OT5206 Offshore Foundations

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

National University of Singapore

Pile Driving Analysis

Y K Chow

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One-Dimensional Wave Propagation in Pile
Equilibrium equation (compression as positive)

∂ 2u  ∂P 
m 2 = P − P + dx 
∂t  ∂x 
or
∂ 2u ∂P
ρAdx 2 = − dx (1)
∂t ∂x

where ρ = density of pile material

A = cross-sectional area of pile

For a one-dimensional rod Axial strain is given by

∂u
P = σA (2) ε=− (3)
∂x
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Axial stress-strain relationship
∂u
σ = E ⋅ ε = −E (4)
∂x
Hence from Eqns (1) to (4)

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
ρA 2 = EA 2
∂t ∂x
For constant E and A, this gives

∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2
u
ρ 2 =E 2 or = c 2 (5)
∂t ∂x ∂t 2 ∂x 2
where
E
c=
ρ
Eqn (5) is generally known as the one-dimensional wave equation. “c”
is the “celerity” or speed of sound in the material, or is simply referred
to as the wave speed.
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Typical wave speed:
Steel : E = 207 ×106 kN / m 2

ρ = 7.83 t / m3
c ≈ 5100 m / s

Time taken to travel from pile head to pile toe and back to the pile
head:
2L
t= where L = pile length
c
For example, take L = 170 m (say pile penetration of 50 m +
mean water depth of 100 m + nominal 20 m from sea level
to top of follower)
2 ×170
Steel pile : t = = 0.067 s
5100

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General solution to 1-D wave equation

u = f1 (x − ct ) + f2 (x + ct ) - (6)
f1(x-ct) = wave propagating in (+)ve x-direction (forward / downward)
f2(x+ct)= wave propagating in (-)ve x-direction (backward / upward)
∂u ' ∂ 2u
Proof: = f 1 ( x − ct ) + f2' ( x + ct ) = f1'' ( x − ct ) + f2'' ( x + ct )
∂x ∂x 2
- (7)
∂u ∂ 2u
= −cf1' ( x − ct ) + cf2' ( x + ct ) = c 2 "
f ( x − ct ) + c f2 ( x + ct )
2 "
∂t ∂t 2 1

Substitute Eqn (7) into Eqn (5),

[
c 2 f1" ( x − ct ) + c 2 f2" ( x + ct ) = c 2 f1" ( x − ct ) + f2" ( x + ct ) ]
The expressions are identical on both sides of the equation, hence
satisfying the wave equation

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Consider a forward / downward propagating wave at a given time, t

u = f1 (x − ct )
At time t+∆t , the wave has moved a distance ∆x
u = f1 [( x + ∆x ) − c(t + ∆t )]
But ∆x = c∆t
Hence u = f1(x-ct) , i.e. wave shape remains unchanged, the wave has merely
advanced a distance ∆x = c∆t
Solutions for velocity and stress :
∂u
v=
∂u
= −cf1' ( x − ct ) = g1 ( x − ct ) σ = −E = −E f1' (x − ct ) = h1 (x − ct )
∂t ∂x
Obviously, v and σ also propagate with velocity c and do not change in shape in the
absence of material damping

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Solution of 1-D Wave Equation
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
Wave equation : c 2
= 2 (1)
∂x 2
∂t
General solution : u(x, t ) = f1 (x − ct ) ↓ + f2 ( x + ct ) ↑ (2)

Let f1 ( x − ct ) = f1 ( y ); y = x − ct
∂y ∂y ∂f1
= 1; = −c ; = f1'
∂x ∂t ∂y
Let f2 ( x + ct ) = f2 (z); z = x + ct
∂z ∂z ∂f2
= 1; = +c; = f2'
∂x ∂t ∂z
∂u
Strain : ε=− = −f1' − f2' (3)
∂x
∂u
Particle velocity : v= = −cf1' + cf2' (4)
∂t

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No upward propagating wave, i.e. f2(x+ct) = 0
ε = − f1' = ε ↓
v = −cf1' = v ↓
v v↓
= = +c (5)
ε ε↓
No downward propagating wave, i.e. f1(x-ct) = 0
ε = −f = ε ↑
'
2

v = +cf2' = v ↑
v v↑
= = −c (6)
ε ε↑
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 Downward wave : F = EA ε = - EA f1’

F EA
↓ : = =Z (7) heavier hammer + lighter hammer +
v c lower drop height higher drop height

where Z = pile impedance

Upward wave : F = EA ε = - EA f2’ larger peak

stress

F EA
↑ : =− = −Z (8)
v c

1) Try to use heavier hammer with lower height as it gives lesser peak dynamic stress.
2) For double acting hammer, use the velocity at the point of impact to estimate the energy, 0.5 x m x v^2.

