The Process of Measu rement:

An Overview

INTRODUCTION
2 THE SIGNIACANCE OF M ECHANICAL M EASUREMENT
3 FUNDAMENTAL M ETHODS OF MEASUREM ENT
4 THE GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM
s TYPES OF INPUT QUANTmEs
6 M EASUREMENT STANDARDS
7 CALIBRATION
8 UNCERTAINTY: ACCURACY OF RESULTS
9 REPORTING RESULTS
10 FINAL REMARKS

INTRODUCTION

It has been said, "Whatever exists, exists in some amount." The detennination of the amount
is what measurement is all about. If those things that exist are related 10 the practice of
mechanical engineering, then the de!ermination of their amounts conslilutes the subject of
mechanical measurements.1
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative comparison
between a predefined standard and a measurand. The word measurand is used to designate
the particular physical parameter being observed and quanlified; that is, the input quantity
to the measuring process. The act of measurement produces a result (see Fig. I ).
The standard of comparison must be of the same character as the measuranid, and
usually, bu! not always, is prescribed and defined by a legal or recognized agency or
organization-for example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
fonnerly called the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), or the American Naiional Standards Institute (ANSI). The me:ter, for
example, is a clearly defined siandard of length.
Such quantities as temperature, strain, and the parameters associated with fluid flow,
acoustics, and motion, in addiiion to the fundamental quantities of mass, length, time, and
so on. arc typical of those within the scope of mechanical measurements. Unavoidably,

quantity itself that the term mtchankal is directed. The

1 Meclumical meantremtnU are not neeessarily accomplished by mechanical means: rather, ii is to the measured
phrase mtasunmtnl of mechanical quantit1its, or of

the subject is simply called mechanical mecuurY11Un1s.

paramettrJ, would perhaps express more oomp�ly the naning intended. In the interest of brevity, however,
 The Process of Measurement An Overview

Processor
Measurand Result

(input)
comparison
(measurement) (readout)

FIGURE I: Fundamental measuring process.

the measurement of mechanical quantities also involves consideration of things electrical,

since it is often convenient or necessary to change, or transduce, a mechanical measurand
into a corresponding electrical quantity.

2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT

Measurement provides quantitative information on the actual state of physical variables and
processes that otherwise could only be estimated. As such, measurement is both the vehicle
for new understanding of the physical world and the ultimate test of any theory or design.
Measurement is the fundamental basis for all research, design, and development, and its
role is prominent in many engineering activities.
All mechanical design of any complexity involves three clements: experience, the
rational element, and the experimental element. The element of experience is based on
previous exposure to similar systems and on an engineer's common sense. The rational
element relies on quantitative engineering principles, the laws of physics, and so on. The
experimental element is based on measurement-that is, on measurement of the various
quantities pertaining to the operation and performance of the device or process being devel­
oped. Measurement provides a comparison between what was intended and what was
actually achieved.
Measurement is also a fundamental element of any control process. The concept
of control requires the measured discrepancy between the actual and the desired perfor­
mances. The controlling portion of the system must know the magnitude and direction of
the difference in order to react intelligently.
In addition, many daily operations require measurement for proper performance. An
example is in the central power station. Temperatures, flows, pressures, and vibrational
amplitudes must be constantly monitored by measurement to ensure proper performance
of the system. Moreover, measurement is vital to commerce. Costs are established on the
basis of amounts of materials, power, expenditure of time and labor, and other constraints.
To be useful, measurement must be reliable. Having incorrect information is poten­
tially more damaging than having no information. The situation, of course, raises the
question of the accuracy or uncertainty of a measurement. Arnold 0. Beckman, founder of
Beckman Instruments, once stated, "One thing you learn in science is that there is no perfect

3
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

answer, no perfect measure. "2 It is quite important that engineers interpreting the results of
measurement have some basis for evaluating the likely uncertainty. Engineers should never
simply read a scale or printout and blindly accept the numbers. They must carefully place
realistic tolerances on each of the measured values, and not only should have a doubting
mind but also should attempt to quantify their doubts. We will discuss uncertainty in more
detail in Section 8.

3 FUNDAMENTAL METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

There are two basic methods of measurement: ( I ) direct comparison with either a primary
or a secondary standard and (2) indirect comparison through the use of a calibrated system.

