Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
www.elsevier.com/locate/jvc
Caspary Research Institute, The Animal Medical Center, 510 East 62nd Street, New York, NY 10065, USA
Received 24 December 2011; received in revised form 3 February 2012; accepted 4 February 2012
KEYWORDS Abstract Mitral valve competence requires complex interplay between structures
Pathology; that comprise the mitral apparatus e the mitral annulus, mitral valve leaflets, chor-
Canine; dae tendineae, papillary muscles, and left atrial and left ventricular myocardium.
Mxyomatous mitral Myxomatous mitral valve degeneration is prevalent in the canine, and most adult
valve dogs develop some degree of mitral valve disease as they age, highlighting the
apparent vulnerability of canine heart valves to injury. Myxomatous valvular remo-
deling is associated with characteristic histopathologic features. Changes include
expansion of extracellular matrix with glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans;
valvular interstitial cell alteration; and attenuation or loss of the collagen-laden fi-
brosa layer. These lead to malformation of the mitral apparatus, biomechanical
dysfunction, and mitral incompetence. Mitral regurgitation is the most common
manifestation of mxyomatous valve disease and in advanced stages, associated
volume overload promotes progressive valvular regurgitation, left atrial and left
ventricular remodeling, atrial tears, chordal rupture, and congestive heart failure.
Future studies are necessary to identify clinical-pathologic correlates that track
disease severity and progression, detect valve dysfunction, and facilitate risk strat-
ification. It remains unresolved whether, or to what extent, the pathobiology of
mxyomatous mitral valve degeneration is the same between breeds of dogs, between
canines and humans, and how these features are related to aging and genetics.
ª 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Structural and functional basis of and mortality in the dog. Frequently used and
descriptive terminology preferred terms to describe this condition empha-
size its degenerative, pathologic features, such as
Chronic, acquired atrioventricular valve disease is “degenerative myxomatous mitral valve disease
the most common cause of cardiac morbidity (MMVD),” “chronic, degenerative valve disease,”
“myxomatous degeneration of the atrioventricular
E-mail address: Philip.fox@amcny.org. valves,” and “endocardiosis.”1e9 The term “mitral
1760-2734/$ - see front matter ª 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvc.2012.02.001
104 P.R. Fox
Epidemiology and natural history Mitral valve competence relies upon the structural
and functional performance of six basic components
The incidence and progression of MMVD is strongly that comprise the mitral valve apparatus: the
associated with age, breed, and gender.1e12,14e25 posterior left atrial wall, mitral valve annulus,
Prevalence of myxomatous valve disease varies mitral valve leaflets, chordae tendineae, left
between breeds, but may occur in more than 90 ventricular papillary muscles, and associated left
percent of small breeds older than 8 years of ventricular wall32e37 (Figs. 1 and 2). This apparatus
age.1,2,10,15,16,25 Younger animals can also be operates through complex interplay, with each
affected, particularly the Cavalier King Charles element acting both independently and synergisti-
spaniel and bull terrier breeds.12, 21e23,26e28 Males cally to maintain valve integrity. Intact mitral valve
may develop MMVD earlier than females.8,25 While chordae tendineae mediate efficient and forceful
myxomatous valve disease is most commonly ventricular contraction and optimize left ventric-
diagnosed in small to medium sized dogs,5,7e10,25 it ular systolic performance, underscoring the impor-
also occurs in large breeds6,8,9,16,23,29 including tance of valvular-ventricular interaction.38e40 The
dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy, where it functional roles of the leaflets and chordae tendi-
develops concomitantly, but is often over- neae are related to their histologic and biochemical
looked.28,30,31 Although etiology of MMVD is unre- composition, which determine the tensile and
solved, a heritable basis was reported in the compressive loads borne by these structures.41
Dachshund10 and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel26 The mitral valve consists of anterior (septal) and
breeds, suggesting a polygenic mode of inheri- posterior (parietal) leaflets. The juncture where
tance. Genetic mechanisms remain to be clarified. they are supported at their hinge points, at the
The left atrioventricular valve is most confluence of the left atrial and left ventricular
commonly affected, but MMVD can involve all wall, is referred to as the mitral annulus (Fig. 2
cardiac valves.1e4,16,25 Myxomatous change has [see also Figs. 4e7]). It is a dynamic structure,
Pathology of canine myxomatous mitral valve disease 105
whose size and shape are both altered during the Figure 2 Sagittal section through the left atrium and
left ventricle of an eight-month-old dog displaying
cardiac cycle42 and are challenging to demon-
normal mitral valve and subvalvular apparatus. Atrial
strate.34,43e46 This discontinuous fibrous ring and ventricular myocardium have been dissected away
consists of a network of elastin, dense collagen to show the structures that support the mitral valve
fibers,4,36,47 and scant cartilage; is thicker in some leaflets and comprise the mitral apparatus. The leaflets
areas than in others; and is part of what has been attach at the junction of atrial and ventricular myocar-
referred to as the cardiac or fibrous skeleton of the dium, denoting the mitral annulus. These normal valve
heart. This annuli fibrosi is variably developed. It leaflets are thin, clear, and translucent and the chordae
contributes support for each atrioventricular valve tendineae are smooth and symmetric. LA, left atrium;
orifice and each arterial ring (the aortic ring is W, left atrial posterior wall: LVPW, left ventricular
more developed than the pulmonic). The fibrous posterior wall; P, papillary muscle. Scale, mm.
skeleton acts to reinforce the myocardium inter-
nally, anchor the valve cusps, prevent excessive
dilation of valvular orifices, serve as a point of fibrous body), is situated at the intersection of the
insertion for atrial and ventricular myocyte atrioventricular membranous septum, mitral and
bundles, and buffer conduction of electrical tricuspid valve annulus, and aortic annulus, and is
impulses between atria and ventricles. 35,36,43,46,47 generally larger than the left trigone. Anatomi-
The fibrous base of the heart lies between the left cally, the anterior mitral valve leaflet extends
and right atrioventricular ostia along the caudal between these trigones and is in fibrous continuity
margin of the aortic root. Here, the anterior mitral with the dorsal aspect of the left and noncoronary
valve annulus is flanked by two major collagenous aortic valve cusps at the aortic root (Figs. 3e5); it
structures which may contain scant cartilage in the also forms part of the left ventricular outflow
dog, and comprise the left and right fibrous trig- tract. This extensive area of fibrous continuity that
ones (Fig. 3). 33,45e47 Ventrally, the left fibrous connects the mitral and aortic valves has been
trigone consists of fibrous tissue at the confluence termed the ‘aortic-mitral curtain. 48 There is no
of the anterior mitral valve-aortic valve juncture, fibrous ring in this location. From the fibrous trig-
located under the left coronary aortic leaflet. The ones, delicate collagenous bundles extend dorsally
right fibrous trigone (which when conjoined with from the endocardium on each side, part way
the membranous septum comprises the central around the mitral orifice.
