a eh Licence By Post Tema nr nah Finger, Notsuitabe for small handlingAUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority {the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation ete. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations / guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE Itis policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LP 180 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 19a UK Te 296 433871 296 330897CONTENTS The atomic structure Static electricity Generation of electricity Electrical terms Resistance de circuits Kirchhoff’s laws The Wheatstone bridge Power, work & energy Internal resistance Maximum power transfer Capacitance PAGE 20 21 30 40 44 46 50 52 53HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK This book is written specifically for the B1 and B2 technician with many of the subjects to level 2 of the JAR syllabus. However, some of the book is suitable for the A mechanic albeit to level 1. For A line mechanic you are advised to read JAR66 before studying this book, for the technicians (B1 & B2) all sections of the book are written to the correct levels. ‘The technician should have a good grasp of the fundamentals of electricity and should be able to apply, and work out, formula to problems where necessary, Some parts of the book are fairly straight forward, others might need a second (or even a third) read to fully understand the subject.ELECTRON THEORY THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE Before we look at the more practical side of electrics we should have some knowledge of the fundamentals of electron flow and this involves the basic structure of matter. All substances, whether solid, liquid or gas, are made up of atoms, which are grouped together in various ways. Figure 1 shows how an atom is built up. In the centre is the nucleus, made up of protons {+ve) and neutrons (no charge). The electrons (-ve) move around the nucleus in orbits, rather like the planets around the sun, with each orbit (called a shell) having a certain number of electrons. The maximum number of orbits around a nucleus is seven. These are located at defined distances from the nucleus, and are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q, starting from the level nearest the nucleus. seers HEC TRON PROTON nuckeus NEUTRON Fig. 1 BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE ‘The mass of an electron is estimated to be about 9.1 x 10-3! kilograms (kg) and the charge it carries is about -1.6 x 10-9 coulomb (C). Both of these quantities are extremely small, but it is the electron on which the whole science of electronics /electrics depends. ‘The charge on each proton, since it neutralises the charge on an electron, is the same as that of an electron but of opposite sign The proton, however, is about 1840 times as massive as an electron, so that a ick calculation gives it’s mass as 1.67 x 10” kg. The revolving electrons are ctured as moving in elliptical orbits around the nucleus, held in their hells by the attractive force of the nucleus.A substance composed of atoms all of the same type is called an element. Ninety elements have been found in nature so far and others have been created artificially bring the total (to date] to 105. Scientists expect to find more. For any element each shell contains a fixed number of electrons. There is a maximum number for each shell, relating to the orbit’s distance from the nucleus eg, level K can contain up to 2 electrons, level L up to 8, level M up to 18 and so on. The maximum theoretical number in each shell can be found from the formula 2n? where n is the number of the shell. For example in the N (forth) shell the number of electrons equals 2n? = 2 x 4? = 32. However, in practice many atoms do not reach this theoretical number, and no atom can contain more than eight electrons in its outer shell anyway. Some examples of elements and the number of atoms in each shell is shown in the following table. (The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom) ELEMENT SHELL - number of electrons in each shell | ATOMIC (Maximum possible number in brackets) NUMBER K L ieee Nig aan O)eeree Q (2) 8) (18) (82) (SO) (72) (8) n= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hydrogen 1 1 Sodium 2 8 1 Bt Aluminium 2 8 3 13 Silicon 2 8 4 14 Copper 2 8 18 1 29 Germanium 2 8 18 4 32 Silver 2 8 18 18 1 47 Gold Oe eg 18) eal 79 Radon 2 8 18 32 18 8 86 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2 92 TABLE OF (SOME) ELEMENTS ‘The electrons (or electron) making up the outermost shell are called valence electrons, and these being furthest from the attractive force of the nucleus are least tightly bound in the atom. It is the valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction. Figure 2 shows an atom of hydrogen and figure 3 shows an atom of helium, both very light gases. Figures 4 and 5 show atoms of silicon and germanium ely, two very important elements in the manufacture of transistors, ng four valance electrons.yatgen atom «a sage pon sound whan revoves asnge Beton Fig. 2. THE HYDROGEN ATOM Fig. 3 THE HELIUM ATOM Fig. 5 THE GERMANIUM ATOM Normally atoms are electrically neutral, as far as charge is concerned, because electrons and protons are present in equal numbers. An atom can become positively or negatively charged if it has electrons taken away or added. When an atom gives up an electron it becomes positively charged (it has more protons than electrons), and this is called a positive ion. When it takes in an electron it becomes negatively charged and it is called a negative ion.An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron. Metals represent a category of elements endowed with particular properties. One of these is that some of the electrons in the outer shells are so loosely tied to the nucleus that they are effectively floating free and move easily from one atom to another, Normally their movement is random, but by applying an exterior electrical force (such as that provided by a battery or generator) they can all be made to move in the same direction. When all the electrons move in one direction only then the current is known as Direct Current (dc) - as when a battery is used to provide the electrical force (voltage). When the electrons are moved forwards and backwards (as when an alternator/generator is used) then the current is called Alternating Current fac). Ac current usually has a frequency (on aircraft) of 400 Hz, though some frequency wild systems do exist. This orderly movement of electrons is called current. Metals which easily permit the orderly movement of electroms are called conductors eg, coppers aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze and gold — In other materials the electrons are held firmly in their outer shells. In these materials it is almost impossible to induce an orderly movemnent of electrons and they are classified as non-conductors, or insulators, eg: glass, rubber. plastic, air, wood and mica. The family of elements called semiconductors sometimes behave like conductors and sometimes like insulators. Typical materials are silicon and germanium. ELECTRONS Fig. 6 VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE|—— FREE ELECTRON Fig. 7 FREE ELECTRONS IN SILICON (Si) DOPED WITH ARSENIC (As) These materials have four valence electrons, each atom shares its electrons with adjacent atoms to form a strongly bonded structure called a crystal lattice ‘The freedom of movement of electrons is poor, and in their pure state in semiconductors are insulators. However, electron movement can be achieved by heating, as the temperature rises the electrons become more agitated and leave their orbits and if a voltage is placed across the material electron movement occurs. ‘This is known as “intrinsic” conduction. Current causes heat which causes more conduction and this can continue until breakdown occurs, known as “thermal runaway”. Another way to improve the conductivity is by “doping”, of a tiny amount of another element, This is introduced into the crystal lattice structure which improves the conductivity. More detail of this in Module 4 study books in this seriesSTATIC ELECTRICITY Ifa warm day glass rod is rubbed with silk some electrons from the glass. attach themselves to the silk and the glass becomes positively charged (loss of electrons) and the silk becomes negatively charged (excess of electrons). They are said to have static electricity. If a second charged rod is brought close to the first charged rod repulsion occurs. If ebonite is rubbed with a woollen cloth, for example, the ebonite becomes negatively charged and the cloth positively charged, and if the ebonite is now placed next to the charged glass rod, attraction occurs. The basic laws of electrostatics are thus: LIKE CHARGES REPEL UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT This shows the laws in charged insulators but the same laws apply to charged conductors. The size of the charge is measured in COULOMBS (C) which is defined as the amount of electrical charge which passes a point in a conductor when a current of one amp flows for 1 second. The force which two charged bodies exert on each other can be calculated using Coulombs