лексика англійська PDF

We Need to Talk…
Nature provides a free lunch, but

only if we control our appetites.
William Ruckelshaus
Environmental issues
1. Acid rain
2. Deforestation
3. Genetic Engineering
4. Global Warming
5. Loss of Biodiversity
6. Natural Resource Depletion and the Future of Energy
7. Overpopulation
8. Pollution and Waste Disposal
Lead-in questions:
1. What are the prospects of the climate: constant change or going back to normal?
2. Who should pay for the costs associated with renewable energy? Why?
3. Who do you think is more responsible for pollution, individual people or the
government? Explain.
4. Which is more important, increasing people's standard of living, or protecting
the environment? Which side would you choose?
5. Which countries cause the most pollution?
6. Where will we get our energy when we run out of oil?
7. What's happening to forests in the world?
8. What should we do to increase the awareness about environmental pollution?
9. What should we "conserve" when we consider conservation issues? Only plants
and animals or should we seek to conserve human activities and traditions as
well? If these things are in conflict - for example re-introduced wolves causing
problems for traditional farmers - what should get priority?
10.What kinds of technologies do you know of that might help stop environmental
problems?
11.What is the most important issue facing the environment today?
12.What is the main problem with renewable energy sources?
13.What is global warming?
14.What happens when we remove forests?
15.What can you do to help prevent pollution?
16.What can we do to protect forests?
17.What can large cities do to improve their air quality?
18.What are some ways that you can reduce pollution in this country?
19.What are some ways energy is wasted?
20.What are some types of pollution?
21.What are some things that can be recycled?
22.Should we make the development of renewable energy sources an economic
priority?
23.Should gas for motorists be more expensive? What would be the advantages and
disadvantages of this?
24.Should an environmental levy be imposed on SUVs not used in the farming
community? How would this help the environment?
25.In what ways can we save more water? Please tell your experiences.
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26.If you could choose one alternative energy source to develop which one would
you choose? Why?
27.If humans are really intelligent and not simply manipulated by their genes like
any other animal, why can't they do anything about overpopulation?
28.How would you define renewable energy? Over what time-scale should it be
"renewable"? Consider your definition again and decide if the following are
examples of renewable energy: Dams, solar power, geothermal power, coal,
nuclear energy, biomass, tidal power. Why does each one fit, or not fit, your
definition?
29.How will our children be affected by climate change?
30.How will India and China affect the environment in the future?
31.How often is garbage collected in your neighbourhood?
32.How has the world changed since you were a child? (technology, values,
environment, health)
33.How can we protect the environment and at the same time improve people's
standard of living?
34.Does your local government make it easy or hard for citizens to recycle?
35.Do you usually drink bottled water? Why or Why not?
36.Do you think there are lessons to learn from nature?
37.Do you think recycling is an important community service?
38.Do you think people should recycle newspapers? Why or why not?
39.Do you think overpopulation is an important environmental issue? Why or why
not?
40.Do you think nuclear power safe? Who should be allowed it and why? Who
should police it?
41.Do you think houses will be more environmentally friendly in the future?
42.Do you think cars should be banned from city centres?
43.Do you know about any anti-pollution programs in your community?
44.Do you have any ideas on how to minimize the use of plastic bags and Styrofoam
boxes?
45.Do think global warming is real? Do you think this is an effect of pollution?
46.Are you worried about global warming?
47.Are there litter laws where you live? If so, what is the penalty for littering?
48.Are companies more or less environmentally responsible now than they were in
the past? Why do you think that is?
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Acid Rain
Acid Rain
Exercise 1. Read the text and answer the questions.
Be ready to answer the questions with your book closed.
Acid rain occurs due to the These chemical gases react with
presence of certain pollutants in the water, oxygen, and other substances
atmosphere. It can be caused due to to form mild solutions of sulfuric
combustion of fossil fuels or and nitric acid. Winds may spread
erupting volcanoes or rotting these acidic solutions across the
vegetation which release sulfur atmosphere and over hundreds of
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides miles. When acid rain reaches Earth,
(NOx) into the atmosphere. Acid it flows across the surface in runoff
rain is a known environmental water, enters water systems, and
problem that can have serious effect sinks into the soil.
on human health, wildlife and Acid rain has many ecological
aquatic species. effects, but none is greater than its
Acid rain describes any form of impact on lakes, streams, wetlands,
precipitation with high levels of and other aquatic environments.
nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also Acid rain makes waters acidic and
occur in the form of snow, fog, and causes them to absorb the aluminum
tiny bits of dry material that settle to that makes its way from soil into
Earth. Rotting vegetation and lakes and streams. This combination
erupting volcanoes release some makes waters toxic to crayfish,
chemicals that can cause acid rain, clams, fish, and other aquatic
but most acid rain falls because of animals.
human activities. The biggest culprit Some species can tolerate
is the burning of fossil fuels by coal- acidic waters better than others.
burning power plants, factories, and However, in an interconnected
automobiles. ecosystem, what impacts some
When humans burn fossil fuels, species eventually impacts many
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides more throughout the food chain –
are released into the atmosphere.
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Acid Rain
including non-aquatic species such The only way to fight acid rain
as birds. is by curbing the release of the
Acid rain also damages forests, pollutants that cause it. This means
especially those at higher elevations. burning fewer fossil fuels. Many
It robs the soil of essential nutrients governments have tried to curb
and releases aluminum in the soil, emissions by cleaning up industry
which makes it hard for trees to take smokestacks and promoting
up water. Trees' leaves and needles alternative fuel sources. These
are also harmed by acids. efforts have met with mixed results.
The effects of acid rain, But even if acid rain could be
combined with other environmental stopped today, it would still take
stressors, leave trees and plants less many years for its harmful effects to
able to withstand cold temperatures, disappear. Individuals can also help
insects, and disease. The prevent acid rain by conserving
pollutants may also inhibit trees' energy. The less electricity people
ability to reproduce. Some soils are use in their homes, the fewer
better able to neutralize acids than chemicals power plants will emit.
others. In areas where the soil's Vehicles are also major fossil fuel
"buffering capacity" is low, the users, so drivers can reduce
harmful effects of acid rain are much emissions by using public
greater. transportation, carpooling, biking, or
simply walking wherever possible.
1. Define acid rain. What forms can it take?
2. What releases some chemicals that can cause acid rain?
3. What human activities can contribute to acid rain?
4. What is the way for acidic solutions to combine and to get into plants?
5. Explain the effects of acid rain on vegetation.
6. Explain the effects of acid rain on water.
7. What is called "buffering capacity" of soil in the text?
8. Describe what can be done to solve the acid rain problem
9. How do you understand the difference between the following terms:
acid, acidity, acidifying, acidified, acidic, acid-forming?
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Acid Rain
Exercise 2. Decide which answer (a, b, or c) best fits