106 P.R. Fox
Figure 4 Sagittal section at the level left ventricular inflow and outflow tracts from a young adult, mongrel dog. The
left panel shows the aortic root (Ao) enclosing the semilunar valves, comprising the sinus of valsalva. There is
continuity of the anterior mitral valve leaflet (straight white arrow) with the posterior aspect of the aortic root
(straight black arrow). Chordae tendineae have been cut and chordal remnants are apparent on the anterior mitral
leaflet. LA, left atrium. Center panel and right panel are photomicrographs taken from the gross section. Center panel
is stained using Alcian blue with H&E counterstain; right panel is stained with Weigert Van Gieson stain. Curved arrows
indicate left atrial wall myocardium which lies adjacent to, but does not constitute the basal portion of the anterior
mitral valve. In the right panel, the collagen of the fibrosa layer (stained red, white arrow) illustrates the
mitraleaortic continuity. Bars ¼ 2 mm.
mediate efficient ventricular contraction, enhance order chordae can originate from a common, bifur-
left ventricular systolic function by regional cating chorda; 3) third-order chordae arise from the
afterload reduction and preserving ventricular septal wall, insert similarly to second-order chor-
geometry, and enhance left ventricular perfor- dae, or towards the attached border of the valve,
mance. 38,50e52,54e58,60e75 and are uncommon in dogs. Chordae increase in
The mitral chordae tendineae generally branch thickness from the first-order (“marginal”) chordae,
and are of variable thickness. A number of different to those that are more centrally placed.70
terms have been reported to classify chordae ten- Each mitral leaflet receives chordae tendineae
dineae according to their insertion sites on mitral from both the anterior and posterior papillary
valve leaflets51,64e68 (Fig. 1 [see also Figs. 2, 5, and muscles. In a study of normal dogs weighing
7e11]): 1) first-order (“primary,” “marginal”) 12e64 kg, there was no significant difference
chordae are thin, arise from the papillary muscle, between the number of chordae tendineae origi-
insert on the free edges of the leaflets, and are most nating from the anterior and posterior papillary
common (some authors have designated first-order muscles, and the number of chordal branches from
[“marginal”] chordae that insert into the free each papillary muscle. On average, two to five
margin of the commissural regions, as “commis- branches originated from each chorda tendinae.
sural” chordae65); 2) second-order (“secondary,” However, a significantly higher number of chordae
“basal,” “principal,” “stay,” “ventricular,” or (predominantly second-order chordae) were
“strut”) chordae arise from the papillary muscle, attached to the anterior mitral valve leaflet.63
are generally larger than first-order chordae, and Different functional roles have been proposed for
insert just beyond on the undersurface (ventricular first- and second-order chordae tendineae.65,66
aspect) of valve leaflets, typically near the junction
of the smooth and rough zone. Both first and second-
(posterior) papillary muscle originates from the with smaller quantities of collagen I, III, and VI.
apical region of the posterior wall, near the sub- The spongiosa contains moderate quantity of
sinuosal interventricular groove47, and both collagen VI and a smaller proportion of collagen I,
usually avoid the interventricular wall. Papillary III, laminin, and fibronectin. The fibrosa is
muscle bellies may be single and undivided, or composed predominately of collagen I, III, and VI
divided into one to three segments at their apex or with small amounts of collagen IV and fibronectin.
base.63 Papillary muscle dynamics may play a role The ventricularis contains small quantities of
to facilitate leaflet apposition.74 Shortening of the collagen I and III.
papillary muscle throughout left ventricular iso- The functional roles of the leaflets and chordae
volumic relaxation may contribute to mitral valve are related to their morphology, tissue mechanical
opening, while elongation of the papillary muscle properties, and the make-up and distribution of
during late diastole permits closure of the mitral these constituents.81,82 The closed mitral valve
valve leaflets.75 experiences both tensile and compressive loads.
Through their collagenous attachments, the
central, flat region of the anterior leaflet and the
Histomorphologic features chordae maintain tension. In contrast, the free
edge of the anterior mitral valve leaflet and the
The mitral valve posterior leaflet contain relatively less collagen,
have a thicker spongiosa layer, and undergo
Leaflets are heterogeneous, laminated, structures compressive forces.41,81,82 The central chorda
composed of four distinct layers (Fig. 6). These are tendinae region has higher elastic properties than
most prominent at their mid-portion. 4,15,24,36,78,79 the free edge of the anterior mitral valve leaflet
From the atrial to ventricular aspect, the atrialis and posterior valve leaflet. 83e85 Collagen fibers
comprises a thin layer of endothelial cells sup- are oriented towards the main loading forces in
ported by scattered collagen fibers, elastic fibers, the chordae86 and central portion of the anterior
fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells; the spon- mitral leaflet,84 while fibers are less aligned in the
giosa, a layer rich in proteoglycans and glycos- free edge of the anterior mitral valve leaflet and
aminoglycans, extends from the annulus to the posterior leaflet.82
free edge of the leaflet, contains ground substance Cardiac muscle extends from the left atrial wall
embedding a loose collection of collagen, elastic into the atrioventricular valve leaflet and is inti-
fibers, fibroblasts, and Anichkov’s cells. The mately associated with the connective tissue
spongiosa of the proximal third of the anterior skeleton. Conceptually, the anterior mitral leaflet
leaflet contains adipose cells; the fibrosa is a dense can be subdivided into thirds based upon the
layer of compact collagen bundles with scattered degree that striated muscle spreads into the
fibroblasts that continues with the annulus proxi- valve.4,36 Myocytes are oriented along the long axis
mally, and central core of chordae tendineae of the leaflet, and small nerves and vessels are
distally; and the ventricularis, a thin layer similar present below endothelial cells in the basal third
to the atrialis but without smooth muscle cells. of the mitral valve, intermingled between the
Elastic fibers occur throughout the valve leaflets atrialis and spongiosa. The mid-third of the leaflet
and particularly, the sub-atrialis layer; collagenous contains relatively fewer myocytes which become
fibers have diameters ranging from 350 e 550 Å, increasingly separated as they course distally, and
while delicate, thinner fibers are present in ground the spongiosa layer appears as muscle fibers are
substance of the extracellular matrix.80 The lost. The distal third of the leaflet contains no
endothelial covering of the ventricular aspect of myocytes. The posterior mitral valve leaflet also
the mitral valve leaflet is continuous with that contains myocytes but these end abruptly at the
covering of chordae tendineae. The fibrous mid-valve region. This trait of myocyte distribution
valvular layer is continuous with the fibrous provides the basis for characterizing the posterior
cardiac skeleton. leaflet into a proximal and distal portion, the
Immunohistochemical features of the normal latter representing the segment devoid of myo-
canine mitral valve leaflet have been reported.24 cytes.4,24,36,87,88 Myocardial fibers located on the
The subendothelial basement membrane is atrial side of the mitral valve might influence the
comprised of moderate amounts of laminin and three-dimensional shape and dynamic geometry of
fibronectin, small amounts of collagen I, III, IV, and the mitral area and the anterior mitral valve.
