.// \\.z4\/\ /\/\'/"‘
/\/‘
A/
Q Key Sentence
Sentence
fiién
aiira/U a mt:
ta rm ft arwbaw/avian
2 %tb>*.cv\/%tv\a1=r/c 1I.
Sakamoto-san wa tabako o0 suwanar
suwanai //suimasen
sulmasen Y0.
"< 0-
(Mr Sakamoto doesn’t

(Mr. doesnt smoke, you know)
know.)
W
@
(a) A:B$%mBhL6w?Tm,
A: E12I:i%t1ts'ts L6v~'e<r:b>.,
Nihongo wa omoshiroidesu ka.
S44 yo
BIii.tTbBbL6WTTIa
B I ii. t'C‘lsIl<3‘l> L6!/\T"l‘JI°
E, totemo omoshiroidesu yo.
(Yes, it’s very interesting, I tell you.)
A=%®Au%hk$&Eb&wvLr5a
M A &@Au%mk$2EbmwcLr5.
Ano hito wa sonna hon o kawanai desho.
(He probably won’t buy that sort of book.)
B: I/‘l/‘kn
B: I/\l/‘Z. El/‘Iii.-to
El/‘i'§’JIo
/'e,
ie. kaimasu yo.
(Yes, he’ll buy it (contrary to what you think).)
1. In this construction, the sentence preceding yo can be any informal or

formal sentence except a question.
*§§i:tr1b\J:.
(1) a- *§fimb\..t..
*Yomu ka yo.
b.
b- *ifiJ>-i*J‘r5\.l:.,
*Ii'i"c¥+i'§'7§\JIa
*Yomimasu ka yo.
*Yom/‘masu
The sentences in (1) are unacceptable because the speaker’s strong con-
viction and his act of questioning contradict each other. If (la) is in-
terpreted as a rhetorical question meaning ‘I bet he isn’t going to read
it ’, however, the sentence becomes acceptable. But (lb), the formal
version of (la), cannot be a rhetorical question.
2. A sentence preceding yo can be an informal or a formal request. Ex-

amples:
M a-
(2) w §~7’i:¥><k.
%w&.
Yome yo.
(Read it.)
'1’;-657+ far.c :5 v\J:..
b- %1%J+>‘ wata
Yominasai yo.
((From a superior to his inferior) Read it.)
m
6- %h?<fiéw$.
35%/v’? < Tcfé Walla
i
Yonde kudasai yo.
i
i
(Please read it.)
When yo is used in this way, the sentence becomes more forceful.

yo S45
3. Another sentence-final particle ne may be attached to S yo, yielding the
meaning ‘I assert S and don’t you agree? ’. S yo ne is used when the
speaker wishes to mitigate the force of his assertion by talking as if the
content of S were also known to the hearer. (Q(=i> ne,
no, Note S) Examples:
M a :0$mB£L6wv+$n,
:®$u£$L6wcT$h.
Kono hon wa omoshiroi desu yo ne.
(This book is interesting, right?)
h rxuwac+%%uwm91+xn.
u rxuaav+fi%awm0a+xn.
Amerika made jfijikan
/'0/'ikan wa kakarimasu yo ne.
(It takes at least 10 hours to get to America, right?)
S yo ne can also be used when the speaker is addressing someone who
doesn’t know about an asserted fact and there is another person nearby
who is aware of it. In such circumstances, the speaker asks the person
who shares the asserted fact for his agreement at the end of the sentence.
(4) [The speaker is talking with someone about Mr. Kato, who is
standing nearby.]
mfiénmwwr%#m%a+;.h?
illllifiéh/lit!“/7'§§7§§l:H5lEi'§‘J:, 13?
Kato-san wa roshiago ga dekimasu yo. ne.?
Russian .. . Can’t
(Mr. Kato can speak Russian... Can't you, Mr. Kato?)
4. In nonpolite, informal speech (i.e., intimate speech) sex differences are
expressed by a combination of yo and the female speech markers wa
(=> wag;
and no. (Q waz; no‘; Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 7. Sentence-
final Particles) The following chart illustrates the use of yo in informal
male and female speech.
Male Speech Female Speech

Vinf+ V0 Vinf+ wa+ yo
Exs. 33-)"
xs. 331‘ $0
Jzo (I’ll talk, you know.) 35'?"
331-‘ lb *0
*3 J10
Hanasu yo. Hanasu wa yo.
33L)’;
33 L7‘: $0
J:,, (I talked, you know.) §fil,7*;;
EELT; 19 J10
#9 $0
Hanashita yo. Hanashita wa yo.
- -I
Adj (i)+ yo (i)+wa+yo

Adj (i)+ wa + yo
Exs. §v\
xs. El/\ $0
J:,, (It’s expensive, you know.) Ev
féjl/\ b x.
b $0
Takai yo. Takai wa yo.
fi;b=-pf;
IE $0
J1,
75> 0 TC (It was expensive, you know.) |"é]2b>o7‘c.
'|—éjiJ*0TC. b JZO
2‘? J10
Takakatta yo. Takakatta wa yo.
546
S46 yo
Male Speech Female Speech
{Adj stem
{Adj stem (na)
(na)/N} {da /datta}
/ N} {da /datta} yo
yo {Adj (na) stem / N]
{Adj (”")s‘e‘“/ N}
wa yo
{da/datta} we
|=%,%;b=-7‘.-E
Exs. |’;§'i7)>f;’ $0 (It’s quiet, you know.) fi§n>
§i‘*?~'I* (T5
(75 lb) J10
bl J1.
Shizukada yo.
YO Shizuka (da wa) yo.
§%2§>T.:.’of:
§§7§* T5 '2 TC. J1.
J10 (It was quiet, you know.) §§iP7.fof:
%' b‘ 9 7: b
b is
;0
Shizukadatta yo. Shizukadatta wa yo.

9&5:
955-E 7:’
T5 $0 (He’s a teacher, you know.) 95$
95$ (rs to)
(Ti 4:.
b) ato
Sensei da yo. Sensei (da wa) yo.
9%
955-E f.:'
f.'f-of;
-97; $0 (He was a teacher, you 552$
fiiéfiii 7307; b
T507: :9 J10
4:.
Sensei datta yo. know.) Sensei datta we
wa yo.
n da (yo) no (yo)
3%?‘
Exs. Efi-Q‘ T5 (J=).
/V T.-I ($)0 (I’ll talk, you know.) E3-J"
3'31‘ 0) ($)0
Hanasu n da (yo)-
(yo). Hanasu no (yo).
EEL7‘:
Eiibfc /V fi
/u T5 (.k).
($)0 (I talked, you know.) 3% LT:
§=,§l_,f.-; 0) ($)0
Hanashita n da (yo). Hanashita no (yo).
E1/\
}%}'v\ /V
/v 7;’
7:’ (J:
($)0)0 (It’s expensive, you know.) 'i'§i\/\
féfl/\ <0 ($)0
0) ($)0
(y 0) .
Takai n da (yo). Takai no (yo).
fé,‘7)=/)1; /V
|_%'7§*'2T; A1 r7,-_;’ (.t)
($)0 (It was expensive, E7»-;»7‘;
E7;--9 7‘; <1)
0) ($)0
da6 (yo).
Takakatta n d you know.) Takakatta no (yo).
gazpr;
”i*2b=>‘.c
F! /V ($)0o (It’s
/V r7;‘5 (.t) (It’s q\1i<=t,y<w know-)
quiet, you know.) tiwfrwr
§p;b=-tr: <0 ($)0
0) (.t).
Shizukana n da (yo)
(yo). Shizukana no (yo).
fit il >-'
§¥‘n>T;'oTc: /v T’
' /U
T» '3 Ts- c (($)0
Tc’ J1 )0 (It was quiet, you §#2f2>T;'o7‘:.
§§;b>7‘;’of.: <7) ($)0
0)
Shizukadatta n da (yo). know.) Shizukadatta no (yo).
(yo)
92$
553$ tr
tr: Al (J1).
/v 7;’ ($)0 (He’s a teacher, you 95$ f; 0) ($)0
#4:
Sensei na n da (yo). know.) Sensei na no (yo).
95$
filfifili 0 T2 /V
T507:
Ti /v T:'( $)0
f.::'(J1)s (He was a teacher, fliéli
5'3:-E 7507:. 0)
T507: <7) ($)0
Sense! datta
Sensei da (yo).
n da( yo). you know.) Sense/"datta no (yo).
Senseidatta (yo)
S. Ne, the Japanese tag guestion marker, is another frequently used sentence-
final particle. (Q ne) Yo should not be confused with ne. In contrast
to yo, ne is used when the speaker and the hearer share some specific
information. For example, if the speaker is looking at a delicious-looking
piece of cake with his friend, he would say (Sb) instead of (Sa).
(5a).
yoda 547
yo / yode S47
(5) 8-
3- *to‘!/\ L% 5 'C"§‘Jl.
*fi\r\L%'5'C"i'Jls
*0/shisodesu yo.
*0/'shisodesu
(Looks delicious, I tell you.)
h raw
b. nwL%5v¢h.
L% 5 'C"§‘12.
Oishisodesu ne.
(Looks delicious, doesn’t it?)
On the other hand, if he is eating some delicious cake which his friend
has not tasted, he would say (6a) rather than (6b).
(6) a. tsv\Lv\'c=*J'.=k..
:l’o‘v\Lv\'C"§‘J=.
Oishiidesu yo.
(It’s good, I tell you.)
b. *isv~Lv\'c~;-ta.
*:‘<s'v~l,v\"c=*J-ta.
*Oishiidesu ne.
*Oishi/'desu
(It’s good, isn’t it?)
yfida J;-31;‘
J; 51;-‘_‘ aux. adj. (na)
/\/~/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/S/‘./\/\/\./‘ \/\.1‘v-
*’ an auxiliary na-type adjective which look like; look as if; be like;

expresses the likelihood of s.t. //s.o.
s.o. appear; seem
or the likeness of s.t. /s.o. to s.t. / rashii; soda‘;
[REL. daro; reshii;
(D 9.° \.I/x\ /N\'/.\/~'\/\/\./\/“
~s6de2]
~soda2]
Q Key Sentences
(A)
Topic (subject)
-
Iv/Adi <">* it" — {V / Adj (i)} inf
$2111.-2/V
$2111.-5/V ea 7/911/\
:1 rxuvws fi< rare/:5-er.
:51:/15-ca.
Sugiyama-san
Sugiyama-sen wa
we Amerika e iku yoda /yodesu.
yode / yodesu.
(It appears that Mr. Sugiyama is going to America.)
S48 ydda
yode
(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem
J; E‘/v
_l:Hil é/V :1
ti a%a=/~/0'/:1
~‘ ‘
71??//7'70 '5 H?
I1??? vi: J2'f.:
it .t5r;'/;5'c~J'.,
5 ' / J:"C
'2 '1'.
Ueda-san we
wa bokushingu
bokush/ngu ge
ga suki ne
na yoda
ydda //yédesu.
yodesu.
(Mr Ueda appears to like boxing.)
(Mr. boxing)
(C)
abwlk
$0) A :1 El3=P9EE
H3=F'9’i':E <0 D‘
J:57_;'/.=t5'C'*J'°
1
£97/I91"9
Ano hito _ wa Tanaka-sensei

Tanaka sensei no
3 ydda I/ yodesu
yode yodesu.
I
(That person looks like Prof.

Prof Tanaka
Tanaka.)
(D)
/-\/-
9A:
> i L.»
B: U
Demonstrative
I-
BITIOIISIIYHIIIVC
Ill
15%:/V ti (>5
ZiJ1=é</V :1 '1'-=i~rDil,f
4,5 :%v::,r; 15>.
vb», law.
:1:~. ea)
-E0) .1:5'c-*4“
;5'c~r.,
[.0'
/shu-sen wa
/shii-san we m6
mo keenmash/ta ke
kaerimashita ka. Hai, sono yodesu
yddesu. . O
g
Z
9+ i
(Has Mr
Mr. Ishii gone home already?)
already?) (Yes, it looks like it.)
W
(i) -{V/Adi (i)] inf J:5f:f
{V/Adj (i)l I 5:‘:
yoda
ydda
{E3-5*
[E5-§' / ,=j§L,7‘;}
,=jfil,f;] 0):
J: 5-‘j 75
Ti (It seems that s.o. (will) talk /talked.)
[hanasu //hanashita}
{hanasu ydda
hanashita] yode
{féiin /?.%;"’/1“)
liéjln /}\,§,1-17)“, fg}
7:} 01:
J1 5 if
Ti (It seems that s.t. is / was expensive.)
[takai /I takakatta} yode
{takai ydda
(ii) Adj (na)

(ii) Adj (na) stem
stem {/Z: /ff/J71] 01;1 55 7;‘
{231 /7;-1'/97;} 2‘:
{na /datta}
/ datta} yoda
{§};b>f0,:
{§’#2b~f.;: /§$\h>fi:"JTC}
/ fi¥r2b\T;'o7‘;] J2 5 Ti
J: 7;’ (It seems that s.t. is / was quiet.)
{shizukana / shizukedette}
shizukadatta} yode
ydda
Yi‘ {<0/rs->r;: 15::
(iii) N to/tiara} tar:
{no/datta} yode
ydda
yoda S49
l5't':i-E
lfiliéli 555$
V) / 5'65-l‘-l ree Tc}
730 .1: 5 7;’
7;] J: ff (It seems that s.o. is/was a teacher.)
{sensei no/
no / sensei datta]
datta} yoda
(iv) Demonstrative J;
01; 5-5 7;’
ff
yoda
1&0) J;
{-0) J: 5-5 rg
if (It seems so.)
sono ydda
yoda
i
@
M *Hébu%@5B@2&hfil6fio
fifiénuaoéfifieflnfixfifia
we kino o-sake 0o nonde
Kimura-san wa nonda yode.
yoda.
(It seems that Mr. Kimura drank sake yesterday.)
M C®%Efi$§KfiBl0E§LWI5fio
zofifimiimmbtokfibwxfifia
mondei wa
Kono mondai we gakusei ni wa
we chotto muzukashii yoda.
ydda.
difiicult for the students.)
(This problem seems to be a little difficult
czmfiififiatxfifio
M ::u%#&fiok;5fi°
we mukashi gakko datta yoda.
Koko wa
(It seems that this place used to be a school.)
M
(d) cofimmoiofia
C<7J?Eli7l<<7>JZ 5 75°
we mizu no yoda.
Kono sake wa yode.
(This sake is like water.)
Yoda expresses the likelihood of s.t. /s.o., or the likeness of s.t. /s.o.
1. Yéda
to s.t. /s.o. In either case, when the speaker uses yoda,
yéda, his statement
is based on firsthand, reliable information (usually visual information).
Yoda can be used in counter-factual situations, as in Ex. (d).

2. Yéda In this
case, the adverb marude ‘just’ can be used for emphasis.
M fifiémuiarfieflmfixfifio
m mfienaaéefieflnfixfifi.
we marude sake 0o nonda yoda.
Kimura-san wa yéda.
(Mr. Kimura looks as if he had just drunk sake.)
(2) 2s’o0))\:ii%>‘C‘
$>®)\li$€>'C‘ El7l§)\v)JI
Bil‘-i)\®JZ '35 'C"§‘o
‘GT0
Ano hito wa we marude nihonjin no yodesu.
(That person is just like a Japanese person.)
3. Ydda
Yoda is a na-type adjective and has the prenominal form yona
ydna and the §Y%
yoni. (=>
adverbial form yon/'. (Q y6ni2)
yon?) Examples:
SSO yoda
550
m %BE*éb®¥5UAEfiiLk°
M eHm¢éno;5aA2Eacn.
Kyo Tanaka-san no yona hito o mimeshite.
mimashita.
(I saw a man who looked like Mr. Tanaka.)
(4) zizéwdB$A®$5cB$%E%LiTo
W >1 *3 23/vii E11lI)\0)J:'5|: Elli?-='§2;%’fiLi'§”..
Sumisu-san we
wa nihonjin no yoni
y6ni nihongo o hanashimasu.
(Mr. Smith speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)
4. The colloquial version of yoda is mitaida, which is also a na-type adjec-
tive. The uses of mitaida are exactly the same as those for yoda. The
formation rules are as follows:
to W/Mfiwlmfanwfi
(5) {V/Adj(/")1 inf 71~f:.v\T£
miteida
mitaida
:6:
(6) [Adj (na)
{Adj (na) stem
stem/N} {:1/1:01;}
/ N} {P1 1»r;:~r;*
I Tick} ¢7+f:v\7‘:I
ao datta mitaide
miraida
The conjecture expressions S daro, S rash/'i and S soda’

sddaz convey ideas
similar to S yoda.
ydda. The differences are as follows:
(A) S daro expresses the speaker’s conjecture, but it is not necessarily based
on any information. In other words, S daro can be used when the
speaker is merely guessing.
(B) S rashii
rash/'i usually expresses the speaker’s conjecture based on what the
speaker has heard or read. That is, the information his conjecture is
based on is not firsthand.
(C) soda? expresses the speaker’s conjecture about what is going to hap-
S sddag
pen or the current state of someone or something. Although this ex-
pression is based on what the speaker sees or feels, it is merely his
guess and the degree of certainty in his statement is fairly low. Only
Vmasu or Adj (i / na) stem can precede sodaz.
soda”.
(D) yoda is also an expression which is usually based on what the speaker
S ydda
sees or saw. However, unlike S soda”,
s6da2, this expression involves the
speaker’s reasoning process based on firsthand, reliable information and
his knowledge. Thus, the degree of certainty in yoda is the highest
of the four expressions compared here.
The following examples demonstrate the differences among these four ex-
pressions. The sentences in [1] present examples with the adjective take!
takai
‘expensive ’ before the conjecture auxiliaries.
‘expensive’
yoda SS1
m a.
[1] a zofimfiwfibia
.’_v)I4§:ifé]v\f:I65°
Kono hon we
wa tekei
takai daro.
dar6.
(This book is probably expensive.)
b.
b- ;:v)2l:ii§v\i5Ll.\.,
C ®7l§liEV‘*5 LUO
Kono hon we
wa takai
tekei rashii.
((From what I heard and / or read,) this book seems expensive.)
c. ‘C.0)$li§{"5f:i.,
:V)2l§li_§"E'5T:'.,
Kono hon we take soda.
wa raka s6da.
(This book looks expensive.)
d. :.v>1lIi:t%v~a\:-'51.-3..
:ml§:1§v\.k5f:°..
Kono hon we tekei y6da.
wa takai yoda.
((Considering the prices of similar books,) this book seems ex-
pensive.)
Here, [la] is mere conjecture. [lb] expresses the speaker’s conjecture based
on what he has heard and / or read. (If the sentence involves little conjecture,
it is almost like hearsay. (Q (=> soda‘))
s6da‘)) [lc] is also the speaker’s guess, but in
this case it is based on what he sees. [ld] expresses the speaker’s judgment
about the price of the book. Note that in [ld] [Id] the speaker knows the book’s
book's
price; therefore, this is not a guess. [2] provides examples with the noun
sensei ‘‘teacher
teacher ’' preceding the conjecture words. The differences in meaning
among the sentences here are the same as those explained in [1], except that
[2c] is ungrammatical.
film
W m &oAn%ifi55.
aokufiifibis
we sensei daro.
Ano hito wa dar6.
(I guess he is a teacher.)
%@Au%i5LM.
h aoxufiiacu.
we sensei rashii.
Ano hito wa
((From what I heard,) he seems to be a teacher.)
c.*@oAm%&%5fi.
¢.*%®Au%i%5fis
"'Ano hito wa
*Ano we sensei s6da.
soda.
¢ @oAm%i@;5E.
aokufiioxofia
we sensei no y6da.
Ano hito wa yoda.
((Judging from how he looks,) he seems to be a teacher. / He
((]udging
_1
looks as if he were a teacher.)

i
Q
_1 i
i
i __-
-Z
Q 3
K
i -—-
-Z
i 3
i
i -1
-—-
i __-
-Q-i
In [3], the verb furu ‘fall’ precedes the conjecture auxiliaries.

552 yoda
BIL
[3] 8- %Hum#%aEa5.
'#‘rHt1T=l5irb§I5é?5f:I6 5.
Kyo wa
we ame ga
ge furu daro.
dar6.
(I guess it will rain today.)
h aaumfinaacu.
eaamflfieeuu.
Kyo we
wa ame ga
ge furu rashii.
((From what I heard,) it seems that it will rain today.)
¢- 4’rl~';'bT=I§z)§%D
'9fl~T- {-5 f.-5.,
‘{>T=fii:§l5@9 {'5 Tia
ge furi soda.
/manimo ame ga s6da.
(It looks like it’s going to rain at any moment.)
d. Z;
I‘. Oifllil < FF7)§|5é75J1
T=fihil%?5J1 5 T50
fie
Kono hen wawe yoku ame ge ga furu yoda.
y6da.
((Judging from the abundance of trees and moss,) it appears that
it rains a lot around here.)
Here, [3a] is the speaker’s guess. [3b] is the speaker’s conjecture based on
what he heard or it is almost like hearsay. [3c] is also the speaker’s guess,
but, in this case, he is probably looking at the sky. Like [3c], [3d] is based
on what the speaker sees, but in this case the information is reliable, and
involves the speaker’s reasoning process.
The diagram in [4] summarizes the characteristics of the four conjecture ex-
pressions and soda‘ (hearsay).
[4] soda‘
sddal (hearsay)
@,®] iw »
p.}_».....................iEf_____~
p>}_s ..................m§§1_____s
®@ conjecture reshii
rashn report
D9 --------------- ' '
"Q reasoning / ___________________ __ ydda

_/
/ judgment
daro
2__Q ..................H
P i»------------------- -- >
. .-iitin
yonil 553
yfini‘ <li5lC
y6ni‘ at-3|: mi‘-
conj.
g§ Do s.t. in such a way that ~. iQ so that

./\/ .1
Q Key Sentences
(M
(A)
v*"*~"~"Pas*<P~m1> I—
Vinf- nonpast(potential)
zawa
=
ewe rm:
lot: i 2 an
+
re am~:: %v~r
ms: % <rsa<:~.
In ‘C <2‘.:’é v ‘O
Yomeru yon/'
yo'ni ji
/1" 0o kireini
k/rein!
' ' ' kaite
kerte
' kudasai.
kudesal'.
(Please write neatly so that I can read it.)
(B)
W)
- Vinf-
"*"""@g' "°"Pe* -—
neg- nonpast
i:>:f 2
bx-E:'2 U1:\f.;L\
Ulla-L
\f"' \ .l:5l~1
I5 P (I, %"i \. 2 OUT l/\?a/l/‘i’§‘°
?\20l7"C\r?5/I/i'i‘s
\ \
Keze
Kaze o hikenei
hikanai yoni
yon/' ki o tsukete iru / imasu.
(I’m taking care of myself so that I don’t catch cold.)
Vinf-nonpast{pot
Vinf-nonpastlpot / neg]
neg} J: 5 (C.
J1 lc
yoni
yon/'
[33-:;J_-25
{§‘,§-|;)_-25 /315$ f;I1\]
/§=,§.§f,;:\r\} .1: 5 (C.
J2 I; (so that s.o. can talk / does not talk)
{hanaseru / henesenei}
hanasanai} yon/'
ydni
{fix 511,25
{Q/< £53125 /gar; In} J2
/Q/<23:/\} J: 5 (C.
ll (so that s.o. can eat / does not eat)
{teberereru / tabenai]
{taberareru tabenai} yoni i
@ &#9ma;5mzszswuoa<D%%&%Lr<nn.
M %#fiwo:5mzizenaoo<9%%e%Lr<nn.
Boku ge wekeru yon/'
ga wakaru yoni Sumisu-san
Sumisu-sen we
wa yukkuri eigo 0o hanashite kurete.
kureta.
(Mr. Smith spoke English slowly so that I could understand him.)
M En&wx5caav—vfi%acn.
finaw15meav—efieacn.
Okurenai ydni
Okurenei yoni rakushi
tekushi de ikimashite.
ikimashita.
(I went there by taxi so that I wouldn’t be late.)
M fiiawe;5a%eflefi.
(6) fi'§"iwb§if=‘Z> J: 5l~1%2fiK/ore’.
ge naoru
Byoki ga neoru yoni
yon/' kusuri o nonda.
nonde.
(I took medicine so that I would (lit. recover from illness) get well.)
SS4 yon/"
yon/'1 / yon/'2
w
M ¥%#$2%nx5nBtca%5&$eE¢r%n.
¥mfl$e%o;onescaeéafiefierfiks
ge hon o yomu yon/' omoshirosona
Kodomo ga omoshirosone hon 0o katte kita.
kite.
(I bought some interesting-looking books so that my child would read
books.)
yoni‘ can be used with almost any informal, nonpast verb, it