each space.
Acid rain is a popular term for the atmospheric deposition of (1) _____
rain, snow, sleet, hail, acidifying gases and particles, as well as acidified fog
and cloud water. The increased (2) _____ of these depositions, primarily from
the strong acids, sulfuric and nitric, is generated as a by-product of the
(3) _____ of fossil fuels containing sulfur or (4) _____, especially electrical
(5) _____ (power plants.) The heating of homes, electricity production, and
driving vehicles all rely primarily on (6) _____ energy. When fossil fuels are
(7) _____, acid-forming nitrogen and sulfur (8) _____ are released to the
atmosphere. These (9) _____ are transformed chemically in the atmosphere,
often traveling thousands of kilometers from their original (10) _____, and
then fall out on land and water (11) _____ as acid rain. As a result, (12) _____
from power plants in New Jersey, Ohio or Michigan can (13) _____ forests,
rivers or lakes in less developed parts of New Hampshire or Maine.
Acid rain was (14) _____ in 1963 in North at the initiation of the Hubbard
Brook Ecosystem Study. The first (15) _____ of rain collected there had a pH
of 3.7, some 80 times more acidic than (16) _____ rain. Innovations for
reducing fossil fuel (17 )_____, such as scrubbers on the tall smoke stacks on
power plants and factories, catalytic converters on automobiles, and use of
low-sulfur coal, have been (18) _____ to reduce emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
1. a) acidified b) acidity c) acids

2. a) acidified b) acidity c) acids
3. a) combat b) combustion c) combinability
4. a) oxygen b) nitrogen c) hydrogen
5. a) utensils b) utilisation c) utilities
6. a) fossil fuel b) by-product c) sulfur
7. a) combusted b) combined c) combated
8. a) oxygen b) dioxides c) oxides
9. a) combinations b) compounds c) unions
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Acid Rain
10. a) source b) resource c) well
11. a) surface b) top c) surfaces
12. a) pollution b) polluting c) pollutants
13. a) result b) disturb c) impact
14. a) invented b) spotted c) discovered
15. a) sample b) example c) dose
16. a) polluted b) unpolluted c) acid
17. a) emissions b) particles c) energy
18. a) employed b) taken c) depleted
Exercise 3. Use the word given in capitals at the end of

each line to form a word that fits in the space in the
same line.
Acid precipitation or acid __________________, DEPOSE

___________ possessing a pH of about 5.2 or below PRECIPITATE
primarily produced from the _______ of sulfur dioxide EMIT
and nitrogen oxides from ________ activities, mostly MAN
the ______ of fossil fuels. In acid-sensitive landscapes, COMBUST
acid deposition can _____________ the pH of surface REDUCTION
waters and lower ____________. It weakens trees and DIVERSE+BIO
increases their ______________ to damage from other SUSCEPT
__________, such as drought, extreme cold, and pests. STRESS
In acid-________ areas, acid rain also depletes soil of SENSE
important plant ______and buffers, such as calcium and NUTRITION
magnesium, and can release aluminum, bound to soil
______ and rock, in its toxic dissolved form. Acid rain PART
contributes to the corrosion of surfaces __________ to EXPOSITION
air pollution and is responsible for the ___________ of DETERIORATE
____________ and marble buildings and monuments. LIME
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Acid Rain
Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one word only.
The phrase acid rain was first (1) _________ in 1852 by Scottish chemist
Robert Angus Smith during his (2) _________ of rainwater chemistry near
industrial cities in England and Scotland. The phenomenon became an
important part of his book Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a Chemical
Climatology (1872). It was not (3) _________ the late 1960s and early 1970s,
however, that acid rain was (4) _________ as a regional environmental issue
affecting large areas of western Europe and eastern North America. As a
global (5) _________ issue, it is frequently overshadowed by climate change.
Although the problem of acid rain has been (6) _________ reduced in some
areas, it remains an important environmental issue within and downwind from
major industrial regions (7) _________.
Many air pollution and (8) _________ deposition problems are
(9) _________ with one another, and these problems are often (10) _________
from the same cause, namely the burning of (11) _________ fuels. In addition
to acid (12) _________, NOx (13) _________ along with hydrocarbon
(14) _________ are key ingredients in smog formation, which is one of the
most (15) _________ forms of air (16) _________.
Exercise 5. Describe the pictures using active vocabulary.
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Acid Rain
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Acid Rain
Exercise 6. Watch the video (1), retell it explaining the

peculiarities of a pH rate change and the sources of acid
rain: Where do N and S come from?
Exercise 7. Watch the video (2), retell it dwelling upon

the techniques used by scientists who study the effects of
acid rain. Explain the scale of a pH value.
Exercise 8. Be ready to take part in the discussion

concerning the following points.
1. What motivated you to do something about rain acidity? •

2. How can a single person help to fight it?
3. Have you ever done something against this problem?
4. Have you ever realized that you a part of it?
5. How much money would you spend on decreasing the amount of acid
rains?
6. Acid rain is not a problem of one country, yet different governments
show different attitudes towards the problem. Is there any way in which
countries that assign huge sums of money to
reduce gas emissions can defend themselves from
others recklessly and indiscriminately polluting
the atmosphere?
7. It is unbearably sad that acid rain most
visibly affects buildings of historic interest (often
built of limestone which quickly reacts with acids).
How does it make you feel that this civilization is
successfully destroying what has hitherto so well
withstood the test of time?
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Acid Rain
Exercise 9. Translate into English.
Кислотні дощі – це випадання опадів, в яких містяться сірчана і