VI, and heparin sulphate, and is generally thicker Thus, it is possible that anterior mitral valve
on the atrial aspect compared with the ventricular leaflet muscle contributes to valve closure and
side. The atrialis is comprised primarily of elastin competency.89
112 P.R. Fox
system.93 They have been described in the anterior subendocardium and in the myocardium.96
mitral valve leaflet to extend from the free margin Lymphatic capillaries at the base of the chordae
to the annulus, and as delicate lymphatic capillary tendineae appear flattened in cross section, and
networks that extend in the subendocardium of from the sides project thorn-like branchlets
the atrial side of the valves. There is marked comprised of a single endothelial cell with
variability in intravalvular distribution between apposing marginal zones. Straight lymphatic
lymphatic capillaries and small blood vessels.94 capillaries terminate blindly at their end, appear-
Ultrastructural characteristics of lymphatic capil- ing as a single endothelial cell whose ultrastruc-
laries include interstitial spaces lined by irregular, ture resembles the spiny branchlets.
occasionally fenestrated endothelium, absence of Innervation has been recognized as an impor-
basal membrane, and absence of erythrocytes tant feature of mitral valve function in several
within the lumen.92 A relatively dense concentra- species. In dogs4,36,88 nerve fibers, mostly sympa-
tion of lymphatics also occur in the region of the thetic, occur prominently in the proximal zone of
papillary muscles. It has been suggested that these mitral valve leaflets, less commonly in the middle
channels may play a role in the development of of the valve, and are absent in the distal valve and
pathologic changes affecting the mitral valve chordae tendineae. In the proximal valve region,
apparatus and result in valve dysfunction.95 In large nerve fiber bundles course along the longi-
human papillary muscles lymphatic networks are tudinal axis of the leaflet and nerve trunks can
present in superficial and deep layers of the travel perpendicular to the long axis. Here, they
Figure 13 Sagittal section which has passed through the entire left heart, proximal ascending aorta, ventricular
septum, right ventricle, and portion of the right auricle, from a 14 year old, male, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel dog
with severe MMVD (Whitney type IV pathology). This plane corresponds to the right parasternal, long axis inflow-
outflow tomographic view that would be obtained by 2-dimensional echocardiography. Left panel illustrates the six
components of the mitral apparatus: the posterior left atrial wall (W), mitral valve leaflets (MV), mitral valve annulus
(white arrows illustrate the location of the annulus at the juncture where the mitral valve leaflets are supported at
their hinge points at the confluence of the left atrial and left ventricular posterior wall [LVPW]), chordae tendineae
(CT), papillary muscle (P), and associated LVPW. Scale, mm. Right panel is a subgross photograph of the corresponding
section. The direction of blood flow is indicated as follows: a downward pointing arrow illustrates inflow from the left
atrium (LA) into the left ventricle, and an arrow obliquely directed towards the 11:00 o’clock position illustrates the
direction of blood flowing from the left ventricular chamber, through the left ventricular outflow tract, into the aorta
(Ao). The short black arrow points to the fibrous connection between the anterior mitral valve leaflet and the aortic
root, where there is no discreet mitral annulus. A component of the tricuspid valve is evident just above the right
ventricle (RV). IVS, interventricular septum. Masson trichrome stain.
114 P.R. Fox
lie in association with myocytes in the spongiosa, between papillary muscle displacement on func-
where nerve branches innervate muscle bundles tional mitral regurgitation have shown that
within epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium. inducing apical posterolateral papillary muscle
Sparse nerve fibers may extend beyond the region displacement (simulating left ventricular dilation),
of cardiac myocytes, but have not been identified increased mitral regurgitation markedly, when the
at the free edge or distal portion of the valve, or in annulus was enlarged 1.75 times the normal size. 65
the chordae.
Gross features
Pathology of the mitral valve apparatus
associated with chronic myxomatous Mitral valve leaflets
degeneration
The severity and extent of MMVD lesions are age
Each component of the mitral valve apparatus plays dependent and vary widely.1e6,8,9,11,15,17e23,25,
26e29, 36,78,79,88,97e101
both independent and synergistic roles, contrib- There is substantial patho-
uting complex functions that maintain valve logic heterogeneity within affected valve leaflets,
competency. Pathologic changes that alter this particularly with mild to moderate degrees of
apparatus restrain valve mechanics, affect fluid myxomatous degeneration, while advanced changes
dynamics, and promote valvular insufficiency. result in diffuse valvular thickening and distortion.
32,65,66,73
Also important amongst these factors are Early valvular changes are most evident along
the tethering and coapting forces acting on mitral leaflet edges at the juncture of leaflet apposition,
valve leaflets, as well as forces that affect annular particularly where first-order (“marginal”) chordae
size, papillary muscle position, and trans-valvular attach. Myxomatous degeneration transforms
pressure. Annular dilation is a major determinant normal thin, translucent leaflets (Figs. 1, 2, and 4)
of mitral regurgitation. In vitro models designed to into opaque structures that become thickened in
investigate the pathophysiologic interaction their distal third, progressing to diffuse valve
Figure 14 Photomicrograph of the distal posterior mitral valve leaflet from a 12 year old, male, Maltese dog with
severe myxomatous valve disease (Whitney stage IV pathology), illustrating the most prominent structural features of
this condition- increased thickness of the spongiosa from glycosaminoglycan and proteoglycan deposition, and
degeneration of the fibrosa. Left frame (H & E; Bar ¼ 1 mm) and right frame (Masson trichrome; bar ¼ 1 mm) reveal
total loss of the leaflet’s normal layered arrangement. Collagen bundles in the fibrosa have undergone disintegration.
Only scattered remnants remain which are variably displaced throughout the thickened valve stroma, forming swirls
throughout the leaflet. These changes contribute to the gross appearance of increased opacities in the leaflet, and
focal nodular thickening in the leaflet edge. A large, second-order chorda tendinae associated with this leaflet
appears on the left side of the left frame. Center frame is higher magnification taken from the area of interest within
the box of the left frame. Markedly increased glycosaminoglycan deposition transforms the spongiosa into a relatively
granular appearing stroma, which contains stellate and spindle-shaped cells, and scant mononuclear infiltration
within the increased mxyomatous content. H & E; Bar ¼ 500 mm).