1. Although ydnil
is most commonly used with potential verb forms (as in KS(A) and Ex.
(a)) and negative verb forms (as in KS(B) and Ex. (b)).
~yoni' iu ‘tell s.o. to do s.t.’, ~y6ni
2. ~y6ni ~yoni naru
neru ‘‘reach
reach the point where ~
~’’
~yoni suru ‘try
and ~y6ni ‘ try to ~ ’ are idiomatic uses of yon/'.
ydni.
(Q ~yoni iu; ~y6ni
(=> ~y6ni ~yoni naru; ~yoni
~y6ni suru)
y5|1i2 J;
y6ni2 01'; 5!;
5|; (ne)
aux. adj. (na)
éE an adverbial form of yoda E3 as; like
Q0 Key Sentences
(A)
Iii
11. 1:; §5
*3‘ " 15::
Vinf
J: 5 I: éwc
\r\'C <rsa<:\.
ti 5 v
IL vii .= '2 % < ‘O
Watashi ge
ga iu yoni
yon/' keiie
kaite kudasai.
(Please write it down as I tell you.)
(B)
TOP“ <S"bi@"> --—

Topic (subject) Vinf- past
ea
A
-1 B :1 # ::i*-'
g tr->1;
7'0
d~ -
ll. rm:
.t 9' tr; :1§a=:~/:§»=:~
% em en» -0+.
'6 To
Kyo we
wa heru ni
haru natte
natta yoni
ydni etetekei / etetekei
atatakai aratakai desu.
we
Q
(Lit. Today is as warm as if it had become spring.)

yon/'2 555
yoniz
(C)
/-\
Topic
pc (subject)
Toi ( s ubject) Noun
:'w=/—
9\/
he/-— :1ti arm
E A o J;5l
15:: :a::=§a
Him?
t
1
f
.‘
‘Ilia 11 1&1/"$1.11.
ill
-E’?/ail.) )4
nib
-+O
Doroshi we nihonjin
wa mhonpn no yon: nihongo
yon/' o hanasu //hanashimasu.
henesh/mesu
.
(Dorothy speaks Japanese like a Japanese)

Japanese.)
Formation
((i)
i ) ‘:{V/Adi (i)}
’V/Adji (/)}
I inf
inf
i lot:
J: 9I ic-
yon/'
yon:
,:-:=
[E31
:n-31‘ / a3%
afibf -
L,T.:}
-} .12 5'3- l(J;*--
JZ (as s.o. if s.o. (had) talked)
s - o - talks / talked; as ifs.o.
{henesu hanashite] yon:
l’hanasu / hanash/ta] yoni
[,e,v\ /,*e,:O=<>T.:} .1: 5 I: (as ss.t. is / was expensive; as if s.t. were]
_.il_.4 -_l.-Q
[,'é3::\ /fé]2b>'>T._} J: 9: t IS were/

{tekeil
[taka/ / takakatta} yoni yon: had been expensive)
(II) . 5 _ _ C
(ii)
11 Adj (na) stem {f;:/ {til Tfiofc}
071.} J:I50:
9:
{nel dette}
{na/ datta} yoni
yon:
{%a-
H = 2:;
(EA)? it / fin)>5
/fin 7*rs», -
0 7.}
Tc} .1: 5‘c
J2 9: ti: (as s.t. is / was quiet; as ifs.t. were /
{shizuke na/
{sh/zuka nel shizuka
shizuke datta]
datta} yon/' had been quiet)
000 ’
(iii) N
(111) [(1)] Rafi}
{(7)/ )‘.:'o7‘:] 5 ll’.
J1 5l.’_
{no/
{no / datta} ydni
yon!’
HEE
l5'i:§:‘. 0)] 555$
(DI 95$ T;-To fa}
7.50 7;} J: 5'5 (C.
I; (like a teacher / as s.o. was a teacher;
no// sensei datta]
{sensei no dette} yon/' as if s.o. were / had been a teacher)
Q
@
M %t%un1§wfiu%H%&eew11.
%K%cn;5Kflm%H%&eewe+.
hanashite yon/'
Mae ni hanashita yoni weteshi
watashi we reigetsu kaisha
wa raigetsu keishe o yememesu.
yamemasu.
I’m going to quit the company next month.)
(As I told you before, I'm
M J:EBé
(b) Lmenoxfiafinamw.
/or/DJ: 5 :.:fi:::.1~r>:~.,
Ueda-sen no yon/'
Ueda-san yoni hashiremasu
heshiremesu ka.
(Can you run like Mr. Ueda?)
(e) %W%®l5mfiii#t<HQk.
@ %v\u<-*;<1>.J: 5 iciiiiieifa < fa ‘O 7:.
"‘ Wekei toki no yon/'
Wakai we genki ga
ydni wa ge nakunatta.
nekunette.
(I don’t feel as strong as I used to when I was young.)
yon/'2 / ~y6n/'
S56 yonizl ~yoni iu
W
(d) ifiébuwobwlfitmfifinfiéko
:l:3*l=é</vtivvn ‘b 0).; 5 l.:$,q7'<B¢i=l.‘;E’é Tc,
Doi-sen wa
Doi-san we itsumo no yoni
yon/' ese
asa rokuji ni okita.
okite.
(As usual Mr. Doi got up at six in the morning.)
@
M Rfiz£—v#i$tl5n%bi$fi°
R#2£—v#L$&l5K%$i$fia
ge jozuna
Ani ga supotsu ga jozune yon/'
yoni ototo mo jozuda.
(Just like the older brother, the younger brother is also good at sports.)
(r)
(f) ¥§rJ§>b~::>:/\v\.t
5?|§h3n=:t>\r\\r\ J: 5 (Ck
:.:1>:~:@:~v~.
‘Is n~:b\rW‘.,
ge kawa/'/'
Neko ga keweii yon/' inu mo kawa/'i.
keweii.
(Lit. Just like cats are cute, so are dogs. (=Dogs are cute, just like cats.))
Yon)" expresses purpose but yon/2

1. Ydnil yon/'2 doesn’t; it expresses similarity, es-
pecially in appearance. (Q
(=> yoni‘)
y6ni‘)
Yoniz can express a counterfactual situation as in KS(B). The adverb
2. Yon/'2
marude ‘just’ is often used to emphasize counterfactuality. Examples
follow:
M
(ll &
3- iofiéfiotiotiitteka
§§'C'§?.‘El‘5l§¢T;JZ:)l:iiI§§.l:-7.4I'>T;o
Merude ikikaerta
Marude ikikeette y6ni
yoni genkini natta.
natte.
(Lit. He recovered as if he had risen from the dead.)
h
b. &o¥u1&rkAo15c%+.
&>0):t’-li$%>'C‘j<A0)J=5|:%'€'i‘s
Ano ko wa
we marude otone
otona no yoni
y6ni henesu.
hanasu.
(That child speaks as if he were an adult.)
~y5ni ~at5|:'.'%'5
~y6ni iu ~J:5l:'§5 phr-
phr.
é% Tell s.o. in such a way that he will“/i
will tell ~ to ~; say ~ in such a
é do s.t. way
\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/'\/\/\.¢'\-v ~./\.¢\/N/\./\/\/\./\./'\./\./~
\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/N/\/\/\/\/\./\/\/\4\; ./\,\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\r
~yoni
~y6ni iu 557
SS7
QKey
¢Key Sentence
Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vinf-nonpast
am
%$ 3 :1 ea
fie gml ‘; ree
fig Eaa we
'16
Sense/'
Sensei we
wa gakusei ni shukudei
shukudai o suru
_J;5:.:
I 9' ll %,*»>f:/%'*,':/\3i
i=i ’ / -§“/\
-5 '3 T- L712,
i== i L1 '0
7:.
yon/' itte
itta / iimeshite.
iimashita.
(The teacher told his students to do homework.)
Vinf-nonpast I
J2 5'5 II. ?,‘55
I: E‘
yoni
yon: iu
/u
351-
23'?‘ J: 5&1.
J2 5 ll E5
'55 (tell s.o. to talk)
henesu yoni
hanasu yon/' iu
gag, J:
fl¢<25 I 5 ll
(C. 55
5") (tell s.o. to eat)
teberu
taberu yon/'
yoni iu
Q
M
@ fiieemzammemomefierwexsneak.
fi$éhu§am@§fiomefiarwa1amaan.
Sakamoto-sen
Sakamoto-san we
wa Yukie ni roshokan
toshokan no mae
mee de metre
matte iru yoni itte.
itta.
(Mr. Sakamoto told Yukie to be waiting in front of the library.)
M aeaenfi.mnenmeLn%n%m::~%e;5a§er<fiew
(b) '§"71~ifl'/V753, /l\19|ié' /vlC37> L7‘:@JlLll’~*flCZ'. I/\§lE35 J1 5 lC'§'>'C < T52‘ V‘
iii‘/vZ)*s
iii"/vrbn,
Sumimesen
Sumimasen ge. ga, Kobayashi-san ni ashita
eshite asa
ese kuji ni koko e kuru yoni
yon/'
kudeseimesen ke.
itte kudasaimasen ka.
(I’m sorry, but could you please tell Mr. Kobayashi to come here at 9
o'clock
o’clock tomorrow morning?)
(0)
M iFLlT-lIEqZI.i'_Z> J1 5 lllio 2? 9?-">7:/:/'C"§‘7b3. . .
flfi%Ci6I5Kflo€D§akhTT#~-
we kikoeru yon/'
Watashi wa yoni hakkiri
hekkiri itta
itte n desu ge.
ga. . .
(I said it in such a way that it was clearly audible, but. . .)
Yoni iu can be used either as an indirect imperative as in KS and Exs.

1. Yon/'
(a) and (b), or to mean ‘ say in such a way that ~,’ i.e., the use of yon/'.'
ydni.‘
SS8
S58 ~ yon/' /u
~)/oni iu
(=>
(Q y6ni1)
yoni‘) In the former case, the verb must be a controllable verb—— verb——-
a verb that represents something controllable by human volition, such
as suru ‘ do’,
do ’, matsu
mersu ‘ wait’, kuru ‘ come’,
come ’, yomu ‘‘read’ kau ‘ buy ’.
read ’ and keu
In the latter case the verb must be a noncontrollable verb, such as wekeru
wakaru
‘ understand ’, kikoeru ‘ be audible ’ (Ex. (c)), or a potential form of verbs.
2. When yoni
yon/' iu is used as an indirect imperative, the verb iu
/'u can be
replaced by other verbs such as tanomu ‘ask’, meijiru
me/jiru ‘order’ and
motomeru ‘ request ’.
M
(1) w¢enmm$enm+¢%e:5c§et/finfi/fink.
Iii‘? 3 A/l:ILLl7l§é A/(CT <’§lE?5 J1 5 II?->1’: /fihfi / fit B120
Teneke-sen wa
Tanaka-san we Yamamoto-san
Yamamoto-sen ni sugu kuru yoni
y6ni itte
itta / tenan-
tanon-
de / meijita.
da meijite.
(Mr. Tanaka told / asked / ordered Mr. Yamamoto to come (to his
place) immediately.)
The direct imperative versions of (1) are something like (2). Notice
that there is more than one direct imperative form if the directive
iu.
verb is /u. i
:2)
(2) a-a. B111=a/.,:1:u1!=a</v::
B3‘i“é</vti|JJ34'>?éA/(C. FT <';:&t<r='a:$§:v1z=:\/§:&:$.J .2
F*r<*§E-c<r£ei.$§Ea-ei\/§Ei.$.J.2
E'5§0TC.°
T-:10 T10
Teneke-sen wa
Yamamoto-sen ni "Sugu kite kUd8$8I
kudesei
(kinesei / koi). " to itta.
(kinasai/koi). itte.
(Mr. Tanaka said to Mr. Yamamoto, “ Please come (Come)
here right away.”)
b. time/Viiuizlre/vi:
EHFPé< F1-<*;izi.\.J
A/:d:LlJ7lIé< /vi: FT <‘5EL\.,_| 2:eaiizr.-;.,
éhlifco
Teneke-sen wa
Yememoto-sen ni " Sugu koi." koi.” to meijite.
mei/‘ita.
(Mr. Tanaka ordered Mr. Yamamoto, ““Come
Come here right
away! ”)
<r. E1111:/..:1:Jm§a<
<=- B1‘? e /olillliié /.,:;
/Vi; F1"<*§Et
F*r<*§E'c <r='a=u.J
< r.-Eei.\..i He‘/ers.
aaa"/..r:.
Teneke-sen wa
Tanaka-san we Yamamoto-sen
Yamamoto-san ni " Sugu kite kudasai."
kudesei." to
renonde.
tanonda.
(Mr. Tanaka asked Mr. Yamamoto, “ Please come here right
away.”)
i
a
~yoni naru 559
S59
--yoni naru ~J:5I:f£6
~yoni ~I'5|:t.;Zs phr.
N"-
/\./\/\/\/\/'\/\./\
/\£
3 Some change takes place gradually. i reach the point where ~;

~ ; come
3A/\/\/\/\/~/\,\/\/\/\.A/\/\/\/\/\/VN/\/\/\/\,\/\/Nfi/\/\/\A/\/v 3
:"\/\/'\./'\/'\/‘N/\/\./\/\/\/\/'\./\/\/'\/\/\/\/'\/\./\/\,; '\/'\/\/‘ ./\./'\./'\./\_/\./"\¢' .¢ 9 .
to ~; it has come to be that
~; have finally become
[REL. koto ni naru; ~naku
neru; ~yoni suru]
naru;
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Topic (subject) Vinf- nonpast
vaavvaag
9‘-v97:/3/V utr): H$% m
H113? iii aea
éité I5l:
J1 '5 ll tcoicl
7'1 0 7'C./
Jekuson-sen
Jakuson-san we
éwa nihongo ge
ga hanaseru yoni
yéni nettel
natta/
, &DiL&
it D i L,7‘:.,
5 nerimeshite.
narimashita.
(Mr Jackson has reached the point where he can speak Japanese.)
(Mr. Japanese)
E’
(B)
Topic (subject) Vinf nonpast-
Vinf- non P ast ne
neg8
I
Héh
/V §n
1 @
E 2
Pi)’ fizuu
flick‘
r
C- 15u;ean/an1cm
l')i
i
fJT’3T-/ finil./li-o
.n '1
He Yash: i'fi-lrsen
Hayashi-san we sake o
wa nomenei
nomanai yoni
yon/' natte]
natra/ ner/mesh/re
narimashita.
.
(Lit Mr.
(Lit. Mr Hayashi has reached the point where he does not drink sake
sake.
(=Mr. rs»~.'
(=Mr Hayashi doesn’t
doesnt drink sake any more.))
more ))
Vinf-nonpast J: 5 ll
J1 (C; 23:3,
f.itZ>
yoni neru
naru
{§‘fi-§-
[%? /§fi$f,;:\r\} I 5 I; 2:cZ>
/fiétwlxfiuzms (s.o. reaches the point where he talks]
talks/
{hanasu //henesenei}
hanasanai] yoni
yon/' neru
naru doesn’t talk)
{fi'<1.'>/fi*<trv\}
{ese /fi*<i.i‘:\r\} J:
I '53 :1
(C. >‘.rZ>
P’.i?Z> (s.o. reaches the point where he eatsl
eats/
{taberu I tabenai}
tabenai] yoni naru
neru doesn’t eat)
@
M %uwB$%#%wa15uav1Ln.
%cwH$%#%we15navacn.
Muzukeshii nihongo ga
Muzukashii ge yomeru yoni nerimeshite.
yon/' narimashita.
difiicult Japanese.)
(I am finally able to read difficult
S60
560 ~yoni
~ yoni naru
M Kw
® 1*’ w l~l~ li?L<‘:3fié<
tiiFL<‘:§%é fir!/‘J:
f.i:v\.J: 5t¢;f.c~>1‘:...
5 llfxofcs
Petto wa
Patto we watashi
weteshi to hanasanai
henesenei yoni
yon/' natte.
natta.
(Pat doesn’t talk with me any more.)
M %5T<BhL6éflfim5I5n&DiTIs
@ 'l> 5'3‘<'$5l> l,6é<:b3§}:O=Z>.1: 5 :.:>‘.cD ETJZO
Mo sugu omoshirosa
M6 omoshirose ga
ge wakaru
wekeru yoni
yon/' nerimesu
narimasu yo.
(You’ll soon come to understand the fun of it, I tell you.)
(d) :ofinafinew16mearwa.
W I‘. ®fili'9tién>*.cv\.1: 5 t:f.i:/>'Cv\?5..
we ima
Kono michi wa ime tdrenai
torenei yoni
yon/' natte iru.
(Lit. This street has reached the point where people cannot pass. (=At
present we cannot use this street.))
1 Although ~yoni naru usually indicates a gradual change, when it is pre-

ceded by an affirmative
aflirmative verb the change may not take place gradually.
Thus, an adverb such as kyoni
kydni ‘suddenly’ can co-occur with an affir-
affir-
mative verb and ~yoni naru, as seen in (1).
m
W 5B®¥fl%fi%E%%?6&5EUoth?Tl°
5B®fU%fi%E@fiT5I5EUokb??Is
Uchi no ko we seikin kyfini benkyosuru yoni
wa saikin y6ni natte
natta n desu yo.
(Lit. Recently our child has suddenly reached the point where
he studies. (=Recently our child suddenly started to study.))
When ~yoni naru
neru is preceded by a negative verb (as in KS(B)), how-
ever, the change must take place gradually. If the change is not
neru is used in place of ~nai yoni
gradual, ~naku naru yon/' neru.
naru.
(See Related Expression II.)
22. Yon/'
Yoni natte iru emphasizes a current state that has come about after a
long process, as in Ex. (d).
3 There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meanings are
completely different. The verb before yoni
ydni can be negated, as in (2a),
or the verb naru can be negated, as in (2b).
(Zb).
m m fiiflfizentuxouaak.
(2) 11- ifi’e"—"‘i="—ii1%'>"cI5t1.>'.i'L\.t5l~:f.i:-sfcs
Kenji ge oboererenei
Kanji ga oboerarenai yoni natte.
yon/' natta.
(I’ve reached the point where I can’t memorize kanji.)
a b. 1%?‘-2b§'fi,’£'_ 15116
ifiinifii 62135 J:
I 5 lcf.-I
(Ci; E>7I7‘.)\o fzs
i"o7J7'J\oT:s
Kenji ge oboerereru
Kanji ga oboerareru yoni
yon/' nerenekette.
naranakatta.
(I haven’t reached the point where I can memorize kanji.)
~yoni naru 561
(2a) means that the speaker can’t memorize kanji any more, and (2b)
means that he is not yet able to memorize karzji.
kanji.
4. Yoni
Yon/' by itself can be used as an adverbial phrase, along with main
verbs other than naru. (Q yoni‘;
y6ni‘; yoni?)
y6ni2)
I. Koto ni naru ‘it has been decided that ~ ’ and ~yoni naru are related
expressions in that both of them indicate some change, but they differ
in that the former implies a passive decision, while the latter suggests
a change brought about by a lOng
long process. Compare the following
sentences:
IN
M Mw aakmwfifirecacwtxficavecn.
flukWKE%+a:acM*15uev1cn.
Watashi we
wa Osaka ni tenkinsuru koto ni / *yoni
*y6ni nerimeshite.
narimashita.
(It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka.)
h flfi§%fi%E%I5EJ*;tt&DiLks
fifi¥%#fi%6&5EJ*CttkDiLt°
Watashi we
wa eigo ga
ge hanaseru yoni
y6ni / *koto ni nerimeshite.
narimashita.
(I’ve reached the point where I can speak English.)
II. When the verb before ~yoni naru is negated, as in KS(B), this construc-
tion can be compared to the ~naku naru construction.
W M
e Henufieflaauxicasn.
nanueem1ou15cean.
Hayashi-sen we
Hayashi-san wa sake o nomenei
nomanai yoni natte.
y6ni natta. (=KS(B))
(Mr. Hayashi doesn’t drink sake any more.)
#enmfiefl1a<uet.
h Hena@eflaa<aeh.
Hayashi-sen wa
Hayashi-san we sake o nomanaku
nomenaku natta.
natte.
(Mr. Hayashi doesn’t drink sake any more.)
The nai ydni
yoni natta
natte version in [2a]
[Za] implies a more gradual change than
natte version in [2b]. Thus, adverbs such as kyoni
the naku natta kyfini ‘ suddenly
suddenly’’
or totsuzen ‘suddenly’
‘suddenly ’ can co-occur with [2b]
[Zb] but not with [2a].
562 ~yoni suru
~yoni suru ~
~IJ; 51:?‘
5 (:156 Phr-
Pl"-
S.o. causes some circumstantial or do ~ in such a way that ~;
i behavioral change to take place. see to it that ~; make sure
-\/4\/‘_/\ ,
./\/"
that ~; bring it about that ~

[REL. ~yoni neru]
naru]
§Key
QKey Sentence
—-— Vinf-nonpast
fl.
fit ti
:1 EB EH56
EEIT6 .-):5t.: ‘T5
J:5:: '§‘Za /Life
/LE1}
Weteshi wa
Watashi we meinichi
mainichi undosuru yoni suru /shimasu.
(I’ll make sure that I do exercises everyday.)
Vinf-nonpast 01:
J; 5 tr;
l: T5
-4'25
yoni suru
{gfi-§—
{Z3-t /33-3 tgl/‘I
/33$ tel/‘l I
J1 5 (C.
ll ‘Q-Z;
-#2; (s.o. makes sure that he /s.o. else talks /
{henesul henesenei] yoni suru
{hanasu / /7817888178/} doesn’t talk)
{fix/3 /g.<r;v\} .1;
{gxg /@¢<f,;:v\} .1: 5 :1
(.1 T5
1'2; (s.o. makes sure that he /s.o. else eats]
{taberul tebenei}
{teberul tabenai} yoni suru doesn’t eat)
w%5fifiH$%?%TI5KLTwiT.
M w%6EHH$%?%Tl5KLTwiT.
deke nihongo de henesu
Dekiru dake hanasu yoni shite imasu.
(I’m making sure I speak in Japanese as much as possible.)
M mMmu%bew15mLn.
(H mmmu%bawx5acn.
Yemekewe
Yamakawa ni we
wa ewenei
awanai yoni shita.
shite.
(I’ve made sure that I won’t see Yamakawa.)
(c) §}2b>I‘a>‘.rv\: :15*&i:.:Bfi.
tr: L'Cv\Z.5.,
Wekerenei
Wakaranai koto we
wa sensei ni kiku yoni shite iru.
(I make a point of asking my teacher about things I don’t understand.)
M
(<1) fi%A%c%e15mLr<fiew.
5%/\Bi-"i=l~';5lEZa I 5 I: LT < fié v\0
Meiese hach/ji
Maiasa hechiji ni kuru yoni shite kudasai.
kudesei.
(Please make sure that you come at eight every morning.)
M 5uames1<Rza15mL1Ln.
5L5#6bI<Ri6I5KLiLks
Ushiro kara
kere mo yoku mieru yoni shimeshite.
shimashita.
~yoni suru 563
(I’ve seen to it that people can see from the rear seats, too.)
(f) filiiéhil
filififivbkl: < 7:43
11:5 .12
.1: 5'5 l:
I: L7‘:;.,,
Lt,
Seiseki ga yoku naru yoni shita.
(I’ve made sure that my grades will improve.)
1. ~yoni shite iru expresses s.o.’s habitual act of making sure that he or
s.o. else will do (or will not do) s.t., as shown in Exs. (a) and (c).
2. The subjects in the yoni clause and in the main clause may or may not
be identical. In (la), the subjects are different, but in (lb), they are
identical.
m a v3vux7v—#finex5cLt.
M v3vux7v—#fiH5;5cLt.
Jon wa Meari ga ikeru y6ni shita.
(John has seen to it that Mary can go there.)
b. ~‘/"
*2‘ a3 ‘/(if*T'l)‘Z>JI 5 I: l.,1':°
2/lifi‘l‘)“ZaJ1'5|I. L1':<>
y6ni shita.
Jon wa ikeru yoni
(John has seen to it that he (=John) can go there.)
3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meaning changes
according to the pattern. The verb before yoni can be negated as in (2a),
or the verb suru can be negated as in (2b).
m a-
(2) a /l~JI|::I:l:1l§r>§9d;€fil:l:l5l€:&‘:.\.1:5:.::,:‘;..
¢Num$#@%m%uu15mLn.
benkyo’ deki nai yoni shita.
Ogawa wa Yamamoto ga benkyo
(Ogawa made sure that Yamamoto couldn’t study.)
b.
h /]~J||:1:l:1lIr)§%5fiHj§lEZ>
mMum$m@%w%a15munLum¢t. 1 5:.:(:1):,»*.:1J~->f=.
Ogawa wa Yamamoto ga benkyo
benkyo’ dekiru yoni (wa) shinakatta.
(Ogawa didn’t make sure that Yamamoto could study.)
In (2a) Ogawa is directly involved in preventing Yamamoto from study-
ing, but in (2b) Ogawa just didn’t bother to assist Yamamoto’s studying.
4. When an Adj (i / na) or N is used before yoni suru, the verb naru is
used as follows:
(i) Adj (i)
(1') stem < >325 J;~5:.: -1;-35
fgz, <1;-5:; -3-25
ku naru yoni suru
{E<
lFéi< ea /Fé5<
#4215 1:: <
/i%‘< tc #15}
1..-ms] .1.1: 5 ls;
:2 -4'15
+5 (make sure s-t- be-
[takatu naru /I takakunaku naru} yoni
{takaku suru comes / won’t be-
come expensive)
564 ~yoni suru / yori‘
yor/'1
(ii) {Adj (na) stem/N] is;
l: #5
r‘.:Z> J;
.1: 5;; -$5
5f: TE»
ni naru yoni suru
fiw
fie» mwweu &</t¢&<]&5.IM:¢%
Heren e</uem<laa.1m;+a
shizuka {ni/
{nil de wa naku /janaku} naru yoni suru
(make sure s.t. is / won’t be quiet)
%£
96$ in/e:1>&</uee<lea.M:1a
ll:/'C~ ii >tc< /l;=e>*.c<] ica .h5i.: +5
sensei {ni /I de wa naku /janaku]
/janaku} naru yoni suru
(make sure s.o. is / won’t be a teacher)
~yoni naru ‘ reach the point where’ is the intransitive counterpart of yoni
yon:
suru. The former only indirectly implies human efi'orts
efforts behind some change
that will occur or has occurred, but the latter straightforwardly indicates
human efforts. For example, in [la] the speaker can get up early in the
morning almost effortlessly, but in [lb] he has to make sure that he can
get up early in the morning.
M
[1] e
3- fl$<fieena15uuU§;t.
%5< E3 611.54: 5 |:f.; ‘J i Lfzs
Asa hayaku ok/‘rareru
okirareru y6ni
y6m' narimashita.
(I am finally able to get up early in the morning.)
h
b. @$<fieena15mLruzT.
fl$<fi%6n5x5cLru§¢.
yoni shite imasu.
Asa hayaku okirareru y6ni
(I am making sure that I can get up early in the morning.)
yoril J: D
yori‘ P"-
./\./\./\/'~_/'-./~../\/\../\./
0 0 0 0
§ st /I é
a particle which indicates that s.t. a 0 than; rather ~ than ~; more
\
ss.o.
. 0 . is
' being
' compared with
' sts.t. /s.o.
.. /s .o. <( ~ than ~
\--'./\N/\./1/\\/\n/
-'\
§Key Sentences
QKey
(M
(A)
Topic (subject) Noun Predicate
ii?E :1
Ei1l§%
Bzlinn I1 2* ‘f 9%
244 vfi
an .t
J1 9
D ((,) ~ L5!/‘
Bl,
J"<J'f>l./ aw // Bl,
2 'f> L5::\'e1*.,
L6w* TTO
Nihongo 2 wa supeingo yori (mo) omoshiroi I/ omoshiroidesu.
(Japanese is more interesting than Spanish.)
yori‘ 565
(B)
Subject
Sentence; Predicate
Sentence;
Sentence,
E 1* fi i
fi</\ :15 n1:1 /<z
/<2 -c*fi<
ei-‘:< .1:v(4,)
19 (4.) ii»/fivvt
in/iv~T~r..
Kuruma de iku
lI(U ho ga basu de iku yori (mo) yasui I/ yasuidesu
yasuidesu.
(Going by car is cheaper than going by bus)
bus.)
5
F2
(C)
Topic (subject) Pr 6 dicate i

