Reproduction

Organisms producing more of

their own kind
Sexual vs. asexual
! Asexual
!Quick
!Conditions must be favorable
!Usually involves mitosis of diploid
cells
! Sexual
!Maintain genetic diversity
!Requires fusion of haploid
gametes
Asexual Reproduction
! Involves only one parent
! Usually genetically identical
! Unicellular organisms (bacteria &
protists)
! Binary fission: cell grows, copies
DNA, splits
! Yeast budding: unequal division of
cytoplasm
Asexual Reproduction
! Hydra
! Budding: offspring grows off
the side of the organism
Asexual Reproduction
! Plants
! Vegetative reproduction
!Horizontal stems (strawberries)
!Plantlets
!Underground roots
! Propagation Artificial
!Cuttings
!grafting
Human Reproductive
Systems
Male Reproductive System

1. Scrotum: Controls
temperature of testes
2. Testes: Produce sperm
and testosterone
3. Epididymis: maturation
and storage of sperm
4. Vas Deferens: Carries sperm from testes
to urethra
5. Bulbourethral gland: produces seminal
fluid
Seminal fluid:
Nourishes sperm
Protects from acidity of female
reproductive tract
7. Seminal vesicle: produces seminal fluid
9. Prostate: Produces seminal
fluid
10. Urethra: Allows semen or
urine to exit the body
11. Penis: Allows for the
delivery of semen
! Non Reproductive
Structures:
6. Rectum: Egestion of solid
waste (feces)
8. Bladder: Stores urine
 Female Reproductive System

1. Ovaries: Egg (ova)

production (estrogen &
progesterone)
2. Oviduct/Fallopian Tubes:
Carries egg to uterus
Site of fertilization
3. Uterus: Site of fetal development
6.Vagina: Allows sperm to enter
Birth canal

7. Cervix: Separates vagina and uterus

Dilates during child birth
Non Reproductive Structures

4. Bladder: Stores urine

5. Urethra: Allows urine to
exit the body
8. Rectum: Egestion of
solid waste (feces)
Key terms:

!Gametes: reproductive cells

- sperm & eggs
!Fertilization:
fusion of a
sperm & egg cell
!Usually occurs in the oviduct
!Placenta:allows for the
exchange of materials
between the mother the
baby
!Describe the pathway of a
mature sperm and egg cell
(where does each start and
what structures will it pass
through or by on the way out
of the body)
Types of Neurons and Electrical
Signals

Electrical
Signal
 Are all neurons created the same?
• Compare and contrast the neurons drawn below.
 Neurons are Cells

• Nucleus – stores DNA

• Mitochondria – supplies energy

• Ribosomes – synthesizes proteins

• Endoplasmic reticulum – modifies proteins

• Golgi apparatus – packages and directs

proteins to proper locations in cell
 Neurons Receive Inputs
• From the environment via specialized receptors
1. Sensory neuron in skin 2. Sensory neuron in ear 3. Sensory neuron in eye

receptors
receptor
receptors

nucleus

nucleus

nucleus
 Neurons Receive Inputs

• From other neurons via dendrites

Dendrites Dendrites Dendrites

Cell body Cell body

Cell body
 Neurons Process Inputs

Dendrites

Cell Body

Initial Segment
 Neurons Send Signals

Dendrites Axon

Cell Body

Initial Segment
Synapse
 Axons
• Vary in Length
 The Axon
• Sends signals electrically

Axon

++++

Axon’s Lipid ----

Bilayer
 The Synapse
• Sends signals chemically

Presynaptic
cell

Neurotransmitter
s

Postsynapti
c
cell
 Neurons Send Signals
• To other neurons • To muscles
Are all neurons created the same? Why
not?
Bipolar cell
from retina Neuron from Neuron from
olfactory bulb cortex

Santiago Ramon y Cajal

Motor neuron
from spinal
cord
 Think-Pair-Share

• Joey needs to have a

cavity filled. Before his
doctor begins drilling,
she gives him Novocain to
prevent pain.

• How do you think

Novocain works???

– Novocain stops our neurons

from signaling electrically.
– But how do our neurons
signal electrically???
 Neurons Send Signals

Electrical Electrical Electrical

Signal Signal Signal
Chemical Chemical
Signal Signal

• Chemically via synapses

• Electrically via axons
 The Axon’s Electrical Signal:
The Action Potential

Electrica
l Signal

• Axons signal electrically in a process

called the Action Potential.
Before we model the Action Potential,
let’s review: Diffusion

?
Diffusion of Sodium Ions (Na+)

Na+ Na
+
Na+ Na+ Na+
Na+ + Na+ +
Na Na
Na+

?
Na+ Na+

Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+

Na+
Na+
Before we model the Action Potential,
let’s review: The Cell Membrane
 The Cell Membrane
Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+
Closed Open
Na+ channel Na+ channel

• What causes the Na+ channels to open?

– Na+ channels open at Threshold.
Before we model the Action Potential,
let’s review: Threshold

• How do you flush a toilet?

• What if you just gently

jiggle the handle? Will the
toilet flush?