Pathology of canine myxomatous mitral valve disease 115
Figure 16 Photomicrographs from a sagittal section through the left atrium and left ventricle of a 15 year old,
neutered male, miniature schnauzer dog with severe MMVD (Whitney stage IV pathology). Images illustrate severe
mxyomatous degenerative changes in the posterior mitral valve leaflet and chorda tendinae. The top three frames are
stained with Alcian blue which stains glycosaminoglycans and acid mucopolysaccharides blue. It is counterstained
with H&E which colors nuclei black and cytoplasm with pink or red shades. The bottom three frames are stained with
Weigert Van Gieson designed to show collagen as pink-red, and muscle, cytoplasm, RBC and fibrin as gold to light
orange. Left upper and lower frames show a severely myxomatous posterior mitral leaflet whose distal segment is
grossly thickened and rounded (arrow). Jet lesions are present on the endocardial left atrial surface between the two
horizontal arrows on the lower left frame. These appear grossly as elevated, roughened, whitish-grey, fibrotic
surfaces that result from high velocity, turbulent, jets of mitral regurgitation that strike the endocardium.
Bars ¼ 2 mm. Middle upper and lower frames highlight the thickened and distorted distal mitral leaflet. They show
widespread deposition of glycosaminoglycan and acid mucopolysaccharides distending the fibrosa layer, and illustrate
loss of the fibrosa layer. Box identifies areas of higher magnification for the upper and lower right frames.
Bar ¼ 350 mm. Right upper and lower frames show an expanded, mxyomatous, relatively acellular region containing
fragmented and displaced collagen fibers and scattered, large, spindle-shaped stromal cells. Bar ¼ 40 mm.
Pathology of canine myxomatous mitral valve disease 117
Figure 17 Photomicrographs from same dog as Fig. 16 illustrating of a portion of the posterior mitral apparatus
stained with Weigert Van Gieson (collagen stains pink-red; muscle, cytoplasm, RBC and fibrin stains light orange).
Upper Left Frame. The posterior mitral valve hinge point attaches at the junction of the left atrial posterior wall
(LAPW) and left ventricular posterior wall (LVPW). The distal segment of the valve is grossly thickened, distorted, and
rounded. A jet lesion on the atrial endocardial wall appears as a long, irregularly thickened, fibrotic lesion. The box of
interest contains the mid-portion of the leaflet and a chorda tendinae that is magnified in the upper right frame.
Box ¼ 2 mm. Upper Right Frame. Myxomatous changes are evident and include light, fine, disrupted collagen strands
within an expanded extracellular matrix. The circle encompasses the proximal chorda at its attachment to the leaflet
edge. The chorda is distended, tapers abruptly, and is portrayed in higher magnification below, right. Bar ¼ 2 mm.
Lower Right Frame. Diffuse, mxyomatous degeneration and remodeling is present. The box of interest encloses
a section portrayed at higher magnification to the lower left. Lower Left Frame. Collagen bundles are disrupted,
loosely arranged, and contain many thin, attenuated fibers within an expanded, mxyomatous extracellular matrix.
Compare these changes with relatively normal histologic appearance in Fig. 10.
118 P.R. Fox
121
122 P.R. Fox
Figure 22 Sagittal section from an 8 year old, female, mongrel dog with severe MMVD that conforms to a left
parasternal five chamber tomographic view as would be imaged by 2-dimensional echocardiography. A. Mitral valve
leaflets are severely thickened and deformed (Whitney type IV pathology). There is an extensive, obliquely oriented,
partial thickness, left atrial tear measuring approximately 4 cm in length. Box denotes region of interest for frame B.
LA, left atrium; LV, left ventricle; AV, aortic valve. Scale, mm. B. Photomicrograph showing LA posterior wall (LA) and
LV posterior wall (LVPW), and portion of the posterior mitral valve leaflet (arrow). Black box encompasses the upper
two-thirds of the left atrial tear and represents the area of interest for frame C. Alcian blue with H&E counterstain;
Bar ¼ 2 mm. C. The left atrial myocardial tear is extensive, nearly transmural, and measures 150 mm at its narrowest
thickness within the box. Alcian blue and H&E counterstain Bar ¼ 1 mm. D. Section of LA wall along the myo-
cardialeepicardial junction. Cardiomyocytes are separated by hemorrhage and edema, with myodegeneration and
necrosis. Hemorrhage is present between adipocytes. Alcian blue with H&E counterstain. Bar ¼ 50 mm. E. Section of
myocardium taken just below the region of the black box in frame C, displaying various stages of myocardiocyte
degeneration and necrosis. There is mild and focal hemorrhage. Alcian blue with H&E counterstain. Bar ¼ 100 mm. F
and G are photomicrographs of the same section outlined by the box in Frame A. Bars ¼ 2 mm. F. Arrows illustrate the
width of the atrial tear at this level which varied between 2.2 and 2.4 mm wide. Masson trichrome stain (collagen
stains light blue). Bar ¼ 2 mm. G, H, I and J are Weigert Van Gieson stain (collagen stains pink-red; muscle, cytoplasm,
RBC and fibrin stains light orange). A jet lesion appears as an irregularly thickened fibrotic region above the atrial rent
(Frames F, G, H and I). Endocardial fibrosis is present and is seen to extend to the upper and lower margins of the atrial
tear. I. Box of interest contains region of endocardium and myocardium towards the basal aspect of the LA caudal
wall, shown in higher magnification in frame J. Bar ¼ 2 mm. J. Endocardial thickening (Endo) is present. There is also
an extensive band of subendocardial repair comprising replacement fibrosis (stains red-pink), myocyte necrosis, and
scattered adipocytes. Bar ¼ 200 mm.
septal defects are an uncommon, sequel to atrial Myxomatous mitral valve degeneration is prevalent
septal rupture in dogs with MMVD.118 in the canine and by ten to twelve years of age, most
dogs have acquired some degree of mitral valve
disease. Clearly, canine heart valves are prone to
Conclusions injury. The gross pathologic features are associated
with histological remodeling that is characterized
The functional competence of the mitral valve relies by expansion of the extracellular matrix with
intimately upon effective interaction of the mitral glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans; alterations in
apparatus, whose components include the mitral valvular interstitial cells; attenuation or loss of the
annulus and leaflets, the subvalvular apparatus, and collagen-laden fibrosa layer; and other
left atrial and left ventricular myocardium.32e35 changes.19,24,36,102,119 Such alterations lead to
Pathology of canine myxomatous mitral valve disease 123
mitral valve/mitral apparatus malformation and presentation and therapy. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim
biomechanical dysfunction.120,121 Pract 2010;40:651e663.