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Assuming the pile material remains elastic, the net force and net
velocity at any location at a given time can be obtained by
superposition of the downward and upward waves:
F = F↓ + F↑ (9)
v = v↓ + v↑ (10)
From Eqns (7) and (8)
F↓ = Z v ↓
F↑ = - Zv↑ (11)
By combining Eqns (9) – (11), we can separate the downward
wave from the upward wave if we know the total (net) force and
velocity at a particular point along the pile

F + Zv F − Zv
F ↓= F ↑= (12)
2 2
F z+ v F z −v
v ↓= v ↑= −
2 2
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Boundary Conditions

The following boundary conditions are considered:

(i) free end (iii) impedance change
(ii) fixed end (iv) external soil resistance

Free end
Stress free boundary condition, i.e. net force
at ‘b’, Fb = 0

Fb = F ↓ + F ↑= 0 or F ↑= − F ↓

A downward propagating compressive wave

is reflected at the free end as an upward
propagating tensile wave.

Implications:
Tensile stresses will develop during easy driving conditions. Follower may
separate from main pile. Solution: Control drop height of hammer.

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Fixed end

Boundary condition, vb = 0
F↑ F↓
v b = v ↓ + v ↑= 0 or − =−
Z Z
v ↑= −v ↓ F ↑= F ↓

Force at ‘b’,

Fb = F ↓ +F ↑= 2F ↓

A downward propagating compressive wave is reflected at the fixed end as an

upward compressive wave. At the fixed end, the compressive stress is doubled.

Implications:
Potential problems with toe damage when driving piles into very hard stratum
(rock), particularly when overburden soil is soft.

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Impedance change

EA
Impedance Z=
c
Let subscripts i denote incident wave
r denote reflected wave
t denote transmitted wave
At interface “b”, the net force and net
velocity is given by the superposition
of the incident and reflected wave

Fb = Fi + Fr
vb = vi + vr (18)

This is equal to the transmitted force and velocity:

Ft = Fi + Fr
v t = vi + vr (19)

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Relationship between transmitted and reflected waves with the
incident wave:
v t = vi + vr
Ft F F
= i − r
Z 2 Z1 Z1
Z2
or Ft = (Fi − Fr )
Z1
Let β = Z2/Z1, then Ft = β ( Fi – Fr)

From Eq (19), Fr = Ft – Fi

Hence, Ft = β [ Fi – (Ft – Fi) ]

or (β + 1)Ft = 2 β Fi
2β important formula! transmitted force value.

Ft = Fi (20)
β +1
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  2β 
Then, Fr = Ft − Fi = Fi  − 1
 β +1 
β −1
or Fr = Fi important formula! reflected force value.
(21)
β +1
Hence, from Eqn (20),
2β
Z2v t = Z1v i
β +1
2
or vt = vi (22)
β +1
Similarly from Eqn (21)
β −1
− Z1v r = Z1v i 1.if beta is less than 1, mean the lower section is smaller than upper.

β +1 2. if zero, mean is free end.

3. if infinity, mean it meets fixed end (hard rock).

1− β
4. t = 2L/c.

vr = vi t = time for wave to travel back

(23)
1+ β L = pile length
c = wave speed
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 Notes :

1. If an incident wave meets a section with a smaller impedance (β <

1) , the reflected velocity wave is of the same sign as the incident
wave.
2. If an incident wave meets a section with a larger impedance (β >
1) , the reflected velocity wave is of the opposite sign as the
incident wave.

3. The characteristic of the reflected wave and transmitted wave is

entirely a function of the ratio of the impedance of the 2 sections.

4. The analysis for pile with a change of impedance is useful for :

(a) interpretation of pile integrity

(b) selection of pile follower

if we need to add shoes for driven, choose a section that give beta = 1 to avoid any lose of energy. beta = Z2/Z1, where Z = EA/c.

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External Soil Resistance

Consider now the effect of an external soil

resistance (R) on the wave propagating in
the pile. The soil resistance is usually in the
form: R = ku + cv

At the interface “b”, the net force and net

velocity is given by

Fb = Fi + Fr = R + Ft (24)

vb = vi + vr = v t (25)

From Eqns (25) & (11),

Fi Fr Ft
− = or Fi − Fr = Ft (26)
Z Z Z
From Eqns (24) & (26)
R
Fi + Fr = R + (Fi − Fr ) or Fr = (27)
2
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From Eqn (26)

R
Ft = Fi − (28)
2
The effect of an external soil resistance (R) on the propagating wave is to create a
reflected wave of the same type as R with magnitude R/2 and a transmitted wave
(due to soil resistance) of opposite type as R, also with magnitude R/2.