азотна кислоти. При цьому відбувається самоочищення атмосфери від
забруднення. Причиною кислотних дощів є викиди в атмосферу оксидів
сірки та азоту підприємствами паливно-енергетичного комплексу,
металургійними та хімічними заводами, а також транспортом. Кислотні
дощі (а також кислотний
туман) викликають
підкислення ґрунтів,
зниження приростів лісу і
врожайності
сільськогосподарських
культур. При високих
навантаженнях
кислотних дощів може відбуватися всихання лісів і загибель риб і
багатьох інших організмів в озерах. Крім того, кислотні дощі переводять
в розчинний стан сполуки важких металів, які засвоюються рослинами,
а потім з їжею потрапляють в організм тварин і людини, що викликає у
них хвороби. Кислотні дощі руйнують пам'ятники архітектури.
В даний час від кислотних дощів в Європі постраждало майже 50
млн. га лісів, що становить 35% від загальної площі лісових масивів
континенту. У деяких країнах (Чехія, Словаччина, Греція, Англія,
Німеччина, Норвегія, Польща) частка уражених лісів складає більше
половини загальної площі масивів.
Згубна роль кислотних дощів може бути зменшена тільки при
скороченні викидів в атмосферу діоксиду сірки за рахунок використання
на підприємствах нових маловідходних технологій і фільтрів на димових
трубах.
Крім кислотних дощів, великої шкоди можуть завдавати інші форми
кислих опадів, наприклад кислі роси, кислий туман, кислий сніг.
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Deforestation
Deforestation
Exercise 1. Read the text and answer the questions. Be
ready to answer the questions with your book closed.
Modern-Day Plague each year. Loggers, some of them
Deforestation is clearing acting illegally, also build roads to
Earth's forests on a massive scale, access more and more remote forests
often resulting in damage to the – which leads to further
quality of the land. Forests still cover deforestation. Forests are also cut as
about 30 percent of the world’s land a result of growing urban sprawl.
area, but swaths the size of Panama Not all deforestation is
are lost each and every year. intentional. Some is caused by a
The world’s rainforests could combination of human and natural
completely vanish in a hundred years factors like wildfires and subsequent
at the current rate of deforestation. overgrazing, which may prevent the
Forests are cut down for many growth of young trees.
reasons, but most of them are related Deforestation has many
to money or to people’s need to negative effects on the environment.
provide for their families. The The most dramatic impact is a loss of
biggest driver of deforestation is habitat for millions of species.
agriculture. Farmers cut forests to Seventy percent of Earth’s land
provide more room for planting animals and plants live in forests,
crops or grazing livestock. Often and many cannot survive the
many small farmers will each clear a deforestation that destroys their
few acres to feed their families by homes.
cutting down trees and burning them Deforestation also drives
in a process known as “slash and climate change. Forest soils are
burn” agriculture. moist, but without protection from
Logging operations, which sun-blocking tree cover they quickly
provide the world’s wood and paper dry out. Trees also help perpetuate
products, also cut countless trees the water cycle by returning water
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Deforestation
vapour back into the atmosphere. The quickest solution to
Without trees to fill these roles, deforestation would be to simply
many former forest lands can stop cutting down trees. Though
quickly become barren deserts. deforestation rates have slowed a bit
Removing trees deprives the in recent years, financial realities
forest of portions of its canopy, make this unlikely to occur.
which blocks the sun’s rays during A more workable solution is to
the day and holds in heat at night. carefully manage forest resources by
This disruption leads to more eliminating clear-cutting to make
extreme temperatures swings that sure that forest environments remain
can be harmful to plants and animals. intact. The cutting that does occur
Trees also play a critical role in should be balanced by the planting
absorbing the greenhouse gases that of enough young trees to replace the
fuel global warming. Fewer forests older ones felled in any given forest.
means larger amounts of greenhouse The number of new tree plantations
gases entering the atmosphere—and is growing each year, but their total
increased speed and severity of still equals a tiny fraction of the
global warming. Earth’s forested land.
1. Define deforestation. Why are forests cut down? What do trees absorb?
2. What is the biggest driver of deforestation? Why? What is a “slash and
burn” agriculture?
3. How do we call the operations, which provide wood and paper products?
4. Who are loggers?
5. Is all deforestation intentional? Prove your answer.
6. What are the effects of deforestation on the environment?
7. What kind of cover do forests make for soil?
8. How do trees help perpetuate the water cycle? What is canopy?
9. What is the other word combination for a temperature change used in the
text?
10. What should be done to improve the situation with deforestation?
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Deforestation
11. Comment on the collocations “to simply stop”, “to carefully manage”.
What grammatical phenomenon is it? Why are they used in the text?
12. What is the synonym for “untouched” used in the text? Provide other
examples where it could be used.

each space.
Deforestation (1) _____ around the world, though tropical rainforests are
particularly (2) _____. NASA predicts that if (3) ____ deforestation levels
proceed, the world's (4) _____may be completely eliminated in as little as 100
years. Countries with (5) _____deforestation include Brazil, Indonesia,
Thailand, the Democratic Republic of Congo and other parts of Africa, and
parts of Eastern Europe. Though deforestation has increased rapidly in the past
50 years, it has been (6) _____throughout history. For example, 90 percent of
continental United States’ (7) _____forest has been removed since 1600.
There are many causes of deforestation. It is reported that half of the trees
illegally removed from forests are used as (8) _____. Some other
(9) _____reasons are: To make more land available for housing and
urbanization; to (10) _____timber to create commercial items such as paper,
furniture and homes; to create (11) _____ that are highly
(12) ______consumer items, such as the oil from palm trees; to create
(13) _____for cattle (14) _____ .
1. a) happens b) occurs c) encounters

2. a) targeted b) aimed c) fought against
3. a) current b) today c) contemporary
4. a) timber b) log c) rainforests
5. a) huge b) significant c) acidic
6. a) used b) employed c) practiced
7. a) indigenous b) emitted c) combusted
8. a) fuel b) fossil fuel c) deposition
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Deforestation
9. a) significant b) presumable c) common
10. a) take b) harvest c) gather
11. a) solutions b) depositions c) ingredients
12. a) cost b) prized c) consumed
13. a) room b) place c) spot
14. a) growing b) feeding c) ranching

same line.
Common methods of _____ are burning trees and clear FOREST

cutting. These tactics leave the land _______ barren and are COMPLETE
controversial practices. Clear _____ is when large swaths of CUT
land are cut down all at once. A _____ expert quoted by the FOREST
Natural _______ Defence Council describes clear cutting as SOURCE
"an _____ trauma that has no precedent in nature except for ECOLOGY
a major volcanic _________." ERUPT
____ can be done quickly, in vast swaths of land, or more BURN
_______ with the slash-and-burn technique. Slash and burn SLOW
______ entails cutting down a patch of trees, burning them CULTURE
and ______ crops on the land. The ash from the burned trees GROW
provides some _____ for the plants and the land is weed-free NOURISH
from the burning. When the soil becomes _________ LITTLE
________ and weeds begin to reappear over years of use, the NOURISH
farmers move on to a new patch of land and begin the
process again.
Deforestation and climate change