10. Olsen LH, Fredholm M, Pedersen HD. Epidemiology and
Mitral regurgitation is the most common mani- inheritance of mitral valve prolapse in Dachshunds. J Vet
festation of mxyomatous valve disease. Accord- Intern Med 1999;13:448e456.
ingly, there is need for better quantitative 11. Pedersen HD, Haggstrom J. Mitral valve prolapse in the
echoDoppler methods to assess severity of mitral dog: a model of mitral valve prolapse in man. Cardiovasc
regurgitation; for more accurate characterization Res 2000;47:234e243.
12. Pedersen HD, Lorentzen KA, Kristensen BO. Echocardio-
of pathology-verified imaging features; and to graphic mitral valve prolapse in cavalier King Charles
understand how to recognize pathologic changes spaniels: epidemiology and prognostic significance for
that influence mitral dysfunction, characterize regurgitation. Vet Rec 1999;144:315e320.
disease severity, and stratify risk. It remains 13. Shah PM. Current concepts in mitral valve prolapse e
unresolved whether, or to what extent, the diagnosis and management. J Cardiol 2010;56:125e133.
14. Egenvall A, Bonnett BN, Olson P, Hedhammar A. Gender,
underlying pathologic process in MMVD is the same age, breed and distribution of morbidity and mortality in
between breeds of dogs, between canines and insured dogs in Sweden during 1995 and 1996. Vet Rec
humans, and how these features are related to 2000;146:519e525.
aging and genetic factors. Advances in under- 15. Whitney JC. Observation on the effect of age on the
standing valve cell/matrix and molecular biology, severity of heart valve lesions in the dog. J Small Anim
Pract 1974;15:511e522.
signaling transduction pathways, and gene activa- 16. Borgarelli M, Savarino P, Crosara S, Santilli RA,
tion sequences are essential in order to charac- Chiavegato D, Poggi M, Bellino C, La Rosa G, Zanatta R,
terize the fundamental pathobiology- and to Haggstrom J, Tarducci A. Survival characteristics and
develop effective diagnostic and therapeutic prognostic variables of dogs with mitral regurgitation
strategies for valve disease.120e123 attributable to myxomatous valve disease. J Vet Intern
Med 2008;22:120e128.
17. Han RI, Black A, Culshaw G, French AT, Corcoran BM.
Structural and cellular changes in canine myxomatous
Conflict of interest statement mitral valve disease: an image analysis study. J Heart
Valve Dis 2010;19:60e70.
18. Hadian M, Corcoran BM, Han RI, Grossmann JG,
The author has no conflicts of interest. Bradshaw JP. Collagen organization in canine myxomatous
mitral valve disease: an x-ray diffraction study. Biophys J
2007;93:2472e2476.
References 19. Black A, French AT, Dukes-McEwan J, Corcoran BM.
Ultrastructural morphologic evaluation of the phenotype
of valvular interstitial cells in dogs with myxomatous
1. Detweiler DK, Luginbühl H, Buchanan JW, Patterson DF. degeneration of the mitral valve. Am J Vet Res 2005;66:
The natural history of acquired cardiac disability of the 1408e1414.
dog. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1968;147:318e329. 20. Han RI, Black A, Culshaw GJ, French AT, Else RW,
2. Detweiler DK, Patterson DF. The prevalence and types of Corcoran BM. Distribution of myofibroblasts, smooth
cardiovascular disease in dogs. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1965;127: muscle-like cells, macrophages, and mast cells in mitral
481e586. valve leaflets of dogs with myxomatous mitral valve
3. Das KM, Tashjian RJ. Chronic mitral valve disease in the disease. Am J Vet Res 2008;69:763e769.
dog. Vet Med Small Anim Clin 1965;60:1209e1216. 21. Darke PGG. Valvular incompetence in cavalier King Charles
4. Buchanan JW. Chronic valvular disease (endocardiosis) in spaniels. Vet Rec 1987;120:365e366.
dogs. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 1977;21:75e106. 22. Beardow AW, Buchanan JW. Chronic mitral valve disease in
5. Buchanan JW. Prevalence of cardiovascular disorders. In: Cavalier King Charles Spaniels: 95 cases (1987-1991). J Am
Fox PR, Sisson D, Moise NS, editors. Textbook of canine and Vet Med Assoc 1993;203:1023e1029.
feline cardiology. Principles and clinical practice. 2nd ed. 23. Borgarelli M, Zini E, D’Agnolo G, Tarducci A, Santilli RA,
Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999. p. 455e478. Chiavegato D, Tursi M, Prunotto M, Häggström J.
6. Høier Olsen L, Häggström J, Petersen HD. Acquired valvular Comparison of primary mitral valve disease in German
heart disease. In: Ettinger SJ, Feldman EC, editors. 7th ed., Shepherd dogs and is small breeds. J Vet Cardiol 2004;6:
Textbook of veterinary internal medicine, vol. 2 St Luis: 27e34.
Saunders Elsevier; 2011. 1299e1219. 24. Aupperle H, März I, Thielebein J, Kiefer B, Kappe A,
7. Haggstrom J, Hoglund H, Borgarelli M. An update on treat- Schoon HA. Immunonhistochemical characterization of the
ment and prognostic indicators in canine myxomatous mitral extracellular matrix in normal mitral valves and in chronic
valve disease. J Small Anim Pract 2009;50(Suppl. 1):25e33. valve disease (endocardiosis) in dogs. Res Vet Sci 2009;87:
8. Sisson D, Kvart C, Darke P. Acquired valvular heart disease 277e283.
in dogs and cats. In: Fox PR, Sisson D, Moise NS, editors. 25. Olsen LH, Martinussen T, Pedersen HD. Early echocardio-
Textbook of canine and feline cardiology. Principles and graphic predictors of myxomatous mitral valve disease in
clinical practice. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999. Dachshunds. Vet Rec 2003;152:293e297.
p. 536e565. 26. Swenson L, Häggström J, Kvart C, Juneja RK. Relationship
9. Borgarelli M, Haggstrom J. Canine degenerative myxoma- between parental cardiac status in Cavalier King Charles
tous mitral valve disease: natural history, clinical Spaniels and prevalence and severity of chronic valvular
124 P.R. Fox
disease in offspring. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1996;208: 45. Schneider RJ, Perrin DP, Vasilyev NV, Marx GR, del Nido PJ,
2009e2012. Howe RD. Mitral annulus segmentation from 3D ultrasound
27. Häggström J, Hansson K, Kvart C, Swenson L. Chronic using graph cuts. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 2010;29:
valvular disease in the cavalier King Charles Spaniel in 1676e1687.
Sweden. Vet Rec 1992;131:549e553. 46. Fann JI, Ingles NB, Miller DC. Pathophysiology of mitral
28. O’Leary CA, Wilkie I. Cardiac valvular and vascular disease valve disease. In: Cohn LH, editor. Cardiac surgery in the
in Bull Terriers. Vet Pathol 2009;46:1149e1155. adult. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2008. p. 973e1012.