law, which states that the force between two electric charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric force is exerted on any charged body placed in the field “An electric line of force is a line drawn in an electric field such that its direction at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point”. These lines of force have the following properties: (a) They begin and end in equal and opposite quantities of charge (b) They are in a state of tension, which causes them to tend to shorten, (c) They repel each other sideways. Aya EE TENSION LINES OF FORCE REPULSION LINES OF FORCE CAUSING ATTRACTION CAUSING REPULSION Fig. 8 ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE‘Thus the attraction of two unlike charges is explained by the tension of lines of force joining them and the repulsion by the sideways repulsion between the lines of force. Conduction Figure 9 shows a conductor containing free electrons moving at random among positive ions. Ifa battery is connected across the conductor as shown in figure 9 free electrons close to the positive plate will be attracted to it (unlike charges attract). Free electrons near the negative plate will be repelled from it, and a steady drift of electrons will take place through the material from the negative battery terminal to the positive battery terminal. For each electron entering the positive terminal one will be ejected from the negative terminal so the number of electrons in the material remains constant. OPGG1 Ox@» st Or OX XO" Fig. 9 FREE ELECTRONS IN A CONDUCTOR (RANDOM MOVEMENT) O*O*OLQLO® « [| xO*XOXOr OW +e Fig. 10 MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS WHEN CONNECTED TO A BATTERY (MOVEMENT IN ONE DIRECTION) Since the atoms that have become positive ions are unable to move in a solid they do not drift to the negative terminal. This drift of electrons is the electric current. The electrons which enter the battery through the positive plate are passed through it and ejected from the negative plate into the conductor. It is most important to realise that this flow of electrons (current) cannot take place unless there is a continuous conducting path ie, a closed circuitLook carefully at the figure 10. The flow of electrons is from the negative side of the battery to the positive side of the battery. This is known as electron flow. However, for many years it was thought that the current flow was from the positive to the negative and many rules were based on this assumption. We still use conventional current flow today as the basis for all our calculations and theory of circuits. In other words we assume current flow is from positive to negative external to the source of supply. This approach works, and unless stated otherwise everything in this module will use conventional current flow. We have seen how electrons move in a conductor that is a solid material. Conduction can also take place in liquids. Place a piece of copper and a piece of zinc in dilute sulphuric acid and electrons will move from the zinc to the copper. More detail on this later. Conduction can also occur through an evacuated tube containing two electrodes called an anode (+) and a cathode (-). The cathode is a special material that when heated emits electrons from its surface. If the anode is now made positive it will attract these electrons. This is the basis of the conduction through a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Another form of conduction takes place when the tube is filled with gas such as argon, helium, neon or mercury vapour, at a low pressure. The positive at the anode attracts electrons from the heated cathode with sufficient velocity as to detach outer electrons from the gas atoms when they collide. These detached electrons leave the gas atoms positively charged (positive ion) This forming of many positive ions is called ionisation. The free electrons join the cathode electrons and move towards the anode. More collisions occur causing more positive ions. This ionisation causes a visible glow in the tube, the colour depending on what type of gas, neon for example gives an orange- red glow. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY We have had a look at how conduction takes place through various mediums, we now need to look at how we can produce electricity. The Thermocouple You have already seen how electricity can be produced by charging a material through friction eg, glass rod rubbed with silk. Production of electricity by heat can be obtained by a thermocouple - this is two dissimilar metals which when placed together as shown in figure 11 and one end is heated (HOT JUNCTION} a small voltage is produced known as an electro-motive force (emf)‘DISSIMILAR METALS A > Sho aed HOT JUNCTION ‘COLD JUNCTION a COLD JUNCTION Fig. 11 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE This emf (voltage) drives a current round the circuit (Seebeck effect). The emf generated is proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions. Typical dissimilar metals would be copper and constantan (40% nickel, 60% copper) used for engine cylinder head temperature measurement with a maximum continuous temperature of 400°C. Iron or constantan for maximum continuous temperatures of 850°C. Other materials are typically alumel (90% nickel, aluminium 2%, silicon and manganese) and chromel (nickel 90%, chrome 10%) used for jet engine exhaust gas temperature measuring systems with maximum continuous temperatures of 1100°C. The Cathode ‘Another method we have previously mentioned is the heating of a material to ‘emit’ electrons. Figure 12 shows indirectly heated cathodes. wer CD CATHODE CATHODE. EMITTED ELECTRON: MT HeaTeR “¢— HEATER Fig. 12 CATHODESThe heater element is a tungsten wire electrically insulated from the hollow cylindrical nickel tube (cathode) All electrical conductors have free electrons within them and cannot escape from the material. However, if the material is heated atoms will oscillate quickly, collisions will occur in the material and electrons will gain enough energy and speed to leave the surface of the material. This is known as thermionic emission. ‘The surface barrier of clean metals is strong and few electrons leave the surface, However, if the metal is made very hot and the metal (cathode) is coated at the tips with an oxide (barium and strontium mixture), the surface barrier becomes weak and many electrons are emitted at red heat Heated cathodes are used in CRTs and fluorescent lighting. ‘The Photo-electric Cell Light is another source which can create electron flow - typically in photo- electric cells (one photon of light producing one electron of electrical flow). One such device is known as a photo-conductive cell or light dependent resistor (Figure 13). It consists of metal electrodes on the surface of cadmium sulphide. ‘The effect of the energy of the light on the cell causes electrons to become free within the material increasing its conductivity and reducing its resistance. Metal electrodes on —: surface of cadmium sulphide SYMBOL Fig. 13 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTER When light falls on a photo-voltaic cell, a small voltage is produced, it breaks down the depletion layer of a p-n junction and electron flow is created A similar action occurs with a photodiode and phototransistor. More details of these in the Module 4 books in this series.LIGHT METAL Eocene << al veRY THIN p ven Seema — 2 \ DEPLETION LAYER AT JUNCTION aLaver—|O®@OOOO SYMBOL METAL Lt CONTACT PLATE ——— ¢O Positive hole © Fixed acceptor atom €O Negative electron @® Fixed donor atom Fig. 14 PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL The Piezoelectric Effect ‘Another method of generating electricity is by pressure. This uses piezoelectric materials. These are materials which when subjected to mechanical stress (force per unit area) produce a strain (a change in length ~ very small) and an electrical charge is produced. In other words, when they are squeezed and released they produce a charge proportional to the force applied. Typical materials are quartz and ceramic compounds. Piezoelectric transducers are used on vibration monitoring systems on engines for example Cells or Batteries By a ‘cell” we mean a device for ‘storing’ an electrical charge. Commonly called batteries and are divided into two main groups - Primary cells and Secondary cells. Primary Cell. A primary cell is one in which, when the voltage of the cell falls to its discharged value it cannot be recharged as the chemicals are used up and the process cannot be reversed. A basic primary cell is shown in figure 15 using a copper and a zinc plate placed in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid (known as the electrolyte). Electrons flow from the copper to the zinc through the electrolyte and then through the external wire. Note: Electron flow externally is -ve (zinc) to +ve (copper) internally copper to zinc, conventional current is the oppositeanal 4 O 4 electron flow [J elass container be zinc (negative) plate VN dilute sulphuric TT acid (electrolyte) electron flow Fig. 15 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CELL During the chemical action hydrogen bubbles collect on the copper which decreases