3.1 Direct Comparison

How would you measure the length of a bar of steel? If you were to be satisfied with a
measurement to within, let us say, k in. (approximately 3 mm), you would probably use a
steel tape measure. You would compare the length of the bar with a standard and would find
that the bar is so many inches long because that many inch-units on your standard are the
same length as the bar. Thus you would have determined the length by direct comparison.
The standard that you have used is called a secondary standard. No doubt you could trace
its ancestry back through no more than four generations to the primary length standard,
which is related to the speed of light.
Although to measure by direct comparison is to strip the measurement process to its
barest essentials, the method is not always adequate. The human senses are not equipped
to make direct comparisons of all quantities with equal facility. In many cases they arc not
sensitive enough. We can make direct comparisons of small distances using a steel rule,
with a precision of about 1 mm (approximately 0.04 i n.) . Often we require greater accuracy.
Then we must call for additional assistance from some more complex form of measuring
system. Measurement by direct comparison is thus less common th a n is measurement by
indirect comparison.

3.2 Using a Calibrated System

Indirect comparison makes use of some form of transducing device coupled to a chain of
connecting apparatus, which we shall call, in toto, the measuring system. This chain of
devices converts the basic form of input into an analogous form, which it then processes
and presents al the output as a known function of the original input. Such a conversion is
often necessary so that the desired information will be intelligible. The human senses arc
simply not designed to detect the strain in a machine member, for instance. Assistance is
required from a system that senses, converts, and finally presents an analogous output in
the form of a displacement on a scale or chart or as a digital readout.
Processing of the analogous signal may take many forms. Often it is necessary to
increase an amplitude or a power through some form of amplification. Or in another case
it may, be necessary to extract the de.�ired information from a mass of extraneous input
by a process of filtering. A remote reading or recording may be needed, such as ground
recording of a temperature or pressure within a rocket in flight. ln this case the pressure or

2Emphasis added by lhe authon.

4
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

temperature measurement must be combined with a radio-frequency signal for transmission

to the ground.
In each of the various cases requiring amplification, or filtering, or remote record­
ing, electrical methods suggest themselves. In fact, the majority of transducers in use,
particularly for dynmrnc mechanical measurements, conven the mechanical input into an
analogous electrical fonn for processing.

4 THE GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM

Most measuring systems fall within lhc framework of a general arrangement consisting of
three phases or stages:

Stage 1. A detection-transduction, or sensor-transducer, stage

Stage 2. An intermediate stage, which we shall call the signal-conditioning stage
Stage 3• . A tenninating, or readou1-recording, stage

Each stage consists of a distinct component or group of components that perfonns

required and definite steps in the measuremenL These are called basic elements; their
scope is detennined by their function rather than by their construction. Figure 2 and Table I
outline the significance of each of these stages.

4.1 First. or Sensor-Transducer, Stage

The primary function of the first stage is lo detect or to sense the measurand. Al the same
time, ideally, this stage should be insensitive to every other possible input For instance, if
il is a pressure pickup, it should be insensitive to, say, acceleration; if it is a strain gage, it
should be insensitive to temperature; if a linear accelerometer, it should be insensitive lo
angular acceleration; and so on. Unfonunately, ii is rare indeed lo find a detecting device
that is completely selective. Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error, called noise when
ii varies rapidly and drift when ii varies very slowly.
Frequently one finds more than a single transduction (change in signal character) in
the first stage, particularly if the first-stage output is electrical.

4.2 Second, or Signal-Conditioning, Stage

The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify the transduced infonna­
tion so that it is acceptable to the third, or tenninating, stage. In addition, it may perform
one or more basic operations, such as selective filtering to remove noise, integration, dif-

....-
Catibration Auxfliary power Auxiliary power
in�t Indicator
''
(not always required) (usually required )

'' ·� � - Recorder

Measurand "- Sensor- Signal

Computer
transducer conditioner
signal driving
Transduced Analogous
� Processor
(analogous signal
lo Input)
- Controller

FIGURE 2: Block diagram of the generalized measuring system.