29. Borgarelli M, Tarducci A, Zanatta R, Haggstrom J. 47. Evans HE. Miller’s anatomy of the dog. 3rd ed. Phila-
Decreased systolic function and inadequate hypertrophy in delphia: WB Saunders; 1993. p. 592e597.
large and small breed dogs with chronic mitral valve 48. Kumar N, Kumar M, Duran CM. A revised terminology for
insufficiency. J Vet Intern Med 2007;21:61e67. recording surgical findings of the mitral valve. J Heart
30. Basso C, Fox PR, Meurs KM, Towbin JA, Spier AW, Valve Dis 1995;4:70e75.
Calabrese F, Maron BJ, Thiene G. Arrhythmogenic right 49. Glasson JR, Komeda M, Daughters 2nd GT, Bolger AF,
ventricular cardiomyopathy causing sudden cardiac death MacIsaac A, Oesterle SN, Ingels Jr NB, Miller DC. Three-
in boxer dogs: a new animal model of human disease. dimensional dynamics of the canine mitral annulus during
Circulation 2004;109:1180e1185. ischemic mitral regurgitation. Ann Thorac Surg 1996;62:
31. Hazlett MJ, Maxie MG, Allen DG, Wilcock BP. A retro- 1059e1068.
spective study of heart disease in Doberman pinscher dogs. 50. Levine RA, Handschumacher MD, Sanfilippo AJ, Hagege AA,
Can Vet J 1983;24:205e210. Harrigan P, Marshall JE, Weyman AE. Three-dimensional
32. Perloff JK, Roberts WK. The mitral apparatus. Functional echocardiographic reconstruction of the mitral valve, with
anatomy of mitral regurgitation. Circulation 1972;46: implications for the diagnosis of mitral valve prolapse.
227e239. Circulation 1989;80:589e598.
33. Tsakiris AG, Von Bernuth G, Rastelli GC, Bourgeois MJ, 51. Rodriguez F, Langer F, Harrington KB, Tibayan FA,
Titus JL, Wood EH. Size and motion of the mitral valve Zasio MK, Cheng A, Liang D, Daughters GT, Covell JW,
annulus in anesthetized intact dogs. J Appl Physiol 1971; Criscione JC, Ingels NB, Miller DC. Importance of mitral
30:611e618. valve second-order chordae for left ventricular geometry,
34. van Gils FA. The fibrous skeleton in the human heart: wall thickening mechanics, and global systolic function.
embryological and pathogenetic considerations. Virchows Circulation 2004;110(11 Suppl. 1):115e122.
Arch A Pathol Anat Histol 1981;393:61e73. 52. Tsakiris AG, Sturm RE, Wood EH. Experimental studies on
35. Silverman ME, Hurst JW. The mitral complex: interaction the mechanisms of closure of cardiac valves with use of
of the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the mitral roentgen videodensitometry. Am J Cardiol 1973;32:
annulus, mitral valve leaflets, chordae tendineae, and 136e143.
papillary muscles. Am Heart J 1968;76:399e418. 53. Ross Jr J, Sonnenblick EH, Covell JW, Kaiser G, Spiro D.
36. Fenoglio Jr JJ, -Pham Tuan-Duc, Wit AL, Bassett AL, The architecture of the heart in systole and diastole.
Wagner BM. Canine mitral complex: ultrastructure and Technique of rapid fixation and analysis of left ventricular
electromechanical properties. Circ Res 1972;31:417e430. geometry. Circ Res 1967;21:409e421.
37. Dasi LP, Sucosky P, de Zelicourt D, Sundareswaran K, 54. Tsakiris AG, Gordon DA, Padiyar R, Fréchette D,
Jimenez J, Yoganathan AP. Advances in cardiovascular Labrosse C. The role of displacement of the mitral annulus
fluid mechanics: bench to bedside. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; in left atrial filling and emptying in the intact dog. Can J
1161:1e25. Physiol Pharmacol 1978;56:447e457.
38. Frater RWM, Ellis Jr FH. The anatomy of the canine mitral 55. Grewal J, Suri R, Mankad S, Tanaka A, Mahoney DW,
valve: with notes on function and comparisons with other Schaff HV, Miller FA, Enriquez-Sarano M. Mitral annular
mammalian mitral valves. J Surg Res 1961;1:171e179. dynamics in myxomatous valve disease: new insights with
39. Sarris GE, Miller DC. Valvulareventricular interaction: the real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography. Circulation
importance of the mitral chordae tendineae in terms of 2010;121:1423e1431.
global left ventricular systolic function. J Card Surg 1988; 56. Levine RA, Vlahakes GJ, Lefebvre X, Guerrero JL,
3:215e234. Cape EG, Yoganathan AP, Weyman AE. Papillary muscle
40. Hansen DE, Cahill PD, Derby GC, Miller DC. Relative displacement causes systolic anterior motion of the
contributions of the anterior and posterior mitral chordae mitral valve. Experimental validation and insights into
tendineae to canine global left ventricular systolic func- the mechanism of subaortic obstruction. Circulation
tion. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1987;93:45e55. 1995;91:1189e1195.
41. Grande-Allen KJ, Calabro A, Gupta V, Wight TN, 57. Yellin EL, Peskin C, Yoran C, Koenigsberg M, Matsumoto M,
Hascall VC, Vesely I. Glycosaminoglycans and proteogly- Laniado S, McQueen D, Shore D, Frater RW. Mechanisms of
cans in normal mitral valve leaflets and chordae: associa- mitral valve motion during diastole. Am J Physiol 1981;
tion with regions of tensile and compressive loading. 241:H389eH400.
Glycobiology 2004;14:621e633. 58. Yun KL, Niczyporuk MA, Sarris GE, Fann JI, Miller DC.
42. Glasson JR, Komeda MK, Daughters GT, Niczyporuk MA, Importance of mitral subvalvular apparatus in terms of
Bolger AF, Ingels NB, Miller DC. Three-dimensional regional cardiac energetics and systolic mechanics in the ejecting
dynamics of the normal mitral annulus during left canine heart. J Clin Invest 1991;87:247e254.
ventricular ejection. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;111: 59. Hutchins GM, Moore GW, Skoog DK. The association of
574e585. floppy mitral valve with disjunction of the mitral annulus
43. Anderson RH, Wilcox BR. The anatomy of the mitral valve. fibrosus. N Engl J Med 1986;314:535e540.
In: Wells FC, Shapiro LM, editors. Mitral valve disease. 60. Oe M, Asou T, Kawachi Y, Kishizaki K, Fukamachi K,
Oxford, England: ButterwortheHeinemann; 1996. p. 4. Sunagawa K, Tokunaga K. Effects of preserving mitral
44. Berdais D, Zund G, Camenisch C, Schurr U, Turina MI, apparatus on ventricular systolic function in mitral valve
Genoni M. Annulus fibrosus of the mitral valve: reality or operations in dogs. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993;106:
myth. J Card Surg 2007;22:406e409. 1138e1146.