From the relationship between force and velocity [Eqn (11)]

Fr R
vr = − =− (29)
Z 2Z

Note that this reflected velocity has a similar effect compared to when an incident
wave meets a section with an increase in impedance ( see Eqn (23) with β > 1 )

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Wave Equation Model
One-dimensional wave equation model with soil resistance:

∂ 2u ∂u ∂ 2u
ρA 2 + c s + k su − EA 2 = P(t )
∂t ∂t ∂x
pile soil soil pile
inertia damping stiffness stiffness
Conceptually, the soil is represented as a spring and dashpot.
The inclusion of the soil increases the complexity of the problem. Hence, the
above equation is generally solved using numerical methods:
• finite difference method
• finite element method
• method of characteristics
Modelling of the pile is relatively straight forward. The main difficulty is
modelling the soil behaviour.

Note: More sophisticated 3-D wave equation model (Chow, 1982) is available
that can simulate the pile and soil (especially) in a more rational manner but
commercially 1-D wave equation computer program continues to be used
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Soil Models
(a) Smith (1960) Model
Soil resistance during driving
RD = R (1 + Jv )
Parameters to define curve:
• Ru = max static resistance of soil spring
• Qu = “quake” value – limiting elastic displacement
• J = damping coefficient
• R = static soil resistance

Typical “quake” value, Qu

Shaft : Qu = 0.1 in (2.5 mm)
Toe : Qu = 0.1 to 0.4 in (2.5 to 10 mm )
Typical damping coefficient, J (s / m )
Soil type Jshaft Jtoe
Clay 0.656 0.033
Sand 0.164 0.492
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(b) Lee et al. (1988) Model
Developed at the National University of Singapore. Theory based on
vibrating pile in an elastic continuum.

Shaft (per unit length of pile shaft) :

k s = 2.75Gs where
Gs = soil shear modulus
c s = 2π r0 ρsGs ρs = soil density
Pile toe : vs = soil Poisson’s ratio
4Gsr0 r0 = pile radius
kt =
1− vs
3.4r02 ρsGs
ct =
1− vs
The expressions above have physical representations (stiffness and radiation
damping) and are characterized by parameters that can be determined in the
laboratory.

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Pile Drivability Analysis
Pile drivability analysis is essential for the selection of appropriate hammer
for the installation of offshore piles. Example of commercial wave equation
program – GRLWEAP.
Static Soil Resistance at time of Driving (SRD)
The soil resistance at time of driving (SRD) will determine the depth to
which a pile can be driven.
Unplugged pile
Soil column (plug) inside pipe pile moves up the pile during driving -
assume that the internal shaft friction is less than end bearing capacity of
soil plug.
SRD = ∑ fsoAso + ∑ fsiAsi + qbAw (1)
where
fso = unit shaft friction during driving (outside); Aso = outside shaft area
fsi = unit shaft friction during driving (inside); Asi = inside shaft area
qb = unit end bearing pressure; Aw = annulus area of pipe pile

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Plugged pile
Soil column (plug) inside pipe pile moves down together with pile during
driving - assume that the internal shaft friction is greater than end bearing
capacity of soil plug.
SRD = ∑ fsoAso + qbAp (2)
where
fso = unit shaft friction during driving (outside); Aso = outside shaft area
qb = unit end bearing pressure; Ap = gross cross sectional area of pile toe

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External shaft
friction External shaft
friction

fsi fso fso

Internal shaft
friction

End bearing End bearing

pressure on pile qb qb pressure on
wall soil plug &
pile wall
Unplugged pile Plugged pile
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Notes:
1. Based on statics, it is generally assumed that the pile will behave in a
manner which produces least resistance to pile penetration, i.e. at any
depth, the SRD will be given by the lesser of Eqn (1) and (2). In
reality, pile driving is a dynamic phenomenon and the pile generally
behaves as unplugged during driving (especially during continuous
driving) and plugged during static loading (Chow, 1982)
2. The unplugged mode in an all clay soil profile will generally give a
higher resistance to pile penetration
3. In commercial wave equation program, the 1-D idealisation of the pile
is unable to distinguish between the inside and outside shaft friction
and model them as a soil resistance at a particular level of the pile.
Although there are specially developed wave equation models that
attempt to simulate the behaviour of the soil plug inside the pipe pile,
these are essentially 1-D model and are thus approximate. Proper
modeling of the soil plug behaviour would require a truly 3-D wave
equation model (Chow, 1982; Smith & Chow, 1982)

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4. It should be noted that in drivability analysis for the selection of
hammer, it is conservative to over-estimate the SRD. An
underestimate of SRD can lead to premature refusal of piles and has
serious cost implications because of the need to remobilize a larger
hammer (pile refusal is often taken to be 150 blows per foot (0.3m))
5. On the other hand, over-conservative estimate of SRD may result in
piles being driven deeper than the theoretical estimate and may give
the mistaken impression that the piles are under-capacity.
6. In offshore pile design, piles are driven to design penetration depth
and not to “set” unlike onshore pile design.