the emf of the cell. This defect is called polarisation. Also, the zinc plate is often eroded away, caused by impurities in the zinc. This is known as local action. Simple Voltaic Cell. Figure 16 shows the construction of a simple voltaic cell. CONVENTIONAL ———> (CURRENT FLow R SWITCH COPPER ZINC ANODE __+! p «CATHODE | |_- buute 40H ‘SULPHURIC «04 ACID so.Q> Fig. 16 SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL The open circuit voltage is about 0.8 volts. When the switch is closed as shown, there is a displacement of electrons in the external circuit with the result that some electrons are withdrawn from the zinc electrode and the same number of electrons move on to the copper electrode. This leaves the zinc plate with a surplus of positive charge and the copper plate with a surplus of negative charge. The negative sulphate ions in the electrolyte are attracted towards the zinc and the positive hydrogen ions are attracted towards the copperThe sulphate ions, after giving up their surplus electrons to the zinc electrode, combine with the zinc to form zinc sulphate that goes into the solution. The hydrogen ions, after absorbing electrons from the copper plate, form a gaseous layer on the surface of the copper, thus: a) It gives rise to polarisation, ie it sets up a back emf. b) _ Itacts as a shield reducing the active area of the electrode and this increases the internal resistance of the cell. ‘This causes the terminal voltage of the cell to fall very rapidly and this type of cell is therefore only suitable for intermittent use. Polarisation can be reduced by introducing a depolarising agent to combine with the hydrogen, eg manganese dioxide in the ‘Leclanche’ cell. The Daniell Cell. Invented in 1836 by John Daniell (Kings College, London). Used in some laboratories, it consists of a copper container (the positive pole) filled with saturated copper sulphate solution. Within the container stands a porous earthenware pot containing a zinc rod (the negative pole) within a zinc sulphide solution (sometimes a dilute sulphuric acid) When the poles are connected with a conductor the electrons flow from the zine (.) to the copper (+) enc roo Cy Rod AS aL. copper sucpHaTe PERFORATED Pare CRYSTALS COPPER —— ‘CONTAINER COPPER SULPHATE, ‘SOLUTION POROUS POT ZINC SULPHATE ‘SOLUTION Fig. 17 THE DANIELL CELL Polarisation does not occur because the copper, and not the hydrogen, is deposited on the copper container. This copper deposition causes the copper sulphate solution to become more dilute. To allow the cell to be used for a period of time copper sulphate crystals are placed inside the copper container ‘above a perforated divider - this keeps the solution in a saturated conditionThe advantage of the Daniell cell is that it keeps a very steady emf of 1.1V so is used as a standard voltage. Its disadvantage is that if it is not used for short period of time then copper sulphate solution will diffuse through the porous pot and deposits copper on the zinc rod - which spoils its action. So each time the cell is used it has to be made up afresh. The more common type of cell is the ‘dry cell’ known as the Leclanche cell (Georges Leclanche. French engineer 1839 -1882). In the Leclanche cell the liquid is replaced with a solution of sal ammoniac, the positive plate is a carbon rod and the negative plate is zinc. The positive plate is surrounded by carbon and manganese dioxide, which acts as a depolariser. The cell voltage is typically 1.5V and again electron flow is carbon to zinc internally and zinc to carbon through the external circuit. Conventional current flow is the opposite. In basic cell theory the +ve plate is often called the anode and the -ve plate the cathode. Other types of primary cell are shown in table 1. es I ‘UNC -VE CASE pa PLASTER OF PAS bei 2 1a one BP warcuese«oncon eee Ee CARBON +4 Hel — onan ero Fig. 18 LECLANCHE CELL (DRY)TYPE VOLTAGE PROPERTIES USES Carbon zine 1S Popular. Voltage falls with Hand torches (Lecianche) increased current. Good for low Portable radios current/occasional use. Cheap. ete, Alkaline- 1.5 Voltage falls less steeply in use. Radios Manganese Long shelf life. Better for lighter Calculators currents. Lasts up to 4 times Flash longer than same size carbon —_—_—photographic zine cell. Medium price. units. Mercury 1.3. Almost constant voltage until -—- Watches discharged. Good for low Calculators current use. Good capacity/size Cameras ratio. Long shelf life. Constructed Hearing aids. as small “buttons”. Expensive. Silver oxide 1.5 Similar to the mercury cell. TABLE 1 - TYPES OF PRIMARY CELLS Ro Fig. 19 BASIC MERCURY FLAT CELL Secondary Cell or Battery The secondary cell is one in which the chemical action is reversible by passing a current through the cell it can be ‘recharged’ after discharge and used again. There are several types of secondary cells - lead acid, nickel cadmium, iron lithium etc. ‘The Lead Acid Cell. The lead acid cell has a positive plate of a ead antimony grid into which lead peroxide paste is forced under pressure. The negative plate is a lead antimony grid into which pure spongy lead is forced. The te is a solution of sulphuric acid and distilled water mixed to an SG c Gravity) of approxir 1,25 to 1.27.earns venunas yore oven CEL, rurenouee E35 Gap Em Fig. 20 EXPLODED VIEW OF TYPICAL LEAD/ACID SECONDARY CELL Figure 20 shows an exploded view of the cell with a number of positive and negative plates, these are interleaved and each positive and negative plate is prevented from touching each other by separators, which are typically made of micro-porous plastic. You will note that it is arranged that there is one more negative plate than positive so that the negative plates are on the outside. This is because the positive plates tend to distort when there is chemical action on one side only. The plates are placed in an acid proof container and the container is filled with an electrolyte. At the top of the container is a vent plug to allow gases to escape during the chemical action. The nominal voltage of each cell is 2 volts. Fully charged the voltage will be 2.2V, fully discharged 1.8V. Assuming the cell to be fully charged and connected to a circuit then electrons will flow from the spongy lead plate (-ve) to the lead peroxide plate (+ve) through the circuit. Chemical reaction in the electrolyte causes lead sulphate on both plates, water ig also released during this chemical action, which weakens the electrolyte ie, the SG falls. When the voltage falls to 1.8V the cell, is said to be dischargedFig. 21 CONSTRUCTION OF THE NI-CAD CEUL By connecting a power source across the cell (#ve to +ve and -ve to -ve) it can be recharged, electrons are forced into the cell at the negative terminal which, by chemical action, changes the plates back to spongy lead and lead peroxide The water is changed back to sulphuric acid, the SG of the electrolyte rises, as does the cell voltage to 2.2V, the cell has now been recharged. The Nickel Cadmium Cell One type of alkaline cell is the NICKEL CADMIUM (NiCad) CELL. In this cell the plates are a woven wire screen into which the active materials are sintered (a form of powder technology heat treated) into the plates. The materials are nickel hydroxide for the positive plates and cadmium hydroxide for the negative plates. Figure 19 shows the construction of the cell. Note the separators are nylon ne - nylon wrapped between the plates.The plates are placed in a container, which is usually a plastic material, with a vent plug again to allow gases to escape. The electrolyte is a solution of distilled water and potassium hydroxide with an SG of 1.24 to 1.3. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 1.2V. NOMINAL VOLTAGE 1.2¥ CHARGE Nice CELL DISCHARGED nice CELE Poste rate NICKEL HYDROXIDE Wy (O¥)2 postr rate NICKEL HYDROXIDE wHiOWl2 NecaTvE PATE CADMIUM (Ca) Negarne matt CADMIUM IrYDLOXIDE Ca(OH) surcraotyTe. POTASSIUM HYDROXIOE (KOH) RD, 1.20 -1.3 depending on nucrrourte POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH) Ge type of eal. RD, Does nat alter during {TEAMBIAL VOLTAGE ‘TERMINAL VOLTAGE 1.sv 2.o/a.av Fig. 22 A NI-CAD CELL During charging the negative plate loses oxygen and becomes cadmium. The nickel hydroxide on the positive plate accepts this oxygen and becomes more highly oxidised Ni(OH)2 — Ni(OH)s. As the cell becomes charged the cell emits gas caused by the water in the electrolyte being decomposed by electrolysis. The hydrogen gas is released at the negative plate and oxygen at the positive late which causes some water loss in the electrolyte. When the cell is fully charged (typically 1.5V) electrolyte is driven from the plates and will be at its highest level within the cell. During discharge oxygen is driven from the positive plate and recovered by the negative plate. No gassing takes place, and the electrolyte is absorbed into the plates and the level drops. The electrolyte plays no part in the chemical reaction, it is only used to provide a path for current flow so the SG does not change between charge and dischargeCell or Battery Connections ‘The symbol for a cell/battery is |} with the longer vertical line being the positive connection to the cell and the shorter the negative. The