Predicate, PI'6dlC3t€g
Predicate;
\Q
,,
$1..
lfll
'pi :1 iki-TTZQ
1-':'§'% J29
9.14
. (is)
it.) 515 :: v\r;v\/v~2*;v\'c
5'6 lc ::\:*;v\/::\:‘;::\'c~~r, O .
\3_
Watashi wa ryok6suru yon
yori (mo) uchi ni itai I/ itaidesu
/‘taidesu.
( Id rather sta
(I’d stayY at home than ggoo on a tri P)
trip.)
(D)
Noun / Sentence
on
"
an 4:0
1') (can » (::))
(:1/» (it.))
' 71%~‘ :1
jiiili ii tr:/\
f4: V‘ I/Zuni -ti‘ /Vo
5; D E-ti‘/1/.,
Kore yori (hoka (ni)) hdhd wa nai /arimasen.
hoho I arimasen.
(There is no other way than this.)
/<2
/<1 1*
‘C- fi<
1-:<
" 15
J: 0 (:1>:~ (l~_))
(law (::))
*' (1:75
(£75 :0 '3 f:‘.cv\
hi .: I/\ /I 55>
ab 9D $11/Us
iii-/U.
Basu de iku yori (hoka (ni)) shikata ga nai /I arimasen.
(There is no other way than to go by bus.)
W
(A) KS(A) /I KS(D):
N J:.1; D9
yori
yon
:31,
Cit J; :)') (than this)
kore yori
(B) KS(B) /I KS(C) /I KS(D):
( i ) {V /I Adj (i)} inf-nonpast J; 9
yori
566 yon"
yori‘
331"
E5-1;‘ J;
.1: 9D (than talking)
hanasu yori
féji/\ J:
Iéiln J; D (than being expensive)
takai yori
(ii) Adj (na) stem f; C1;
if; J; 9
na yon‘
yori
,;*]i7;~f,;:
§%;b~f,_.;: J; D (than being quiet)
shizukana yori
(m)N
(ill) c&%»19
N '6 3625 J: 9
de aru yori
9,35];
§*,j;§-jg ‘G $5
“G :55 .1:
J; 95 (than being a teacher)
sensei de aru yori
M
w fi¢uoe#e19ficw.
Eiuoemaxvfiuw.
Kan/'1' wa hiragana yori muzukashii.
Kanji
(Kanji is more diflicult
difficult than hiragana.)
M #éaufl;9E<fina.
#enufi19E<£na.
Hayashi-san wa watashi yon‘
yori hayaku hashireru.
(Mr. Hayashi can run faster than I can.)
m &uz%—#lD%®fi#H%fi°
(c) ‘§:1:<5=—-it J: Dfiwiirlillféfio
Boku wa sutéki yori sakana no hoho’ ga sukida.
(I prefer fish to steak.)
M
@ E%fic%%1afi#5ee@%1a1v1<w%a.
E%fic@%+afi#5ec@%+a;v;<w%a.
Toshokan de benkyosuru ho
ho’ ga uchi de benkydsuru
benkyosuru yori yoku dekiru.
(Studying at the library is more productive than studying at home.)
@ enufieafixvfiémfiwan.
%nflfik§5lD§@tfim¢ts
Sore wa aka to iu yon’
yori chairo ni chikakatta.
chikakatia.
(That was closer to brown than to red (lit. rather than saying it was red).)
M H$%e%%unmane.7xvao#&vm%1a1vH$~fieae
W Hfifiéwfiunmane.7xvw®$&v@%+a1vB$~fi%&é
in,
v\,,
Nihongo 0o benkyéshitakattara,
benkyosh/takattara. Amerika no gakko de benkydsuru
benkyosuru yon
ii
jig
iii
iii
ii
I —i
_-1
i
Nihon e ikinasai.
i
(If you want to study Japanese, go to Japan rather than studying at a

school in America.)
yori‘ I/ yori‘
yori’ 567
1. Either a noun phrase or a sentence precedes yori. When verbs precede

l.
yori, they are usually nonpast. However, there are a few cases where
past tense verbs are used, as in (1).
m
(ll %@a§uEak;9@éLman,
%'V)a§li,l$_f\'J7‘:JZ 9 "$3 L7§*'JT:,,
Sono shiken wa omotra
omotta yori yasashikatta.
(The exam was easier than I thought.)
2. In KS(A), KS(B) and KS(C), mo is optional after yori and does not
change the meaning of the sentence.
yori* J: 0D
yori’ P"-
Pri-
QE a particle which indicates a set point in ~ of; inside; outside; be-
in terms of space or time fore; after
\.\
I1- \, \/ \,./\.»
\\
kara‘)
[REL. karall
QKey
§Key Sentence
Topic (subject) Noun (location I/ time

time) oun (location /I time)
Noun
>*flt~‘/:1
2' 4" ./ 3 :1 =H
iki
I \ J19
9-r ill:FT‘
/l/I8/(IS/‘II/<0
Mekishiko 5::
wa
-mi
sekid6
sekido yori
_\3 ,.\.l.
Iota
kita
Ii
Predicate
K he/hbifo
$35/£¥>9i'§‘
ni aru I/ arimasu.
arimasu .0
(Mexico is located north of the equator)

equator.)
. \-/
(a-) ct/27%;
(5) 10%; D9 |7‘lfi'l::)\->'C:1v\:5‘i-:1-A/.,
l?*1{R'll:)\o'Cliv\i)‘itt/vs
Kono sen yori uchigawa ni haitte wa ikemasen.
(You must not get inside this line.)
M
(b) 2%19mn%r<fiew.
35%; D fiilllfléf < f;'év\..
Sanji
San/‘i yori mae ni kite
kire kudasai.
(Please come before three o’clock.)
568 yori‘-’
yori’
(c)
(<1) Chi 996:1/<2r)§2¥>
D5El:l:/<2ii'$b D iii‘/v.,
E-ti‘/V,
Kore yori saki wa basu ga arimasen.
(There’s
(There's no bus service from here (lit. beyond this point).)
The use of yori as a marker indicating a set point in terms of location can
be extended to more abstract locations, as in (1).
A+§1Uiue%c+.
m A+fi$ULu%%?T°
Hachijutten yori ue wa gokaku
gdkaku desu.
(Lit. Eighty point up is a pass. (=The passing mark is eighty.))
Kara can be used in place of yoriz

yori’ when kara indicates a set point in
space, as in [1]. (=:>
(==> kara‘)
M zwfime/xvwwmxaruwuaaa.
zofima/1uwwmA5ruwn1ea.
Kono sen kara I/ yori uchigawa ni haitte wa ikemasen.
(You must not get inside this line.)
When yori indicates a point in time, however, kara can replace it only if it
indicates a starting time. Thus, kara in [2a] is grammatical, but kara in
[2b] is not.
M
m m zeta/»eammr<esw.
EfiiU/#5fit%T<fiéw,
Sanji yori /I kara ato ni kite kudasai.
(Please come after three o’clock.)
h
b- E%1uPw5Wm%r<fiew.
3"-B#JI U /*IJ‘BfilIl~'i§lE'C < T53 \t‘s
Sanji yori /I *kara mae ni kite kudasai.
(Please come before three o’clock.)
It is also noted that yori?
yori’ implies a comparison of two things, while kara has
no such implication.
~y6 to omou 569
~i/6 to
~y6 to omou
omou ~.;;5
~.!:—'5 ¢,§.5
&.%'.5 phr-
phr.
/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
The speaker desires or decides to do 3E ~ think ~ will
I‘/-\’/~\.//\'\//\\//\.\/\/'\
(D O F?F1‘ 0
C § [REL. tsumori]
/\&/‘\B/V /\/\./\./\./\.-
/\/-\/\/\/\.
§Key Sentences
QKey
(A)
Topic (subject) Vinf- vol
TL
it :1Ii azirme 2*:2<5
EIZEEBE ates
atta
H e.2 ....§/....
EB \,\ 2+.
.%-1.5/.'e:~1-r.
EB
Watashi wa Nihonrekishi 0o yom6 to omou I/ omoimasu.

(I think I will read Japanese history (books).)
(B)
“Pic <s"biw> U-
Topic (subject) Vinf-nonpast
iii. Ii t. 95“ $5
is 2E no
iki; 1 \(\
iv‘ t
k .=.~9
EB " /....
F15 E yx at.
/,%'.v\i'§‘.,
Watashi 5 wa mo sake 0o nomu mai to omou]
omoul omoimasu.
(I think I will not drink alcohol any longer.)
KS(A):
Vinf-vol I;
E E’)
E15
to omou
33% 5 <‘: E5
k E15 (I think I will talk.)
hanasd to omou
hanaso
Q-<;; -55 3;3 I35
gag; E15 (I think I will eat.)
tabeyd
tabeyo to omou
KS(B):
Vinf-nonpast iv k $5
3i!/\ 1: E15
mai to omou
§3‘*J'iI/\
gfifil/\ <‘:
J: E5 (I think I will not talk.)
hanasumai to omou
fiaggi/\
gaggw 2;k 51.5
$8.5 (I think I will not eat.)
taberumai to omou
570
S70 ~y6
~yc5 to omou
M
M
w §WhKB$7w7zt§65k%WiT.
EWama$7»¢zn§a5e%wa+.
noboro to omoimasu.
Natsuyasumi ni Nihon Arupusu ni nobord
(I think I will climb the Japan Alps during summer vacation.)
(b) fiehuv—7w(=v—F¢aew5~)2E%5eeerwif.
@ fié/vI:l:'7~—-7’I= (='7-- F7"r=1’e~y'9‘--)£'E$5'5 &.%‘.o'C\r\3E'I'a
Mori-san wa wapuro (=wado purosessé)
purosessa) o0 kad
ka6 to omotte imasu.
(Mr. Mori is thinking of buying a word processor.)
M &ueoAeut5%11we%5.
&uaoA&u$5%+aweE5.
Boku wa ano hito to wa mo hanasumai to omou.
(I think I won’t talk to that person any more.)
1. When the subject is not the first person, as in Ex. (b), the nonpast form
of omou cannot be used. Thus, the following sentence is unacceptable.
(n*fiehuv—fn&E%5eE5/@u§T.
H)*fiénuv—¢w2€s5eE5/%u$T.
*Mori-san wa wa'puro
wapuro 0 kao to omou /I omoimasu.
The reason why (1) is unacceptable is that omou represents an internal
feeling of the speaker alone. Therefore, when the subject is the third
person, omou has to be replaced by the stative omotte iru which means
‘ he (=the third person subject) has indicated that he feels ~, in such
a way that the speaker can see and /I or hear what he feels’. Observe
the following sentence.
EFL /I *3C
(2) fit *3£ /I *LlJ"Fa‘=/\»:1-'€<7>I1Jl&E2,$..1:
*l-I-l'Fé/vii~'€®B9&E2RJ: 5 t.@~\oi'J'°
<‘:.‘?i'~\/‘ii’.
Watashi /I *Chichi /I *Yamashita-san wa sono eiga o0 miyo to
omoimasu.
(I /I My father /I Mr. Yamashita think(s) I /he
I he will see that movie.)
It is also to be noted that ~y6 to omou cannot be used as a question.
M nao¢e%t5aew11a.
Nb®$&fi$5&Ewi+m.
??Ano hon o yomo to omoimasu ka.
(Do you think you will read that book?)
2. The negative version of ~y6 to omou is Vinf-nonpast ~mai to omou,
as seen in KS(B) and Ex. (c).
3. The verb that precedes yo must be a verb that represents something con-
trollable by human volition. Thus, the following sentences are all un-
grammatical, because the verbs are noncontrollable.
~y6
~yo to omou 571
(4) 11- *$&Eial15 <‘:.%'~5s
*Kuruma o kaey6
kaei/6 to omou
omou.
(I think I can buy a car)
car.)
CP
Cp' E2Ei6t@5°
c‘.1»'i§~'5o
Kuruma o kaeru to omou

omou.
car.)
(I think I can buy a car)
b.*%&&$6¢k6EE5tE5.
¢l.1’i'_f7<>
*0-kane 0o morattara yorokob6 to omou.

omou
I’ll be happy if I get money)
(I think Ill money.)
Ca >l’ofi€:‘l>i‘o'>T~.l“o€-S-7‘
see 4. eareeésrsa6')-5 215.5.
<‘:'?5a
O-kane
0-kane 0 morattara yorokobu daro to omou.
omou
(I think I will probably rejoice if I receive money.)
money)
¢-*fiKfi6h$5tE5.
Wl§bh$9t@5a
*Ame ni furareyo to omou.
me nr omou
(I think I will be caught in the rain.)
rain)
Cpo Flill IQ (‘Q1125 &»Ei§~5o
<‘: fl? 5 0
ni furareru to omou
Ame n: omou.
(I think I will be caught in the rain.)
rain)
A passive verb can be used with -yo
~yo to omou, however, if the speaker
perceives the passive situation as somehow controllable, as in (S).
(5)
M r1:m%&:&wbn15&%5
(5) T;ilZ;&i5Ef-I£lCliilb'51'Lal1 5 &E'.5a
ni wa sensei
Tama nr ni homerarei/6
sense: I7! homerareyo to omou.
omou
(Lit. I think I will do my best to be praised by my teacher once
(Lit
in a while.)
while)
S72 zutsu
572
zutsu Eff:
To prt
prt-
éac-
"\-"\/\/\/\r\/\/-\_/\/\/\_/\/\./\/\ /'\./\./\/~./\/\/\/\./
"\'\/\/\/\'\/\r\/\'\/\/\/\/\./\ /\/\/\/‘/\./\/\/\./ /\/~../'\/\/\/'\./\
Ix/\/\/\./\/\/‘
{Pa particle that indicates equal distri-

ya disti'i- é by; at a time
5
j bution of quantity
1
QKey
Q Key Sentence
.
Topic (subject)
. Direct
D'
Oggg Quantifier
.
11.
ti. §:1ii ifiie
as 2 as
an 51>
£9 +0
15 fizz» /fizz-r.
fizz./e211.
Watashi wa kanji o mainichi itsutsu zutsu oboeru I/ oboemasu.
(I memorize five kanji every day.)
M
W
w fifizfifotefiorwif.
§HE%fO$2€@Twi+.
Maitsuki sansatsu zutsu hon 0o katte imasu.
(I'm buying three books per month.)
(I’m
(b) :t‘/I/7 7):’)
=1’/I/7 203/} I/l">J:$lC
I,-)‘0_l;$l:. is
rt: 0 'C5l€f:.,
'C5l€T:..,
Gorufu ga sukoshi zutsu-
Garu/u zutsu jozuni natte kita.
(I have become a better golfer bit by bit.)
flm¥#fit$&I%?O%oto
M fid¥%EK$%Z%f0%¢k.
Watashi wa kodomotachi ni hon o0 nisatsu zutsu yatta.
(I gave two books to each of the children.)
M
W 2oa5zut#¥¥i##A+own.
E®97zm$fl¥#i#fiAfOWk°
Dono kurasu ni mo joshigakusei ga rokunin zutsu ita.
(There were six girl students in each class.)
1.
l. The particle zutsu is used only after a quantifier (=an expression of
quantity).
2. A sentence without zutsu can express virtually the same fact. Compare
KS and Ex. (a) with (la) and (lb), respectively.
m w flnfiiefiniofize.
M flufiiefifliofiia.
0 mainichi itsutsu oboeru.
Watashi wa kanji o
(I memorize five kanji every day.)
zutsu 573
b- EH Eiflfiliféffi '11’!/\i'§'o
§FlEflll7l§€f§'>'Clr‘i'§‘a
Maitsuki sansatsu hon 0 katte imasu.
(I’m buying three books every month.)
A sentence with zutsu focuses on equal distribution of quantity, but
a sentence without zutsu doesn’t.
i
-
_
fi
—
576
Appendixes
Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations
formal, inf.,
inf., neg., nonpast nonpast c_ondi-
condi- v_oli-
nonpast (masu- (dictionary tional tional te-form
form)2
form)“ form)
Group l1
verbs‘
-
e
5% < (write) §1;\f;
%h\ I/\
tr :1‘ § 3 i 1'
%é'i'J' I§<
i¥< imi
en :1 é
$2 C. 5 §l.\'C
¥L\ ‘C
kaku kakanai kakimasu kaku kakeba kak6 kaite
fi~<
fi< (go)
(so) fit» >2:
fit!» tr v\
In ff? i 1'
fiiéif ?"r<
ff< fili’ If
i“T'l'l' if ifi- 5
10-‘
IT 9 I70
if 0 ‘C’
iku ikanai ikimasu iku ikeba ik5
ik6 itte
3%’? (talk)
351' 3% 3 >2: I/\ 33
Efiétc)/\ L i '1‘
33Li'J' 3%?‘
EFT 33% if
Efifi Bf 33% 5
ii-E" 2% L-c
33 LT
hanasu hanasa-
hanase- hanashi- hanasu hanaseba
hanase b 8 hanas6 hanashite
na/
nai masu
IT78SU
150
I50 (wait) iii‘ 1':
ff T: it V‘ ii 15 $1‘
:56 32*)" Ff’:
I??? fir if
151:1 ff? t 5
Fit iffof
I31" 0 ‘C
matsu
ITl6fSU ma tanai machi- !T78t$U
I778f$U ma teba ma t6IO matte
masu
I778$U
H5112 (die)
F681 ?Et.tt.cv\
H5151" tr v\ §EI: i 1'
Fit: Z:EU;
F585 3'E1latf
Z'Et:1:f F605
5E0) 5 EA) ‘C’
5E/b'(‘
shinu shinanai shini- shinu shineba sh/‘no
shin6 shinde
masu
fit? (read)
iiftr I%iIf.cv\
5’: 35 >2: v\$58 i 1‘
361» Y5-iit
Eift: Efilblf
Ea? 8) :1 sasq
% ti 5 at/we
5%»?
yomu yomanai yomi-yam!’- yomu yomeba yomo yonde
masu
%Za (ride)
*6 tr v \ % U‘J 3i
% B >2: if1' fié
$6 fihizf
find fib
$6 5 §o'('
§o'C
noru
I7OI'U naranai nori-
noranai non’- noru
I70!'U noreba nor6 notte
nctte
masu
29> Z) (exist)
Z55 7‘; W’
2‘; In‘ :!:>
Zbli‘J if
£1" Z)/1'5
Z) '5 aflttf
Zbhlf ($>65)‘
(5)6 5)‘ E¥>o'C'
ibof
aru
8I'U nai arimasu aru
8!'U areba (ar6) 8H6
E 5 (buy) Ebew
Ebmw El» E1‘
EL\i'i' E "5
5 Eili
521:1’ E35
E $5 5 5 QT
E 0 ‘C
kau ka wanai kaimasu kau kaeba ka6 katte
:1
iik <'
<" (swim) i’1i<ib<f.cI/\
i(¢i<fJ<f.: I/\ iiik 5' $1
’1i< 3' i 1'
'3' iik <‘
i*l< (' i’?l<l‘l’ if
fil<l‘l' If i‘ii<C.’5
iii<C'5 i’ii<L\ ‘G
i7l<l-\ '(‘
oyogu oyoganai oyogi- oyogu oyogeba oyogo oyoide
masu
l1~]?,S~i (call)
l1~¥£= "Wt tr in I14?
l1¥|dft.cv\ "4307 U i 1‘1' WIS!
WES! "’¥'<l:l5
154:1 "Iii 5
llfli I11?/U-c~
IW,-r~
yobu yobanai yobi- yobu yobeba yob6
yob5 yonde
masu
ta -> 1, <1 Z>(sa Y
fioLe5@a 750
1'5 L-‘P
0 L &> £0
3'5 I/R>L\
0 L &> U 1'5
$3 0 L fie
W’ 6 B 0 L'?°f1-
$50 L '?~’*|» (£0 Lt?’
(350 L»?-1 B
$5 0 L -Q1
-‘P 1)
O
(Honorific)) i'5f;v\
E, 7; in i 1"
K if
lfll 7.: 5)‘
6 ‘C
ossharu osshare- osshai-
0sshai- ossharu osshare-
osshare (ossha - osshatte
ossha tte
na/
nai masu
!778SU ba r6)
APPENDIXES 577
inf., past inf