Deforestation is considered to be one of the (1) __________ factors to
global climate (2) __________. According to Michael Daley, associate
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Deforestation
professor of environmental science at Lasell College in Newton,
Massachusetts, the No. 1 problem (3) __________ by deforestation is the
(4) __________ on the global carbon cycle. Gas molecules that absorb thermal
infrared radiation are called greenhouse gases. If (5) __________ gases are in
large enough quantity, they can force climate (6) __________, according to
Daley. While oxygen (O2) is the second (7) __________ abundant gas in our
atmosphere, it does not (8) __________ thermal infrared radiation, as
greenhouse gases do. Carbon (9) __________ (CO2) is the most prevalent
greenhouse gas. Trees can help, though. 300 billion tons of carbon, 40 times
the annual greenhouse gas (10) __________ from fossil (11) __________, is
stored in trees, according to Greenpeace. The deforestation of trees not only
lessens the amount of carbon stored, it also (12) __________ carbon dioxide
into the air. This is because when trees die, they release the stored carbon.
Deforestation is the second largest (13) __________ (human-caused) source
of (14) __________ dioxide to the atmosphere, ranging between 6 percent and
17 percent.
Exercise 5. Put the sentences into the text. There is one
you will not need.

(A) As you read this, one and a half acres of forest is being cut down.
That’s right. One and a half acres of forest is cut down every second.
(B) Some of them include shifting the human population to a plant-based
diet.
(C) "Unfortunately, we have already diminished the population of many
species to such an extreme that they might not recover, even with a massive
reforestation effort," Daley told Live Science.
(D) Though a massive replanting effort would help to alleviate the
problems deforestation caused, it would not solve them all.
(E) The biggest driver of deforestation is agriculture.
Counteracting deforestation
Many believe that to counter deforestation, people simply need to plant
more trees. ___________________________________________________
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Deforestation
Reforestation would facilitate:
 Restoring the ecosystem services provided by forests including
carbon storage, water cycling and wildlife habitat

 Reducing the buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
 Rebuilding wildlife habitats
Reforestation won't completely fix the damage, though. For example,

Daley points out that forests cannot sequester all of the carbon dioxide humans
are emitting to the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels and a
reduction in fossil fuel emissions. It is still necessary to avoid buildup in the
atmosphere. Reforestation will not help with extinction due to deforestation,
either. ___________________________
In addition to reforestation, some other tactics are being taken to
counteract or slow deforestation. ___________________________ This
would lower the need for land to be cleared for raising livestock.
Rainforests have taken thousands of years to form but every second a
portion the size of a football field is destroyed. _______________________
Exercise 6. Translate the video presentation (3) into your

native language.
Exercise 7. Watch the video (4). Make notes and retell
dwelling upon the causes and effect of deforestation.
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Deforestation

1 Can you imagine how much the rainforest influences your life?
2 Considering the years it takes a tree to grow into a mature specimen
and the seconds it takes to fell it, cutting trees down should be done only in
truly justified circumstances. What could these circumstances be? Think of
instances where timber can be replaced by other materials.
3 Who cares about deforestation? Is deforestation a problem for
everyone?
4 Do you support organisations against deforestation?
5 Forests, such as tropical rainforests, create their own ecosystems. Can
reforestation programmes fully compensate for the damage done by cutting
them down?
6 What do you think will the world look like in 10 years?
7 Think of the tons of paper used in printing newspapers all over the
world, newspapers that nobody reads, or which are thrown away after a glance.
Think of all the cardboard used for packaging. How would you economize on
the use of paper?
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Deforestation
Ліси є основним
постачальником кисню в
атмосферу. Деревина
використовується як
паливо, як цінний
матеріал для будівельної
та хімічної індустрії.
Ліси виконують
ґрунтозахисну та водоакумулятивну функції, є місцем відпочинку,
відіграють надзвичайно важливу природоохоронну роль.
Найбільші площі лісів збереглися в Азії та Південній Америці,
найменші - в Австралії та Європі. Щороку площі лісів скорочуються на
25 млн. га, що є важливим аспектом екологічної проблеми.
Ліси називають «легенями» планети, вони відіграють величезну
роль у житті всього людства. Вони відновлюють кисень в атмосфері,
зберігають ґрунтові води, запобігають руйнуванню ґрунту. Вирубка
тропічних лісів Амазонії призводить до порушення «легень» планети.
Збереження лісів необхідно в тому числі і для здоров'я людства. Лісові
ресурси відносяться до поновлюваних ресурсів.
Головними причинами знищення лісів є розширення
сільськогосподарських угідь та вирубка лісів з метою використання
деревини.
Ліси вирубуються в зв'язку з будівництвом ліній зв'язку. Найбільш
інтенсивно знищується зелений покрив тропіків. У більшості країн, що
розвиваються, вирубка проводиться в зв'язку з використанням деревини
як палива, а також випалюються ліси для одержання орних земель.
Скорочуються і деградують від забруднення атмосфери і ґрунтів
ліси у високорозвинених країнах. Відбувається масове усихання
верхівок дерев, унаслідок їхньої поразки кислотними дощами.
26
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering
What are the risks posed by the This phenomenon was documented
use of genetic engineering (GE) in in 1996, as soybeans with a Brazil
agriculture? The answers fall mostly nut gene – added to improve their
into two categories: risks to human value as animal feed – produced an
health, and environmental impacts. allergic response in test subjects with
Health risks of genetic engineering Brazil nut allergies.
have sometimes been described in Genetically engineered crops
exaggerated, alarmist terms, can potentially cause environmental
implying that foods made from GE problems that result directly from the
crops are inherently unsafe. There is engineered traits. For instance, an
no evidence, for instance, that engineered gene may cause a GE
refined products derived from GE crop (or a wild relative of that crop)
crops, such as starch, sugar and oils, to become invasive or toxic to
are different than those derived from wildlife. But the most damaging
conventionally bred crops. It is also impact of GE in agriculture so far is
an exaggeration, however, to state the phenomenon of pesticide
that there are no health risks resistance. Overuse of Monsanto's
associated with GE. For one thing, "Roundup Ready" trait, which is
not enough is known: research on the engineered to tolerate the herbicide,
effects of specific genes has been has promoted the accelerated
limited – and tightly controlled by development of resistance in several
the industry. But we do know of weed species. Looking for ways to
ways in which genetically fight back against these
engineered crops could cause health "superweeds," farmers are now
problems. For instance, genes from turning to older, more toxic
an allergenic plant could transfer this herbicides such as 2,4-D and
unwanted trait to the target plant. dicamba. As if on cue, agribusiness
27
Genetic Engineering
companies have begun to develop marketplace of agricultural products
new GE crops engineered to tolerate and policies is dominated by the
these older herbicides – with no industrial model, prioritizing
guarantee that the Roundup Ready expensive products over knowledge-
story will not repeat itself, producing based agroecological approaches,
a new wave of resistant weeds. healthy farm solutions face an uphill
As the superweed crisis battle.
illustrates, current applications of In the case of GE, better
genetic engineering have become a solutions include crop breeding
key component of an unsustainable (often assisted by molecular biology
approach to food production: techniques) and agroecological
industrial agriculture, with its practices such as crop rotation, cover
dependence on monoculture – crops, and integrated crop/livestock
supported by costly chemical management. Such healthy farm
inputs – at the expense of the long- practices are the future of
term health and productivity of the agriculture – and policymakers can
farm. help speed the transition by
A different approach to farming supporting research and education
is available – what UCS calls on them. In the meantime, stronger
"healthy farms." This approach is regulation of the biotechnology
not only more sustainable than industry is needed to minimize
industrial agriculture, but often more health and environmental risks from
cost-effective. Yet as long as the GE products.
1. Provide an example of genetically engineered crops causing health
problems.
2. What kind of environmental problems can genetically engineered
crops potentially cause?
3. Characterise the phenomenon of pesticide resistance. Provide an
example.
4. What is industrial agriculture and monoagriculture?
5. How do you understand the phrase “to face an uphill battle”? Why is
it used in the text?
28
Genetic Engineering
Exercise 2. Decide which answer (a, b, or c) best fits each