capacity of a cell is the maximum current it can deliver for a known period of time and it is therefore rated in ampere-hours (AH). Therefore if a cell is rated at 10AH at the one hour rate then it should be capable of delivering 10 Amps for | hour. If two cells are connected in series each of 2V 10AH then the overall voltage and capacity is 4V 10AH. <—4v 10H ————— ——— Fig. 23 TWO 2V 10AH CELLS IN SERIES If the two cells are connected in parallel then the overall voltage and capacity is 2V 20AH, |g—— 2V 20AH —> Fig. 24 TWO 2V 10AH CELLS IN PARALLEL Electro-magnetic Induction A further method of generation of electricity is by magnetism and motion. If flux lines are cut by a conductor as part of an electric circuit then an emf is produced. The flux lines can be cut by: * Moving a magnet passed a stationary conductor (coil). * Moving the conductor past a stationary magnet. * Having one stationary coil fed with ac next to another stationary coil. (The build-up and collapse of the flux lines from the first coil will cut the second coil and produce an ac emf in the second coil). Note, there has been no actual movement of the ‘hardware’ but there has been movement of the flux lines across the second coil so an emf is produced} 19-MAGNET VOLTMETER GS ‘com. Fig. 25 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION When a magnet is moved into an air cored solenoid as shown in figure 25, the voltmeter will deflect to one side while the magnet is being lowered indicating an “induced emf”. This is the basis of the generator. There would be no induced emf if the magnet was held stationary. ELECTRICAL TERMS Before we go onto look at some circuits it is necessary to understand the terms used. Some of these we have met already, some are new, all should be committed to memory Electromotive-force (emf). This is the driving influence t'vat causes current to flow. Its unit is the VOLT. A battery or generator produce an emf. Potential Difference (pd). This is the voltage difference between two parts of a circuit or between two circuits. 3V LAMP Voltmeter showing I av Voltmeter showing WS Sv Fig. 26 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCEThe circuit in figure 26 has an emf of 4 volts. If we wish to know the potential difference between A and B the voltmeter (V1) will read 3 Volts, ie the portion of the emf appearing across the 3 volt lamp, this is then the pd between these two points, The pd between B and C is 1 volt. The pd is therefore a voltage measurement (difference) between two points in a circuit ‘The total pd is 4 volts, Voltage (V). The unit of emf and pd. It can be compared to pressure in hydraulic or fluid terms. Current (I). The unit of electron flow measured in Amperes (A). It is defined as a flow of 1 coulomb per second. A coulomb is about 6.3 x 10'® electrons. (there is no need to remember this). Current can be compared to flow in fluids. If there is pressure in a hydraulic system but the control valve is off then there is no flow and nothing works, The same with electrical circuits. If there is voltage and the switch is off there is no current. With the switch on there is current flow and something works. Resistance (R. Electrons flow more easily through some materials than others. This opposition to current flow is called Resistance and is measured in ohms (Q). There is not such a direct comparison with hydraulics here though there is resistance to fluid flow due to viscosity etc. Conductance (G). This is the reciprocal of resistance: o-i R The unit is the siemen (§). A resistance of 10@ has a conductance of 0.18. Charge Q (Quantity). The quantity of electricity passing a given point in circuit when a current of | ampere is maintained for 1 second. Q = lamps) x t{secs) the unit being the COULOMB. Ifa current of 12.5A passes a point for 2 minutes the quantity of electricity that has passed = 12.5 x 2 x 60 = 1500C. Conventional Current Flow. From positive to negative Electron Flow. From negative to positive.RESISTANCE, FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE, Material As we have already seen some materials are good conductors eg, silver, copper, aluminium. Other materials such as glass and mica are not. The conductors have a low resistance and the insulators have a high resistance. All materials have some resistance, silver would have a lower resistance than copper for example. Each material therefore has a constant value of resistance per metre length. This value is found by measuring the resistance between the opposite faces of a unit cube of the material and is usually expressed in ohm-metres (Q-m) and is called the resistivity or specific resistance of the material. The symbol p(rho} is used for resistivity. Some typical figures are shown below at 0°C. MATERIAL Qm Aluminium 2.7x 108 Brass 7.2.x 108 Copper 15x 108 Zine 5.57 x 10% The above values will change with a change in temperature. Length () If a conductor has a resistance of 2Q and is 5cm long, the same conductor 10 cm long would have a resistance of 4. Resistance is therefore directly proportional to length. Imagine pumping fluid down a pipeline, the longer the pipeline the more difficult it would be to pump the fluid down, Cross Sectional Area (A) ‘The thicker the wire the smaller the resistance (more electrons can flow). The thinner the wire the greater the resistance. If the cross sectional area is double the resistance is halved. The resistance is therefore inversely proportional to cross sectional area, Again if one thinks of pumping fluid down a pipeline, it would be easier to pump the bigger the diameter of the pipeline and more ‘ficult the smaller the diameter‘The relationship between these factors is given by the formula: Re ol A Activity If the length of a material is doubled and its cross sectional area is doubled, what is the effect on its resistance? Temperature The resistance of all pure metals (conductors) increases with an increase in temperature and they are said to have a positive temperature coefficient. ‘The resistance of insulators and semi conductors and thermistors decreases with an increase in temperature and are said to have a negative temperature coefficient. Some alloys such as constantan, eureka and manganin show very little resistance change over their working temperature range. FIXED RESISTORS These are resistors the value of which cannot usually be changed. In other words they are not variable resistors. Fig. 27 FIXED RESISTOR SYMBOL In some books the symbol might be a zig-zag line eg: WWW When a designer chooses a resistor certain factors must be taken into account These are tolerance, power rating, and stability. Due to mass production of resistors their exact value cannot be guaranteed and the tolerance specifies the maximum and minimum value of resistance the resistor will have eg, 2002 = 10% - this will have a resistance value from 1802 to 2202.All resistors have a power rating (in watts) which indicates the maximum power that can be dissipated without the temperature rise being such that damage occurs to the resistor. If the current through the resistor is exceeded the resistor will overheat and burn out. In electronic circuits typical ratings are ‘AW, “@W, 1W and 2W. The greater the physical size, the greater its rating. The stability of a resistor is its ability to maintain its resistance value over a period of time within a working circuit. This can be an important factor in some electronic circuits. Types of Fixed Resistors In the Carbon Film Type, a film of carbon is deposited on a ceramic rod and protected by an insulating coating. Typical tolerance is + 5% from a few ohms to 10MQ, Ratings from 0.125W to 1W with very good stability. ——— Fig. 28 CARBON FILM RESISTOR The Metal Film Type is a metal oxide deposited on a ceramic rod protected by an insulating coating. Their ratings are typically 0.5W with a tolerance of + 1% ané offer high stability ‘The Wire Wound Resistors have low tolerance and high stability, and any resistor over 1W will be of the wire wound type. The wire is either nichrome, constantan or manganin wound on a former and given a protective coating. They have resistance values from 19 to 25k and can operate up to 10-20W. —=2—— Fig. 29 WIRE WOUND RESISTOR Ifa very large power rating resistor is required the resistor may be metal bars within a cage to allow air circulation for cooling.Resistor Coding One method employed for coding is shown figure 30. The resistor has four bands as shown. The first band is the first digit the second band givesthe second digit, the third band gives the multiplier ie, the number of O’s to be added. The fourth band gives the tolerance - typically + 5% or + 10%. If no fourth band is present the tolerance is + 20% Colour Significant | Decimal | Tolerance | _ Figure _| Multiplier | (per cent) [no band | 20 | Silver | 0.01 10 | Gold : o1 | 5 [Black 0 1 | Brown, 1 10 | Red 2 102 Orange 3 10° [Yellow 4 {107 | [Green 3 108 [Blue 6 [106 7 Violet__| 7 [107 Gre; 8 | 108 White 9 10° | Bands a Example H Eu \ | J 1 number Tolerance Orange 3 "Silver 10% 2né number Number of Blue 6 reen 5 noughts noughts 3,600,0002 Fig. 30 RESISTOR CODING Some resistors with a tolerance of 1% are marked with a brown band and those with a tolerance of 42% are