pas‘; neg“
inf., neg., causative” impera-
past passive“ causative“ potential“ tive
IIVC
¥L\f.:
¥L\ T; §/J‘
$1» 743
it 75‘ 0 TC. 6an
% mu 6 émea
% 1» 1?: 6 ewe
6 I1 6 $91
%l1
kaita kakanakatta kakareru kakaseru kakeru kake
fi 1:
ff’ 9 7:.’
7;‘ fifi\ 75?
fT7’J\ 7.1? 7)‘
75‘ 0 7'1
TC Ffam 6
nan fiabw“ 66
i5'fJ\*t3: Fri-I" 6
fin ??H
fin
itta ikanakatta ikareru ikaseru ikeru ike
33
3% L 7‘: 55 3 74? 7)‘ 0 TC.
§fi$7‘JT75‘0TC. 3% 8 ft 6
3€3fL6 3% 38 it 6
33 fifit 6
Eat EFE
33%
hanashita hanasana- hanasareru
hahasareru hanasaseru hanaseru hanase
ka tta
katta
iii‘
(5 9 0 7‘:
T: f‘-sf‘ 1’:
TC 7.:
7.1? 75*
7§‘ 0 7‘:
TC. Ff T: 31:
ii’? it 6 6'? f:'l:*.'6
f~'f1’:*t3:6 fir
f#'C 6 flit
f?f'C
ma tta
mafia ma rana-
IT)8t8I78- ma tareru I778 ta$€I'U
lTlata$€fU ma teru mate
I778 I8
katta
5E/v 2‘:
PEA; Ti’ FEU tr 7)» 6 7‘:
§Et=i-'7JT7§><> TC. Hit it 6
H5U I1 EH 12!:
FEti ti: 6 Eta
Eh 6 Eh
shinda shinana-
shinana - shinareru shinaseru sh/‘neru
shineru shine
katta
fine
3?: /v rs 5356*
?|i§‘k|3§ if
74? 75*
75> 0 ff.
TC. fiine
i%'"E 35 it 6 %$¢6
fiiea 6*-E ab
iii Ab 6 ii’: Ii)
6%!)
yonda y0mana-
yomana- yomareru yomaseru yomeru yome
katta
fin
*0 T:
7‘: '5 7.-I3
%5 74? 7)‘
7% 0 TC
TC. fi5
% '3 it 6 B ‘B.’
% '5 1?: 6 %h. 6
%h.6 fin
am
l70tf8
nOfIa narana- norareru noraseru noreru l70!’8
HOFG
katta
iboft.
3207‘: 743
74? 7)‘
75* 0 T23
TC.’ (&>h.)‘
(:M1.)‘
atta nakatta (are)
15:1’ 0 7‘:
E T: g*)7£7)‘0
fi1'J7£7§><>TC.
TC. bu 6
E hit E 1911: 6
E1')'I:1.'6 E 2.
i6 E :1
it
ka tta kawana-
ka wane- ka wareru ka waseru
kawaseru kaeru kae
katta
i‘i<L rs
iikL \ 2‘: fl‘ 743
7'3‘ 7:4? 75*
7)‘ 0
-0 it
TC. ii<h<i1, 6
ii<I:<ft Yikhi
i1l< 11¢ -it
1?: 6 fiH65
i’>"i<l‘I’ iiklf
i’ii<l‘I’
oyoida oyogana -
oyogana- oyogareru oyogaseru oyogeru oyoge
katta
::~}% 7;’
WA, ff Hzlifi 7)‘
ll‘f‘l£7I£ 75>’) TC.
0 ill I"?Ifit 6
ll‘?:11: I‘?
ll‘? Ii -B: 6
lit!‘ "'¥'< 6
"‘¥'< |h}E¢<
lb]?/<
yonda yobana-
yobana - yobareru yobaseru yoberu yobe
katta
JFSQLRJQTC.
1'5 0 L R’ ‘J TC is 6L
IP50 1:» 5 tr
L-‘P57; (Bo
(II5 0 L’?
L ‘I’ B ht (35 0 L &=
‘Q’ I5
B H
Il'<3 0 L ‘P 11- 5
ti’ 11: Z1 $5
1'5 0 L -‘P
-Q>
7ll*0
ZPOTC.TC. 6)‘ -ti: 6)‘
11:6)‘ W
:.\‘
osshatta ossharana- (osshare- (osshara-
(osshare- osshareru osshai
katta
ka tta reru) seru)
578 APPEND
APPENDIXES
IXES
formal, inf., d
inf. neg.,
inf., nonpast nonpast con i-
c_ondi- --
nonpa st
nonipast (masu- (dictionary tional volitional te-form
volmoml I94-orm
form) form)
Group 2
verbs 1
verbs‘
E, Z» (see)
E.6(see) E fg v \
Eixv‘ E11“
E11‘ §.6
E. >5 fifblzf
fine: E4:
E7‘?5 if
ET
miru minai mimasu
m/‘masu miru mireba miyd
m/yo mite
EZ>(go
E6(gototo E 2’; V \
Efgl/\ iii‘?
33$?!‘ 1'36
9:3 Z» Emi
fihlf E15
E415 Er
ET
neru bed) nenai nemasu neru nereba neyd nete
Irregular
verbs
'i'6(do)
'i‘Z>(do) 1, 1‘; v \
Ltcw L 3: 1‘
l/if T6
1' Z» ‘Hui
flu: LJ:
LJZ55 l/C
LT
suru shinai shimasuu suru
sh/‘mas sureba shiyé
shiyo shite
§lEZ>(come)
5lE6(come) 1'; fg v\
lit!/\ *5 31 1‘
6&1“ < Z»
6 <<m:.t'
mi 2: l 5
:14: é
$1 T
kuru konai kimasu kuru kureba koyd kite
1 Group 1 verbs are those whose negative, informal stems end with the [a]
[a:
sound. Group 2 verbs are those whose negative, informal stems end with
[i] Or
[i] or [e]
[e].
2 The complete conjugations of formal forms are as follow:
nonpast 11%
(% $1»
=5‘) $1‘
IT
(kak/jrmasu
(kak1)masu
neg , nonpast
neg., (%€i)$-EA,
11% fir) it-A,
(kakrjamasen
(kakfimasen
past 11% 5')
(% 3) iI LT:
L T:
<_kak/,|mashita
(kaki)mashI ta
neg past
neg., (3%) §'E'/9'6 LT.
(§%)§tA1't‘ LT; \
I
(kak/jrmasendeshita
(kaki)masendesh:ta
vohtlonal
volitional (ga)
11% 4; 15
3: l, ;
=3) i -9I
(kak/“,|mash6
(kaki)mash6
3 Irregular conjugation.
4‘ This form is usually not used.
5 Some honorific verbs (irassharu ‘ go; come; be ’, nasaru ‘ do
do’,’, gozaru ‘ be ’))
are irregular in the masu-form and the imperative form.
6 Passive verbs, causative verbs and potential verbs are all Group 2 verbs.
verbs
7 There are also imperative forms like Miyo ‘‘See’
See’ and Seyo ‘ Do.’ These
are used only in written Japanese.
APPENDIXES 579
inf., past inf., neg.,

neg" passive“
past causative“ potential"
potential“ imperative
E7‘:
ET: E14? fi‘
E17’.-I W 0 TC. E. 6I5 it 6
E E.
E 3é t11- 6 ,5. 11. 6
E. 6 fl, E. 5
6'
mita minakatta
minaka tta mirareru misaseru mirareru miro
ET:
E)‘: E74? fi*
E7! fl* 0 TC. E 6B it11. 6 Eé I5 ~14:
-ti: 6 it 6
E 6 ft Ea
13 6
neta
/IQI8 nenakatta nerareru nesaseru nerareru nero
L fa
7‘: L 7'it ii‘ 0 TC.
43 fi‘ 38 it
£1. 6 é3 ~14: 6 ‘P
‘G =3
it 6 L
1, 6 '’
shita shinakatta sareru saseru dekiru shiro
sh/ro
2* T:
€= 7‘: 7:1? 7)‘
I. 7&3 75* 0 TC. 1
2: '5I5 it 6 :1 38 ~14:
: ti: 6 2: 6 fl.
3; it 6 2: Irv\\
C.
kita konaka tta
konakatta korareru kosaseru korareru koi
S80
580 APPENDIXES
inf.
inf., -
inf.,inf. neg.
inf.,
past inf.
neg., neg.,
inf., neg.
condition
nonpast nonpast past
-
i-Adjectivess
1<_-aw
raw" kau
1:%t~ k%<#w
fi%<tw Xenon
1K3/J‘-OTC. fill‘
5-ll’ /\ ama
7.-1375*’) xswna
it 5' I1 11. Ii
(blg)
flvg) ?I'Fl'>I'l'
dkii
6k/'i okii
6k/'i okikunai
dkikunai okikarza
dkikatta 6kikunakat-
dkikunaka t- dkikereba
ta
L8
ww"
v\v\l0
ww
y\y\ :<&w
I < tr‘/\ amok
J: 7i)‘ '9 TC. i<&m6t anna
.k Uh If
I < ft-I 75‘/7 fl
(good)
ii ii yokunai yokatta yokunakatta yokereba
yokunakalta
8 Auxiliary adjectives -tai (want to), -rash/'i -rashii (seem), -yasui (easy to), -nikui
(hard to), -nai (not) are i-adjectives.
O'kii (big) and chisai (small) can be either i-adjectives or na-adjectives.
9 Gkii
When they are used as na-adjectives, they are rather emotive.
1° Ii
/i is an irregular /'-adjective.
i-adjective. //' Ii is usually used as the inf., nonpast form.
I——__ I I I I
na-
"at . _
AdJ ecttves“
Adjectives“
na=_r.;'
iI'*2§>j;’ aw:
€’i*25=f;' i%1b='C~"l:.tf.cv\ i‘?*7)*f;'o7‘;
ma»-c-a1r.:v\ iamrs‘-.» 7‘; aw»-<=t1».m=
fi%;)~'C*i:t>*.:r)= fi2b>f; 6 (ti)
§§fi*fifi§>(If)
(quiet) /> T:
shizukada shizukada shizuka--
shizuka shizuka--
shizuka shizuka-
shizuka - shizuka-
shizuka -
dewanai
dewanal datta
da tta dewanakat- nara(ba)
I8
at 15>
E? 1)» L:
v\l2
l; a» fa
=<= tr na~1;»<=f.m>
i‘$‘7)\IL»<=7£75\ tan»-canes
fimvbnd
l/‘I2 OTC."
-OTC”
shizukajanai
shizuka/'ana/' shizukaja - shizukada-
shizukade-
nakatta areba
Copula
T5
7;’ ti’
7;’ 'C*l:1r.:v\
‘CV17; Ir‘ f.-1'/>T;
72'/>7‘; 'C*litr:2b>~»f:. tr F) (If)
'C‘Ii>‘£iJ\»>fi: f.:¢>(l:.t‘)
(be)
(b¢)
da da de wanai
dewanai datta de wanakat- nara(ba)
dewanakat-
ta
I; 4» tr W’
l;a=tcv\" >31?»
ll »t> tr 2)» 6
7; 75> 'C*$>mi
I‘ Elbitlf
75:”
janai janakatta deareba
11 Borrowed adjectives (including Chinese-origin adjectives) and such auxiliary

(look like), -mitaida (look like), -soda (look) are all na-
adjectives as -yoda (_ook
adjectives.
APPENDIXES 581
- prenomi- formal
formal, formal,
formal’ formal
formal, formal,
formal’
te-form adverbial mlI
na nonpast' neg.,
nonpast past ' neg.,
past
nonpast past
ke<r
1<%<'C ifi<
t%< kau taut?
7: Z= L ~ -c '9' \3 j<%7lJ\0TC
"\-=3" o 7Q
X Mt
W
9++>l- rfi¢wwm+3:/\ “3*
9++>I *3‘ cl>l+- w
'61‘ it-l: 3~/\ 113+
iii‘ 3-A
7-C18
7\-:18
r.l$* (“'6
(ms
ok/"kute
dkikute dkiku
okiku dkii dkiidesu
6/(iidesu dkikuar/'—
c5kikuari- okikatta
ékikatta 6k/'kuar/'-
6kikuari-
masen desu masen
masen--
deshita
k%<&W
-(,1-13
-(7.1-18
k%<&m
fi%<&#
-O TC. ‘FT!’
O
6kikunai- ékikuna
dkikuna -
desu kattadesu
J:<'C
J: <T .k <
.1: vvw\
\v\ vw\'c*1-
vw\'c=-i" .1: < 29>
J: 76> D i
$2 J1 7)**9fC.'(:'
17')‘-97C'(‘ .1
J: < 6
29> 'D9 i
E
en"
ti:/o" 1‘
1' Eh?Lk"
fibTLk"
yokute yoku ii i/desu
iidesu yokuari- yoka tta - y0kuari-
yokuari-
masen desu masende -
masende-
shita
x<&wv
.1:
1-18
< fgl/\'G
-J-18
J1 < 72;?
7.4? 7)‘ 0
7‘: '6'?"
T: ‘G 1"‘
yokunai- yoku-
desu naka tta -
desu
i%7J='C‘
fi%h>'C‘ filvwl
ii"M>lC. fifiwtr
Firhfg fimv+
fih='C"i' fih>'C‘l:12b
fi7)*'C‘Ii$> fi7J~'C‘Lf.:
1-‘M-ct L7‘; fimcma
fimvua
3i'l=_l.'/v
9 ifl‘/v ''99 i -B:
ii‘ Al
/v ‘P
'0
L 7‘:
shizuka-- shizukani shizukana shizuka
shizuka shizuka-- shizuka - shizuka - shizuka -
de desu dewaan
de waan - deshita dewaar/1
de waari-
masen masen -
deshita
iii
fr 29>
1:» I;
ll 1:» 6
&>
6%we dw-
=39*?" gs ~v
#6 816* '9I) i
$2 -12'
ti.‘: /v
/u ‘C’
I‘
fa"
L Tc"
shizukaja -
shizuka/a shizukaja
shizuka/'a -
ar/masen
arimasen arimasen -
deshita
c
‘G — 0/6&6
0/F66 '61‘
?+ 'C‘li§>9D i
‘H713; ‘G L 7‘;
I‘ T: 'C*l:.t§> 0'9 i
‘E1129;
'11‘/v
‘U.’/v %b?Lt
fibfbt
de — no / dearu desu dewaari-
de waari- deshita dewaar/1
de waari-
masen masen -
deshita
K669i
tvhbi tebvi
tvhvi
1?:/~t=
ii-/V12
/aanma-
jaarima-
Eb?Lt"
uncut"
jaarima -
jaarima-
sen sendes/ma
sendeshita
12 Ja is the colloquial form of dewa.
'2
I3
13 ~naidesu / ~nakattadesu expresses a stronger feeling of negation than
~arimasen / ~ar/'masendeshita.
~ar/‘masen ~arimasendeshita.
582 APPENDIXES
Appendix 2 Semantic Classification of Verbs and Adjectives
A
A. Stative verbs
verbs:
A stative verb usually does not
ot appear with the auxiliary verb iru.
/ru
356 ((of an inanimate thing) exist);
3'o6 v\6 ((of an animate thing) exist);
aru iru
'C*?.<6 (can do);
‘G36 W6
v\6 (need)
dekiru iru
(All the potential verbs are stative. (e.g., EWJ6
EH06 (can drink))
homeru
nomeru
B. Continual verbs:
A continual verb with the auxiliary verb iru expresses the progressive
aspect.
fi'<6 (eat); EKU (drink);
Eki: Zli< (walk);
i’¢?=< 5E6 (run);
ii-26 F66
FE6 (dance);
taberu nomu aruku hashiru
hash/'ru odoru
I-‘Pk’?
I-R") (slflg);
(sing); i5i<<'
i9i<<’ (swim); iii’) (wait); 3&1‘
35'1" (talk); BIl< (hear);
F1i‘)<
utau oyogu marsu
matsu hanasu kiku
fits (read);
Emit‘ §< (write); E6 (see); ?5I<
?3Z< (cry); H716 (teach);
£0216
yomu kaku miru naku oshieru
E,-8:6 (show);
E,-E6 E’) (use);
(ii-3 (156 (make); %’)
%-5 (laugh); l?l<tt
bktr (rest);
miseru rsukau
tsukau tsukuru warau ' yasumu
EHQT6
@5'fi'§‘6 (study); iliéé
51%; (fly); %:?.6 (think); £55
‘%:I'_6 £5 (meet); (It:
B333» (live);
benkyésuru
benkyosuru tobu kangaeru au sumu
C. Stative-continual verbs:
A stative-continual verb can be either a stative verb or a continual verb.
R26 (be visible); F1fiC.2.6
53:16 (be audible); 5}i2~6
§}75~6 (understand); E5
mieru kikoeru wakaru chigau
(difl'er);
(differ); #165 (become; be suitable)
Iliéfi
niau
D. Punctual verbs:
A punctual verb with the auxiliary verb iru expresses a repeated action
or a state after an action was taken or something took place.
5616
9516 (get to know); H521; (die);
EEK; .Y;in6 (forget);
I.?~z"b6 fii‘ (lend);
Q-is f§=9 6
f§9
shiru shinu wasureru kasu kariru
(borrow); lrm:
‘9‘l§»S4 (jump); flo
Ho (hit); H16
H116 (get out); JK6
7&6 (enter);
tobu utsu deru hairu
APPENDIXES 583
1'10 (Stand);
171° (stand); B26 (sit down);
H56 E66 (get up);
UP)? i%li§-5I"6 (marry);
iF€!l§*J‘6
rsu
ta tsu su waru
suwaru okiru kekkonsuru
fi< (go); 5&6
5E6 (come); I56
J66 (return); E‘-‘5 (say);
I-=’§‘."') (say); 1566
$Jlf6 (give);
iku kuru kaeru iu ageru
is B 5 (get);
‘B65 Eh/6
E116 (get tired); $6 (get into trouble); $6 (get on);
i6
morau tsukareru komaru noru
#516
ii{ii6 (begin (v.i.)); $6156
#6196 (end (v.i.)); f%fl< FFli6 (close
l;l1< (open (v.i.)); [ii-1&6
hajimaru owaru aku shimaru
(v.i.)); 13:6
(:6 (become); % < (arrive);
%< l1§i1.6
B6116 (clear up); 1%:?_6
;%2.6
naru tsuku hareru oboeru
(remember); 356
136 (go to bed); 1l:i6 (stop (v.i.))
i1:i6 U6
I16 (kick); H<
neru tomaru keru tsuku
(be attached); ‘$5
6") (match); 111836
111606 (stop (v.t.))
au yameru
E. Continual-punctual verbs:
A continual-punctual verb can be either a continual verb or a punctual
verb.
(wear)
%6 (wear); E6 (take);
F16 (take) E296 (change (vi))
E196 (v.i.)); I-E3'C'§"6
iSl£j('i‘6 (order)
IfU
kiru toru kawaru chumonsuru
'
c/nimonsuru
F. Non-volitional verbs:
A non-volitional verb usually does not take the volitional form, the im-
perative form and the potential form. Non-volitional verbs are classified
into emotive verbs and non-emotive verbs.
F-11. Non volitional emotive verbs:
Non-volitional-emotive verbs
non volitional emotive verbs can take an NP-0.
Most of the non-volitional-emotive NP 0 (=i>o‘)
(=>0‘)
16:51
.J:6C.,S4 (be pleased); ilibtr
ii§~L€.t (be sad); 256 (be angrY);
E56 angry); "3
2’? B
F; 5
yorokobu kanashimu okoru kirau
(hate); flit: (like);
fit: [E6 (get into trouble); '%Ltr
%LU (suffer)
(sufler)
konomu komaru kurushimu
(Komaru and kurushimu do not take an N
NP-0.
P-0. They take either an N P-de
or an NP-ni.)
F-
F -2. Non volitional non emotive verbs
Non-volitional-non-emotive verbs:
‘G66 (can do);
‘C-36 v\6 (need);
I/\6 95116 (get to know);
5516 R26
E216 (be visible);
dekiru iru shiru mieru
Bi‘): 22:6
Bil: 2.6 (be audible); §)J0=~6 (understand);
6}2b>6 53
E "J5 (differ); (11%
I11? -55
kikoeru wakaru chigau niau
584 APPENDIXES
(become, be suitable); JEJFL6
JIEM6 (get tired)
rsukareru
tsukareru
G. Reciprocal verbs:
reci P rocal verb takes the particle
A reciprocal P article to for the direct ob'ect.
object.
J
%Il§‘l'6
%l1§'§"6 (marry); HA/2b=*;‘6
D‘/v7)*'J'6 (fight); Q5
£2’) (meet); (match)
G5 (match);
kekkonsuru kenkasuru au au
»Si'>7)>6 (bump into);
,8!/>r)>6 l'B%'§”6 (consult)
$5352-§‘6
butsukaru sddansuru
H. Movement verbs:
A movement verb can take Vmasu ni to ex P ress a purpose.
express pur P ose.
1'-T-<
fi< (go); ;E6 3156 (come); J-$6
I%6 (return); A6 (enter); H16
[116 (get out);
out)
I/(U
/ku kuru kaeru hairu deru
(1'L*a)%6
(1‘£6)‘§6 (stop by)
(tachi)yoru
(tach/')yoru
APPENDIXES 585
Appendix 3 Pairs of Intransitive and Transitive Verbs
Intransitive Verb I Transitive Verb

A 1. —eru —> —asu
l:l:i'6
Iii 6 (get out) Iii?‘
l:l:i"i' (take out)
deru dasu
i&l)"6
iii If 6 (run away) 566*?‘
iL§>)§'*J‘ (let run away)
nigeru nigasu
22$
$5 I)‘
D‘ 6 (dissolve) 6 19"?
16¢ (dissolve)
tokeru tokasu
i:'m66
tzlm (wither) 1'6
*5 515 1'
'1“ (let wither)
kareru karasu
-
A 2.. —eru —> —yasu

7% :2 6
;‘%i6 (get cold) K-§*<=1*
76%? (make cold)
hieru hiyasu
E :2:
GE :2’. 6 (grow) E’???
éE’<-*1‘ (grow)
ha eru ha yasu
hayasu
B. —iru —> —osu

2'5 6
E -Zr (get / wake UP)
UP) E : 1'
Elf)‘ (get / Wake
wake UP)
up)
okiru okosu
5%
I51 09 6 (get off)
ofl) IQ 6 1'
%6-i“ (take / bring down)
oriru orosu
ii 6-*6 6
ifi (drop)
(drop) Y5 9:k 1‘
1' (drop)
(drop)
ochiru otosu
OIOSU
SE if 6
5E1 (elapse) 55
3% 1"?‘
;'.'."i" (spend)
(spend)
sugiru sugosu
C. —u —> —eru
l‘%Fl<<
Ii? (open) B5 D‘
Bil I7‘ 6 (open)
aku akeru
E
E<< (reach) I7‘ 6
E H6 (deliver)
rodoku
todoku todokeru
ifa’
iiiiitr (shrink) {H3606
ifli 61> 6 (shrink)
chijzmu
ch/j/mu chijimeru
ch/jimeru
‘£5’:
150 (grow) 6‘C
€'C' 6 (raise)
soda rsu
sodatsu soda teru
reru
510
3'10 (stand) LIT 6 (stand)
ta tsu
f8f$U ta teru
I8I6’fU
586 APPENDIXES
D. —!'U —* *S8fU
$5
$6 (get on) §-8:5
it 6 (put on)
noru
I70!'U noseru
HOSQFU
2.5?
155 6 (approach) 61:.“ 56
$511‘ (let come near)
yoru yoseru
E.
E —ru —*
‘TU —> *SU
—-su
1%
4% (iii)
GE) 6 5 (return) I3
51% GE) 1‘ (return)
kaeru kaesu
56
E5 6 (pass) 1151"
5151')‘ (pass)
(pass)
téru
toru tésu
IOSU
E1]
E1156 (turn) E11“
IE1?‘ (turn)
ma waru ma wasu
E5
E6 (be fixed) E1“
E1‘ (fix)
(fix)
naoru naosu
F. -!'8!'U —* —$U
EH15
W£fb6 (be detached) H1“
H1" (detach)
hanareru hanasu
@166
@111 5 (fall down) $11"
5']1‘ (push / knock down)
taoreru
I80!'8!'U taosu
OXR5
0$n6 (crush) 0 £41“
054*)‘ (crush)
tsubureru tsubusu
.1: tn
J: zrn 6
5 (get dirty) J: 1'1‘ (make dir
dirty)
W)
yogoreru yogosu
E.
E (6)
(i) n
21. 6
5 (appear)
(appear) E (i) 1‘
fiifi) 1' (represent))
(represent
ara wareru ara wasu
arawasu
::bn5
bit 6 (break) ::1 bi‘
19'?‘ (break)
kowareru kowasu
G 1..
G1 —aru —*
-—8fU —> *8l'U
—eru
J:
_|:.7)35
7): 6 (rise) J; if 6
_|:.U’5 (raise)
agaru ageru
59%
3% i 6
5 (be decided) 5%
fit ab 6
5 (decide)
kimaru kimeru
FF]
PH i 6
5 (close) B141
EH ablb 6
5 (close)
shimaru shimeru
$6
fit 6
5 (gather) flab 65 (gather)
atsumaru
8lSU!778!'U atsumeru
8I$UIT78fU
11%|
iléii‘i 6
5 (begin) ilé‘ lb 6
fiéb 5 (begin)
hajimaru hajimeru
APPENDIXES 587
éii
% i65 (heighten) E Ab 5
$18) 6 (heighten)
takamaru takameru
Ei 6 5 (harden) E ab 5
6 (harden)
katamaru
ka tamaru katameru
ka tameru
E0 2)» 6
E/>2b=-5 (be found) E666
R0 U5 (find)
mitsukaru mitsukeru
7)=2§=5
2b~2)>6 (hang) WU
29> 5
I1 6 (hang)
kakaru kakeru
B;lJ7)=5
E7J2)=6 (be saved) Eb 0‘ 6
EJJU5 (save)
tasukaru tasukeru
. —W8!'U —* -—8!'U
E (R) b 6
$5 5 (change) Q (R) 2'7?.. 5
6 (change)
ka waru ka eru
kaeru
Eb 6
{Eb 5 (¢0flVeY)
(convey) Ei 6
(ii 5 (convey)
rsu ta waru
f.S‘Ul8W8fU tsutaeru
tsu ta eru
7Jflb5
7111156 (join) 7111 i 6
D1125 (add)
ku wa waru kuwaeru
--eru —> —u
-—eru
at :1
are D‘ 65 (burn) #12
5% < (burn)
yakeru yaku
iit 6
5'5it 5 (sell) 5'5'66. 6
5 (sell)
ureru uru
UFU
fin 6
H3111 5 (come off) H51 5
El 6 (take)
toreru toru
IOFU
am 65
I571?» (cur)
cut) fill 5
571 6 (cur)
(cut)
kireru kiru
Mn 6
H31. 5 (tear)
tear) M
ME 6 5 (rear)
(tear)
yabureru yaburu
l7’rh56
ifin (break)
break) ifi 6
lfr 5 (break)
oreru oru
$111.6
iblnas (break)
break) 616
515 (break)
wareru W8!'U
or
vi H’
:1 65 (come
come out) i1i<
l7‘i< (pull out)
nukeru nuku
Ii
I3: E I7‘ 6
EH5 (be untied) lit’
liE<< (untie)
hodokeru hodoku
hodbku
ll5l.l)" 6
Il5l.if 5 ofi')
(come ofi) H%¢
H51 <’ (take off)
ofl')
nugeru nugu
588 APPENDIXES
I. Others
R :2 15
EA": 5 (be visible) E6
R5 I
(see)
l. see)
m/eru
mieru miru
W116
Flfi C. 71'. 5 (be audible) B51
Flfl < (hear)
kikoeru kiku
‘‘ll-‘i2.5
RF? :2. 15 (be extinguished) iiléfi‘
"il§'l‘ (extinguish)
kieru kesu
7&5
JV-'> '(enter)
1 enter) Ah/5
An 15 (put in)
hairu ireru
§)7)=i"L 6
63'?)-it 5 (get separated) §) D‘
U5 6 (separate)
wakareru wakeru
iféb
i‘-‘§b5 Z» (end) i‘~$;I'.5 I/5‘-H915
i‘~%:I'.%'> $3295 (end)
owaru oeru /I owaru
Notes
(1) The “ —u —> —asu ” pattern is not included in this list because this pattern
applies to all intransitive Gr. 1l verbs, changing them into the causative
form (i.e., the transitive form).
(2) Suru ‘do’ vs. naru ‘become’ and korosu ‘kill’ vs. shinu ‘die’ make
pairs of transitive and intransitive verbs, though the two in each pair
have no phonological element in common.
APPENDIXES 589
Appendix 4 Comnection
Connection Forms of Important Expressions
A. Vneg+ (Gr. 2: Vstem+ ))