• Can you stop a toilet from

flushing after it’s started
to flush?
 Getting to Threshold

Electrical
Signal

• When a neuron receives signals from

another neuron it may reach threshold.
• If threshold is reached, Na+ channels open.
 Getting to Threshold

h h h
Flus Flus Flus

Signal from
another
neuron
 Modeling the Action Potential

Bean = Na+ ion

Outside Closed channel Open channel

Inside
Toothpick = Na+ ion channel
 Model of the Action Potential
Na+ Na+
Na+ Na+ Na+
Na+

Na+
Signal from Na+ Na+ Na+
another Na+
Na+
neuron

Action Potential

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MfcDBcDEJxQ
 How does Novocain work?
• It plugs the toilets!

Out of Out of Out of

Order Order Order

Pain Signal
 How does Novocain work?
• What happens if the Na+ channels can’t open?

Novocain Novocain Novocain

Pain Signal

No Signal

– The axon can’t send Action Potentials.

– Meaning you can’t feel pain!
 Depolarization

• Due to influx of sodium

• Cell becomes more positive
• Causes potassium channels to open
 Repolarization

• K+ ions diffuse out of the cell through

channels
• Cell becomes negative again
• Sodium channels close
 Hyperpolarization

• K+ channels remain open

• Cell becomes more negative than resting
state
• Another action potential cannot be sent
while hyperpolarized
 Restore resting potential

• Sodium-potassium pumps actively

transport Na+ out of cell and K+ into cell
Endocrine system
Life function: regulation
Endocrine glands (ductless)
• Secrete hormones into bloodstream
• Act on target tissues with specific receptors
• Complementary action: two hormones have
opposite effects on body
• E.g. insulin and glucagon
Steroid hormones
• Synthesized from cholesterol (lipid)
• Passes through cell membrane
• Binds with internal receptor
• Hormone-receptor complex enters nucleus
• Binds with DNA control sequence
• Transcription ! translation ! altered cell activity
• https://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072943696/student_view0/
chapter10/
animation__mechanism_of_steroid_hormone_action__quiz_1_.html
Nonsteroid hormones
• Proteins, peptides, amino acids
• Binds to surface receptor
• Activated internal enzyme
• Enzyme activates secondary messengers
• Which activate or deactivate other proteins
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUworCsaHos
Prostaglandins
• Fatty acids
• Cause smooth muscles to contract
• Associated with pain
Feedback mechanisms
• Regulate secretion of hormones
• Negative feedback (inhibition)
• Disruption to homeostasis is detected
• Nervous/endocrine systems respond
• Homeostasis is restored
• Response ends
• Positive feedback
• Response cause more hormone secretion, increasing response
• E.g. release of oxytocin stimulates uterus contractions
• Which stimulates more oxytocin release
• https://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072943696/
student_view0/chapter10/
animation__positive_and_negative_feedback__quiz_1_.html
Endocrine Glands
and Hormones
Numbers correspond to diagram
Required hormones highlighted in yellow
1. Parathyroid
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases calcium
reabsorption
• Increase calcium in blood
2. Thyroid
• Regulate metabolism
• Thyroxine: Increase protein, fat, carb metabolism, cellular
respiration
• Hyperthyroidism: high body temp, increased metabolism,
weight loss, increased blood pressure
• Hypothyroidism: low metabolic rate, lack of energy, weight
gain
• Calcitonin: complementary to PTH (lowers blood calcium)
3. Adrenals
• Cortex releases corticosteroids
• Aldosterone stimulates reabsorption of sodium, excretion of
potassium
• Cortisol: controls rate of metabolism
• Medulla releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
• Increases heart rate, blood pressure, airways dilate, glucose
release
• “fight or flight”
4. Testes
• Testosterone
• Sperm production
• Secondary sex characteristics: facial/body hair,
muscle, deeper voice
5. Pituitary
• Controlled by hypothalamus
• “master gland”: hormones stimulate other glands
• Posterior pituitary (nerve cells)
• 1. ADH: reabsorption of water in kidney collecting
ducts
• 2. oxytocin: uterus contractions (positive feedback),
milk release
5. Pituitary
• Anterior pituitary
• 3. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): egg and sperm production
• 4. Luteinizing hormone (LH): stimulate ovaries and testes, prepare
uterus for embryo
• 5. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): synthesis and release of
thyroxine
• 6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulate adrenal cortex
to release corticosteroids
• 7. Growth hormone (GH): protein synthesis and cell growth (bones)
• 8. Prolactin: milk production
• 9. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH): increase melanin
production in melanocytes (skin cells)
6. Thymus
• Thymosin: stimulate maturation of T-cells
• More active in children
7. Pancreas
• Exocrine function: digestive enzymes
• Endocrine cells: Islets of Langerhans
• Beta cells produce insulin
• Signals liver, muscle to remove glucose from blood and
store as glycogen
• Alpha cells produce glucagon
• Signals liver to break down glycogen, release glucose into
blood
Diabetes
• High blood sugar can damage tissues and organs,
excreted in urine
• Type I (juvenile): autoimmune, little or no insulin
secretion
• Type II (adult): often diet-related, receptors are
unresponsive to insulin
8. Ovaries
• Estrogen: ovum (egg cell) development, secondary
sex characteristics: body hair, widening hips, breasts
• Progesterone: prepare uterus for embryo