marked with a red band. On some resistors, due to their size or shape, the colour. coding is difficult to apply so a printed code is used. In the example shown R means x1, K means x 1,000, M means x 1,000,000 and the position of the letter gives the decimal point0.472 = R47 3.32 ee oR: 47a = 47R 2209 = 220R 4.7kQ = 4K7 68kQ = 68K 4.7MQ = 4M7 Tolerances are indicated by adding a letter at the end. F = 41% G = 22% J = 45% = K = + 10% M = + 20% ctivity rc | | | Using the band method, find the colour code for the following resistors | (1) 47kQ + 5% (2) 5.6kQ = 10% | (3) 3.02 | Using the printed code write down the values for the above resistors. Ifa 47k resistor has a tolerance of + 10% then its resistance can be in the range 42.30 to 51.7kQ, and since exact values of fixed resistors are unnecessary in most electronic circuits, only preferred values are made The 47k0 would cover values between 43kQ and 52kQ and the next preferred value would be 56k +10% which covers 50.4kQ to 61.622 so there is minimum overlap between them. Table 2 shows the preferred values. The figures in the table can be multiplied >y any power of ten to obtain the required rangePercentage tolerance 20 per cent 10 1s 22 33 47 68 10 12 18 22 a7 33 39 a7 56 10 percent 5 per cent 10 ql 12 13 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 43 47 51 56 62 68 75 82 gl ‘TABLE 2 - TOLERANCE OF RESISTANCE VALUES VARIABLE RESISTORS These are resistors where the value can be changed cither as an adjustment by an engineer or automatically whi jst the system is running.U Eo ' — VOLTAGE DEPENDANT RESISTOR Fig. 31 VARIABLE RESISTORS They basically consist of a circular or straight track of carbon or wire wound resistor with a moveable wiper arm. The movement of the wiper arm may be circular around a pivot or hinge or it may move linearly along a track. Figure 30 shows a circular type. WIPER ARM WINDINGS ——} ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS Fig 32 CIRCULAR PESISTOR There are two ways of using a variable resistor; as a rheostat or potentiometer When used as a rheostat it controls the current in a circuit eg, current to a lamp ~ the lamp can be made to burn brighter by increasing the current to it. So the variable resistor changes the resistance in the circuit and hence the earTERY qe | 62 LAMP VARIABLE RESISTOR “+—— Fig. 33 RHEOSTATWhen used as a potentiometer it is used to provide a variable voltage from a fixed supply 4 oo input voltage ¥ Fourput voltage | | Ld Fig. 34 POTENTIOMETER THERMISTORS These are ‘thermally sensitive resistors’ which are made of materials whose resistance changes considerably with a small temperature change Most thermistors decrease their resistance with an increase in temperature ie, they have a negative temperature coefficient. They are made in either rod, dise or bead form, and are made of oxides of nickel, manganese, copper, cobalt and other materials. They are used extensively on aircraft as temperature sensors in heating, air conditioning and battery systems. ‘There are some thermistors that have a positive temperature coefficient. The maierial used for their construction is barium titanate, they may be used in circuits to limit current due to excessive temperature rise VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS Sometimes known as varistors, these are devices whose resistance reduces as the applied voltage is increased. They are manufactured from silicon carbide Applications include transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch contact protection eg, it is connected across the component to be protected and draws only a small current at its normal operating voltage. However, should the voltage increase, {ie a surge) its resistance reduces, and it absorbs some of the energy in the surge by diverting current through itself. 9DC CIRCUITS OHM’S LAW “The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it if the temperature and other physical conditions do not change”. This law expressed in a relationship between current voltage and resistance is: ee R V=IKR R=» ‘This triangle might help. Cover-up the quantity that needs tobe = found, and the correct relationship is left uncovered This is a fundamental law of electricity and must be remembered. Given two of the properties you must be able to find the third, Examples (a) 1=2a | We know V = 6V ev R=? I= 2a Vv 6 R= ~ = 2-3 ohms 1 2 7 (2) 1=? i We know V = 100V 100V R= 502 R= 502 Vv _ 100 y= ¥ = 10 Lon R50 mS (3) We know I = 2A R= 15Q Ve? 150 \ L V=IxR=15x2= 30 voltsNow try these yourself. (1) The current through a circuit of resistance 5k® is SmA. Calculate the voltage applied to the circuit (2) A voltage of 250V is applied to a resistance of 5MQ. Calculate the current in the circuit (3) Acurrent of SmA flows through a circuit with an applied voltage of 100V. Calculate the resistance of the circuit. Series Circuits Where several components are connected end to end in such a way that there is only one path for the current (the same current flows through each component) then we have a series circuit. RL R2 R3. Ca 4 Le Fig. 35 SERIES CIRCUIT There are three points to note about a series circuit: 1 ‘The current is the same for all components in the circuit. 2. The voltage drop across each component when added together equals the supply voltage (Vs = Vi + V2 + Va)- 3. The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the individual resistors (Rr = Ri + R2 + Ra «..-) Example ga_}—{_109 +}Total Resistance of the circuit is: Rr= Ri + Re+ Rs =6+8+10 = 240 ‘The current in the circuit is 1 = Bis 1-22 24 0.5A Being a series circuit this is the current throughout the circuit. As the emf (12V supply) forces electrons through the resistors there is a loss of voltage through each resistor called a voltage drop. The voltage drop is, using ohms law, 1x R. It is essential when finding “voltage drops” that only the voltage and current to that particular resistance is used. xR =0.5x6 3v In our case voltage drop across Ri Voltage drop across Rz Voltage drop across Rs Veupply = Vi + V2 + Va 12 =3+4+5 QUESTION: For both circuits shown below find the: (15 mins) (a) Total resistance. (b) Total current. (<)__ The voltage drop across each resistor. a) (2) aaa [ 200V | | | ; | Toa} ian 1360) uVoltage Division Because a voltage drop is developed across a resistor when current flows through it, several resistors can be used in series across an applied voltage to give a division of voltage in a circuit. When resistors are connected in this way it is called a Potential Divider. In figure 36 the total resistance is R = Ri + Re + Rs, and R is 200. Knowing the total resistance and also the voltage the current can be calculated: v_ 40 I= te R 20 This current flowing through each resistor develops a voltage drop across each resistor. In Ri, the voltage drop V; is IR: = 2x 12 = 24V In Ra, the voltage drop V2 is IR2= 2x 6= 12V In Rs, the voltage drop V3 is IR3=2.2= _4V 40V = Applied voltage Fig. 36 A POTENTIAL DIVIDER From this we can see that the applied voltage of 40V is divided among the resistors in proportion to their resistance, and the proportion method of division as described above may be used as a double-check. We can develop this a stage further. Each voltage drop has a polarity as indicated in figure 37. If we ‘carth’ point D (figure 37 [al) then because Rs has a voltage drop of 4V across it in the polarity shown, we say that point C is 4V positive with respect to €Similarly, because R2 has a voltage drop of 12V across it in the polarity shown we can say that point B is 12V positive with respect to point C and 12 + 4 = 16V positive with respect to earth. In the same way point A will be found to be 40V positive with respect to earth Point D earthed Point C earthed fa) (b) Fig. 37 OUTPUT VOLTAGES RELATIVE TO EARTH If point C is earthed then the voltages at the various output points would be as shown in figure 37[b]. The voltage division is the same but the voltages at the output relative to earth are different. Potential dividers are used to apply different voltages for various circuits from a single supply voltage. Parallel Circuits Components connected in such a way that they provide alternative paths for current flow are parallel connected and the circuit is a parallel circuit [ i lh | Is Ri Ee Fig. 38 PARALLEL CIRCUITThere are three points to note about this parallel circuit. qa) There is a common voltage across all the components. (2) The current divides among the components depending on the value of each resistance. If they all have the same resistance value then they will all have the same current irrespective of the voltage. NOTE: The current through the component is dependent on the voltage applied and the resistance of the component, it is not affected by the resistance of any component connected in parallel with it. The total current flowing into a system is the same as that flowing out and all currents in the various branches must add up to the total current. So supply current Ir = + I2 +s (3) The total resistance of the circuit can be found by the formula rioijiid Ri | 10a Ra{| | 102 Find the total resistance 1 1 1 us ao oR 10 1 _1+1_ 2 Q = = 2. {add fractions by using a common denominator) R; 10 10 10 (3) Ry =" =5Q (invert both sides of the equation) Remember, for the non-mathematicians amongst us an equation cannot be inverted as at (3) above (unless you really know what you are doing) while there is a plus or minus sign as part of the fraction ~ as in 1 plus 1 in (2) above. So work the equation out to a simple fraction without any plus or minus signs and then invert as in (3) above.Note. There is a quick way of find out the resistance of two resistors in parallel of the same value, without using the formula. Where resistors of the same a value are in parallel the total resistance is half one of them. This idea can be extended to any number of equal resistances connected in parallel. Their total resistance will be one resistance divided by the number in parallel. eg, 10 resistors in parallel of 109 each would be 2 19 Example 2 R: | [ea *U 129 Using the formula product sum Another way of doing this with two unequal resistors is the rule. In this case Ri = 62 R.