space.
Consider the (1) ______between genetic engineering and traditional
(2) ______. Simple genetic (3) _______ have been used for hundreds of years
by farmers and scientists. (4) _______since Gregor Mendel's experiments on
pea plants, (5) _______have been breeding plants and animals for (6) _______
characteristics. The fairly recent (7) _______of genetic engineering, however,
brings a radical change to this traditional (8) _______. (9) _______breeding,
genetic engineering often involves (10) _______ genes between unrelated
(11) _______. For example, a bacteria gene can be (12) _______into a
tomato's (13) _______to help extend its (14) _______. Under natural
conditions, only organisms of the same species can (15) _______. The
(16) _______of genetic material from different species is thus entirely
unnatural.
The long term health and environmental consequences of this technology
are unknown. Given this uncertainty, it would be best to use the (17) _______
principle when dealing with GE.
1. a) distinction b) effect c) scale
2. a) growing b) breeding c) cultivating
3. a) tricks b) manipulations c) stuff
4. a) Even b) Ever c) From
5. a) peoples b) men c) humans
6. a) desirable b) similar c) likely
7. a) advent b) discovery c) abuse
8. a) techniques b) technique c) technology
9. a) Despite b) Like c) Unlike
10. a) mixing b) incerting c) crossing
11. a) species b) kinds c) phenomenon
12. a) crossed b) inserted c) put
13. a) DNC b) DNK c) DNA
14. a) consumption life b) shelf life c) sopl life
15. a) cross b) relate c) interbreed
16. a) blending b) mixture c) confusion
17. a) precautionary b) preliminary c) prescribed
29
Genetic Engineering

each line to form a word that fits in the space in the same
line.
_______ engineering poses serious risks to human GENE

health. These include __________ reactions, increased ALERGY
___________, spread of genetic material from crops TOXIC
manipulated to produce _________________ and the PHARMACY
problems associated with increased ______________ PEST
applications.
Experiments are __________ to use genetically WAY
_________ plants to produce prescription drugs such MODIFY
as vaccines, industrial enzymes, blood ___________, THIN
__________ hormones, and contraceptives. This use GROW
of GE is particularly _________. What would happen TROUBLE
if, for example, a rice plant __________ to produce a MODIFY
growth hormone cross __________ with a non-GMO POLLIN
rice plant? Once a pharmaceutical-producing plant
is released into the environment, there is little that
can be done to prevent genetic ____________. If the CONTAMINATE
pharmaceutical-___________ gene were to leak into PRODUCE
food crops or into the __________ environment the WIDE
___________ would likely be severe. SEQUENCE
Genetically modified (1) __________, like all seed, cannot be easily

contained. Seed is (2) __________ by the wind, by animals and in water. Thus,
seed planted in one location can, by (3) ________ forces, be disseminated over
a large area. In effect, this (4) ________ of GMO seed onto other land is
pollution. The proliferation of genetically modified crops (5) _________ the
viability of organic (6) __________. If an organic farm is contaminated with
30
Genetic Engineering
(6) __________
engineered material,
its organic status is
threatened. Thus the
use of genetically
engineered
(7) __________ violates the right of farmers to use (8) __________ methods.
There are a variety of environmental (9) __________ associated with
genetic engineering. By (10) __________ genetic material from
(11) __________ species, genetic engineering essentially creates new
(12) __________. When genetically engineered crops are (13) __________
there is a risk that GE material will contaminate wild plants. The
(14) __________ of this type of pollution are unknown. The long
(15) __________ effects of genetic pollution could include harm to plants,
insects and animals and a (16) __________ of biodiversity.
We have real concerns about the relationships among living organisms.
We are (17) __________ about what it means to introduce what are essentially
newly (18) __________ species, some of which contain a chimeric
(19) __________ of genes from entirely different creatures, into our world.
We have seen the effects of chemical and nuclear (20) __________ of the
environment, and have real fears that biological contamination with newly
minted organisms may be even more (21) __________ to the natural order.
We urge caution.
Exercise 5. Watch the video (5). Retell it dwelling upon

pros and cons of genetic engineering.
Exercise 6. Watch the video (6). Retell it dwelling upon

different types of agriculture. What is the scenario of us
all dying?
31
Genetic Engineering
32
Genetic Engineering