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(a) Unit shaft friction (fs)
Clay: fs = cr
Remoulded undrained shear strength (cr) – generally estimated from liquidity index
based on Skempton & Northey (1952) or using following formula from Wood (1990):
cr = 2 x 100(1-LI) kPa a bit conservative.
w − PL w − PL
where liquidity index LI = = , LL = liquid limit, PL is the plastic limit,
LL − PL PI
PI is the plasticity index, and w is the water content. Alternatively, cr = cu/S where S

is sensitivity of clay – as a rule of thumb a value of 3 is sometimes used.

Sand: K σv’ tan δ (similar to static value)

For pipe piles without internal driving shoe, it is often assumed that:
fsi = 0.5 fso (Sam & Cheung, 1993) fsi = internal skin friction; fso = external skin friction.

(b) Unit end bearing pressure (qb)

Generally assumed to be similar to static bearing capacity theory:
Clay: qb = 9 cu Sand: qb = Nq σv’ where Nq = f(Φ)
(Brinch Hansen)

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Hammers
Hydraulic or steam hammers used. For deep water depths, underwater
hydraulic hammers are used.

Southeast Asian waters (typical water depths: 60 – 110 m):

Common hammers:
(a) IHC90
(b) MHU 500 – 1700 (generally do not use pile cushion)
(c) Menck 3000 – 4600 (generally use with pile cushion – bongossi wood)

Pile diameter ranges from: 36 – 60 in (0.9144 – 1.524 m)

Typical: 42 in (1.067m)
Pile wall thickness: 1.25 –2.0 in (32 – 50 mm)

In the North Sea, much larger pile sizes are used:

Diameter of 84 in (2.13 m) and 96 in (2.43 m) with wall thickness of 2.5 in
(63 mm) and 3 in (76 mm) are common

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Cap Block and Pile Cushion Behaviour

Hysteretic behaviour of cap block and pile cushion.

Hysteresis (a measure of energy loss):

Area BCD energy output
e2 = =
Area ABC energy input
where e = coefficient of restitution
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Initial Condition for Computer Program

Most computer programs use an initial velocity assigned to the ram as the
starting condition. Potential energy of ram is converted to kinetic
energy:
1 where ef = efficiency of hammer
m v = e f mgh
2

2 v = 2ghe f
This efficiency, ef, is not to be confused with the measured energy in the
pile.

Some hammer manufacturers provide the force-time history for their

hammers (which is dependent on the pile size). This avoids the
uncertainties associated with the modelling of the hammer and driving
accessories (cap block, pile cushion).

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Definition of Pile Penetration per blow (Set)

Smith (1960)’s soil model:

Pile penetration per blow = δmax – Qu

Most computer programs stop computation when the pile toe velocity
becomes zero.

NUS computer program (and soil model) compute the true set, i.e. gives
the final penetration of the pile toe when it comes to rest.

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Driving Stresses
The wave equation program also gives the driving stresses in the pile. The
maximum driving stresses should be kept within reasonable limits.

Drivability Curves: Blow count versus Depth

The blow count versus depth curves should be produced for various
hammers to determine suitable hammers to be used for the pile installation

Set-up or Relaxation
• The driving of piles in clay (particularly soft clay) results in the generation
of excess pore water pressure. Subsequent consolidation will result in
gain in soil strength. Thus if the driving process is interrupted, the soil will
exhibit set-up effects, hence driving will be more difficult.
• Driving in dense sand may give rise to an opposite phenomenon –
“relaxation”. A decrease in driving resistance is possible.

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Pile Refusal

1. Pile refusal is often taken to be 150 blows per foot (0.3m).

2. When a pile refuses before it reaches design penetration, one or more

of the following actions can be taken:
• Review hammer performance – particularly helpful if pile installation is
monitored using a Pile Driving Analyser (PDA) which will allow driving
energy to be monitored and compared against rated energy by hammer
manufacturer
• Review SRD used in pile drivability analysis
• Re-evaluate design penetration – reconsideration of design loads and
design soil parameters.
• Last recourse (very expensive operation) – removal of soil plug inside
pile by drilling to reduce driving resistance and continue driving. It may
be necessary to subsequently have a grout plug to enable the
development of the toe bearing capacity. In more serious cases, it may
be necessary to drill past the pile toe to enable driving to continue.