= 129 product = 6x12 sum = 6+12 product | 72 _ 4g sum 18 Note also another important point, the total resistance is always less than the lowest resistor in the parallel branchExample 3 eee mem one 24) 1 _2+1+3_ 6 Note, the total value is less than the smallest resister (4). ‘The formula can be extended to cover any number of parallel resistors. Example 4 Is 60V 302 Find (a) The total resistance of the circuit. (b) The current through each branch of the circuit. Total Resistance30_ == =30 10 tT The voltage across each branch is the same ie, 60V. So eis COREA R, 10 v__60 =o=—-=2A SR; 30 Total Current = p=h+h+Is =12+6+2 = 20A Proof. Total resistance = 3 v _60 p= Y= 22 = 20a TTR, 3 QUESTION: Find the values of Ri, Rz and Rs. (15 mins) 60V Ri L Series / Parallel Circuits Most electrical supply systems use parallel circuits ~ domestic house wiring for example. Some systems use series circuits - Christmas-tree lights for example. 38Some electrical systems use both series and parallel circuits in the one circuit and these are called series/ parallel circuits. A series/parallel circuit is shown in figure 39 {12KQ 5000}. Caro | AK Quel Fig. 39 SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS When working out the total resistance of this type of circuit always deal with the parallel branches first and reduce them to one value of resistance. Then you have a series circuit. So find out the total resistance for the 3, 12 and 4k2 Tesistors first. This one resistance could take their place as a series resistor in series with the 5002 resistor, then find out the total value of the two series resistors. For this circuit find: (a) Total circuit resistance. (b} Total circuit current (c) Current through the 4kQ resistor.KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS a Kirchhoff (Gustav Robert - German physicist 1824 - 1887) made several discoveries in the field of electrics. Some of his laws we need to commit to memory Kirchhoff’s First Law (sometimes called the Current Law) This states that the total current flowing towards a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current flowing away from that junction, that is, the algebraic sum of the currents flowing towards the junction is zero. ZI = O at the junction where E means ‘the algebraic sum of In more basic terms this can be expressed as the current flowing towards a junction must equal that flowing away from the junction. Y To put it in hydraulic terms - all the fluid flowing to a pipeline junction must equal all the flowing away from that junction - unless there are leaks of course JUNCTION 5A > 6A 4A Fig. 40 JUNCTION 1 In figure 40 there is 11A flowing towards the junction (5A + 6A) and only 4A flowing away plus the unknown current. This unknown current must be 11A - 4A = 7A to make 11A flowing towards the junction and 114 flowing away, With reference to figure 41, what is the value and direction of the unknown current? 3A 6A UY 2a Fig. 41 JUNCTION 2A current of 6A flows towards the junction and a current of SA flows away from the junction. According to Kirchhoffs 1* law the current flowing towards a junction must equal that leaving the junction, so to make up the 6A leaving the ‘unknown current must be 1A flowing from the junction Try this example for yourself. Find the value and direction of the following currents 1), Is, Igand I7. Kirchhoff's Second Law (sometimes known as the Voltage Law} This law states that in any closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the potential drops is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf’s acting in the loop EH R=ZE Putting it another way - all the voltage drops in a closed circuit when added together equals the applied voltage to that circuit (we have already covered some of this) Boy Fig. 42 VOLTS DROPS - 41$ 180V aa —) 450) 135V sa} 4sv Fig. 43 VOLTS DROPS - 2 With reference to figure 43 the total voltage applied to the circuit is 180V and the voltage drops around the circuit are 135 + 45 = 180V. +L 120V— 60V 450, 45V be 5a] 15V J | Fig. 44 VOLTS DROPS - 3 In figure 44 the applied voltage is 120V - 60V (the batteries are connected in opposition positive to negative} = ge drops 45 + 15 = 60V 60V which again equals the sum of theTry this one yourself. IRs 120V | | a) Ry] 35V Find the voltage drops across resistors Ro and Rs.THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE The arrangement of resistors shown in figure 45 is called a Wheatstone Bridge. It can be used for: Temperature measurement ~ acting as a temperature control device for heated windscreens for example. Measuring strain - fitted to landing gear for the accurate measurement of aircraft weight and C of G position for example Measuring electrical values ~ used in measuring instruments Fig. 45. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE Consider the current flow from A to D (you could think of it as fluid flow in a set of pipelines) and assume that all the resisturs are the same value then the same amount of current will flow down arm ABD as in arm ACD. The voltage at B will be the same as at C (there will be the same volts drop across R1 as R2} and the voltmeter will show zero. In this condition the bridge is said to be balanced. ‘A volts drop is sometimes expressed as an IR drop (V = 1 x R) so: Ri = Re As the voltage drop across Rs must equal to the voltage drop across Rs then: LR = Re Dividing one equation by the other LR, LR, LR RsR,_Ro Ry Rs So ‘at balance’ this ratio of resistances is true. The Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure unknown resistances. Assuming Ré is the unknown resistor, Ro is a calibrated variable resistor, Ri ‘and Rz being of known values, Rs would be adjusted until the meter is reading zero (bridge balanced) and the value of Rs can be found by: p, - Rake R Rs R, Unknown Fig. 46 FINDING THE UNKNOWN RESISTOR - 1 Figure 46 shows the bridge where Ro, Rs and R; are all known values and the unknown value can be found using the equation above. If the bridge is used for temperature control systems eg, windscreen heating then one of the resistors is placed inside the screen next to the heater. Try the next one yourself. Assuming the bridge to be balanced find Ris Fig. 47 FINDING THE UNKNOWN RESISTOR - 2POWER, WORK & ENERGY Energy and Work Energy is the capacity to do work. A suspended weight has Potential Energy, and has potential to do work when it falls under the influence of gravity. A moving object has Kinetic Energy because it can do work when it hits something. The applied voltage in an electric circuit causes the electrons to move and when they do energy is transferred from the source to the circuit eg, when a lamp produces heat and light {All energy is measured JOULES (J) including electrical energy. If one joule of electrical energy is changed into other kinds of energy when one coulomb passes through a component, the voltage across the component is one volt ie, Joules (J) = coulomb (C) x volts (¥). Since the Coulomb Q = Current (A) x time (s) joules amps x volts x seconds energy VxIx t joules Example How much energy is expended when a 3009 resistor is connected to a 150V supply for 1 hour. Energy VxIxtjoules = 150x222 x 60x60 300 270,000 joules 270kJ or .27MJ Power This is the rate at which work is done and is measured in WATTS (W). It is the power developed in a circuit when an applied voltage of one volt causes & current of one amp to flow. Poo = VXIWe know from ohm’s law that I = Substituting in the formula also V=1xR So substituting again P IxRxl PR So the three formulas for power are: 2 vxl, PR, a Bis WATTS a As Power = 7 time taken = Vit joules t seconds Watts 7 Energy (work done) Joules/sec (joules per second) and transposing the unit of energy can be expressed as a watt second. Examples: Resistance 12V unknown Voltage unknown Power= Vxl 12 x2 = 24W It PR 2x2x6=24W| Current unknown 12V | Ls 12X12 Power Rating of Components When current passes through a resistor, the resistor becomes hot, if it gets too hot it could be damaged. The heat developed by a current in a resistor is PR watts, thus the rate at which heat is produced is proportional to the square of the current. Therefore if the current is doubled the rate at which heat is produced goes up four times. The same consideration would apply to voltage to a resistor - as the power 2 developed ie, R Electrical components can only stand a certain amount of heat without damage and is normal to give a wattage rating on the identification plate of the component. If this rating is exceeded the component will overheat. For example a 6V 12W lamp means when connected to a 6V supply its resistance develops 12W of power and it is intended to work at this rating ie, it consumes 12W only at the correct voltage. However, if it is connected toa higher voltage than 6V the power is increased and the lamp may burn out ‘As we have seen previously, resistors are rated in different wattage ratings, the larger the resistor the greater the wattage rating ie, it can dissipate the heat better. If a 4Q resistor has a power rating of 36 watts, the maximum current it could carry would be: P =PR 36=12x4 3 amps maximumAlso V2=4x 36 v =vi44 V = 12 volts maximum, So the current must not exceed 3 amps and the voltage must not exceed 12V. Example 62 180 Find (a) _ the power developed across each resistor. (b) _ the total power in the circuit. also indicate what the power rating of each resistor should be Total resistance of the circuit is 6 + 18 = 240 12% = 22 cosa R24 As it is a series circuit the current through both resistors is the same.The power consumption across the 60 resistor is PR. 0.5x0.5x6= LSW Across the 89 resistor the power is IR = 0.5x0.5 x 18 = 4.5W The total power consumption is the sum of the two 4.5 + 1,5 As acheck V xI= 12x 0.5 = ow The 6 resistor would be rated at 2W and the 18Q resistor at SW, using the nearest standard wattage above the calculated power. A point worth noting, when calculating power across a component using the voltage or current formulas, it must be the voltage across the component and the current through it that has to be used, QUESTION: Find the power dissipated across Ri, Rz and R3 and find the energy expended if the circuit (shown below) is supplied for 1 minute. (15 mins) 6Q 2A pa Le perenne 32 Ri Rs 24v INTERNAL RESISTANCE All electrical components have internal resistance. In batteries it is mainly due to the resistance of the electrolyte; in electrical generators it is mainly due to the machine windings, and brushes. The voltage across the open-circuited terminals of a supply is equal to the emf, When a load is connected to the supply the load current flows through the internal resistance of the supply and causes an internal resistance volts drop.With reference to figure 48 the on-load terminal voltage V is equal to the emf minus the internal resistance volts drop. So: V=E-Ir This means that a certain amount of the emf at the cell is not available to drive the current round the circuit because it is Jost’ inside the battery. Where \V = Terminal voltage E = emf I= Current r= internal resistance LOAD Sy + CURRENT EMF 7 E | : TERMINAL LOAD 1 VOLTAGE Ly INTERNAL r | ir RESISTANCE + Fig. 48 INTERNAL RESISTANCE If the battery was 1.5V and had an internal resistance of 19 and was supplying a lamp which took 0.3A then the internal volt drop would be: 0.3 (I) x 1 (R) = 0.3V. So the terminal voltage would be 1.5 - 0.3v = L2V If we put a voltmeter across the battery that is what we would measure. We cannot measure the internal volts drop.MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM This states that: Maximum power is developed in a load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the supply. The example below shows a battery of EMF of 12V and an internal resistance of 20 supplying a load R 1 [oe t+R 2+R LOAD E Power in load = ?R r {2 Fig. 49 BATTERY - INTERNAL RESISTANCE Plotting load power against load resistance using the values from the table below produces the graph shown below. LOAD POWER . R I LOAD POWER I [ae 4a 16W 20 | 3A] 18W faq) 2a) 16w | > 10a} 1A] 10w | 29 LOAD ut 18) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER Fig. 50 GRAPH OF LOAD POWER AGAINST LOAD RESISTANCE When the load resistance and supply internal resistance are equal, the load and supply are said to be “matched”. The transference of maximum power from a supply to a load is often required in electronic circuits, and a typical example being the matching of an audio amplifier to a loudspeaker,CAPACITANCE In general terms it is the ability of two conductors to store a charge (pd) between them Figure 51 shows a battery connected to two metal plates positioned close to, put not touching, each other. When the switch is closed, electrons from plate X are attracted by the positive plate of the battery and repelled by the negative plate of the battery to plate Y of the capacitor. As we have removed electrons from plate X of the capacitor it becomes positively charged, and as electrons have been added to plate Y then it becomes negatively charged. This momentary movement of electrons is called the ‘charging current’, When the voltage across the capacitor equals the battery voltage, electron flow stops. The plates now have a positive and negative charge between them and if ive open the switch this stored energy or charge remains in the capacitor. SWITCH ELECTRON FLOW Tee X CAPACITOR Y BATTERY —— Fig. 51 CHARGING A CAPACITOR ‘The capacitor stores an electric charge and in its simplest form described so far consists of two parallel plates separated by an insulator known as a dielectric - air in this case. ‘The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plates are at different potentials is known as capacitance. The closest analogy we have with hydraulics is the hydraulic accumulator. It will store pressure which it will release quickly when required. The capacitor will store charge as a voltage which it will release quickly when required. We can get a similar discharge rate from a battery by shorting the terminals (THIS IS DANGEROUS DO NOT TRY IT) but it destroys the battery. The capacitor can be charged and discharged almost an infinite number of times. The capacitor can therefore be used to store charge - for engine igniter plugs for example, but it can also be used as a transducer ~ fuel tank capacity systems for exampleThe unit of capacitance is the FARAD (F) (Michael Faraday British physicist 1791-1867) which is defined as “the capacitance of a capacitor which has a o potential difference of one volt across its plates when it is charged by 1 coulomb of electricity” c= <0 Q= CV coulombs The farad is too large a unit and typically the microfarad (uF), nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (pF) are used. The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the formula: ¥_ CV? joules Going back to our charged capacitor in its charged state. We have created an —~ electric field between the two plates. In this field are atoms of the gases which make up air, and figure 52 shows how these atoms are ‘stretched’ (protons attracted to the negative plate, electrons to the positive plate) CHARGED CAPACITOR PLATES 4 aa Fig. 52 ATOMS OF THE DIELECTRIC (INSULATOR) UNDER STRESS IN ELECTRIC FIELD« The stronger the field, the more energy is stored. We could ‘discharge’ the capacitor by disconnecting the battery and connecting the wires together connecting the two plates. This would discharge the capacitor quickly (with an accompanying fat spark’). The electrons would rush to equalise their potential and the atoms in the dielectric would relax back to their normal position. Factors Affecting Capacitance Factors which affect capacitance include: * Area of plates * Their distance apart * The type of the dielectric If the area of the plates is increased, this allows a greater charge to be held and therefore plate area is directly proportional to capacitance. By changing the distance between the plates, the capacitance will change. As capacitance depends on the strength of the electric field, if the plates are moved further apart (weaker field) capacitance decreases, if the plates are moved closer together then the field is more concentrated and the capacitance is greater. The capacitance is therefore inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. ‘The capacitance also depends on the dielectric material and its relative permittivity (e,) or dielectric constant (k). This is the ratio of the capacitance of the capacitor having a given material to the capacitance of the capacitor with air as the dielectric, The dielectric constant is just a number which tells you how much greater the capacitance is going to be than when air was the dielectric. For example, if a capacitor of 100uF with air (k value = 1) as the dielectric, has the dielectric replaced with Porcelain (which has a k value of 6) then the capacitance will be 600uF ie, goes up six times. Some typical dielectric materials and their k values are: Dielectric Dielectric Constant (k value) Air Paper 2 Bakelite 4.5-5.5 Glass -10 Porcelain 6-7‘The table above shows that different dielectric materials have differing abilities to store electrical energy in the form of an electric field. The relationship a between the factors affecting capacitance and the capacitance of a capacitor can be expressed in the following formula: c= BA a Where C = Capacitance k = Dielectric constant A= area of plates opposite each other iistance the plates are apart hwaren Gs distance x « dtelectric Constant bad ~ sale sac