Pathology of canine myxomatous mitral valve disease 125
61. Clark RE. Anatomic considerations in canine mitral valve 79. Corcoran BM, Black A, Anderson H, McEwan JD, French A,
replacement. Am J Vet Res 1972;33:631e633. Smith P, Devine C. Identification of surface morphologic
62. Shimakura T, Ishihara S, Kawazoe K, Hashimoto A. changes in the mitral valve leaflets and chordae tendineae
Anatomic features in mitral insufficiency and morphology of dogs with myxomatous degeneration. Am J Vet Res
of the normal mitral valve. Jap J Thoracic Surgery 1978;31: 2004;65:198e206.
331e338. 80. Ernst VE, Drommer W, Schneider P, Trautwein G. Ele-
63. Borgarelli M, Tursi M, Rosa GL, Savarino P, Galloni M. Anatomic, tronenmikroskopische untersuchungen zur normalstruktur
histologic, and two-dimensional-echocardiographic evalua- der atrioventrikularklappen des hundes. Anat Anz 1973;
tion of mitral valve anatomy in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2011;72: 134:309e326.
1186e1192. 81. Stevanella M, Krishnamurthy G, Votta E, Swanson JC,
64. Lam HC, Ranganathan N, Wigle ED, Silver MD. Morphology Redaelli A, Ingels Jr NB. Mitral leaflet modeling: Impor-
of the human mitral valve, I: chordae tendineae: a new tance of in vivo shape and material properties. J Biomech
classification. Circulation 1970;41:449e458. 2011;44:2229e2235.
65. Obadia JF, Casali C, Chassignolle JF, Janier M. Mitral sub- 82. Kunzelman KS, Cochran RP, Chuong C, Ring WS, Verrier ED,
valvular apparatus: different functions of primary and Eberhart RD. Finite element analysis of the mitral valve.
secondary chordae. Circulation 1997;96:3124e3128. J Heart Valve Dis 1993;2:326e340.
66. Nielsen SL, Timek TA, Green GR, Dagum P, Daughters GT, 83. Clark RE. Stress-strain characteristics of fresh and frozen
Hasenkam JM, Bolger AF, Ingels NB, Miller DC. Influence of human aortic and mitral leaflets and chordae tendineae.
anterior mitral leaflet second-order chordae tendineae on Implications for clinical use. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg
left ventricular systolic function. Circulation 2003;108: 1973;66:202e208.
486e491. 84. Kunzelman KS, Cochran RP. Stress/strain characteristics of
67. Lomholt M, Nielsen SL, Hansen SB, Andersen NT, porcine mitral valve tissue: parallel versus perpendicular
Hasenkam JM. Differential tension between secondary and collagen orientation. J Card Surg 1992;7:71e78.
primary mitral chordae in an acute in-vivo porcine model. 85. May-Newman K, Yin FC. Biaxial mechanical behavior of
J Heart Valve Dis 2002;11:337e345. excised porcine mitral valve leaflets. Am J Physiol 1995;
68. Kunzelman KS, Cochran RP. Mechanical properties of basal 269(4 Pt 2):H1319eH1327.
and marginal mitral valve chordae tendineae. ASAIO Trans 86. Millington-Sanders C, Meir A, Lawrence L, Stolinski C.
1990;36:M405eM408. Structure of chordae tendineae in the left ventricle of the
69. Poglajen G, Harlander M, Gersak B. Ex vivo study of altered human heart. J Anat 1998;192(Pt 4):573e581.
mitral apparatus geometry in functional mitral regurgita- 87. Rossi MA, Abreu MA, Santoro LB. Images in cardiovascular
tion. Heart Surg Forum 2010;13:E172eE176. medicine. Connective tissue skeleton of the human heart:
70. Nazari S, Carli F, Salvi S, Banfi C, Aluffi A, Mourad Z, a demonstration by cell-maceration scanning electron
Buniva P, Rescigno G. Patterns of systolic stress distribu- microscope method. Circulation 1998;97:934e935.
tion on mitral valve anterior leaflet chordal apparatus. A 88. Culshaw GJ, French AT, Han RI, Black A, Pearson GT,
structural mechanical theoretical analysis. J Cardiovasc Corcoran BM. Evaluation of innervation of the mitral valves
Surg (Torino) 2000;41:193e202. and the effects of myxomatous degeneration in dogs. Am J
71. Silbiger JJ, Bazaz R. Contemporary insights into the Vet Res 2010;71:194e202.
functional anatomy of the mitral valve. Am Heart J 2009; 89. Timek TA, Lai DT, Dagum P, Tibayan F, Daughters GT,
158:887e895. Liang D, Berry GJ, Miller DC, Ingels Jr NB. Ablation of
72. He S, Lemmon Jr JD, Weston MW, Jensen MO, Levine RA, mitral annular and leaflet muscle: effects on annular and
Yoganathan AP. Mitral valve compensation for annular leaflet dynamics. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2003;
dilatation: in vitro study into the mechanisms of functional 285(4):H1668eH1674.
mitral regurgitation with an adjustable annulus model. 90. Gumusalan Y, Ozbag D, Ozden H, Saruhan BG, Demirant A.
J Heart Valve Dis 1999;8:294e302. The comparative investigation of left ventricle papillary
73. David PE. Papillary muscle-annular continuity: is it muscle arteries in different species. Saudi Med J 2006;27:
important? J Card Surg 1994;9:252e254. 826e832.
74. Karas Jr S, Elkins R. Mechanism of function of the 91. Ritchie J, Warnock JN, Yoganathan AP. Structural charac-
mitral valve leaflets, chordae tendineae and left terization of the chordae tendineae in native porcine
ventricular papillary muscles in dogs. Circ Res 1970;26: mitral valves. Ann Thorac Surg 2005;80:189e197.
689e696. 92. Ullal SR, Kluge TH, Kerth WJ, Gerbode F. Anatomical
75. Grimm AF, Lendrum BL, Lin HL. Papillary muscle short- studies on lymph drainage of the heart in dogs. Ann Surg
ening in the intact dog; a cinderadiographic study of 1972;175:305e310.
tranquilized dogs in the upright position. Circ Re 1975;36: 93. Shimada T, Morita T, Oya M, Kitamura H. Morphological
49e57. studies of the cardiac lymphatic system. Arch Histol Cytol
76. Salter DR, Pellom GL, Murphy CE, Brunsting LA, 1990;53(Suppl.):115e126.
Goldstein JP, Morris 3rd JM, Wechsler AS. Papillary-annular 94. Noguchi T, Shimada T, Nakamura M, Uchida Y, Shirabe J. The
continuity and left ventricular systolic function after distribution and structure of the lymphatic system in dog
mitral valve replacement. Circulation 1986;74(3 Pt 2): atrioventricular valves. Arch Histol Cytol 1988;51:361e370.