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Dynamic Pile Testing (High Strain Test)
Objectives – To obtain:
(a) Efficiency of piling hammer in driven piles
(b) Driving stresses in driven piles
(c) Assessment of pile integrity
(d) Bearing capacity and load-settlement response of pile

Test method: During the impact of the hammer, the stress waves are
measured using strain transducers and accelerometers mounted on
the pile (at least 1 diameter away from the pile head – not an issue
with offshore piles as driving is above water during the testing). The
force trace is obtained from the strain measurements. From the
acceleration trace, the velocity trace is obtained by numerical
integration.
Methods used to estimate the pile bearing capacity :
(a) Case Method a simple empirical formula.
(b) Stress-Wave Matching Technique

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Case Method
From the force and velocity versus time curves, the total soil resistance
(includes both static and dynamic components) is given by
1  2L  Z   2L 
R= (
 1
F t ) + F 1
t +  +  1
v (t ) − v  1
t + 
2  c  2   c 
where t1 is generally taken as the time when F(t1) is maximum and Z is the pile
impedance (= EA/c)

Assuming that all the soil damping is concentrated at the pile toe, the
static component or bearing capacity of pile under static load is given by
R s = R − Jc (2F(t1 ) − R )
Suggested damping factor, Jc
Sand : 0.1 – 0.15 ; Silty Sand : 0.15 – 0.25
Silt : 0.25 – 0.4 ; Silty Clay : 0.4 – 0.7
Clay : 0.7 – 1.0
“Correct” Jc value obtain from correlation with static load test or stress wave
matching analysis.
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Stress-Wave Matching Technique
The force-time history or velocity-time history is used as a boundary
condition in a wave equation computer program. For instance, if the
velocity-time history is used as the input, the wave equation program
computes the force-time history and this is compared with the measured
values. The soil resistance, soil stiffness and damping values are
adjusted iteratively until the computed and measured values agree
closely or until no further improvements can be made. When this stage
is reached, the soil parameters used in the wave equation model are
assumed to be representative of those in the field. The bearing capacity
of the pile and the load-settlement response are then determined.

Available computer programs :

• CAPWAPC
• TNOWAVE
• NUSWAP

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Notes:

1. The test results are representative of the conditions at the time of

testing. For instance in the case of driven piles tested at the end of
driving in clay soils, the capacity obtained is generally a lower bound.
Pile should be retested a few days after pile installation to allow set-
up to occur. only can test the pile at the point of impact/time. So cannot test too early as the pore pressure have not dissipated
yet.

2. If the impact energy used during testing is insufficient to move the

pile adequately, the pile capacity obtained may be a lower bound.
The capacity obtained is actually the mobilised static resistance.
mean impact give only small displacement, so the capacity is the capacity to move the pile only. unless we use heavier pile to move the
pile more, otherwise, will not mobilize the full capacity of in ultimate condition (25mm).

3. PDA test only give unplugged capacity as the dynamic condition mobilized the unplugged resistance. unplugged resistance can be higher and
those over-predict the capacity.

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PDA Model PAX
Strain transducer and Underwater strain
accelerometer mounted transducer and
on a pile. accelerometer mounted
on pile.

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out of the toe length.

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from the time, we
know the location
where we
overestimate the
force. cxt.

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if velocity go up than force, it mean damage happen at
that location.

L/c = 2 is the pile toe.

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References
Chow, YK (1982) “Dynamic behaviour of piles”, PhD Thesis, University of
Manchester, UK
Lee, SL, Chow, YK, Karunaratne, GP and Wong, KY (1988) “Rational wave
equation model for pile driving analysis”, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, 114, No 3, pp 306-325.
Sam, MT and Cheung LY (1993) “Installation of a 479 feet water depth platform in
South China Sea”, Proc 3rd International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, Singapore, pp 288-293
Skempton, AW and Northey, RD (1952) “The sensitivity of clay”, Geotechnique, Vol
3, No 1.
Smith, EAL (1960) “Pile driving analysis by the wave equation”, Journal for Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 86, SM4, pp 35-61.
Smith, IM and Chow, YK (1982) “Three-dimensional analysis of pile drivability”, Proc
2nd International Conference on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, Texas,
Austin, pp 1-19.
Wong, KY (1988) “A rational wave equation model for pile driving analysis”, PhD
Thesis, National University of Singapore.
Wood, DM (1990) “Soil behaviour and critical state soil mechanics”, Cambridge
University Press.

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