 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

TABLE 1: Stages of the General Measurement System

Stage 1: Sensor-Transducer Stage 2: Signal Conditioning Stage 3: Readout-Recording

·

Senses desired input to exclusion
of all others and provides
analogous output
Modifies transduced signal into
final stage.
fonn usable by
Usually increases amplitude
and/or power, depending on
requirement. May also selectively
Provides an indication or
recording in form that can be
evaluated by an unaided human
sense or by a control ler. Records
data digitally on a computer

into p ul sed fonn

filter unwanted components or
convert signal

Types and Examples Types and Exampks l)pes and Examples

Con tacting spindle, cranks,
Moving pointer and scale, moving
Mechanical: Mechanical: Gearing, lndiclJ/ors (dispkicement ''pe):

index, light beam and

spring-mass, elastic devices (e.g .. slides, connecting links. cams,
scale and
for force), gyro beam and sale
Bourdon tube for pressure, etc.
proving ring scale, electron
(oscilloscope), liquid column

Hydraulic-pneunuuic: Buoyant
float, orifice, venturi. vane,
propeller
IDirect
alphanumeric readout
Hydraulic-pneumatic: Piping. lndicalors (digital type):
valving, dashpots, plenum
chambers

Optical: Photographic film. Optical: Mirrors, lenses, optical Recorders: Digital printing, inked
photoelectric diodes and filters, optical fibers. spatial filters pen and chart, direct phot1>graphy.
transistors, phOlomultiplier tubes. (pinhole, slit) magnetic recording (hard disk)
holographic plates

Electrical: Contacts, resistance. Electrical: Amplifying or Processors and compUle,,r:

systems. either special-pu rpose or

capacitance, inductance,
piezoelectric crystals and
polymers. thermocouple.
semiconductor junction
filters, te lemetering systems.
attenuating systems, bridges,
various special-purpose
in tegrated-circ uit devices
Various types or computing
general . used to feed
readout/recording devices and/or
controlling systems

Controllers: AU types

ferentiation, or telemetering, as may be required.

Probably the most common function of the second stage is to increase either a11Dpli tude
or power of the s ign al , or both, to the level required to drive the final terminating. device.
In addition, the second stage must be designed for proper matching characteristics loetween
the first and second and between the second and third stages.

4.3 Third , or Readout-Recording, Stage

The third stage provides the information sought in a form comprehensible to one of the
human senses or to a controller. If the output is intended for immediate human recc•gnition,
it is, with rare excepti o n , presented in one of the following forms:

1. As a re/alive displacement, such as movement of an indicating hand or displacement

of oscilloscope trace
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

Stem

Compression
spring

Piston

Cylinder

(a)

- - ----- - - '
' '
-

'
-

'
Sensor-transducer
'
'
• Signal
:
Readout
Piston/cylinder Spring
'
concfiUoning
' (Scale and
Input
(Pressure lo (Fon:a lo '
: (None) '
pressure
lorce)
index)
displacement)
·- - - - - - - .. - - .!

(b)

FIGURE 3: (a) Gage for measuring pressure in automobile tires. (b) Block diagram of tire-gage
functions. In this example, the spring serves as a secondary transducer.

2. In digital form, as presented by a counter such as an automobile odometer, or by

a liquid crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting diode (L_ED) display as on a digital
voltmeter

To illustrate a very simple measuring system, let us consider the familiar tire gage
used for checking automobile tire pressure. Such a device is shown in Fig. 3(a). It consists
of a cylinder and piston, a spring resisting the piston movement, and a stem with scale
divisions. As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting force compresses the
spring until the spring and air forces balance. The calibrated stem, which remains in place
after the spring returns the piston, indicates the applied pressure.
The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force-summing apparatus, sensing and
transducing pressure to force. As a secondary transducer, the spring converts the force to
a displacement. Finally, the transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning to
the scale and index for readout [see Fig. 3(b)].
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

As an example of a more complex system, let us say that a velocity is to be measured,

as shown in Fig. 4. The first-stage device, the accelerometer, provides a voltage analogous
to acceleration. 3 In addition to a voltage amplifier, the second stage may also include a
filter that selectively attenuates unwanted high-frequency noise components. It may also
integrate the analog signal with respect to time, thereby p roviding a velocity-time relation,
rather than an acceleration-time signal. Finally, the signal voltage will probably need lo
be increased to the level necessary to be sensed by the third, or recording and readout,
stage, which may consist of a data-acquisition computer and printer. The final record will
then be in the form of a computer-generated graph; with the proper c;ilibration. an accurate
velocity-versus-time measurement should be the result.