I121e1129. 95. Uhley HN, Leeds SE. Lymphatics of the canine papillary
77. Dasi LP, Sucosky P, de Zelicourt D, Sundareswaran K, muscles. Lymphology 1976;9:72e74.
Jimenez J, Yoganathan AP. Advances in cardiovascular 96. Eliskova M, Oldrich E. How lymph is drained away from the
fluid mechanics: bench to bedside. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; human papillary muscle: anatomical conditions. Cardi-
1161:1e25. ology 1992;81:371e377.
78. Liu S-K, Fox PR. Cardiovascular pathology. In: Fox PR, 97. Kogure K. Pathology of chronic mitral valvular disease in
Sisson D, Moise NS, editors. Textbook of canine and feline the dog. Jpn J Vet Sci 1980;42:323e335.
cardiology. Principles and clinical practice. 2nd ed. Phil- 98. Ettinger S, Buergelt CD. Ruptured chordae tendineae in
adelphia: WB Saunders; 1999. p. 817e844. the dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1969;155:535e546.
126 P.R. Fox
99. Serres F, Chetboul V, Tissier R, Sampedrano CC, Gouni V, circulatory disturbances, vol. 22. New York: Plenum Press;
Nicolle AP, Pouchelon JL. Chordae tendineae rupture in 1976. p. 315.
dogs with degenerative mitral valve disease: prevalence, 111. Buchanan JW. Spontaneous left atrial rupture in dogs. Adv
survival, and prognostic factors (114 cases, 2001e2006). Exp Med Biol 1972;22:315e334.
J Vet Intern Med 2007;21:258e264. 112. Stünzi H, Ammann-Mann M. Nontraumatic ruptures of the
100. Whitney JC. Cardiovascular pathology. J Small Anim Pract heart atrium in the dog. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A 1973;
1967;8:459e465. 20:409e418.
101. Pomerance A, Whitney JC. Heart valve changes common to 113. Komitor DA. Left atrial rupture. Infrequent sequel t
man and dog: a comparative study. Cardiovasc Res 1970;4: chronic microvalvular insufficiency. Vet Med Small Anim
61e66. Clinic 1976;71:620e621.
102. Rabkin-Aikawa E, Farber M, Aikawa M, Schoen FJ. Dynamic 114. Jugdutt BI. Effect of nitroglycerin and ibuprofen on left
and reversible changes of interstitial cell phenotype ventricular topography and rupture threshold during
during remodeling of cardiac valves. J Heart Valve Dis healing after myocardial infarction in the dog. Can J
2004;13:841e847. Physiol Pharmacol 1988;66:385e395.
103. Jacobs GJ, Calvert CA, Mahaffey MB, Hall DG. Echocar- 115. Jugdutt BI. Left ventricular rupture threshold during the
diographic detection of flail left atrioventricular valve healing phase after myocardial infarction in the dog. Can J
cusp from ruptured chordae tendineae in 4 dogs. J Vet Physiol Pharmacol 1987;65:307e316.
Intern Med 1995t;9:341e346. 116. Sadanaga KK, McDonald MJ, Buchanan JW. Echocardiog-
104. Barber JE, Ratliff NB, Cosgrove 3rd DM, Griffin BP, Vesely I. raphy and surgery in a dog with left atrial rupture and
Myxomatous mitral valve chordae. I: Mechanical proper- hemopericardium. J Vet Intern Med 1990;4:216e221.
ties. J Heart Valve Dis 2001;10:320e324. 117. McCarthy PM, Lee R, Foley JL, Phillips L, Kanayinkal T,
105. Kimura N, Shukunami C, Hakuno D, Yoshioka M, Miura S, Francischelli DE. Occlusion of canine atrial appendage
Docheva D, Kimura T, Okada Y, Matsumura G, Shinoka T, using an expandable silicone band. J Thorac Cardiovasc
Yozu R, Kobayashi J, Ishibashi-Ueda H, Hiraki Y, Fukuda K. Surg 2010;140:885e889.
Local tenomodulin absence, angiogenesis, and matrix 118. Peddle GD, Buchanan JW. Acquired atrial septal defects
metalloproteinase activation are associated with the secondary to rupture of the atrial septum in dogs with
rupture of the chordae tendineae cordis. Circulation 2008; degenerative mitral valve disease. J Vet Cardiol 2010;12:
118:1737e1747. 129e134.
106. Sasayama S, Takahashi M, Kawai C. Left atrial function in 119. Grande-Allen KJ, Griffin BP, Ratliff NB, Cosgrove DM,
acute mitral regurgitation. Factors which modify the Vesely I. Glycosaminoglycan profiles of myxomatous mitral
regurgitant volume. Herz 1981;6:156e165. leaflets and chordae parallel the severity of mechanical
107. Sasayama S, Takahashi M, Osakada G, Hirose K, alterations. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;42:271e277.
Hamashima H, Nishimura E, Kawai C. Dynamic geometry of 120. Xu S, Grande-Allen KJ. The role of cell biology and leaflet
the left atrium and left ventricle in acute mitral regurgi- remodeling in the progression of heart valve disease.
tation. Circulation 1979;60:177e186. Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J 2010;6:2e7.
108. Yun KL, Fann JI, Rayhill SC, Nasserbakht F, Derby GC, 121. Schoen FJ. Mechanisms of function and disease of natural
Handen CE, Bolger AF, Miller DC. Importance of the mitral and replacement heartvalves. Annu Rev Pathol 2012;7:
subvalvular apparatus for left ventricular segmental 161e183.
systolic mechanics. Circulation 1990;82(5 Suppl):IV89e104. 122. Durbin AD, Gotlieb AI. Advances towards understanding
109. Buchanan JW, Kelly AM. Endocardial splitting of the left heart valve response to injury. Cardiovasc Pathol 2002;11:
atrium in the dog with hemorrhage and hemopericardium. 69e77.
J Am Vet Rad Soc 1964;5:28e39. 123. Mendelson K, Schoen FJ. Heart valve tissue engineering:
110. Buchanan JW. Spontaneous left atrial rupture in dogs. In: concepts, approaches, progress, and challenges. Ann Bio-
Bloor CM, editor, Comparative pathophysiology of med Eng 2006;34:1799e1819.