1. What is your position regarding the use of genetically engineering

crops to produce pharmaceuticals? Do you believe that such crops do not pose
a risk to human health in the long term?
2. Do you think that the rights of farmers to save seed should take
precedence over the right of corporations to make a profit?
3. What measures should be done to limit the ability of corporations to
manipulate, patent and control life forms? What assurance can these
departments give that such measures are sufficient to protect the health, rights,
and livelihood of the general public?
4. Given you have a not very pretty spouse, would you rather “plan you
baby” genetically, choosing his/her eyes colour, complexion etc. to be sure
that he/she will be gorgeous? Why (not)?
33
Genetic Engineering
Генна інженерія – це сукупність прийомів, методів і технологій, які
дозволяють змінювати будову генів або вносити до організму чужорідні
гени із заданими функціями. При цьому в організм переноситься лише
один ген, а решта генотипу залишається незмінною, крім того, ми
можемо наділити організм ознаками, які неможливо перенести шляхом
схрещування з близькоспорідненими видами. А це якраз те, про що
завжди мріяли традиційні селекціонери. Заняття це досить дороге і
трудомістке.
Завдяки генній інженерії стало можливим створення організмів з
новими, раніше не притаманними їм властивостями. Наприклад,
невибагливі і дешеві в утриманні бактерії, які, до того ж, надзвичайно
швидко розмножуються, можуть синтезувати потрібний білок за
допомогою вбудованого в їх генотип чужого гена. Так, з використанням
генетично модифікованих (рекомбінантних, трансгенних) бактерій,
дешево, швидко і у великих кількостях отримують інтерферон, інсулін і
деякі інші лікарські препарати. Генетично модифіковані рослини теж
можуть виробляти лікарські речовини. Більшість генних модифікацій
сортів направлено на розвиток стійкості до сільськогосподарських
шкідників або вірусів, виживання при обробці полів гербіцидами,
підвищення смакових і технічних якостей.
Звичайно, поліпшення якості та терміну зберігання харчової
продукції можна досягти і іншими, традиційними способами –
наприклад, рослини вирощують з використанням великої кількості
хімічних добрив або рослинних гормонів, або обробляють плоди
спеціальними препаратами. В продукти рослинного і тваринного
походження додають хімічні речовини-ароматизатори, поліпшувачі
смаку і консерванти. Відразу зазначимо: генетичний склад вихідного
організму при цьому не змінюється, і до генної інженерії подібні методи
не мають ніякого відношення, як іноді здається деяким покупцям.
Більше того – іноді недостатньо добре протестовані хімічні речовини,
отримані за допомогою ГМО, випускаються на ринок і
зарекомендовують себе не кращим чином.
34
Global Warming
Global Warming
Global warming is primarily a perspective, the carbon we put in the
problem of too much carbon dioxide atmosphere today will literally
(CO2) in the atmosphere – which determine not only our climate
acts as a blanket, trapping heat and future but that of future generations
warming the planet. As we burn as well.
fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural Substantial scientific evidence
gas for energy or cut down and burn indicates that an increase in the
forests to create pastures and global average temperature of more
plantations, carbon accumulates and than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-
overloads our atmosphere. Certain industrial levels poses severe risks to
waste management and agricultural natural systems and to human health
practices aggravate the problem by and well-being. The good news is
releasing other potent global that, because we as humans caused
warming gases, such as methane and global warming, we can also do
nitrous oxide. something about it. To avoid this
CO2 survives in the level of warming, large emitters such
atmosphere for a long time – up to as the United States need to greatly
many centuries – so its heat-trapping reduce heat-trapping gas emissions
effects are compounded over time. by mid century. Delay in taking such
Of the many heat-trapping gases, action means the prospect of much
CO2 puts us at the greatest risk of steeper cuts later if there is any hope
irreversible changes if it continues to of staying below the (2°C)
accumulate unabated in the temperature goal. Delayed action is
atmosphere – as it is likely to do if also likely to make it more difficult
the global economy remains and costly to not only make these
dependent on fossil fuels for its reductions, but also address the
energy needs. To put this in
35
Global Warming
climate consequences that occur in snow patterns, increase droughts and
the meantime. severe storms, reduce lake ice cover,
Over the last century, global melt glaciers, increase sea levels,
average temperature has increased and change plant and animal
by more than 0.7°C. The 2001-2010 behaviour. Any action to reduce or
decade is the warmest since 1880 – eliminate the release of heat-
the earliest year for which trapping gases to the atmosphere
comprehensive global temperature helps slow the rate of warming and,
records were available. In fact, nine likely, the pace and severity of
of the warmest years on record have change at any given hot spot. Local
occurred in just the last 10 years. sources of carbon emissions vary
This warming has been accompanied from region to region, suggesting
by a decrease in very cold days and that solutions are often decided at the
nights and an increase in extremely community level. Some regions,
hot days and warm nights. however, must rely upon global
Of course, land and ocean solutions such as international
temperature is only one way to agreements to reduce the carbon
measure the effects of climate overload in the atmosphere that
change. A warming world also has threatens them.
the potential to change rainfall and
1. What is global warming?