5 TYPES OF INPUT QUANTITIES

5.1 Time Dependence
Mechanical quantities, in addition to their inherent defining characteristics, also have dis­
tinctive time-amplitude properties, which may be classified as follows :

1. Static-<:<>nstant in time
2. Dynamic-varying in time
(a) Steady-state periodic
(b) Nonrepetitive or transient

i. Single pulse or aperiodic

ii. Continuing or random

Of course. the unchanging, static mcasurand is the most easily measured. If the system
is terminated by some form of meter-type indicator. the meter's pointer has no difficulty
in eventually reaching a definite indication. The rapidly changing. dynamic measurand
presents the real measurement challenge.
Two general forms of dynamic input are possible: steady-stale periodic input and
transient input. The steady-stale periodic quantity is one whose magnitude has a definite
repeating time cycle, whereas the time variation of a transient quantity docs not repeat .
"Sixty-cycle" line voltage is an example of a steady-slate periodic signal. So also are many
mechanical vibrations, after a balance has been reached between a constant input exciting
energy and energy dissipated by damping.
An example of a pulsed transient quantity is the acceleration-lime relationship accom ­
panying an isolated mechanical impact. The magnitude is temporary. being completed in
a matter of milliseconds, with the portions of interest existing perhaps for only a few
microseconds. The presence of extremely high rates of change, or wavefronts. can place
seven: demands on the measuring system.

5.2 Analog and Digital Signals

Most measurands of interest vary with time in a continuous manner over a range of magni­
tudes. For instance, the speed of an automobile. as it starts from rest, has some magnitude

l Although lhe accelerometer may be susceptible to an analysis of "stages" within i1self, we shall forgo such
an analysis in this ex.ample.
 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Sensor-lransducer Signal-conditioning system i Recording-readout system
I
I

I
I

i
I
Integrating I I Data-acquisition
Fitter circuit
Ampllller
computer
·Printer

Voltage output Signal Time-integrated

from accelerometer with noisa 'IOltage analogus
with unwanted "noise" removed tovelocily

Tlme,s

Computer graph

FIGURE 4: Block diagram of a relatively complex measuring system.

 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

at every instant during its motion. A sensor that responds to velocity will produce: an output
signal having a time variation analogous to the time change in the auto's speed. We refer to
such a signal as an analog signal because it is analogous to a continuous physical process.
An analog signal has a value at every instant in time, and it usually varies smoothly in
magnitude.
Some quantities, however, may change in a stepwise manner between two distinct
magnitudes: a high and low voltage« on and off, for instance. The revolutions of a shaft
could be counted with a cam-actuated electrical switch that is open or closed, depending on
the position of the cam. If the switch controls current from a battery, current either flows
with a given magnitude or does not flow. The current flow varies discretely bet ween two
values, which we could represent as single digits: I (flowing) and 0 (not Hewing). The
amplitude of such a signal may thus be called digital.
Many electronic circuits store numbers as sets of digits-strings of ls and Os-with
each string held in a separate memory register. When digital circuits, such as those in
computers, are used to record an analog signal, they do so only at discrete points in time
. because they have only a fixed number of memory registers. The analog signal, which has
a value at every instant of time, becomes a digital signal A digital signal is a set of discrete
.

numbers, each corresponding to the value of the analog signal at a single specilfic instant
of time. Clearly, the digital signal contains no information about the value of tine analog
signal at times other than sample times.
Mechanical quantities-such as temperatures, fluid-flow rates, pressure, stress, and
strain-normally behave timewise in an analog manner. However, distinct advantages
are often obtained in converting an analog signal to an equivalent digital signal for the
purposes of signal conditioning and/or readout. Noise problems are reduced or s1Jmetimes
eliminated altogether, and data transmission is simpler. Computers are designed to process
digital information, and direct numerical display or recording is more easily accomplished
by manipulating digital quantities.

6 M EASUREMENT STANDARDS
As stated earlier, measurement is a process of comparison. Therefore, regardless of our
measurement method, we must employ a basis of comparison-standardized units. The
standards must be precisely defined, and, because different systems of units exist, the method
of conversion from system to system must be mutually agreed upon.
Most importantly, a relationship between the standards and the readout scale of each
measuring system must be established through a process known as calibration.