~f.c\/~'C' (without doing ~)
~ nai de
%
~{>:ch*mf/
i
{rmnm 1::f.c<< ‘Hi
'('l:t/2:1l:fl>‘.rF>?£\/‘
/ m:flf.cF>f.cv~
~ {nakereba / naku te wa / neba} naranai
~l?.£<'Cli/ f.::n‘1|14:Jf/
~l>‘.£<'Cl:l:/ ?.cl‘)‘i’I1l:.t"/1*.cv\tl\/\l7‘f.irl/\
Pirlntll/\h‘f4’r\r‘ (must do ~ (Obligation))
~ {nakute wa I/ nakereba / naito} ikenai
ikenei
~f.c<'C\t>vw~
~7£< 'C‘bV‘\/‘ (do not have to do ~)
~ nakutemo ii
%
~&<&5
~r‘.c< 2:5 (do not do ~ anymore)
~ naku naru
~'J‘l: (without doing ~)
~ zu ni
B. Vmasu +
-——
~ Hi?‘
~l:H'i' (begin to do ~)
~ dasu
i
~ ta ab 5
~!z{3&rb5 (begin to do ~)
~ hajimeru
i
~77
~7'i (how to do ~; way of doing ~)
~ kara
~iLx5
~3iLJ: '5 (Let’s do ~; I (We) will do ~)
~ masho
i
~te: 29?-F; (while doing ~)

~ nagara
i
~ 7"; 3 y\
~f.cé<v\ imperativ e))
(Do ~ (Polite imperative))
nasai
~ nasa/'
%
~ I:
i
(fr < )
lc:(fi‘-<) ((go) to do ~)
~ ni (iku)
i
l£<< v\
~01
i
P‘ (hard to do ~)
~ nikui
i
B~K&5 ~lCf.:5 (do ~ (Honorific))

0 ~ ni naru
$6 ~ '3‘ 5
~'i“5 (do ~ (Humble))
003305; ~ suru
~l‘~‘§b
~:’f~%b5 5 (finish doing ~)
~ OW8!'U
~ owaru
590 APPENDIXES
~%’)f.;'
~’€‘5f;' (It looks like ~ will do ~)
~ soda
~-i"-Z55
~-r-3'5 (do ~ excessively)
~ sugiru
~f:_v~
~I‘:v\ (want to do ~)
~ tai
~—*{=—;w\
-'1?’-5‘!/\ (easy to do ~)
~ yasui
C. Vinf+
—-
~?;]
~F§] (I1)
(l:)TT (while)
~ aida (ni)
~f.fl‘)‘
~f;'l7‘ (just)
~ dake
Tc’ 5 5
~ 756 (probably)
~ daro
~li'§‘
~|i'§‘ (It is expected that ~)
~ hazu
~l1'57)§vw\
~li52b‘iv\v\ (had better do ~; I suggest ~ do ~)
~ ho
/10 ga ii
~2b>-‘B Lilia!/‘
~7§*‘l> L31/>‘.rv\ (might)
~ kamoshirenai
~25»-L6 / 72"???)
~2§=l,¢> 7)>f.:$> (~, I wonder)
~ kashira I ~ kané
~h‘i‘LE ‘bi
~D‘i1E (>1 (although)
~ keredomo
~;';tliI
~:&liI (indeed ~ (but))
~ koro
koto wa
~-¥+2‘:.v~r.:'
~71~f:v\f;' (It appears that ~)
~ mitaida
~(rI>)>*.c ET
~()f.c B1‘ (if)
~ (no) nara
~l:152b§v~>*.cv~
~l:B7)3W*:v~ (must (Certainty))
~ ni chigainai
~[¢>// Mr:
~[0) /v}T.:' (It is that ~; The fact is that ~; The explanation
~{no/n}
~ [no / n] da is that ~)
~'GI
~®'C"'I (since; because)
~ node
~V)lCT
~0)lC.T (in spite of the fact that ~)
~ noni
~6')l:t~f;’
~¢)l3:~f;' (It is ~ that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
~nowa~da
APPENDIXES 591
~156 LI/\
~ Lu» (It seems that ~)
~ rash/'i
rashii
~ LI (~ and)
~ shi
~%5r.:
~’E '5 7;’ (I[I heard that ~)
~ soda
~B%-‘H
~l*?’rT (when)
~ toki
~ b U rs
~bl7‘f.:’ (No wonder ~; It means that ~: That’s why ~)
~ wake da
~ J: 557;’
~J: T5 (It appears that ~)
~ yoda
~ J: 55l::’r
--J: ICT (in such a way that ~; as ~ do ~)
yon:
~ yéni
1‘T The formal form can also be used in very polite speech.
I The formal form can also be used in rather polite speech.
speech
D. Vinf - nonpast+
~:'. .1;2b32b5
~: tr)?-55 (There are times when)
~ koto ga aru
~11 &2)§'C'-35
~:t2b§'C"é'5 (can do ~)
~ koto ga dekiru
~11 .1;l:f.:5
~: tlc:f.:5 (It’s been decided that ~)
~ koto ni naru
~;'.'. tL:f.i:o'Cv\5
~: &&.:>:c5'tv~5 (It is a rule that ~; be supposed to do ~)
~ koto ni natte iru
~;: tic-;-5
~: and-5 (decide that
(decide that ~)
~)
~ koto ni suru
~:; kl:L'C\/\5
~C. &l:L,'Cv\5 (make it a rule to do ~)
~ koto ni shite iru
~11‘?
~ 3i'C'T (till)
~ made
~i'f'lc:T
~3i'C'l:T (by the time when)
~ made ni
~i-‘qfllct
~ fiillcr (before)
~ mae ni
~l,®2‘.i'
~l>®f;' (should do ~)
~ mono da
~f.:
~?; (Don’t do ~)
~ na
~<7)l:T
~<Dl:.T (in order to do ~)
~ no ni
592 APPENDIXES
-Tabb
~ fa ab (in order to do ~; because)
~ tame
~ H
~<‘;T (if; when)
~to
~ IO
~ <2 .1 5 rs
~<E:5f.;" (be about to do ~)
~ tokoro da
~"J ‘L 9D T5
~’>'l> Ti [intend to do ~)
(intend
~ tsumori da
~5BnT
~ 5 5&1? (while)
(while)
~ uchi ni
~l5t&5
~.J: ’Jl~Z>*.c5 (come to do ~)
~ yoni naru
~.tJ: 5aaa;-5
~ l:-r5 (try to do ~)
~ yoni suru
1'T The formal, nonpast form can also be used in very polite speech.
E. Vinf - past+
—-
~2b<‘:'C'
~ $> k '6‘ (after)
4(after)
~ ato de
~: <‘:7)33bFI>
~C &2b§$>5 [have
I(have done ~ (Experience))
~ koto ga aru
~b@fi
~‘{>0)f.;’ [used
4(used to do ~)
~ mono da
~ BI
51 (if;
I(if; when)
~ ra
~6E5TTm
~15 E’)'C"§‘>0~ [Why
1(Why don’t you do ~?; How about doing ~?)
~ ra dddesu ka
~ D') ~ 99'l‘5
T5 1 [do things like doing ~ and doing ~)
(do
~ ri ~ ri suru
~ T: bbi
~f.:6bI (because)
(because)
~ tame
~<>'C
"OT (even
[even if)
~ I26
U6’
é::5f_-T
~ <‘: Z P5f;’ {have just done ~; just did ~)
(have
~ tokoro da
~Oh9fi
~’) ‘B 9 f.:T (mean; believe)
(mean;
~ tsumori da
I The formal, past form can also be used in rather polite speech.
APPENDIXES 593
F. Vte+ _-l
~§>l)"5
~§>l)"Z> (do ~ for s.o.)
~ ageru
~55 (have been done)
~ aru
~l1Lv-
~i1l,v\ (want s.o. to do ~)
~ hoshii
~v\<
~|,\< (do ~ and go; keep doing ~ fr
from
om now on)
~ iku
~\/V5
~v\5 (be doing ~; have done ~)
~ iru
~7)=F>
~20~% (after)
~ kara
~ < fié
fiéw\/\ (Please do ~)
~ kudasai
~ < n5
~<it5 (s.o. does ~ for me)
~ kureru
~<5 (do ~ and come; come to do ~
~))
~ kuru
~-1+5
~55 (do ~ and see; try to do ~)
~ miru
~‘l>
~'l> (even if; even though)
~ mo
~(,\/W\
~()|,\\,\ (may (Permission))
~ mo ii 11
~
~(>i> B 5 (have s.o. do ~ for me)
~ morau
~i$<
~2‘<~i< (do ~ in advance)
~ oku
~ Li 5'3 (have done ~; finish ~)
~ shimau
~l1v\Ur‘.cv\
~(;tv\h‘f;:v\ (must not do ~)
~ wa ikenai
G. Vcond
Vcond++ (Gr. 2: Vstem+re+ ___?))
~l:fJ:7)~oT:.
""lfJI7)‘0TC (I wish ~ had done ~)
~ ba yokatta
H. Vvol + -__-
~J: 5 <‘:.*E.5 (~ think ~ will do ~)
~ yd to omou
~J:5
~J25 <‘:';‘5
!:'§‘5 (try to do ~)
yo to suru
~ yd
594-
594 APPENDIXES
I. Adj(/)inf+
~ Ff]
F51 (la)
(ic) (while)
~ aida (I7/)
(n/)
~r;'n‘
~7:.’h‘ (just)
~ dake
~ T35
ff 5 5 (probably)
~ daro
~ iii‘
~l:1'i‘ (It is expected that ~)
~ hazu
~r)>i, Lfw*.cv\
~7b>i, Lfbitk‘ (might)
~ kamo shirenai
~7)=LF>
~7)>LB / ~7)=>*.e2P>
~r)=f..c2b (~, I wonder)
~ kashira / ~ kané kana
U'fL<‘:' ‘(>1
~ {THE M (although)
~ keredomo
~ : kkl:l:~
~12 ii~ [indeed (but))
(indeed
~ koto wa ~
»-(<0) 1:5
~(®)f.:6 (if)
~ (no) nara
~lr.*;zb‘§v\f.c\/\ [must (Certainty))
(must
~ ni chigainai
~[0) / /vfil
~[0)//vii} (It is that ~; The fact is that ~; The explanation
~{no/n]da
~{no/n}da is that ~)
~0')'C'T (since; because)
(since;
~ node
~0)l:T
~mai (in spite of the fact that ~)
~ noni
~0')li~f.:’
~0)ii~7‘;' (It
{It is ~ that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
~BLv\
~F>L\/\ [It seems that ~)
(It
rashii
~ rash/i
~Lf
~ LT (and)
~ shi
~*'£' 55725
~% T5 (I heard that ~)
~ soda
~71?)
~te?) (because)
~ tame
~Ii#
~55 (when)
~ toki
~0tD
~’) 'l> 9 (believe)
~ tsumori
APPENDIXES 595
~bn‘f;'
~bUf:T (No wonder ~; That’s why ~)
~ wake da
~J: ")f.;’
572' (It appears that ~)
~ yoda
T The formal form can also be used in very polite speech.
I The formal form can also be used in rather polite speech.
].
J. Adj(i)inf - nonpast+
~12 <‘;2b3&>5
~: .1:7)3&>5 (There are times when)
~ korokoto ga aru
~ <‘2:; (when, if)
~ to
~ 5 5i:
El; (while)
~ uchi ni
K. Adj(i)inf - past+
~: <‘:7)§§>5
~;: <':2b'=i$>5 (There were times when)
~ koto ga aru
~F>
~ =5 (if; when)
~ ra
~ D ~ 91-5
9+5 (~ is sometimes ~ and sometimes ~)
~ ri ~ ri suru
~51‘
"OT (even
(CVCH if)
~ HQ
U6’
L. Adj(i)te +
Adj(i)te+
~‘l> (even if; even though)

~ mo
~'l>vw~
~‘l>l/w\ (It is all right if ~)
~ mo ii
7‘: K ¢>>*.cv\
~ Tai B tr: v \ (unbearably)
~ tamaranai
M. Adj(i)stem +
~r)'i5
~7b§5 (show the sign of)
~ garu
~99
~1/L [Noun form of Adj(i)]
~ mi
596 APPENDIXES
~é [Noun form of Adj(/')]

Adj(i)]
~ sa
~-‘E 5 f..-1'
~% L’ (look)
~ soda
~’)" {F5
~‘J'=5'5 (excessively)
~ sugiru
N. Adj(na)stem + {Zita}
{ggna} + i_
~f‘é1(l:)
~ P51 (lc) (while)
~ aida (ni)
~7‘;'D‘
~f:fU (only)
~ dake
~li'*l"
~i:.t-Q‘ (It is expected that ~)
~ hazu
~;:.1:li~
~.’;<‘:i:t~ (indeed ~ (but))
koro wa ~
~ koto
~[<0/lvlfi
~[0')/A/]f.:’ (It is that ~; The fact is that ~; The explanation
~ {no/n}da is that ~)
~01‘
~<I)'C' (since; because)
~ node
~0)i:
~0)lC. (in spite of the fact that ~)
~ noni
~rm1~r5
~0)l:.t~f:.’ (It is ~ that
that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
T: ab
~ 7:1?) (because)
~ tame
~ Hi?
~l1?“f (when)
~ toki
~’>‘(>
~'> ’l> 9D (mean; believe)
~ tsumori
~bUf:.‘
~bi)‘f;' (No wonder ~; That’s why ~)
~ wake da
~J:
~42 572‘572' (It appears that ~)
~ yoda
O_ {Adj(n§)stem}_|_{gau
{Adj(n§)stem} + {Z3228}}_,_
+
a a
Hit E
~ PHI. <‘:' (>1
BI (although)
~ keredomo
~ LI (and)
~ shi
APPENDIXES 597
~%
~-5 55f:.:'
Te‘ (I heard that ~)
~ soda
I The formal form of dalda/ datta (i.e., desu / deshita)
deshira) can also be used in
rather polite speech.
P_
P. {Adj(n§)stem} + {dating}
{daota} +
f.:T5
~ ff 65 (probably)
~ daro
~7)>'l>
~ Lh,7.r\1\
75% Lfbfxl/‘ (might)
~ kamoshirenai
~b>L¢>
~n>L F» /I ~n>f.:$>
~:b>f.c&> (~, I wonder)
~ kashira /I ~ kané
~55
~ tr F» GD
(if)
~ nara
~i~:*>r>§v\t.cv\
~lC*;2b'5\/Witt‘ (must (Certainty))
~ ni chigainai
I5 Ll/\
~B Ll» (It seems ~)
~ rash/'i
Q. Adj(na)stem _|_da_|_
{Adj(n§)stem}+da+
‘F3 Z §,_/
~ Pf"/-'“-'\
~<‘:T (when, if)
(when; 1f)
~ IO
8-+
T The formal form of da (i.e., desu) can also be used in very polite speech.
R
R. Adj(na)stem + na +
~:. <‘:20'5&>5
~:<‘:7)§&>5 (There are times when ~)
koro ga aru
~ koto
~ 5 Bl: (while)
~ uchi ni
S_ Adj(na)stem +daHa+
{Adj(n§)stem} _|_da”a+
9’ Z
/-“é §,_/
~‘:. <‘:7:§2lb5
~: E5355 (There were times when ~)
~ koto ga aru
~ F>I
~51 (if; when)
~ ra
~ 9D ~ 9+5
91-5 (~ is sometimes ~ and sometimes ~)
~ ri ~ ri suru
598 APPENDIXES
T .
I ~5
"OT (even if)
~ tte
IT The formal form of datta (i.e., deshita) can also be used in rather polite
speech.
T_ {Adj(n§I)stem}
~11.
~'l>
+de+
—
(even if; even though)
~ I770
~ mo
~i{)\,\\,\
~'l>vw~ (It is all right if ~)
~ mo ii
U. Adj(na)stem +
~é
~é [Noun form of Adj(na)]
~ sa
~ % 5 rs
~*'£' T3 (look)
~ soda
~ ‘T
'3‘ 3'
5' 5 (excessively)
~ sugiru
V‘ N +{Zgttai+
~F§l(lC)
“Foal (ll) (during; while)
~ aida (ni)
~i:I'3‘
~li'J‘ (It is expected that ~)
~ hazu
~TcIb
~7‘:1i> (for; because of; because)
~ tame
~wa
~51’; (at the time of; when)
~ toki
~01, 9
~0t9 (mean; believe)
~ tsumori
~ J: 55f.:’
~41 7;’ (It appears that ~; look)
~ yoda
W‘ N + {Zita}
8118 +
~[0)/A/}f.:"
~[®/Mfi
-—— (It is that ~; The fact is that ~; The explanation
{no/n]da
~ {no/n}da is that -)
~)
~0)'G
~01‘ (since; because)
~ node
APPENDIXES 599
~wa:
~0)l:'. (in spite of the fact that ~)
~ noni
~<Dli~7‘.:'
~®ii~T.:' (It is ~ that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
X. N+no+
---
~ 5 50:
B la: (while)
~ uchi ni
600 APPENDIXES
Appendix 5S K0-so-a-do
N on-Modifier
. . . Direction
D' '
What isIS being Demonstrative
Pronoun -
Location
Location ‘rectum
rs
talked about is Pronoun -
nonpolite
close to the speaker Z it
Z21. C .1
Z C. L‘ 0
C 55B
kore koko kotchi
(this) (here) (this way)
close to the hearer -Z-fl,
—'£-Tb i- .:
*'£' L: -5'
-2- 5 5
*9
sore soko sorchi
sotchi
(that) (there) (that way)
removed from both am.
in 35% 1‘.
5% .: 5
F) 5 5
B
the speaker and the are asoko arch/'
hearer (that over there) (over there) (that way over
there)
being questioned En
Eh. E .:
EL: E55
E0 B
dore doko do rchi
dotchi
(Which?) (Where?) (Which way?)
Notes
l. K0-so-a-do of direction can be used to refer to persons as well as things,
places and directions, as in:
(1) a. C15Bi1ll|H3é/v'C"i'..
C1-.'>I'E>l;tllllE£lé</v'(‘*l'°
Kochira wa Yamada-san desu.
(This is Mr. Yamada.)
b.
b. :5t>0>7iwb‘iiev\.t..
Co15V)?:'i7)3i\/‘Jla
Kotchi no ho ga yasui yo.
(This one is cheaper, you know.)
c.
C. 2‘s%‘1i9ev~i1.:55'C'1“.
O-tearai wa kochira desu.
(The toilet is this way.)
d.
d. ;5152b§{;'é0)$f.:Ta
Kotchi ga boku no kuruma da.
(This one is my car.)
APPENDIXES
APPENDIXES 601
Modifier
Demonstrative Kinds
@ i’§mi'”“vi
polite
:55
C BB
Adjective
:0
cw :55
Zbfl
Manner
:5
-n
u '9
*
kochfia
koohira kono konna k6
k5
(this way) (this ~) (this kind of) (like this)
“E
‘E B5 I55 %®
50> enm
1"/Vt: ~'£- 5
ri"
sochira
sochfla sono
SOHO sonna
S0006 s6
so
(that way) (that ~) (that kind of) (like that)
555
5 B5 50
5® 55¢
aaa 55
83$)
achira ano
8/70 anna
anna 5
(that way over (that ~ over there) (that kind of) (like that)
there)
E55
E56 E0
E® E55
Eat E5
dochira dono donna d6
do
(Which way?) (Which ~?) (What kind of?) (How?)
2. The so-series can be used to direct attention to a referent removed from
both the speaker and the hearer if information about the referent has been
given to the hearer, as in:
=50)-5$'C';'W:.fi5'C5lET:.1:,,
(2) A: €®5Efi'C‘;'W~1fio'C§iET;J:.>
Kino kuruma de mizuumi ni /tteitte kita yo.
(Yesterday I went to a lake by car.)
B 2: {'(7)WiiCiI1£fi.7)3v\7*;nw\?
{'UJ?51ilCli#iUb3v‘T:2bw\?
Sono m/zuumi
Sana mizuumi ni wa sakana ga /ta
ita kai?
(Were there fish in the lake?)
3. The speaker feels most empathetic with an item referred to by the ko-
series, because the item is closest to him. On the other hand, the speaker
feels least empathetic with an item referred to by the a-series, because
the item is removed from him and his hearer.
602 APPENDIXES
Appendix 6 Numerals and Counters

A. Numerals
Native _
Japanese S1110-J3p3l16S6
Sino-J apanese
Numerals
—
—- (O)
(0) l —- -Ir
+ —-
._. 21 I.-I-—
:'.—|——-
h/'to(-tsu)
hito(-rsu) ichi
IC/‘II /'0-ichi ni-/'0-ichi
ni-/'0-ichl
2 :.
I. (5)
(0) 2 :. 12 + :.
—|- I. 22 :.+:.
:.+:
futa(-tsu)
futa(-rsu) ni /'0-ni ni-/'0 -ni
ni-/'0-ni
3 E (0) 3 E-1 13 + 3-ZE 30 E. +