2. In what way does carbon accumulate and overload our atmosphere?
3. What gases are global warming ones?
4. For how long can CO2 survive in the atmosphere?
5. What can be done about global warming?
6. What has the global average temperature change been over the last
century?
7. What indicates the climate change?
8. Why are the solutions to greenhouse gases emissions often decided at
the community level?
36
Global Warming
space.
Understanding the (1) ______ of and responses to global warming
requires (2) ______ cooperation between social and (3) ______ scientists. The
theory behind global warming has been understood by (4) ______ since at
least the 1980s, but only in the new millennium, with an (5) ______ tipping
point in 2005, has the mounting (6) ______ evidence convinced most
doubters, politicians, and the general public as well as growing sections of
business that global warming caused by human action is (7) ______.
Global warming is (8) ______ to result from an overall, long-term
increase in the (9) ______ of the sun’s heat around Earth due to (10) ______
by “greenhouse gases,” especially CO2 and methane. (11) ______ of CO2 have
been rising at a speed unprecedented in human history, due to (12) ______
fossil fuel burning that began in the Industrial Revolution.
The effects of the resulting “climate change” are uneven and can even
produce localized cooling (if warm currents change direction). The climate
change may also initiate positive (13) ______ in which the initial impact is
further (14) ______ by its own effects, for example if melting ice reduces the
reflective properties of white surfaces (the “albedo” effect) or if melting
tundra releases frozen methane, leading to further warming. Debate continues
about which (15) ______ are due to long-term climate change and which to
normal climate variability.
1. a) fundamentals b)basics c) causes

2. a) intersubject b) interdisciplinary c) interscience
3. a) nature b) natural c) chemistry
4. a) climatologists b) weathermen c) naturalists
5. a) possible b) probable c) apparent
6. a) empirical b) real c) true
7. a) occurring b) happening c) coming
8. a) supposed b) expected c) understood
9. a) retention b) detention c) capture
10. a) ordaining b) blanketing c) covering
37
Global Warming
11. a) Emissions b) Releasing c) Evaporating
12. a) Inducing b) speeding up c) accelerating
13. a) answer b) feedback c) deterioration
14. a) diminished b) deployed c) enhanced
15. a) manifestations b) exhibitions c) displays

line.
Today, because of greenhouse gas ________, the POLLUTE

planet is heating up at a much _______ rate than ever FAST
before and our oceans are becoming more _________. ACID
Temperature rises can appear small, but small increases
translate into big changes for the world’s climate
and __________ environment. NATURE
________ attribute recent temperature rises and SCIENCE
ocean ____________ to human activities like burning ACID
coal and oil, and _______ forests. These activities lead CLEAR
to greenhouse gases being __________ in to the RELEASE
atmosphere at such levels that they exceed natural
____________ and become pollutants. We humans are CONCENTRATE
causing the pollution. But we also have the __________ SOLVE
to reduce our greenhouse gas ____________ and bring EMIT
a halt to dangerous warming.
Global warming occurs when (1) __________ dioxide (CO2) and other
air (2) _________ collect in the atmosphere and (3) _________ sunlight and
solar radiation that have (4) _________ off the earth’s surface. Normally, this
(5) _________ would escape into space – but these pollutants, which can
38
Global Warming
(6) _________ for years to centuries in the atmosphere, (7) _________ the
heat and cause the planet to get
(8) _________.
In the United States, the burning of
(9) _________ fuels to make electricity is the
largest (10) _________ of heat-trapping
pollution, producing about two billion tons of
CO2 every year. Coal-burning
(11) _________ plants are by far the biggest
(12) _________. The country’s second-largest
source of carbon pollution is the transportation
sector, which (13) _________ about 1.7 billion tons of CO2 (14) _________
a year.
Curbing dangerous climate change requires very deep (15) _________ in
emissions, as well as the use of (16) _________ to fossil fuels worldwide.
Scientists continue to develop new ways to (17) _________ power plants,
(18) _________ cleaner electricity, and burn less gasoline while we drive. The
challenge is to be sure these solutions are put to (19) _________ and widely
adopted.
Exercise 5. Watch the video (7). Retell the video. What is

a greenhouse effect and how is it connected with global
warming?
Exercise 6. Watch the video (8). Retell the video

answering the questions:
1. What is a carbon footprint?
2. What is a main component of a natural gas and what is it produced by?
3. What is a laughing gas and what is it produced by?
4. What does “food miles” mean? What kind of carbon footprint is caused
by transportation and home heating?
39
Global Warming
40
Global Warming

1. The common saying that "nothing is ever lost in nature" found vivid
manifestation in the case of gas emissions contributing to the greenhouse
effect. They stay in the atmosphere because there in no other where they can
disperse and vanish. Discuss how people can change forever what Mother
Nature may never be able to bring back to the former safe state.
2. Have you ever heard someone saying that climatic pattern is
changing in our country? If yes, what are the changes?
3. If several ocean islands are inundated, due to the global warming,
their inhabitants, often numbering tens of thousands, will be forced to
evacuate. Imagine the effect such a change would have on their lives, their
culture and the history of these small island nations.
4. Do you think we, Ukrainians, should care about the problem of global
warming or just say recklessly “the warmer the better”? Why?
41
Global Warming
Вміст в атмосфері парникових газів, що утворюються в результати