target lage € Tage Alige Fig. 53 FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE (C) Capacitors in Parallel When capacitors are connected in parallel (figure 54) the voltage is the same ~ across each one, but their charges will be different. kh Qi = charge on C; Qz = charge on C2 Qr = total charge oo Fig. 54 CAPACITORS IN PARALLELSo Qr=Qi + Q {Q = CV remember} Qr=CixV+CoxV CrV = CixV + C2xV dividing through by V we get Cr=Ci+C For capacitors in parallel we add their values eg, 250HF in parallel with SOQuF capacitor gives a total capacitance of 750uF. For capacitors in series we do a calculation similar to the one for resistors in parallel, Capacitors in Series Figure 5 shows capacitors in series. The charge on each capacitor will be the same, but the voltage will be less than the supply voltage (V). Vv aU Ci C Q = charge on capacitors ee Fig. 55 CAPACITORS IN SERIES As V=Vit V2 andasV= 2 then 2-242 Cr Cy C2 : oduct Note this is similar to resistances in parallel so the POSES’ rute could be used sum for two capacitors in seriesExample - if C) = 300uF and C2 = 200uF OQ xc 1 XC, _ 3001200 _ 600 _ 99,6 then C = 2 : C,+C, 300+200° 5 Note that the answer is less than the smallest capacitor. ‘Try these examples. (1) Find the equivalent capacitance of 5uF, 10uF and 30pF capacitors connected in series. (2) What is the combined capacitance of the network shown. Remember to sort out the parallel group first. Seema C3 | 10nF SH oe t-— sur! | 10pF In some cases, to reduce the size of the capacitor for a given capacitance, an interleaved construction is used (figure 56). Fig. 56 INTERLEAVED CAPACITOR The capacitor shown has seven plates and six dielectrics, it therefore effectively consists of six capacitors in parallel. Working Voltage ‘The insulating materials forming the dielectric have very few free electrons available to form a current under normal conditions, but if they are subjected to an intense electric field, electrons may be torn from their atoms and current will Now, and “dielectric breakdown” will have taken place:‘The working voltage is the largest voltage (de or peak ac) which can be applied across a capacitor without the dielectric breaking down and is often marked on the capacitor eg, 50V WKG. Ifit is exceeded dielectric breakdown will occur and current will flow Leakage Current No dielectric is perfect, so each dielectric has a few free electrons, therefore when the capacitor is charged, a small leakage current will pass between the plates and for all practical purposes this can be neglected Capacitor Coding Usually only ‘preferred’ values are manufactures similar to resistors. One method, similar to resistor coding, uses the sub-multiple to indicate the position of the decimal) point eg, 2.2nF is shown as 2n2 and 4.7pF as 4p7. In exother method the colour coding similar to the resistor colour code is used with tolerance figures. A further method uses a version of the resistor colour code using numbers, the first two numbers are the first two numbers of the value and the third is the number of 0’s to be added. 101 —® 100pF = 0.1nF 1 0.0001 pF " 333 —% 33000pF = 33nF 0.033pF Tolerances are printed as shown in the resistor colour code. CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR Charging a Capacitor Through a Resistor (CR Circuit) When the switch is closed on the circuit (figure 57) the voltage of the capacitor rises and the current falls. When the switch is closed the current rises immediately to V/R amperes and the capacitor begins to charge up. The capacitor continues to charge and the current keeps falling (since a V-Ve R I amperes) The charging curve is known as an exponential curveVey Ve Ve ~ R a fe 63.2% switch rue R ve__] 1 2 3 4 5 time (in CRs) Fig. 57 CHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR Time Constant The time constant is the time taken for the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the applied voltage, were: T = CR seconds Where Tis in seconds Cis in Farads R is in ohms ‘The capacitor is fully charged in 5 CR seconds. Discharge of a Capacitor Through a Resistor With reference to figure 58 assuming the capacitor is at V volts, when the switch is closed the capacitor voltage and current fails as shown. The current immediately increases to V/R amperes and the capacitor begins to discharge. In CR seconds the capacitor has discharged to 36.8% of the pd across the plates ie, it has fallen by 63.2%) ‘The capacitor is fully discharged in 5 CR seconds. Once again the curve is an exponential curve. 0switch * ae lie 1 2 3 4 8 time (in CR.) Fig. 58 DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR Example: A circuit has a capacitance of 1F and a resistance of 1M with an applied voltage is 100V. Find (a) the time constant (b) the time to fully charge the capacitor. CR seconds (1 x 10°6)x (1 x 105) 1 second (a) time constant wu So this capacitor takes1 second for the voltage to rise to 63.2% of its final value. (b) Time to fully charge = © SCR = 5x (1x10) x (1 x 105) = Seconds Try these for yourself (1) A capacitor of 80pF and a resistance of 2MQ are connected in series across a 100V supply Find (a) the time constant (b} the time to fully charge the capacitor (c) the charge on the capacitorTypes of Capacitor Polyester Two strips of polyester film acting as the dielectric are wound between two strips of aluminium (the plates). Values range from 0.014F to 10uF, and it uses the resistor colour code for value of the capacitor. Good all round properties. Can operate at high voltages ie, a few thousand volts: POLYESTER et FILM INSULATION Ks 2° NUMBER DIELECTRIC i NUMBER OF Os ‘ , roverance—fe) UMS GREEN + 5% WORKING VOLTAGE, WHITE = 10% RED = 250 ALUwINUM FOIL Sscov (capacrtoR PLATES) Fig. 59 POLYESTER CAPACITORS Mica Plates are formed by depositing a silver film on mica or using interleaved sheets of metal foil (aluminium). Stability is high, tolerance is low (+1%). Working voltage is high, leakage current is low. Values range from 0.014F to 10,000pF. Cs) — ica (dielectric) Metal foil Fig. 60 EXAMPLES OF MICA CAPACITORSCeramic ‘These come in many forms eg, disc, rod or plate, shaped with the ceramic as the dielectric. Figure 61 shows a rod type. Small capacitance types range from 1pF to 1nF, with a high working voltage (up to a few thousand volts) Other types may use a ceramic compound (barium titanate) which has a very high dielectric constant so gives a very high capacitance for a small physical size. Stability and tolerance are poor OUTER CERAMIC TUBE SILVERED ELECTRODES CERAMIC ROD Fig. 61 CERAMIC CAPACITOR Electrolytic ‘This is known as a polarised type. The most common type is the aluminium type, which consists of thin sheets of aluminium foil interleaved with a material such as paper saturated with an electrolyte When passed through an electrolytic bath, oxide film forms on one of the aluminium foil sheets, this forms the positive, the oxide film acting as the dielectric, usually the aluminium can act as the negative ‘This gives a very large capacitance for a small physical size (up to 150,000HF). ‘The main disadvantages are wide tolerance, high leakage current, poor stability, and can only be used in circuits where the supply never reverses, (the dc leakage current maintains the oxide layer, reversed polarity will cause the layer to breakdown) It must therefore be connected the correct way in a circuit ~ positive terminal is marked + or by a groove. 53Fig. 62 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS Variable Capacitors (a) Consists of fixed (stators) and movable (rotors) vanes usually made of aluminium. When they move they overlap with each other and change the effective area (A in the equation). (b) They usually have air as the dielectric. {c) Typical range being from 5OpF to S0OpF. Rotors STATORS Fig. 63 VARIABLE CAPACITOR Pre-set Capacitors or Trimmers (a) This is a smaller version of the air dielectric type shown above, but the width of the gap (d in the equation) is usually varied as opposed to the effective area. (b) There are mica compression and variable ceramic types available. (c]_ Typical values from 2pF to SOpF. ica SHEET wera ounres! Fig. 64 PRE-SET OF TRIMMER CAPACITORTesting of Capacitors ‘An analogue multimeter or digital multimeter set to the high resistance range can be used to test a capacitor. a) Non-polarised Types - if the resistance is less than about 1MQ it is allowing current from the battery in the multimeter to ‘pass’ so it is leaking and is faulty. Note - there may be an initial short burst of current as the capacitor charges up. Polarised Types - for the dielectric to form in these types a positive voltage must be applied to the positive side of the capacitor (marked + or a groove). In most analogue multimeters the terminal marked ~ (black) is the positive of the internal battery when selected to the ohms setting. For digital meters the manufacturers instructions will have to be consulted. When the capacitor is first connected to the multimeter its resistance is low but rises as the dielectric forms, otherwise the capacitor is faulty. Capacitors are extensively used in electronic circuits as well as high energy ignition units and strobe light systems. More details in other modules in this series 63 -