E
mir(-tsu)
mit(- tsu) san
S8/I /'0-san san-/'0
4 (Q)
IE (0) 4 DH
PH 14 + IE
"FIE 40 IE
21++
yot(-tsu)
yot(-rsu) {yon
yon - - _ yon
~-_ yo/7 _.-
yon _--
{shi
shi /U {shi shi} /U
:5. (0)
3i (O) 1i
351 +-:5
+ ii 50 5
SE. ++-
/'tsu(-tsu)
irsu(-rsu) go #190
/'0-go 9040
go-/'0
7'< (0)
-la
7'<
/\ + 7‘<
-I‘ '7< 60 7‘? +
7'?
mur(-rsu)
mut(-tsu) roku /'0-roku roku-/'0
roku -/'0
7 -I:
1: (0)
(*1) 7 4:
13 17 + —t:
+1: 70 —t:
t +
nana(-tsu)
nana(- rsu) shichi
S/71C/"II /0_
- {.2/;Ir€.‘;7I
shich/' ;s"/Q/{$31}
shich/ _/-0 -
/U" {nana nana }'/'7
/\ (0)
/\ (5) /\ + /\ 80 /\ +
yar(-rsu)
yat(-tsu) hach/'
hachi /'0-hachi hachi-/0
hachi-/O
I
it
1|. ('9)
(0) )1. + it
+11- 90 it
11. +
rsu)
kokono(- tsu)
{’{I}?/G
2uZ" /H-{’;Z"
/-0_ {llgyd
u
kyfi-jfi
kyo-/0
+ 10 +
10+ 20 : +
I 100 E
15
to /'0 ni-/'0 hyaku
Notes
1. The native Japanese numeral system is used from 1 to 10 only. For
numbers greater than 10 the Sino-Japanese numeral system is used. The
-rsu is a counter for things.
parenthesized -tsu
2. 1,000 is usually read as sen, not as is-sen.
is-Sen.
3. Telephone numbers are given in Sino-Japanese numerals. For example,
APPENDIXES 603
Numerals
126 E:-l—>K'
E3-+f< 1,352 =FE-'.i»'.i'E+:
$351+: 100,000 + 75‘
7?
hyaku-ml
h yaku -n/' - sen-san
sen-san-- /'0-man
/'0-roku
/'17-roku byaku-go-
oyaky-go-
/u-n/
/'0-ni '
200 :1 E
I 2,000 :1 =[-'
I ‘F- 1,000,000
1,000,000 E 75
7?
ni-hyaku ni-sen hyaku-
man
300 E. E 3,000 Li =F-
E ‘F 10,000,000 —-=F-7?
-‘F7?
san-byaku | san-zen
san -zen is-sen -
is-sen-
man
400 IE €E I 4,000
4,000 IE =F
‘F 100,000,000
100,000,000 —- %.
— E
yon-hyaku
yon -h yaku _ yon-sen I ichi-oku
/"chi-oku
500 E iE
I f-'1‘ 5,000 5
E ‘F 1,000,000,000 -|— {E
+15
go-hyaku go-sen /'0-oku
/0-oku
600 is
>‘< E 6,000
6,000 9%‘ =F-
7< ‘F . i0,000,000,000
l0,000,000,000 E Q
E-1‘ {E
rop -p yaku
rop-pyaku roku-sen
roku -sen . yaku--
h yaku
oku
700 4: 1'5
is "ET I 7,000 4: ‘F
13:1‘ 100,000,000,000 (—') ‘Ffi
(-') ‘FIE
nana-
nana - shichi} _ Sen
shichi . (is-)sen
(is- )sen -
h yaku l nana }'Se” - oku
800 It-'1‘
/\ if 8,000
8,000 /\ T
=F- ' 1,000,000,000,000 —- 5115
-' §l5
hap-pyaku
hap-p yaku has-sen it-cho
900 it E
it. fi 0,000
9000 11.
it ‘F
kyo-hyaku kyo-sen
1,000 =F
‘F 10,000 ~15‘
—- 75'
sen ichi-man
3389-2681 san-hachi-kyfi-no,
89-2 6 81'is read as “ san - hachi - kyu-no,
' ni-roku-hachi-ichi
ni - roku - hachi - ichi ””.. However,
H owever, 4
and 7 are often read as yon and nana, respectively.
4. The year according to the Western calendar is given in Sino-Japanese
numerals followed by nen, the counter for year. Thus, 1984 is read as
sen-kydh yaku-hachi/'0-yo(n)nen
“ sen-kyoh yaku-hachijd-yo(n)nen ”.
604 APPENDIXES
B
B. Counters (The following chart lists some commonly
commonly-used counters.))
-used counters
Type /I Type B Type C Type D Type E
iii
ii 71$
718 5%
3 iili
ill} E
E
_pé/.’.
-ma/' -hon -ka -satsu
-88 ISU -péji
(thin (long (lesson) (volume) (P886)
(Page)
object : object :
P0P",
P419", pencil,
ticket stick,
etc.) etc.)
— tiat —"-' 2|:
111 —
—' 351
3 —- iii}
ill} — E
ichi-mai ip-pon ik-ka is-sarsu
is-satsu
ighii 'pé/7
ighi} 'pé/ii
-I1 ii
I 11: :. It
I :4: :. 3%
I 3 I iii} I E
ni-mai ni-h on
ni-hon ni-ka ni-sarsu
ni-satsu ni-péji
:5. tic
5 Ti —-.-Q
E IF
—
m
53
E 3% E-I lili
El iii} E E
san-mai san-bon san-ka san-satsu san-péji
san -péji
IE ti
11C lm It IE
I33 E
3 IE iii}
{iii IE E
yo(n)-mai yon-hon yon-ka yon-sarsu
yon-satsu yon-péji
1
E $5:
15: 1
E It
III 3i
E E3 E iii}
Eli lili E
iii E
go-mai go-hon go-ka go-sarsu
go-satsu go-péji
>*< ii
7< T5: 7<
7K‘ Iii
715 7: 3
7‘: E2 7:
7%‘ iii} 7:
7‘< E
roku-mai rop-pon rok-ka roku-satsu roku _ --~
| rop i'pe/'
1:
~l: tit
T5: 4: 111
IF 1:
~11: as
3 t
ti iii} -l:
t E
nana_ _m - nana
nana nana_ h n
8/7IC/7!} "ma" sh/em}
shichi sh/ch1i'"’°"
O shichi} ‘*8
‘sh/ch: A nana. _ka
/78/78
1
} nana
nan‘? '8
shichl
shichi} -sarsu ats nana
shichii
sh/em} ‘P9/’
‘P
- --
/\ Ti
15: A
/\ 21:
It | /\
/\ at
fi /\ H1}
iii} /\ E
hachi-mai hachi-hon
hap-pon
/‘I80/7/
hach1}_ka
hak
hak iki’
has-satsu
2:21")
hachi
hap }'pe/
it $5!
11. 15% it IF
11. Eli 71.
in E3 71. iii}
ibilii it
71. E
kyo-mai
kyd-mai kyo-hon
kyfi-hon kyo-ka
kyfi-ka kyu-satsu
kyo-satsu kyo-péji
kyfi -péji
10 -lrifl
+15I + It
+711 +
+3 3% -lrllli
-Fill} + E
+E
/'0-mai
ji]-mai /'up-non
jup-pon juk-ka jus-satsu /"up-peii
jup-péji
APPENDIXES
APPENDIXES 605
Type F Irregular Types
BE
iifi A H El I9:
Iii
-to
.4§ -nin
- nin --ka
ka -nichi -ban
(head of (people) (day of (day)
(day) (night)
cattle) the month)
-—-iifi
— fifi -—'
—- A —- ElEi
— —' ElH —-
— I191lid
it-to
it-I6 hitori rsuitachi
tsuitachi ichi-nichi hito-ban
:. ii
: 9,5 Z A -1'
I H I H -"ll
I I91 I2
ni-to
ni-I6 futari
fu tari futsu-ka futsu-ka
fu rsu -ka futa-ban
fu ta -ban
L-I Eifi
E. E-I
El A E. I1[1 E El E B91
lift
san- to
san-I6 san-nin mik-ka mik-ka mi-ban
[L11 FE
I21 ER IE A
E IE
IE3 El IE FlEl I91
IE B91
yon-rd
yon- to yo-nin
yo -nin yok-ka yok-ka yo-ban
IE ER
Hi FILE Hi A Hi HEl
iii Ji H 3; H91
3i B91
go-t6
go-to go-nin itsu-ka
itsu -ka itsu-ka go-ban
go-n/‘chi
go-nichi
7<
>*< BE
EH 7':
;'< A 7< H
>*< 7': ElB ;'<
7< I91
I51
roku - to
:6 roku -nin
roku-nin mui-ka mui-ka roku-ban
roku-n/chi
roku-nichi
t fi
PE 1: A 1:
4: E1 4::
1: El 1:
~l: Bi
I191
H806
H808 - nana -I’)
} nin nano-ka nano-ka nana -ban
nana-ban
sh/em}
shichi} ' ‘O .
shichi
. -
sh/cm} ' m shichi-nichi
/\ FE /\ A AHH
A AH
/\ El /\ Hie
I91
hat- I6
hat-to hachi-nin yo-ka
yd-ka yo-ka . .
V54“? hachi-ban
hachi-nichi
hachl -mch/
in
J1. iii
PE 11.
J1. A 11.
ii. H 1|.
ii. ElB in
11. I91
R91
kyd-I6
kyo-to kyo -nin
- kokono-ka kokono-ka kyfi-ban
kyo-ban
ku-nichi
ku -nichi
+ iifi‘iifi + A + El +
"Ir H + Bid
I91
ju t- rd
to /'0-nin I6-ka
to -ka rd
to -ka /'17-ban
j0-ban
606 APPENDIXES
Notes
l. Depending on the initial sound of a counter, the pronunciation of the
number and / or the counter changes. Counters are classified according
to the phonetic modifications they undergo. Type A counters are straight-
foward cases of Sino-japanese Number+Ccunter,
Number+Counter, with no phonetic modi-
fications. The following is a chart of phonetic modifications for Type B
through Type F. If there is no entry for a given number it indicates
that there is no phonetic modification for that particular number. As for
the remaining irregular types, you have to memorize them piecemeal.
Counters Type B Type C Type D Type E Type

TJ’Pe F
TNumbers h- k- s- p- t-
—-w 1 [i/1,0-1 [/kk-] [iss-] [/Pp-1 [in-]

111 3 [sanb-]
—I11 6 [ropp-] [rokk-] ([ropp-])
—I 8 ([0800-1) (lhakk-1) [hass-1 iilhapp-1) [hair-1

—m 10 [/YJPP-1 [/U/</<-1
([ ]) indicates that [ ] is optional.
[[1188-1 [/1100] [fuzz-]
2. The 20th day of the month and 20 days are not nijfinichi
n/jiin/‘chi but hatsuka.
‘Twenty years old’ is referred to as hatachi.
3. The following is a list of other examples of each type:
Type A: l% -bai ‘time’
fg § -ban ‘‘ordinal
ordinal number’
E -do ‘frequency’
‘frequency ’ -jo ‘ tatami mat’
E -/'6
fill -bu ‘ part’
iii! E -men ‘ newspaper page’
Type A’: (Exactly the same as Type A except that number 4 is pro-
nounced yo not yon.)
B# -ji ‘ o'clock
8% o’clock ’ B#l"a"l1 -jikan ‘ hour ’
B#lii-' iii
Hi -nen ‘ year’
Type A”: (Exactly the same as Type A except that numbers 4, 7 and
9 are pronounced shi, shichi and ku, respectively.)
Fl
H -gatsu ‘name of the month’
A/n
Type A”': (Exactly the same as Type A except that the initial sound
of the counter with number 3 changes from wa to ba.)
315]
313 -wa ‘ bird ’
Type B: FF -hai ‘cup of’ IE -hiki ‘ animal’
Type B’: (Exactly the same as Type B except that the initial sound of
the counter with number 3 is not b- but p-.)
APPENDIXES 607
‘ll?! -haku ‘stay (overnight)’

‘IE! 63' -hun ‘ minute’
6}
Type C: 1)»)?!
26>?! -ka getsu ‘ month’ [El -kai ‘frequency’
%
fit -kan ‘ volume ’ {E
E -ko ‘ piece ’
Type C’: (Exactly the same as Type C except that the initial sound
of the counter with number 3 can be either k- or g-.)
FE
I53 -kai ‘ floor’
Type D: E -sai ‘ -year old’
§ § -so ‘ boat’
E
Type D’: (Exactly the same as Type D except that the initial sound of
the counter with number 3 is z- not s-.)
IE -soku ‘footgear’
Iii
E::
Type E 115 2/ F -pondo ‘' pound’
div pound ’
Type F: % -I6
Q; -to ’‘class,
class, grade’ l|~~ 2/ -ton ‘ton
‘ton’’
55 -tsd
ifi -I80 ‘letter’
608 APPENDIXES
Appendix 7 Compound Words

A compound is a word that consists of two or more independent words with
a meaning which cannot be predicted from the combination of the constituent
elements. For example, hana 0 miru means ‘to see flowers ’, but the compound
version hana-mi means specifically ‘the viewing of cherry blossoms’.
The following is a list of basic nominal, verbal and adjectival compounds and
their formation.
Formation l Examples
(A) Nominal Compounds
(a.) Noun+ 7l<iEUi

7l<i&U< (dabbling in water)
Vmasu (intransitive) mizu-asobi
m/zu-asob/'
(Lit. water-play)
BE
EH (siesta)
hiru-ne
(Lit. noon-sleep)
MED
lllfib (mountain climbing)
yama-nobori
(Lit. mountain-climb)
(b) Noun+ THEE.
WEE. (the viewing of cherry blossoms)
Vmasu (transitive) /78/18-m/'
/76/76-IT?!’
(Lit. flower-view)
flower-view)
JGQL (manslaughter)
)\1’F5z"L
hito-goroshi
(Lit. man-kill)
Elthhié (shoe polishing; shoeblack)
¥lt7>~2b§€=
kutsu-migaki
(Lit. shoe-polish)
(c)
(0) Vmasu (intransitive)+ $94?) (vehicle)
fiat»: (vebiCle)
Noun nori-mono
nor/'-mono
(Lit. ride-thing)
tljlil (exit)
de-guchi
(Lit. leave-mouth)
FEE
Eifi (nightcap)
ne-zake
(Lit. sleep-sake)
(d) Vmasu (transitive)+ fiiI7+7l< (drinking water)

fi‘K7+7l<
Noun nomi-mizu
(Lit. drink-water)
APPENDIXES 609
awn
fi*<% (food)
tabe-mono
(Lit. eat-thing)
f%D%
(‘E9471 (borrowed thing)
kari-mono
(Lit. borrow-thing)
(e) Vmasu (intransitive)+ _l;D

J:D"F"F D (ascending and descending)
Vmasu (intransitive) frobori-on‘
/_1obori-ori
(Lit. go up-go down)
lfl)\D (going in and out)
lil)\D
de-hair/'
de-hairi
(Lit. leave-enter)
fi'%+%D (going and coming back)
fi%lw%D
iki-kaeri
(Lit. go-return)
(f) Adj(i)stem + Noun "¢§‘2l§

Elli (secondhand book)
furu-hon
(Lit. old-book)
f¥<l’é
.¥<i’é (black ship that came to
kuro-fune Japan from America and
Europe during the Edo
period)
(Lit. black-boat)
EON"
%U~lf (a blue beard)
ao-hige
(Lit. blue-beard)
(g) Adj(na)stem + Noun fiflflfi (safety zone)

£ifl’l%
anzen-chitai
(Lit. safe-zone)
Efifiéih
Efifirli (health food)
kenké-shokuhin
kenkd-shokuhin
(Lit. healthy-food)
iléfifiliii
géfififi (calisthenics)
jfinan-raisé
jdnan-taisé
(Lit. flexible-exercise)
(h) Noun + Noun Jllfi (freshwater fish)

kawa-zakana
(Lit. river-fish)
ir¥$E
tfifik (co-ed)
josh/'-gakusei
joshi-gakusei
(Lit. female-student)
610 APPENDIXES
§€TiU<'i'
fifikfi (the University of Tokyo)
Tokyo-Daigaku
Tdkyd-Daigaku
(Lit. Tokyo-University)
Adj(1)stem+Vmasu
(i) Adj(i)stem + Vmasu 1?-§}n=D
$6}2b>D (quick understanding)
haya-wakari
(Lit. quick-understand)
5&2?
5&3’ (early rising; early riser)
fvaya-oki
haya-oki
(Lit. early-get up)
E33
E35‘ (long talk)
naga -banashi
naga-banashi
(Lit. long-talk)
Q
(B) Verbal Compounds

I % I Z |
Vmasu+Vinf - nonpast ifiéibé

iiiéiibé (walk around)
aruki-mawaru
(Lit. walk-go round)
§fiL2)=n‘6
3£L2b>h‘Z.'> (speak to)
hanashi-kakeru
(Lit. talk-hang)
33!/$5
3il,é"5 (discuss with)
hanashhau
hanash/Vau
(Lit. talk-fit)
%i'E1»¥i|)‘Z> (continue to read)
$1/~¥%"th‘Z>
yomi-tsuzukeru
(Lit. read-continue)
fi*<!1‘aH‘>5
fi'<!1{sIb6 (begin to eat)
tabe-hajimeru
(Lit. eat-begin)
%%l$€~bE>
§‘é'$‘€~b%> (finish writing)
kaki-owaru
(Lit. write-finish)
l
1
(C) Adjectival Compounds
(a.)
(a) Adj(l)stem+Adj(i)
Adj(/)stem + Adj(i) fiflfiw (dim)
fiflfiln
usu-gurai
(Lit. thin-dark)
%E1v\ (pale)
$5!/\
ao-jiroi
(Lit. blue-white)
EELM
2%!»/\ (formal)
ka ta -kurushii
(Lit. hard-painful)
APPENDIXES 611
(b) Noun+Adj(i) 41%!/\ (feel secure)

»|I,~§§v\
kokoro-zuyoi
(Lit. heart-strong)
52%!»/\
ifibl/\ (hard to please)
ki-muzukashii
(Lit. spirit-difficult)
iififil/\ .(grateful)
iififiw (grateful)
g/r/-gatal
giri-gatai
(Lit. obligation-hard)
Notes
In compound words, the initial voiceless consonant (i.e., plosives such as k-,
I-;
t-; fricatives such as s-, h-, f-; affricates such as ts-, ch-) of the second
element of the compound tends to become voiced as shown below:
e.g. hito ‘ man ’+koroshi ‘ kill ’ —»
h/to —> hitogoroshi ‘ manslaughter ’
ami
am/' ‘ net ’+to
’ + to ‘ door ’ —> amido ‘ screen door ’
ne ‘ sleep ’+sake
’+$ake ‘ rice wine ’ —> nezake ‘ nightcap
nightcap’’
+hanashi ‘ talk ’ —> nagabanashi ‘ long talk ’
naga ‘ long ’ +hanash/
ki ‘ tree ’ +fune ‘ boat’ —> kibune ‘ wooden vessel ’
k/'
kokoro ‘ heart’+tsuyoi
heart ’+tsuyoi ‘strong’
‘ strong ’ —> kokorozuyoi ‘‘feel secure’’
feel secure
hana ‘ nose ’ +chi
+ch/' ‘ blood ’ —> hanaji ‘ nosebleed’
nosebleed ’
Voicing, however, does not normally take place if one of the following con-
ditions is met.
l. The second element is a borrowed word whose ‘ foreignness’ is still
1.
strongly felt.
e.g. kydiku
kyd/ku ‘ education ’ +terebi ‘‘television
education’+terebi television ’
-> kydiku {£Zr:rg'b/-
—> {igreegb1- ‘ educational television ’
kateiyé ‘ home use’+konpy0té
use ’+konpy0té ‘‘computer’
computer ’
->
-. kateiyo
kateiyé computer’’
‘ home computer
But if a borrowed word is free from ‘ foreignness ’, then voicing tends
to take place.
e.g. ame ‘ rain ’ +kappa ‘ Portuguese capa ’ —> amagappa ‘ raincoat ’
iroha ‘Japanese alphabet ’+karuta ‘ Portuguese carta ’ —>
-—> iroha-
garuta ‘Japanese alphabet cards ’
2. The consonant of the second syllable of the second element is voiced.
e.g. hi ‘ sun ’+/(age ‘ shade ’' —>
’+kage ‘shade -—> {giigigg
{*Z:-ZZZ: ‘ Shade
shade,’
us/1/ro' C Q9 C ushirosugata
I
ushzro back +sugata appearance —> {,,,u$h,-rozugata
{,,,u$h,.mZugata
CI !Q
appearance from the back
612 APPENDIXES
Appendix 8 Improving Reading Skill by Identifying an ‘Extended

Sentential Unit’
In Japanese, the most important principle of word order is that the modifier
modzfier
(=i> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 11.
precedes what is being modified. (Q
Word Order) The typical modifier modified word order in Japanese can be
summarized as follows:
MODIFIER + MODIFIED MEANING
Adjective
Hbbéw
id‘ i, L6!»
+
2
Noun
A
i‘ an interesting
omoshiroi hito person ’
(interesting) = (person)
Adverb + Adjective
L
ka-c 4.
‘C 4.» new
it s in ‘very big’
‘ very big
totemo 0'k_/7
6/<_i/'
(very)
(very) (blg)
We
Adverb
1s<
+ >:e<sh
+ Verb
—
‘walk fast’
‘ walk fast ’
ii < $<
ha yaku
hayaku =5 aruku
(quickly) 5 (walk)
Noun
—?fi*e
—' H#%
+
|
I
E
Particle
1:b31
—
‘a child (subject)’
‘ a child (subject)
kodomo ga
(child) (subject)
5%
95$ ls.
I; ‘to a teacher’
sensei
sense! 5 ni
nr
(teacher) E (to)
Sentence + Conjunction
zttgfi '3
PIKEE5 we
25% ‘ because I buy
hon 0 kau =5_ kara books ’
((1) buy books)
((I) (because)
J§fi7.')§|5§o
f=fi7);l5§ T;
0 TC 5 Uh, E is
U31. 1, ‘ although it rained ’
ame ga futta _ keredomo
(it rained) 5 (although)
I
APPENDIXES 613
Sentence + N ominalizer
Nominalizer
Bkfikfié
B5l&E%’:§E.Z> 0/:&
6')/1.‘; ‘to see a movie
movie’8
eiga 0 miru no / koto
(see a movie) (to; -ing)
-ins)
Sentence Modal
abbfcliflfiho
bbkfifihé 5 fi
.1: 575 ‘It looks like it will
Ashita wa hareru yoda
y_6da clear up tomorrow’
tomorr o W!
(It will clear up (it appears)
tomorrow) ‘
l£< li%v\
lifil/\ A/T.:’
/1./7;’ ‘It is that I am
Boku wa wakai n da young’
(I am young) (It is that)
modifier+modified an Extended Sentential Unit

Let’s call the cohesive unit of modz'fier+modified
(=ESU). If all ESUs started at the beginning of the sentence, students would
have no trouble identifying them. But in reality an ESU often comes some-
where between the beginning and the end of a sentence. Moreover, in written
Japanese an ESU is quite frequently embedded within another ESU. The
ES U in a complex sentence is a must for reading com-
ability to identify each ESU
prehension.
The following examples will serve to illustrate this point.