7 CALIBRATION

At some point during the preparation of a measuring system, known magnitudes of the input
quantity must be fed into the sensor-transducer, and the system's output behavior· must be
observed. Such a comparison allows the magnitude of the output to be correctly interpreted
in terms of the magnitude of the input. This calibration procedure establishes the correct
output scale for the measuring system.
By performing such a test on an instrument, we both calibrate its scale and prove its
ability to measure reliably. In this sense, we sometimes speak ofproving an instrument. Of

10
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

course, if the calibration is to be meaningful, the known input must i tsel f be derived from
a defined standard.
If the output is exactly proportional to the input (output = cons tant x input ), then
a single simultaneous observation of input and output will suffice to fix the constant of
proponionality. This is called single-point calibration. M ore often, however, multipoint
calibrations are used, wherein a number of different input values are applied. Multipoint
calibration works when the output is not simply proportional, and, more generally, improves
the accu racy of the calibration.
If a meas ur ing system will be used to detect a time-varying input, then the calibration
should ideally be made using a time-dependent input standard. Such dynamic cal i bration
can be di fficult, however, and astatic calibration, using a constant input signal, is frequently
substituted. Naturally, this procedure.is not optimal; the more nearly the calibration standard
corresponds to the measurand in all its characteristics, the better the resulting measurements.
Occasionally, the nature of the system or one of its components makes the introduc­
tion of a sample of the basic input quantity di ffi cul t OI' impossible. One of the important
characteristics of the bonded resistance-type strain gage is the fact that, through quality con­
trol at the time of manufacture, spot calibration may be appl ied to a complete lot of gages.
As a result, an indirect calibration of a strain-measuring system may be provided through
the gage factor s up p l ied by the manufacturer. Instead of attempting to apply a known unit
strain to the gage installed on the test s tructure-which , if possible, would often result in an
ambiguous situation-a resistance change is substituted. Through the predetermined gage
factor, the system's suain response may thereby be obtained.

8 UNCE RTAINTY: ACCURACY OF RESULTS

Error may be defined as the difference between the measured result and the true value of
the quantity being measured. While we do know the measured value, we do not know the
true value, and so we do not know the error either. If we estimate a likely upper bound on
the magnitude of the error, that bound is called the uncertainty: We estimate, with some
level of odds, that the error will be no larger than the uncertainty.
To estimate the size of errors, we must have some understanding of their causes and
classifications. Errors can be of two basic types: bias, or systematic, error and precisio11,
or random, error.
Should an unscrupulous butcher place a ball of putty under the scale pan, the scale
readouts would be consistently in error. The scale would indicate a weight of product too
great by the weight of the putty. This zero offset represents one type of sys tematic error.
Shrink rules are used to make patterns for the casting of metals. Cast steel shrinks in
cooling by about 2%; hence the patterns used for preparing the molds are oversized by the
proper percentage amounts. The pattern maker uses a shrink rule on which the dimensional
units are increased by that amount. Should a pattern maker's shrink rule for cast steel be
inadvenently used for ord inary length measurements, the readouts would be consistently
undersized by s\i in one (that is, by 2%). This is an example of scale error.
In each of the foregoing examples the errors are cons tant and of a syste matic nature.
Such errors cannot be uncovered by statistical analysis.
An inexpensive frequency counter may us e the 60-Hz power- l ine frequency as a com­
parison standard. Power-line frequency is held very close to the 60-Hz standard. Although
it does wander slowly above and below the average value, over a period of time-say,
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

a day-the average is very close to 60 Hz. The wandering is random and the moment­
to-moment error in the frequency meter readout (from this source) is called
precision, or
random, error.
Randomness may also be introduced by variations in the measurand itself. If a
number of hardness readings is made on a given sample of steel, a range of readings will
be obtained. An average hardness may be calculated and presented as the actual hardness.
Single readings will deviate from the average, some higher and some lower. Of course,
the primary reason for the variations in this case is the nonhomogeneity of the crystalline
structure of the test specimen. The deviations will be random and are due to variations in
the measurand. Random error may be estimated by statistical methods.

