How does a stem cell become a differentiated cell?

OR
How does a cell become specialized?

1. A stimulus (for example - a chemical) is given

2. Which activates some genes while inactive certain others
3. Only the active genes are transcribed on the mRNA
4. Ribosomes use codons from the mRNA to make proteins (TRANSLATION)
5. These proteins determine the cell structure and functions

Roles of the CELL CYCLE

1. Growth
2. Asexual reproduction
3. Increases the number of cells – as a result of mitosis
4. Cells increase in size during G1 and G2 phase

Functions of the CELL CYLCLE

1. Controls the growth of organisms

2. Produces new cells
3. Asexual reproduction – production of clones, genetically identical cells
4. Replicates DNA – synthesizes new organelles

Function of CORTICAL GRANULE

1. It is a lysosome
2. It moves towards the cell membrane and fuses with it
3. Releases its enzyme by exocytosis
4. Cortical reaction occurs i.e. the zona pellucida hardens forming a fertilization layer
5. This prevents polyspermy

How is the function of an OVUM related to its function as a gamete?

1. It contains a nucleus with haploid number of chromosomes

2. Diploid number of chromosomes is restored during fertilization
3. Contains lipid droplets that provide energy
4. Contains cortical granules that carry out cortical reaction to harden the zona pellucida,
preventing polyspermy
 PLURIPOTENT

1. Unspecialized cells that can differentiate

2. To form all types of cells except extra embryonic tissues
3. These cells can divide

POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

1. More than one allele for a characteristic

2. On more than one locus
3. It results in continuous variation
4. Has cumulative effect of genes
 It is when one characteristic is controlled by more than one gene at different loci. It leads to continuous
variation.

How does MEIOSIS lead to genetic variation in phenotype?

OR
Role of MEIOSIS in gamete reproduction

1. Meiosis produces haploid gametes

2. Meiosis results in genetic variation due to independent assortment which gives rise to different
combinations of paternal and maternal chromosomes
3. And crossing over which involves swapping of sections of chromatids
4. Thus new combinations of alleles are produced

Properties of stem cells that enable them to repair damaged tissues

1. Stem cells are totipotent

2. So they can differentiate to give rise to specialized cells
3. These specialized cells can form new tissues
4. The cells are capable of undergoing continuous division

Risk of using donated stem cell

1. Risk of rejection
2. Risk of disease transmission
3. May cause cancer to develop

TISSUE – A group of similar cells that work together for a common function.
Applications of STEM CELL THEORY

1. Repairing damaged tissues

2. Produce organs for transplantation

How is the dark moth evolved by natural selection?

1. There is variation in moth production

2. Due to mutation
3. Predation caused selection pressure on the population
4. Some variations are better adapted - the dark ones are better adapted to the selection pressure
5. The dark forms survive to breed
6. And pass on their beneficial allele to their offspring
7. So their allele frequency increase over generations

SPECIES RICHNESS – Number of species in a particular area.

ENDEMIC – Species that can be found in one specific location in the wild

NICHE – Role of an organism within its ecosystem and how the organism interacts with its environment.

How something may be classified to be belonging to EUKARYOTA rather than BACTERIA?

1. Membrane bound organelles are present.

E.g. – mitochondria, rER, nucleus
2. Plasmids, pili, slime capsule are absent.
3. 80S ribosomes in eukaryotes and 70S (smaller) in prokaryotes.
4. DNA is enclosed in nucleus
5. DNA is linear in eukaryotes while circular in prokaryotes.

Structure of CELLULOSE

1. Many beta-glucose molecules join by 1-4 glycosidic bond

2. To form a cellulose molecule.
Many cellulose molecule join by hydrogen bonds.
3. To form microfibrils
4. The microfibrils are arranged in layers on a glue-like matrix made up of hemicellulose and pectin

EXOCYTOSIS – Fusing of vesicles with the cell surface membrane for the secretion of substances such as
enzymes from cells.
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE – Its when one characteristic in controlled by more than one gene at different
loci. It leads to continuous variation.

Structure of XYLEM

1. Xylem is made up of long hollow (lack of cytoplasm),continuous lumen.

2. It has thickened cell walls.
3. Due to the presence of the lignin.
4. The cells are joined end to end to form vessels (no end walls)

Why seeds are dried before storing

1. To reproduce metabolic reactions.
2. To prevent germination of seeds.
3. To prevent microbial growth.
4. To prevent damage when seeds are frozen.

How seedbanks can increase genetic diversity?

1. Seeds can be harvested from different plants of the same species.
2. Seeds can be collected from plants growing in different locations.
3. This gives a large gene pool.

Plant fibre – June’14# 7a (experiment)

Due to small gene pool, there’s less chance of having advantageous alleles, possibly of extinction.

Only eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles.

How contamination of explants is prevented?

1. By sterilization to kill microorganisms.

2. By using sealed containers to prevent contamination of microorganisms

Why contamination should be prevented?

1. Microorganisms can cause diseases in explants.

2. They can cause competition for nutrients in the medium.
3. Thus, reducing growth of explants.

Why MgNO3 affected production of plant?

1. Mg is needed to synthesise chlorophyll.

 2. Chlorophyll is used for photosynthesis.
3. Increase in photosynthesis leads to an increase in yield.
4. Nitrate is needed to make amino acids which is needed to make protein.
5. More protein increases growth.

Why plants require water

1. Photosynthesis
2. To maintain turgidity.
3. Cooling
4. Hydrolysis
5. Transport / medium of chemical reaction.

How structure of cell wall enables it to be strong and flexible?

1. Cellulose microfibrils
2. They are parallel to each other in layers. This gives flexibility.
3. The mesh/ cris cross manner of microfibrils in secondary cell wall gives strength.
4. Cellulose microfibrils are embedded in pectin.

June’14 # 4a (i) – experiment for antimicrobial property

How biodiversity can be measured?

1. By determining species diversity which is done by counting number of species in a given land.
2. By determining genetic diversity which is done by determining number of different alleles within
a gene pool of species.

How captive breeding programmes and reintroduction programes helps to conserve animals?

1. Both these programmes help to increase population size.

2. And increase genetius diversity and protect them from predators.
3. In captive breeding, inter-zoo exchange of animals is done (animals are transferred between
zoos).
4. Stud books are used to select mates.
5. Females are fertilized using IVF and artificial insemination.
6. This prevents inbreeding so reduces genetic drift.
7. In reintroduction programmes, wild behavior is reinforced by reducing food intake and
encouring hunting.
8. Safe habitats are chosen for reintroduction. Eg – national parks / reserve.
9. The animals are protected from predators after release.

Tensile strength – the force that a fibre can take without breaking.
Why ca2+ ion is needed in the structure of cell walls in plants.

1. Ca2+ is needed to make pectin.

2. Middle lamella is made up of calcium pectate.
3. Pectin holds microfibrils in matrix.

Jan’16 3 c 2) – experiment.

How double blind study is carried out

1. Large group of patients.

2. Of the same age, gender, health etc. are taken.
3. Divided into groups – one group is given the drug while the other isn’t.
4. Neither patient nor doctor knows who is in which group.
5. Description of placebo.

How tissue culture technique is carried out?

1. Meristem cells / explants

2. Are transferred to agar/growth medium.
3. Agar contains growth hormones.
4. Use sterile agar and cover the culture to prevent contamination by Mos.