1FLli&if:Tl§o'Cv~Za<.
(1) a. no ssrslrerwz...
Watashi wa 0 mada tsukatte iru.
(I’m still using the dictionary.)
(I'm
b. rte:/1\a<»:esr:gs<»\z..
fl.i:.Hl\é=1‘.: &ir;*&».>—cv~z>.,
Watashi wa chisana 0 mada tsukatte iru.
(l’m still using the small dictionary.)
(I'm
c. ?LIi3UJiHo'C
1F.Ll13CfJiEo'C <nr=/J\a=r:
<m='1~a=a- 2ar:@sr»~z..,
air.-rm,-c:.~>:>.
Watashi wa chichi ga katte kurete 0hI88!78
kureta chlsana 0 mada
k .
tsukatte
tsu iru.
atte /ru.
(I’m still using the small dictionary which my father bought for me.)
<1. $Ll:1=l=$l:/\of:li§I:3€1biEa'C
a.i:=:=a=-*1:/\¢r=na|:sar»<a-Jr < hr;/1\s1:
ma/1\a=a~ E§7§I§0'('l/‘7I>¢,
urea/..~<»~>:..
Watashi wa chfigaku
chiigaku ni
m’ haitta toki ni chichi ga katte kureta
chisana jisho 0 mada tsukatte iru.
(I’m still using the dictionary which my father bought for me when
(I'm
I entered junior high school.)
614 APPENDIXES
If we choose jisho ‘ dictionary ’ as the modified word, where does its modifier
start in each sentence of example (1)? In other words, exactly what part of
each sentence is the ESU? Since (la) obviously doesn’t have any modifier,
there is no ESU. How about in (lb)? The modifier is a simple adjective
chisana ‘small’. In (lc) the modifier is the entire relative clause which starts
with chichi ga ‘father (subject)’. Notice that the sentence-initial noun phrase
watashi wa ‘I (subject / topic)’ is not a part of the ESU
ES U in question, because
watashi wa is the subject of the main verb tsukatte iru ‘ am using’. Sentence
(ld) is the most complex sentence of the four. Where does the ESU for
(ld)? It starts from chdgaku ‘junior high school ’, because the
jisho start in (Id)?
chzigaku ni haitta toki ni ‘ when (I) entered junior high school
clause chdgaku school’’ modi-
fies the verb katte kureta ‘(he) bought for me ’.
A quick‘ and accurate identification of an ESU is a prerequisite for reading
comprehension. The following is a list of guidelines which will help students
to identify ESUs
ES Us in written Japanese.
Guideline I
A modified element (=m.e.) is typically a noun, a head noun of a relative clause,
a nominalizer no or koto, a coordinate or a subordinate conjunction (such
as ga ‘but’, kara ‘because’, keredomo ‘ although’), a modal (such as hazu
da ‘it is expected that ~’, no da ‘it is that ~’, yoda ‘it appears that ~’,
soda ‘I hear that ~’), an adjective, a verb or a particle, as shown in the
MODlFIER+MODIFIED
MODIFIER+MODIFIED chart.
Guideline II
If an element preceding an m.e. modifies some element that comes after the
m.e., that element is outside the ESU.
Thus, if kyo ‘ today ’ in (2) is judged to modify itta ‘ said ’, an element that comes
after the m.e. to ‘quote marker’, kyo is outside the ESU. But, if the same
adverb is judged to modify nai ‘there isn’t’, then the adverb is a part of the
ES U.
ESU.
3 :/v1sai§:n<a i.~aar.:.
(2) ~1avl:rea#§:s#et~:%'sr¢.
Jon wa ky6 iugy6
jug)/6 ga nai itta.
(Today John said that there wasn’t any class. /John said that there isn’t
class today.)
Guideline III
A sentence-initial topic phrase Noun Phrase+wa(,) is very often considered
outside an ESU, especially when the topic phrase is the main subject of the
sentence. The same is true of a Noun Phrase+mo(,).
Phrase+m0(.).
APPENDIXES 615
Some more examples follow:
(3) a. na/
la) iF.Lli/ t.¥4;ta<fi§'tr='er='rrnr.¢¢>»are.
I>¥l3lé75ifi'7‘<'1.fioT:i"Tl7‘7.C75>oT:o
Watashi wa / mo kodomo ga byoki
by6ki datta /‘konakatta.
ikenakatta.
(I couldn’t go there (either), because my child was ill.)
a.a/ max:/..1><fin~al+an»»>m~.
b. na/ maxz/..n<m~a|+nfi»»m~.
Watashi wa / mo Suzuki-san ga ikanakere ikanai.
(I won’t go there (either) if Mr. Suzuki won’t go there.)
e.¢. m>4=l1/t.aa=a<r.:tstr=ea1¢,»e»~.
uv1=a/ t.a¥n<r.*.=ns|.r.-.- E§‘<l16?£lr‘°
kekkonshite
Yamamoto wa / mo Yukiko ga kekkonshita 0 shiranai.
(Yamamoto doesn’t know (either) that Yukiko got married.)
<1.
d. %0)5l31;Cl:$01':7)341’“Ellifatl/‘e
ac)-3|;t::|:a>-.>r=1>‘i4*.~r_=1i-.1#.i:v\.
Kin6 wa koko ni atta
Kino ga kyo wa nai.
(The book which was here yesterday is not here today.)
In (3a) through (3c), wa and mo phrases are outside the ESU of the boxed
m.e.’s, but in (3d) wa is inside the ESU of the m.e. hon ‘‘book
book ’, because wa
is used in this sentence as a contrast marker, not as a topic marker.
Guideline IV
IV
When two sentences are combined by the conjunction ga(,) ‘ but’, the first
sentence is very often outside the ESU of the m.e. contained in the second
sentence.
For example, in (4) the first sentence is outside the ESU of the respective
m.e.’s.
(4) a. ¥é'%n§2‘:< aw,-sr;:o=. finrur=-r<'a-<'1,a-ste...
ié’E1b§7:< s/..ssrea=. wwct~r=1-<'Er1,asr=.
Shukudai ga takusan atta ga.
ga, tsukarete ita sugu nete shi-
matta.
/Tl6II8.
(I had a lot of homework to do but I went to sleep right away be-
cause I was tired.)
b. ‘-HEJ
"nai 2$rnosnr:sr;a=.
='.»;»aa»-more-r-,r¢1>=. 5-u|£'e§.f;fioa>2*<=ao2‘c..
rot:-e§.r;§m>2=<=v>r=..
"” Shogun " 0o yomu tsumori datta ga.
ga, terebi de mite
mita yomu
yamera.
no o yameta.
(I intended to read Shogun, but I quit because I had seen it on TV.)
When two sentences are combined by the te-form of a verb / adjective, the first
sentence is either inside or outside the ESU depending on the context, as
illustrated by (5).
(5) a. tHe1m<m<r4i7ra<r;t~s-ztsre.
¥¥¥l1fib<1§<'Cltl:75tMi't\?T_-1'->12.
Yoko wa atama ga itakute shikata ga nai itta.
(Yoko said that she had a terrible headache.)
616 APPENDIXES
b. ?-Frtifiifililcfiar.
is-was-tastes-,-<-. a1m~aa:s5e.a.ert~r=easr¢.
a1m~sasaa.a.-,ri.~r.= aaare.
Yoko wa Kyoto ni itte.
itte, mae kara kao to omotte ita o0
katta.
(Yoko went to Kyoto, and bought the kimono which she had been
thinking of buying for some time.)
In (5a)
(Sa) the ESU includes the first sentence, whereas in (Sb) it doesn’t.
Guideline V
When an m.e. is a modal, its ESU normally extends to the beginning of the
I mo phrase.
sentence, including wa /mo
(6) a.3. u*>~|;t§E$B$'\fi<.

(6) u+ma:¢az=»~fi<.
Risa wa rainen Nihon e iku .
(It seems that Lisa is going to Japan next year.)
b. Fl=’7|:l:-tB$%l2t¥E was
7l=’7'|:|;tB$?§|d:¥E L'J'%'%> .
Bobu ni wa nihongo wa muzukashisugiru .
(It appears that Japanese is too difficult for Bob.)
c. as/..aaw=|afi=sr=<m~.
85A¢f.i'-'r'?i|:|:l:i"r=éf:<f.tl.\..
Anna tokoro ni wa ikitakunai .
(Lit. It is that I don’t want to go to such a place.)
<1.d. 1-‘/~‘/—|:3:7<$"é’<5¥>%>..
i-‘/:"/—l;t:7k$E't56f>%><.
Nanshi wa daigaku o yameru .
(I heard that Nancy is going to quit college.)
Guideline VI
When an m.e. is the quote marker to, Guideline III is overridden, because
a quote is supposed to follow the original source as closely as possible; if
wa is in the original sentence, that wa has to be quoted. Examples follow:
(1)
(7) a. xr-:.1|:azz>isi.r='»=a1w1>=~ssr¢.
J\r;1|:#i.z>eisLr.-3A111/w>="a'-,r.:..
Ningen wa kangaeru ashi da Pasukaru ga itta.
(Pascal said that a human is a thinking reed.)
b. >t<l;»<-,
7lilC'<~'J |~|:r%Ju:t~u§v\ra,er;.,
|~l2lI%AlZl.\L\%I/\'C'o><>T:o
Hon ni petto wa roiin
r6/‘in ni ii kaite atta.
(It was written in a book that pets are good for elderly people.)
Guideline VII
Some m.e.’s allow their ES
ESUU to extend beyond the sentence boundary. This
is especially true with sentence-initial conjunctions such as shikashi ‘but’,
‘ but’, tokoro ga ‘but’
shitagatte ‘therefore’, sunawachi ‘ namely’, tadashi ‘but’,
and da kara ‘‘so’
so’ and the modal no da ‘it is that ~’.
APPENDIX!-IS 617
APPENDIXES
(8) a. i¥|:tflc$EtHf.-;.
(st i¥|:1<$=&tBr=.. lilZ§lif.:z‘Po7‘:.,
lili$lif.c7)=-pics
Sachiko wa daigaku o
0 deta. Shikashi shigoto wa nakatta.
(Sachiko graduated from college. But she didn’t get a job.)
b. s.u:nsa<§t.<a->1;/..r'-r.
3-‘:-\l:Pfih<%‘L(f.iof:ArET.. ifihillfiéibfco
fisalcfiaacre.
Kyoni mune ga kurushiku natta n desu.
Kytini byoin ni
[kimashita.
ikimashita.
(Suddenly I had a pain in my chest, so I went to the hospital.)
e.C. st.r=|asaaanr::rsaa-r.
as Lf;l;t§Ji£fl%I-';E%$T.. fiflfiiliwifilfillioo
anronmas.
Ashita we
wa asa goji ni okimasu. Gojihan no kisha ni noru
-
(I’ll get up at five o’clock tomorrow morning. It’s because I’m going
to catch the 5:30 train.)
So far, seven basic guidelines which can be used to identify ESU have been
presented. The student should read Japanese carefully, searching for ES Us,
especially for the following four ESUs that create enormous difiiculties.
difficulties.
( i ) Sentence+Conjunction
(ii) Relative Clause +Noun
Clause+Noun
(iii) Sentence+Nominalizer (no I/ koto)
(iv) Sentence+Modal
For your practice, a short, simple passage containing I0
10 boxed m.e.’s is pro-
vided below. Underline the ESUs for each m.e. The answers are given
below the passage.
Practice Passage
insects
Z<tiit:Fa 90 7‘:"C' 12%.: 1../V e—-%Et.:5'aiEI%i%‘I§a1~
r-.11-<= 115%.-5 t—lr§l:5'i;iE3'iI%‘l§iT' fi'0T5lE3i
fiawcaléa ere. l£<< :1 »~»r
Ln. I35 »~4 '7'7 1I —--22
fiaztiitiwrrsarelfiladr
i1'2E>“lil‘)Jtb'C f;'¢f:°'lI Lara La we. ones--ra=r'§1<'a»~aa
Lfiiéiifi Li L-cy\z>’
one t,——|1#rF§l <' ewfifitrwz.‘
17. l:°~—
2- Fl:Ft: 't.1. amt Liv, naku
tent Liv. B#/IE D0 ‘lctr
‘lat; D0 i
i we. Trifilirlciilii <'<' 6y~*r—
L7‘::.. 7'i=i%l§i'et:3ia“"£ r,»~+r— E2
Ex
I u 7t:)\»>'<
7lC]\v'C =—- =- r.t;—&
-2 ama
akai Lt‘...
we. is lr<< :1lilfil:H§~>'Cv\7‘:°&
we ma-cy~r.~;~a wows wave as 1,1.
7f:f".> fc°Tiz"i11$i>%/ofrilii < at Ilia.‘/o'C'Lf:.,
'fiof:°I'ii%l§i>%/v>’.clCi§< cash-e we. :;; areas u.~1ai<fi°t. -5~>
/..>*a=.rs1.»~riti~r't.
-as L'C71~7‘.:v\‘°.'E'£'.\/\3i'l‘°
—L*?Z 1,-car=t~*°.a.t~a~;-.
Tomodachi ni karita '
‘ de Hanako-san to isshoni sensho Kyoto made
itte kimashita. Boku wa haiwé o hash/'ru
/tte hashiru 2wa hajimete
ha/imete datta 3sukoshi
kinchoshimashita. Keredomo ichtjikan
ichijikan gurai untenshite iru 4
supido
sup/‘do ni mo
nareteshimai. tokidoki nemuris
nemur/5 ni narimashita. Kyoto made ni godo gurai
sébisueria
sébisuer/a ni haitte kohi 0o nomimashita. Boku wa tonari ni suwatte ita ‘Hanako-
|Hanako-
san|“ to iroiro hanashi naara 7 itta kara 8 Kyoto mo sonna ni toku kanjimasen-
deshita. Konna tanoshii ryoko nara 99 mo ichido shite mitai
mita/' '°omoimasu.
"omoimasu.
(Last week I went to Kyoto with Hanako in a car I borrowed from my friend.
I was a little nervous because it was the first time that I had driven on the
618 APPENDIXES
highway. But after having driven about an hour I became used to the speed,
and every now and then I almost fell asleep. Before we reached Kyoto, I
stopped at service areas about five times and drank coffee. Because I drove
while talking a lot with Hanako sitting next to me, I didn’t feel that Kyoto
was that far. If the trip is this pleasant, I would like to make it again.)
euuo>/ euuo>/ _ueuo1

_/Jeuol _ueuo1 _ueuo1
_IJQUOI
1?"/'—‘
3'!"/'3 ‘OI 1?"/'-T
1"!"/'3 '6 #4 '8
fl $8 ‘L
fl 318 '9
fi
_!JI7LU8U
_I.lflLU8U ue>/_/_/_tqo_t
ue>/_/_/_/qo_/ §M_IQl/
§M_IQl./ §M_/eq yqoepowot
[L/OQPOLUOI
an
GE '5
‘S L".J#fl— ‘iv
l§'J#=H-- '1' —==4)'~/ °£
—-=4-kv ‘s —=4-1'“ ‘Z
—-=4-J/v "z $51 ‘I'1
$522
's[1gg sq;
sngg Jo spsom
amp jo spxom 1s.tg awatpug MO[8q
1s.1g sq; :-neatpur Mopq uanrfi
uaAr3 SPJOM
spxom aq_L zsxamsuv
:s.1:-msuv
619
GRAMMAR INDEX
Note: X (Y)
<Y> indicates that X is found under Y.
adverb amari, do, ichiban, mada, exhaustive listing ga', to

mo, sekkaku, yahari existence aru‘, iru‘
auxiliary daro, masho, soda‘ experience koto ga aru‘
auxiliary adjective hosh/T’,
hosh/T2, mitai- gerund te
< yoda), niku/',
da <yoda>, nikui, rash/'/',
rashii, soda’,
soda”, tai, giving and receiving verb ageru”,
ageru'»'*’,
yasui, yoda, yoni” kureru'»2, morau'»2
kureruliz,
auxiliary verb ageru’,
ageru”, aru”,
aru’, dasu, honorific expression o ~ ni naru
garu, hajimaru,
hajimeru, iku”, iru”, kudasai, ku- honorifics 0-, o0 ~ ni naru, o0 ~ suru,
nasai, oku,
reru”, kuru”, miru, morau”, nasa/', Characteristics of Japanese Grammar 6
owaru, rareru'»2, shimau, sugiru humble expression 0-, 0 ~ suru
causative saseru, sasu (saseru)
<saseru> imperative na, nasai,
nasa/', Appendix 1
causative passive (rare-
saserareru <rare- indefinite pronoun no’
no”
ru‘>
ru'> inexhaustive listing ~ tari ~ tari
cause do“, kara’, node, tame (ni), te
de’, suru, ya
cleft sentence ~ no wa ~ da infix -shi-
command =:> imperative
Q nominalizer koto’, no”
no“
comparison ho ga ~ yori, yori noun hazu, koto‘, mama, mono (da),
conditional ba, nara, tara, to‘ tame (ni), toki, tsumori
conjecture daro, rashii, soda”,
soda’, yoda particle bakari, dai, dake, do‘-2'3",
deli“-‘,
l
conjunction gaz, kara“,
ato de, ba, ga”, gal, goto ni, hodo, ka'»2,
demo, e, ga‘, ka'»’, ka
keredo (mo), mae ni, nagara, nara, (do ka), kai, kara‘, kashira, kurai, made,
J
noni'»2, shi, sore de, sore de wa,
node, non/"»’, made ni, mold,mob’, na, nado, nanka
sore kara, sore nara, soretomo, so- (nado), ne, ni'»2»’»‘»‘-‘F,
ni'>2»‘»‘»‘»°-7, ni shite wa,
shite, suru to, tara, latte,
shire, tatte, te mo, to‘, nob‘,
no'»‘, o‘»2»"",
o‘»”»“-‘, shika, rob”,
to‘»’»’, to shite,
shire, to
toka, uchi ni, ya, yoni‘ shite wa, tte"2,
tte‘-2, wa‘~2,
wa‘-2, yo, yor/"'2, zutsu
contrastive wa‘, jibun” passive rarerul,
rareru‘, Characteristics of
coordinate conjunction ga’
ga2 Japanese Grammar S5
copula da phrase aida (ni), ba yokatta, dake
dependent noun =:> noun
=9 de (wa) naku ~ (mo), ho ga ii, ho
direct object marker 0‘ ga ~ yori, kawari ni, koto ga aru‘-2,
aru“,
ellipsis Characteristics of Japanese koto ga dekiru, koto ni naru, koto ni
Grammar 3 suru, koto wa, nai de, nakereba nara-
empathy =9 viewpoint
Q nai, naku naru, nakute, ni chigainai,
620 GRAMMAR INDEX
ni suru, no da, o ~ ni naru, o ~ structure ~ mo ~ mo, ~ no wa ~
suru, tara do desu ka, tamaranai, ~ da,~ wa~da,~wa~ga
tari ~ tari suru, te mo ii, to ieba, to subject marker ga'
gal
iu, tokoro dab”, wa ikenai, wake da, subordinate conjunction aida (ni),
yoni iu, yoni naru, yoni suru, yo to ato de, ba, kara”,
kara“, keredo (mo), mae
omou, zu ni (nai
<nai de> ni, nagara, nara, node, noni'=2,
noni'»2, tame
plural -tachi tara, tatte, te mo, to‘, toki, UC/7!
(ni), rara, uchz
polite expression =:> honorifics
==:> ni, yoni‘
possessive no‘ suflix
suffix <-sama>, -goro, -kata,
-chan (-sama>,
potential kikoeru, koto ga dekiru, -kun, -sa, -sama, -san (-sama)
<-sama> -tachi,
mieru, rareru’
rareruz -ya
prefix go- <0->,
<o->, mai-, o-
0- superlative ichiban
pronoun /ibun1»*, no’
/'ibun‘»2, tag question ne
purpose nil’, noni’, tame ni
n/'5, non/'2, te-form te
re
quotation to’, tte”
to“, topic to ieba, to ittara (to ieba), to
question marker dai, ka’, kai kitara (to ieba), ttara (to ieba), tte‘,
reason dei’, kara’,
dea, kara’-", node, tame (ni), te wa‘, Characteristics of Japanese
J apanese Gram-
relative clause Relative Clause mar 2
request kudasai viewpoint ageru'»2,
ageru‘»2, iku‘»2,
/'ku‘»2, jibun‘,
Semantic Derivations De, Ni, To kureru'»2,
kurerub’, kurub”,
kurub’, morau'»2, passive,
sentence-final particle dai, ka2,
kaz, kai, tai, Characteristics of Japanese Gram-
kashira, na, ne, no‘, waz, wa’, yo, Charac- mar 9
teristics of Japanese Grammar 7 volitional masho
621
ENGLISH INDEX
Note:
Note : X (Y) indicates that X is found under Y.
at the time when toki

A audible kikoeru
a(n)
a(n) ea‘
gal
about <kurai>,
bakari, -goro, gurai <kura/'>, B
kurai be aru‘, iru‘
across 02 be -able rarerul’
rareru”
after ato de, kara’ be able to koto ga dekiru, rareruz
rareru”
after all kekkyoku (yahari), yahari A be about to do s.t. tokoro da”
daa
after that sore kara because kara“,
kara’, mono (da), node
almost did s.t. tokoro da”
dag ' because ~ not ~ nakute
along 02 because of dea, tame (ni)
a lot of oi, ozei <oi>, takusan <oi> be done aru”
aru’
already mo be -ed rarerul
rareru‘
also mo‘, yahari F before mae ni, uchi ni
although keredomo, noni‘, re te rho
mo begin to hajimeru, kuru”
dasu, hajimaru,
and de3, ni <to>, soshite, te, to‘, to-
dea, A be in a place where it takes ~ to get
ka, ya to tokoro dal
and so on nado be -ing iru’
iru”
and the like nado be in the midst of doing s.t. tokoro
and then sore kara ” daz
da”
and what is more shi be like yoda
any mo” I be ready to do s.t. bakari
appear soda”, yoda both ~ and ~ mo ~ mo ~
approximately bakari, gurai (kurai),
gurai<kurai>, I but daga <ga2>, dakedo <ga2>, demo
hodo, kurai <ga2>, ga2,
<ga*>, ga”, keredomo, shikashi <ga”> (gag)
around
ar ound goro by de2,
dez, made ni, ni’ n/'3
as to shite, yoni”
yoni’ by (the time when) made ni
as expected yahari, yappari <yahari> j
as far as made C
as for wa‘ called to iu
as it is mama can do s.t. koto ga dekiru, rareru”
rarerui’
as many / much / long as ~ mo2
mo” can hear kikoeru
at deli‘,
deb‘, nib‘ , cannot do s.t. wa ikenai
622 ENGLISH INDEX
can see mieru even though noni‘
come kuru‘ every goto ni, mai-, oki ni (goto ni>
come about kuru” exist aru‘, iru‘
come to kuru”
kuru’
continue iku’ F
considering that ni shite wa feel suru“
suru”
cost suru‘ I feel like soda”
soda’
I few sukunai, wazuka <sukunai>
D finish doing s.t. -owaru, shimau
decide on ni suru for dei, nii, ni shite wa, to shite wa
decide to do s.t. koto ni kimeru ~ for example nado
<koto ni suru), koto ni suru F for the P"1'P°$e
fol‘ purpose 0f of ~ noni’ fame
"0"/2, tame
despite the fact that noni‘ I (ni)
diflicult to
diflicult to do
do s.t.
s.t. nikui
nikui ' for the sake of ~ tame (ni)
dislike kiraida from
TF0!!! dei, kara‘, n/'3
(1192, k8f8‘, "/3
do suru‘
do in such a way that yoni suru G
do me or s.o. a favor by doing s.t. get morau‘
kurgruz
kureru? get -ed rareru‘
do not
oot do ~ and ~ nai dedo get s.o. to do s.t. saseru
Don’t do s.t. na, wa ikenai get to
8°‘ I0 know
|m°W shiru
8/"'1'"
do s.o. a favor by doing s.t. ageru’ give ageru‘,
age-‘TU’, kureru‘
kufefu‘
do s.t. and see miru go
8° iku‘
do s.t. for s.o. ageru’ go ahead
8° 811'-’=3d and d0do 54-
s.t. oku
0/"1
do s.t. in advance oku go on -ing iku’
do s.t. too much sugiru grow kuru’
do things like ~ and ~ ~ tari ~
tari suru H
due to dea
des had better do s.t. ho ga ii
during (the time when) aida (ni), hard to do s.t. nikui
cho (ni) <uchi ni), uchi ni
chu have aru‘, suru2,
suru’, ~ wa ~ ga
have been done aru’
aru”
E have done s.t. irui, koto ga aru‘, shi-
iru’,
easy to yasui mau
either mo‘ have just done s.t. bakari, tokoro dai
da”
either ~ or ~ soretomo have s.o. / s.t. do s.t. morau’, saseru
even m02
demo, made, mo’ have s.t. done by s.o. morau”
morau’
even if tatte, te mo have to nai to ikenai <nakereba
(nakereba nara-
ENGLISH INDEX 623
nai), nakereba ikenai <nakereba
(nakereba nara- is~that~
it is ~ that ~ ~no
~ wa~da
no wa ~ da
nai), nakereba naranai. nakute wa ike- it will be decided that ~ koto ni
naranai>, nakute wa na-
nai (nakereba naranai), naru
(nakereba naranai),
ranai <nakereba naranai>, neba naranai | I wonder kashira
<nakereba
(nakereba naranai)
hear suru’
suru‘ JJ
how do just bakari, dake
How could ~! mono da
how to hoho, -kata L
leave oku
I leave as it is mama
I expect that ~ hazu Let’s do s.t. masho
if ka2, nara, tara,
ba, kaz, rara, to‘
rot let s.o. / s.t. do s.t. saseru
if it is the case that ~ nara like sukida, yoni”
if it is true that ~ nara little sukunai, wazuka <sukunai>
if (or not) ka (do ka) look soda”
I hear / heard that ~ soda‘ look as if yoda
I tell you yo look like rashii, sodai,
soda’, yoda
in de‘»‘, n/'1'“,
deb‘, nib‘, 02
indeed ~ (but ~) ~ koto wa (~ M
ga)
ga) make it ni suru
indeed s.o.8.0. does
(I068 s.t.
SJ. alright (but ~) make s.o. //s.t.
makg 5,0, do s,t,
5,1, do s.t. saseru
saseru
~ koto wa (~ ga) manner of -kata
in front of mae ni many oi, ozei <oi>, takusan <oi>
-ing no“, te
koto”, no’, may te mo ii
in order to do s.t. noni’, tame ni might kamoshirenai
in place of kawari ni more ~ than ~ ho ga ~ yori
in spite of the fact that ~ noni‘ most ichiban
in such a way that yoni‘ Mr. / Mrs. I/ Miss / Ms. -sama, -san
instead of kawari ni (-sama)
<-sama>
intend to tsumori da, yo to omou much oi, takusan <oi>
in that case sore nara must be ni chigainai
in the process of doing s.t. noni” must do s.t. nakereba naranai (Q
isn’t it? / is it? / etc. ne have to)
it
°t is all right if ~ te mo ii must not do s.t. wa ikenai
it is expected that ~ hazu
it isQ natural that ~
II!
II10Ill.
POIQ flu hazu N
it isU! that ~
in X #0 ~ no da need iru?’
iru”
624 1:-zwcusu
ENGLISH INDEX
neither ~ nor ~ ~ mo ~ mo (~
nai)
na/) R
-ness -mi <-sa>, -sa rather ~ than ~ yon‘
yori
no ~ but shika reach the point where ~ yoni naru
no matter wh- demo receive morauI
morau‘
(not) any mo’
(not) any longer mo : S
(not) ~ any more mo (nai), (nai) ’s no‘
yoni naru, naku naru seem rashii, yoda
(not) as ~ as hodo I -self /'ibunI»2
jibun‘»2
(not) ~ either moI
mo‘ Shall II/we
/ we do s.t.? masho
(not) even (one) mo’
mo” ” should hazu, mono(da), ~ ho ga ii
not only ~ but also ~dake de I should like to ~ -tai
(wa) naku ~ mo should not do s.t. wa ikenai
(not) very (much) amari, anmari show signs of ~ -garu
<amari> I since kara“,
kara‘-3, node
(not) yet mada I smell suru”
suru‘
no wonder wake da | so kara“, node, sore de
kara”,
now mo | sometimes ~ and sometimes ~
~ tari ~ tari suru
0
O
l so that yoni
of no‘ I Speaking of ~ to ieba, tte‘, wa
on de‘»2»‘,
deI»I’»I, ni‘»‘»°
niI»I»° ‘ start to do s.t. dasu, kuruz
kuru’
one n02
no’ stay iru‘
only bakari, dake, shika I still mada, yahari
onto n/'4
ni‘ | store -ya
out of kara‘
or kaI, soretomo
ka‘, I T
over 02
oi ' take the trouble of doing s.t. sek-
owing to tame (ni) | kaku, wazawaza (sekkaku)
<sekkaku>
own jibunI»2
jibun‘/" , Talking about ~ to ieba, tte‘, waI
wa‘
tell to do s.t. yoni iu
P
P I than yori
per mai--
mai I that kotoi, no‘,
koto‘, n03, to‘,
to”, to iu, tte”
tte’
play suru‘ that’s all dake
Please do s.t. kudasai the waI
wa‘
probably daro then sore de wa, sore kara, sore nara,
suru to
ENGLISH INDEX 625
there are times when ~ koto ga
aru’
aruz W
there was a time when ~ koto ga want s.o. to do s.t. hoshii’
aru‘ want s.t. hoshii‘
therefore sore de want to do s.t. -tai
thing koto‘, mono <koto> way of -kata
things like nado what koto‘
kotoI
think ~ will yo to omou What about doing s.t.? ~ tara do
though keredomo desu ka
through 02, made when tara, to‘, toki
till made whether kai
ka2
to (infinitive) koto’, n03
no‘ whether or not ka do ka
to ni2»I
e, n/“F while aida (ni), nagara, uchi (ni)
to do s.t. ni5, tame ni, noni‘
noni’ Why don’t you do s.t.? ~ tara do
to make up for kawari ni desu ka
to the extent that hodo (I / We) will do s.t. masho
too mo‘, sugiru (I) wish ~ had done s.t. -ba yokatta
towards e, ni'
ni‘ with do’, to’
de2,
try to do s.t. miru, yo to suru (miru) with effort sekkaku, waza waza <sek-
kaku>
kaku)
U
U |
without doing s.t. nai de, zu ni (nai
<nai
unbearably tamaranai de)
de>
unchanged mama would nara
understand wakaru would like to do s.t. -tai
until made
up to made, made de Y
used to mono da yet mada, mo
using dei
dez you know ne, yo
V
visible mieru
626
JAPANESE INDEX
JAPANESE mnnx
Note:
Note X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y
dakedo <ga2> ..................... ..