9 REPORTING RESULTS
When experimental setups are made and time and effort are expended to obtain results, it
normally follows that some form of written record or report is to be made. The purpose
of such a reconl will determine its form. In fact, in some cases, several versions will be
prepared. Reports may be categorized as follows:

1. Executive summary
2. Laboratory note or tech nical memo
3. Progress report
4. Full technical report
S. Technical paper

Very briefly, an executive summary is directed at a busy overseer who wants only
the key features of the work: what was done and what was concluded, outlined in a few
paragraphs. A laboratory note is written to be read by someone thoroughly familiar with the
project, such as an immediate supervisor or the experimentalist himself or herself. A full
report tells the complete story to one who is interested in the subject but who has not been
in direct touch with the specific work-perhaps top officials of a large company or a review
committee of a sponsoring agency. A progress report is just that-one of possibly several
interim reports describing 1he current status of an ongoing project, which will eventually be
incorporated in a full report. Ordinarily, a technical paper is a brief summary of a project,
the extent of which must be tailored to fit either a time allotmenl at a meeting or space in a
publication.
Several factors are common to all the various forms. With each type, the first priority
is to make sure that the problem or project that has been tackled is clearly stated. There is
nothing quite so frustrating as reading details in a technical report while never being certain
of the raison d'etre. It is extremely importanl 10 make certain 1hat the reader is quickly
clued in on the why before one attempts to explain the how and the results. A clearly stated
objective can be considered the most important part of the report. The.entire report should
be written in simple language. A rule stated by Samuel Clemens is not inappropriate: "Omit
unnecessary adverbs and adjectives."

9.1 Laboratory Note or Technical Memo

The laboratory nole is written for a very limited audience, possibly even only as a memory
jogger for the experimenter or, perhaps more often, for the information of an immediate
supervisor who is thoroughly familiar with the work. In some cases, a single page may

12
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

be sufficient, including a sentence or two statin g the problem . a block diagram of the
experimental setup, and some data presented either in tabular form or as a plotted diagram.
Any pertinent observations not directly evident from the data should also be included.
Sufficient information should be included so that the experimenter can mentally reconstruct
the situation and results I year or even years hence. A date and signature should always be
5
included and, if there is a possibility of important developments stemming from the work,
such as a patent, a second witnessing signature should be includL'<I and dated.
9.2 Full Report
The full report must relate all the facts pertinent to the p roj ect . II is even more important in
this case to make the purpose of the project comp le tel y clear, for the report will be read by
persons not closely assoc iated with the work. The full report should also include enough
detail to allow another pro fessional lo repeal the measurements and calculations.
One format that has much merit is to make the report proper-<he main body-short
and to the point, releg ati ng to appendices the supporting materials, su ch as data, detailed
descriptions of equipm ent, review of literature, sample calculations, and so on. Frequent
reference to these mate rial s can be made throughout the report proper, but the option to
peruse the de tai ls is left to the reader. This scheme also provides a good basis for the
technical paper, should it be planned.

93 Technical Paper
A primary purpose of a technical paper is to make known (to advertise) the work of the
writer. For this reason, two particularly important portions of the writing are the problem
statement and the results. Adequately done, these two item s will attract the attenti on of
other workers interested in the particular field , who can then make direct contact with the
writer{s) for additional details and discussion.
Space, number of words, limits on illustrat ions, and perhaps lime are all factors
m aking the preparation of a technical paper particularly challe n gin g . Once the problem
statement and the p ri mary results have been adeq uately established, the rem aining available
space may be used to summarize procedures, test setups, and the like.

10 FINAL REMARKS
An attempt has been made in th i s chapter to provide an overall preview of the problems
of mechan ical measurement. In conformance with Section 9, we have tried to state the
problem as fu lly as possible in only a few pages.

PROBLEMS

I. Write an executive summary or this chapter.

2. Consider a mercury-in-glass thermome ter as a temperature-measuring system. Discuss

the various stages of this measuring system in detail .

3. For the thermometer of Problem 2, specify how practical single point calibration may be
obtained.

4. Set up test procedures you would use to estim at e, with the aid only of your present judgment
and experience, the magnitudes of the common quant it ies list ed.

( a ) Distanc e between the centerlines or two holes in a machined part

13
 The Process of Measurement: An Overview

( b) Weighl of two small objects of differenl densities

( c ) nme intervals
( d) Temperature of waler
( e) Frequency of pure tones

5. Consider the impac1 frame shown in Figure 5. Mass M, which travels along gui�le rails, is
raised to an initial height H and released from resl Discuss how you would me:asure the
mass velocity just prior to impacl wilh lhe leSI ilem in order to accounl for friction between
mass M and lhe guide rails.

I
H

Test
Item

FIGURE 5: Impact test frame for Problem 5.