............................ .. 120
A <~tara> ..................
~dara (~tara) ..
......................... .. 455
ageru‘ ‘s.o. gives s.t. to s.o.’......... 63 daro ................................. ..
........................................ .. 100
ageru” ‘ s.o. gives s.o. a faver by do-
ageru‘ ~dasu
~ dasu .............................. ..
..................................... .. 102
ing s.t.’ .................................. .. 65 -datte <-tatte) ............................ ..
<-tatte>........ 462
aida (ni) .................................. .. 67 de <-te> .............................. ..
..................................... .. 464
amari ..................................... .. 72 deI [location] ............................
de‘ .. .. 105
anmari <amari> ......................... .. 72 dei [instrument] ..................
dez ..
......................... .. 106
aru‘ ‘exist’ ............................... .. 73 deII ......... ..
de"' [te-form of desu] ................ .. 107
aru? ‘s.t. has been done’ .......... ..
aru‘ 76 de‘ [time] ..................................
........................... .. .. 109
ato de ..................................... .. 78 de ageru <ageru2> ............... ..
...................... .. 65
de aru <aru2> ............................
..................... .. .. 76
B de hoshii <hoshiF>
<hoshii*> 146
ba ........................................... .. 81 de iru <iru2> ............................
..................... .. .. 155
bakari ..................................... .. 84 de itadaku <morau2>
<morau*> ................
......... .. .. 263
bakari de (wa) naku ~ (mo) (dake de kara <kara2>
(kara?) .........................
.................. .. .. 177
de (wa) naku ~ (mo)> ............. .. 97 de kudasai <~kudasai> 209
ba yokatta ............................... .. 87 de kudasaru (kureru?) ......... .. 216
de kureru <kureru2> ................... .. 216
C de miru (miru)
<miru> ......................... .. 246
(-sama) ......................... ..
-chan <-sama> 384 demo ‘even’
‘ even ’ ............................ .. 111
chau <shimau> ......................... .. 405 demo <ga2> ............................... .. 120
chimau <shimau> ...................... .. 405 de mo <te mo> mo) ‘even if ~ ’’......... .. 468
chittomo <amari> ...................... .. 72 de mo ii (~te<~te mo i/'> ii) ......... ..
................ .. 471
cho (ni) <uchi ni) ...................... .. 512 de moraitai <hoshiF>
(hoshii?) ......... ..
................ .. 146
de morau <morau2> ...................
............ .. .. 263
D de oku <oku> ............................ .. 358
da <~ wa ~ da> ...................... .. 521 de sashiageru <ageru2> ...... ..
............. .. 65
daga <ga2> ............................... .. 120 de shikata ga nai (tamaranai) .... .. 447
dai ........................................... .. 90 de shimau <shimau>..............
<shimau> ................... .. 403
<sore de>
da kara (sore de) ...................... .. 413 desho <daro> ..................... ..
............................ .. 100
dake ........................................ .. 93 desu (~wa ~da) ...............
......................
.. .. 521
dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) ....... .. 97 de tamaranai (tamaranai) .......... .. 446
]APANESE INDEX 627
de wa ikenai <~wa ikenai> ikenai) .......... .. 528 itadaku <morauI>
<morau‘> ...................... .. 262
de wa naranai (~wa <~wa ikenai>
ikenai) .... .. 528
de yaru <ageru‘>
<ageru2> ...................... .. 67 J
do ........................................... .. 114 jau <shimau> ............................ .. 405
-domo <-tachi> ......................... .. 440 jibunI [empathy marker] ............. ..
jibun‘ 159
jibun’ [contrast marker] ............. ..
jibun” 161
E jimau <shimau> ......................... .. 405
e [direction] ............................ .. 116
I16
eru <rareru2>
<rareru*> ............................ .. 370 K
ka‘ ‘ or ’ .................................. .. 164
kaI
G kai [question marker] ................ .. I66
166
ga‘
gaI [subject marker] ................... .. 118 ka (do ka) ............................... .. 168
ga‘
gai ‘but’ .................................. .. 120 kai ........................................... .. 170
I70
~garu ..................................... .. 123 kamoshirenai ............................ .. 173
-gata <-tachi> ............................ .. 440 kano
kana <kashira>
(kashira) ......................... .. 182
go- <o-> .................................. .. 343 ka ne <ne> ............................... .. 288
I26
goro ........................................ .. 126 kara‘ ‘from’ ............................ .. 176
goto ni ..................................... .. 128 kara” ‘after doing s.t. ’ ................ .. 177
kara’
<kurai> ............................ .. 213
gurai (kurai) kara“ ‘because ’ ......................... .. I79
kara‘ 179
kara ne <ne> ............................ .. 288
H kashira ..................................... .. 181
~ha/imeru
~hajimeru ............................... .. 131
I31 -kata ........................................ .. I83
183
hazu ........................................ n.. 133
I33 kawari
ka wari ni .................................. .. 184
hodo ........................................ .. 135 <keredomo> ...................... ..
kedo (keredomo) 188
(-kata) ............................ ..
hoho <-kata> 183 kedomo <keredomo>
(keredomo) ................ .. 188
ho ga ii .................................. .. 138 kekkyoku (yahari) ................... .. 538
~ho ga ~yori ......................... .. 140 keredo (keredomo)
<keredomo> ................... .. 188
hoshi/'I ‘ want s.t.’ ...................... .. 144
hoshii‘ I44 keredomo ............................... .. 187
hoshii‘
hoshii” ‘want s.o. to do s.t.’ 146 kesshite <amari> ......................... .. 72
kikeru (kikoeru)
<kikoeru> ...................... .. 188
I kikoeru ..................................... .. 188
I88
I48
ichiban ..................................... .. 148 kiraida ..................................... .. 190
ikaga <do> ............................... .. 114 koto‘ ‘thing’ ............................ .. 191
I49
iku‘ ‘go’ .................................. .. 149 koto2[nominalizer] ...................... .. 193
kotozlnominalizer]
iku’ ‘go on -ing’ ...................... .. 151
iku‘ I51 koto ga aru‘ ‘there was a time when
iru‘
iruI ‘‘exist’
exist ’ ............................... .. 153
1S3 ~ ’ ........................................ .. 196
iru’ ‘be -ing’ ............................ .. 155 aru’ ‘there are times when
koto ga aru”
iru‘
iru“ ‘ need ’ ............................... .. 157
1S7 ~ ’ ........................................ .. 198
628 JAPANESE
]APANESE INDEX
koto ga dekiru ......................... .. 200 (da)> ...................... ..
mon <mono (da)) 260
koto ni kimeru <koto ni suru> suru) .... .. 204 mono (da) .................................. .. 257
koto ni naru ............................ .. 202 <koto‘> ............................ ..
mono <koto‘) 191
koto ni natte iru <koto ni naru> naru) .... .. 202 morau‘ ‘receive’ ...................... .. 261
koto ni shite iru <koto ni suru) suru> 204 morau” ‘receive a favor of doing
morau?
koto ni suru ............................ .. 204 s.t.’ ........................................ .. 263
koto wa ‘indeed ~ but’ .......... .. 206 <aru‘>
motte iru <aruI> ...................... .. 73
~kudasai .................................. .. 209
kudasaru (~kudasai,
<~kudasai, kureru‘»’>
kureruI»’> .... .. N
.................................. .. 210, 215, 218 na ........................................... .. 266
-kun ........................................ .. 211 nado ........................................ .. 267
kurai ........................................ .. 212
kura/' nagara ..................................... .. 269
kureru‘ ‘s.o. gives s.t. to me’ .... .. 213 ~nai de .................................. .. 271
kureru’
kureru” ‘s.o.
‘ s.o. gives me a favor by do- (~kudasai) ................ ..
~nai de <~kudasai> 209
ing s.t.’ .................................. .. 216 ~nai to ikenai <~nakereba nara-
kuru‘ ‘‘come’
come ’ ............................ .. 219 nai) ..................................... .. 274
kuru” ‘begin
‘ begin to, come to’ .......... .. 221 ~nakereba naranai ................... .. 274
~naku(t)cha <~nakereba naranai) naranai>
M .............................................. .. 276
mada ........................................ .. 224 ~naku naru ............................ .. 277
made ........................................ .. 225 ~nakute .................................. ..
--nakute 279
made de (made
<made ni> ni) ................... .. 228 ~nakute wa ikenai <~nakereba
made ni .................................. .. 228 naranai) ............................... .. 274
mae ni ..................................... .. 231 ~nakute wa naranai <~nakereba
mai- ........................................ .. 233 naranai) ............................... .. 274
mama ..................................... .. 236 nanka (nado)
<nado> ............................ .. 267
<yahari> ......................... ..
masaka (yahari) S38 nara ........................................ .. 281
~masho .................................. .. 240 naru <0 ~ ni naru) naru> ................... .. 358
mettani <amari> ......................... .. 72 ~nasai ..................................... .. 284
-mi <-sa> ..... ........................... .. 381 ne ........................................... .. 286
mieru ........................................ .. 243 ~neba naranai <~nakereba naranai)
mirareru <mieru> ...................... .. 243 .............................................. .. 274
miru ........................................ .. 246
24-6 n da <no da> ............................ .. 325
mitaida <yoda> ......................... .. _5S0 n desu <no da> ......................... .. 325
mo‘ ‘also’ ............................... .. 247 niI
ni‘ [point of time] ................... .. 289
mo’ ‘even
‘ even ’ ............................... .. 2S0
250 fl/2 [indirect object marker] ....... .. 291
nil
mo ........................................... .. 254 niII
ni“ [agent /source
/ source marker] .......... .. 292
~mo ~mo ............................... .. 255 ni‘ [direct contact] 295
JAPANESE INDEX 629
ni‘
nis [purpose] ............................ .. 297
ni“
n/‘I [location (existence)] ............. .. 299 R
ni‘ [direction] ............................ .. 302 -ra <-tachi> ............................... .. 440
<to'> ............................ .. 473
ni ‘and’ <to‘> rareru‘ [passive] ......................... .. 364
ni chigainai ............................ .. 304 rareru‘ ‘can (potential)’ ................ .. 370
ni kimeru (~ni suru) ................ .. 310 rashii ..................................... .. 373
-nikui ..................................... .. 307 Relative Clause ......................... .. 376
~ni shite wa ............................ .. 309 reru (rareru‘)
<rareru‘> ............................ .. 364
~ni suru .................................. .. 310
no‘ [possessive marker] ............. .. 312 S
no‘
no’ ‘ one (pronoun)’ ................... .. 315 -sa ........................................... .. 381
no‘ [nominalizer] ...................... .. 318 -sama ..................................... .. 384
no‘ [sentence-final particle] ....... .. 322 -san <-sama>
(-sama) ............................ .. 384
no da ..................................... .. 325 sappari <amari> ......................... .. 72
node ........................................ .. 328 saserareru <saseruI>
<saseru‘> ................... .. 392
no desu <no
(no da> ...................... .. 325 saseru ..................................... .. 387
no ho ga <~ho ga ~yori)
~yori> ....... .. 140 sashiageru<ageru‘>.......
sash/'ageru<ageru‘>....... 64
noni‘ ‘even though ’ ................ .. 331 sasuga (ni) <yahari> ................... .. 538
noni” ‘in the process of doing ~ ’ 335
noni‘ sekkaku .................................. H.. 392
no wa ~ da ............................ .. 337 seru (saseru)
<saseru> ............................ .. 387
shi ........................................... .. 395
O -shi- ........................................ .. 397
o-
0- ........................................... H.. 343 shika ........................................ .. 398
0‘ [direct object marker] ............. .. 347 shikashi <ga2,
(ga‘, kawari ni> ni) ....... ..120, 184
02
0‘ [space marker] ...................... .. 349 shikata ga nai (tamaranai)
<tamaranai> .......... .. 445
03
0‘ [a point of detachment] .......... .. 351
3S1 shimau ..................................... .. 403
0‘ [emotive marker] ................... .. 352 shiru ........................................ .. 406
oi ........................................... .. 354
3S4 soda‘ [hearsay] ......................... .. 407
oki ni <goto
(goto ni) ......................... .. 128 ~soda2
~soda‘ ‘‘looks
looks ’ ......................... .. 410
oku ........................................ .. 357 sore de .................................. .. 413
o ~ ni naru ............................ .. 358 sore de wa ............................... .. 414
0o ~ suru ............................... .. 360 sore kara .................................. .. 416
o to omou <-yo <~yo to omou>
omou) .......... .. S69
569 sore nara .................................. .. 419
<de”> ......................... ..
o tsukatte <de‘>................... 106 soretomo .................................. .. 421
~owaru .................................. .. 362 soshite ..................................... .. 422
ozei <oi> .................................. .. 354 sugiru ..................................... .. 423
sukida ..................................... .. 426
sukoshimo <amari> ................... .. 72
630 JAPANESE INDEX
sukunai ..................................
.......................... .. ..
o Q Q o Q 0 on 427 ...................
te shimau <shimau> .......... .. .. 403
‘ do, play’
suru‘ ‘do, play ’ .........................
................. .. ..
o Q 0 Q Q o no 428 te tamaranai (tamaranai)
<tamaranai> .......... .. 446
suru‘ ‘ have ’ ............................
.................... .. ..
Q Q Q Q 0 0 II 434 te wa ikenai <~ <~wa /'kenai> ....... ..
wa ikenai> 528
suru‘ [sensation] .........................
................. .. ..
J Q I 0 o 0 II
435 te wa naranai <~wa (~wa ikenai>
ikenai) ....... .. 528
suru‘ ‘ cost / lapse ’ ........... ..
................... .. 436
Q o I o o 0 II
te yaru <ageru2>
<ageru‘> ............. ..
...................... .. 67
<o ~ suru (humble)>
suru <0 (humble)>....
.......... .. 360 te yokatta <ba yokatta>
yokatta) ............. .. 89
suru
SUFU to
f0 .....................................
............................. .. .. 437 to‘ ‘‘and’ ..................................
and ’ ......................... .. .. 473
to‘ ‘ with ’ ......................
to” ...............................
.. .. 476
T to‘ [quote marker] ............. ..
...................... .. 478
-tachi................................ ..
-tachi........................................ .. 440 to‘ ‘if, when’
when ’ ................... ..
............................ .. 480
................................... .. ...... ..
-tai ........................................... 441 ~to ieba .................................. .. 484
takusan <oi> 354 to ittara <~to ieba>ieba) ..........
...................
.. .. 485
....................... .. ...... ..
tamaranai ............................... 445 ~to iu .....................................
............................ .. .. 486
tame (ni) ..................................
.......................... .. .. 447 toka ............................... ..
........................................ .. 488
~tara ............................. ..
..................................... .. 452 toki ............................... ..
........................................ .. 490
~tara do desu ka .............. ..
...................... .. 457 to kitara (~to ieba) .......... ..
................... .. 485
~tari ~tari suru .............. ..
...................... .. 458 tokoro da‘ ‘place’ ............. ..
...................... .. 495
-tatte ................................
-tatte ........................................
.. ...... .. 461 tokoro da‘ ‘ moment
moment’’ ....... ..
................ .. 496
-I8 ................................... .. ...... .. 464
-te ........................................... toku <oku> ...................... ..
............................... .. 358
-te <~kudasai>
<-kudasai) ................. ..
......................... .. 209 ..................................
~to shite ......................... .. .. 501
.............. ..
te ageru <ageru‘> ...................... .. 65 ~
~toto shite wa ................... ..
............................ .. 502
te aru <aru2> .................... ..
<aru‘> ............................ .. 76 tsumori ............................ ..
..................................... .. 503
<hoshi/'2) ..............
te hoshii <hoshii‘> ..
...................... .. 146 ttara (~to ......................
<~to ieba) ............. .. .. 484
te iru <iru2> ....................... ..
<iru‘> ............................... .. 155 -tte‘ ‘speaking of’ ..........
...................
.. .. 507
te itadaku <morau"> ........... .. ...... ..
<morau‘> ................... 265 -tte’
-tte‘ [quote marker]
marker] ................... .. 510
te kara <kara‘>
<kara2> ................. ..
......................... .. 177
te kudasai (~kudasai)
<--kudasai) ..... .. ...... ..
............. 209 U
te kudasaru <kureru‘>
<kureru2> ........ ..
................ .. 218 uchi ni ............................ ..
..................................... .. 512
te kureru <kureru‘>
<kureru2> ...................
........... .. .. 216 ushiro ni <mae ni) ni> ..........
...................
.. .. 231
te miru <miru> ......................... .. 246
............................. .. ...... ..
te mo ..................................... 468 W
ii........................... .. ...... ..
~te mo ii................................... 471 wa‘ [theme] ............................ .. 516
te moraitai <hoshif‘> ................
<hoshii‘> ........ .. .. 147 wa‘ [female speech marker] ....... .. S20
te morau <morau‘>
<morau2> ........... ..
................... .. 263 ~wa ~da ...................... ..
............................... .. 521
te ne <ne> ....................... .. ...... ..
............................... 288 ~wa ~desu <~wa (~wa ~da)...
~da> .......... .. 521
te oku <oku> ............................ .. 357 ~wa ~ge
~ga ...................... ..
............................... .. 525
te sashiageru <ageru’> ..... ..
<ageru‘> ............. .. 67 ~ wa ikenai......................
~wa ..
ikenai............................... .. 528
te shikata ga nai <tamaranai>
(tamaranai) .... .. 447 wakaru ............................ ..
..................................... .. 529
JAPANESE INDEX 631
wake da .................................. .. 531

S31 yoni‘ ‘‘so
so that ~ ’ ...................... .. 553
~wa naranai (~wa
<~wa ikenai)
ikenai> ....... .. 528
S28 yoni’ ‘like’ ............................... .. S54
yoni‘ 554
wazawaza <sekkaku> ................ .. 392 ~yoni iu .................................. .. 556
wazuka <sukunai> ...................... .. 427 ~yoni naru ............................... .. 559
SS9
~yoni suru ............................... .. 562
Y yori‘ ‘than’ ............................... .. 564
-ya ‘store’ ............................... .. S35
535 yori‘ ‘side’
‘side’ ............................... .. 567
ya ‘‘and’
and’ .................................. .. S36
536 ~yo to omou ............................ .. 569
yahari ..................................... .. 538 ~yo to suru <miru> ................... .. 246
(yahari) ...................... .. 539
yappari <yahari>
suru‘) ................ ..64,428
yaru <ageru‘, suru‘> | Z
-yasui ..................................... .. 541 zenzen <amari> ......................... .. 72
S43
yo ........................................... .. 543 ~zu ni (~nai de> de) ................... .. 271
yoda ........................................ .. S47 zutsu ........................................ .. 572
S72
yo ne <ne> ............................... .. 288
632
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A DICTIONARY

Cover :I CADEC Inc.

All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book

Published by The Japan Times, Ltd.

This is a dictionary of basic Japanese grammar designed primarily for ﬁrst

Main Entries ......................................................................... .. 61 ~ 573

Appendixes ..................................................................................... .. 575

3. Pairs of Intransitive and Transitive Verbs .................................. .. S85

This dictionary consists of the following parts:

(D [entry name] Q) [part of speech]

[related expression(s)]: Items which are related semantically to the entry

Adj(/')=i-type adjective (e.g. takai

The following are brief explanations of some grammatical terms most

Active Sentence A sentence which describes an action from the agent's

Agent One who initiates and / or completes an action or an event. The

Appositive Clause (Construction) A clause which modiﬁes a noun (or noun

Auxiliary Adjective A dependent adjective that is preceded by and at-

tached to a verb or another adjective. The bold-printed parts of the follow-

Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding verb

Compound Sentence A sentence which consists of clauses combined by

Contrastive Marker A particle which marks contrast. For example, when

Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences without

(d) —El§li71~E D9 lC.Z7J-7ER°o7‘:<>

Embedded Sentence A sentence within another sentence is an embedded

(d) ll-lf£lli§$"¢"§oT:: t 7)§ib%»..

Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In this

Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command, as

I-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with i.

Nominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a noun

Noun Phrase / Clause _

Passive Sentence A sentence which describes an action by someone from

Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence in the sense of

Prenominal Form The verb /adjective form which immediately precedes

Stative Verb A verb which represents a state of something or someone at

Subject The subject is an element of a sentence which indicates an agent

Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause with

Transitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually expresses

Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses his will. The

fﬁrbiﬁc 5 /iii? La 5..

WH-word An interrogative word which corresponds to English words such

Yes-No Question A question that can be answered by hai / é ‘yes’ or

(a book which my father read yesterday)

X (subject / topic) Prt Y Copula

(Mr Tanaka is a student)

(In answer to the question: Who is a student?)

Yamaka wa-san wa W8/<8! /I wakaidesu.

(Mr Yamakawa is healthy.)

X (topic, experiencer) Prt Y Prt Predicate

Subject (topic) Prt Verb (intransitive)

f. LS V (= Location + Subject + Verb)

Daigaku wa kono machi ni futarsu

Topics are presented using various topic-marking devices. Among these,

In general, any noun phrase (N

Kaimashita, however, cannot be omitted in normal conversation even though

(3) A: $>Y’.i’:T:l:-3:72‘ ‘J 7Jl:v\f:B?i°.

Very Formal bf < 1,

Very Formal bk<LE£ none

(2) 11-a- *i1.(1t1.o=&(1§~e1F1.ozzi£a%=.§1,rw¢.

Kinship terms $556 2-5

Within a family, if the speaker is considered superior (primarily in terms

(3) 11-3- *i1.)115(.:§R(.:?§b 15:11:.

6. Politeness and Formality

kureru kudasaru (Gr