господарської
діяльності людини,
незмінно зростає,
що породжує
глобальне
потепління. Вони
поглинають теплове
випромінювання,
що йде від Землі, в
результаті чого змінюється енергетичний баланс на планеті і клімат стає
теплішим. Внаслідок високої теплоємності океанів нове положення
рівноваги досягається років за сто і, звичайно, відповідає більш високим
температурам. Серед парникових газів найбільший вплив на клімат
чинить вуглекислий газ. Його джерело – спалене викопне паливо (нафта,
газ). Трішки відстають і інші гази. Вони входять до складу згубного для
людини і рослин смогу.
Змінам клімату сприяють і аерозольні частинки, правда, характер їх
впливу більш складний. Наприклад, якщо частинки сульфатів (сполук
сірки, що містяться у викопному паливі), що добре відбивають сонячне
світло, сприяють підвищенню температури, то аерозолі, утворені
частинками сажі (продукту неповного згорання викопного палива,
деревини та іншого біологічного матеріалу), навпаки, ефективно
поглинають сонячне випромінювання і сприяють підвищенню
температури атмосферного повітря. Вплив аерозолів на клімат можна
оцінити з точністю лише до 50 %, оскільки їх кількість точно не відома.
Дія аерозолів може бути і не настільки прямою. Встановлено, що вони
впливають на властивості хмарного покриву Землі, сприяючи утворенню
хмар, які добре відбивають сонячне світло.
42
Loss of Biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity. does not simply remove a few trees
Extinction is not new. It has from the forest. When canopy trees
occurred continuously since life are cut, many smaller forest trees and
began, and there have been a number plants dependent upon them for
of extinction crises in the past. shade or support or moisture vanish.
However, the current paroxysm is Animals dependent upon trees or
the first great extinction brought other vegetation for food, shelter,
about by human activity. The water, and breeding sites also
“natural” rate (i.e., the rate not disappear. Only those animals
affected by human activity) is about (generally the larger ones) which can
one species per year. The current rate migrate to contiguous forest areas
is much higher, but since we do not survive. Plants in cut-over areas
know how many species there are, it often cannot be pollinated, or if they
is impossible to know with are, their seeds fall upon unsuitable
exactitude how many are lost open areas where they cannot
annually. survive. In addition, many rainforest
Tropical rainforests are, with species are restricted to relatively
coral reefs, the most endangered small areas and are found no where
ecosystems in the world, and are else. When the areas in which these
vulnerable to a substantial loss of species reside are logged or burned,
biodiversity. Deforestation depletes they will disappear.
biodiversity by destroying habitat, Logging activities push roads
by separating contiguous areas of into previously untouched forest.
rainforest from each other, by Even if logging is selective, the
interfering with plant reproduction, logging roads and tracks made to
and by exposing organisms of deep pick up the cut trees cause damage to
forest to “edge” effects. Logging soil and plant life. Erosion is
43
common along these roads. And survive in contact with humans and
since roads create openings where in the chinks we have left for them.
none previously existed, the forest They need to be able to reproduce
now has a long “edge,” where rapidly, disperse widely, and live
conditions are very different from a under difficult conditions. They
normal forest interior (there is more must be “weeds!” We are selecting
light, temperatures are higher, for rats, cockroaches, invasive
humidity is lower). grasses – all of which are tough and
Recovery from the current can live in
human-induced extinction will disturbed
doubtless require much time, since environments.
we are eliminating both animals and These “weedy”
habitat. Where can new large species species represent
evolve? Most endangered now are only a small
large mammals, since they are the fraction of the
easiest to hunt, the lowest in rich variety of
numbers, and require the largest organisms which
habitats and ranges. The organisms exist today (but
which will remain will be a more there are fewer
homogeneous lot, “generalists” like every day).
humans, organisms which can
1. Define biodiversity.
2. Define extinction.
3. When did extinction start?
4. What is “natural” extinction rate?
5. What ecosystems are most vulnerable to a loss of biodiversity?
6. What is the connection between deforestation and species extinction?
7. What is a long “edge” of a forest? Compare it with normal forest
interior.
8. What mammals are most endangered? Why?
9. Is recovery from extinction possible? What peculiarities will it have?
44

space.
Why is biodiversity loss a concern?
The current loss of biodiversity and the (1) _______ changes in the
environment are now faster than ever before in (2) _______ history and there
is no sign of this process slowing (3) ______. Many animal and plant
populations have (4) ______ in numbers, geographical (5) _______, or both.
(6) Species extinction is a natural part of Earth’s history. Human activity has
increased the extinction rate by at (6) ______ 100 times compared to the
natural rate.
Comparing different types of (7) ______ of biodiversity loss is not simple.
The rate of change in one aspect of biodiversity, such as loss of species
(8) _______, does not necessarily reflect the change in another, such as
(9) _______ loss. Moreover, some aspects of biodiversity loss are not easily
measured, for instance the fact that the same species are (10) ________ found
at different locations on the planet and that overall biodiversity is decreasing.
Biodiversity is declining rapidly due (11) ________ factors such as land
use change, climate change, invasive species, (12) _______, and pollution.
Such natural or human- (13) _______ factors – referred to as drivers – tend to
(14) _______ and amplify each other.
While changes in biodiversity are more clearly linked to direct
(15) _______ such as (16) _______ loss, they are also linked to indirect
drivers that are at the root of many changes in ecosystems. The main indirect
drivers are changes in human population, economic activity, and technology,
as well as socio-political and cultural factors.
1. a) related b) linked c) tied

2. a) man b) human c) people
3. a) off b) down c) through
4. a) reduced b) declined c) lessened
5. a) spread b) habitat c) location
6. a) last b) list c) least
7. a) measurements b) calculation c) multiplication
45
8. a) treasures b) prosperity c) richness
9. a) habitat b) home c) residence
10. a) increasingly b) decreasingly c) interestingly
11. a) of b) in c) to
12. a) over exploration b) overexploitation c) overpopulation
13. a) made b) induced c) thought
14. a) interact b) communicate c) mix
15. a) locomotives b) engines c) drivers
16. a) habitat b) home c) place

line.
What then will happen if the current ________ of DECIM

_________ continues? Crop yields will be more difficult to DIVERSE
maintain in the face of _________ change, soil erosion, loss CLIMATE
of dependable water supplies, decline of ________, and ever POLLIN
more serious assaults by pests. ________ of productive land CONVERT
to ____________ will accelerate; deserts will continue their WASTE
________ inexorable expansion. Air pollution will increase, SEEM
and local climates will become harsher. ________ will have MAN
to _____ many of the direct economic benefits it might have GO
withdrawn from Earth's once well-stocked ______ library. It GENE
might miss out on a cure for cancer; but that will
make little difference. As ecosystem services falter, _______ MORTAL
from respiratory and epidemic disease, ______disasters, and NATURE
especially famine will _______ life expectancies to the point LOW
where cancer (largely a disease of the _______) will be OLD
unimportant.
46
The extirpation of populations and (1) _______ of organisms exerts its

(2) ________ impact on society (3) __________ the impairment of ecosystem
services. All plants, animals, and microorganisms (4) _________ gases with
their environments and are thus directly or indirectly (5) __________ in
maintaining the mix of gases in the (6) __________. Changes in that mix (such
as increases in carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and methane) can
(7) ________ to rapid climate change and, in turn, agricultural (8) _______.
As physicist John Holdren put it, a carbon dioxide-induced (9) ________
change could lead to the deaths by famine of as many as a billion people before
2020. Destroying (10) ________ deprives humanity not only of timber but
also of dependable freshwater (11) ________ and furthermore increases the
danger of floods. (12) _________ of insects can lead to the failure of crops
that depend upon insect (13) _________. Extermination of the enemies of
insect pests (a usual result of ad lib pesticide spraying) can terminate the pest
control services of an ecosystem and often
leads to (14) ________ pest outbreaks. The
extinction of subterranean organisms can
destroy the (15) ________ of the soil.
Natural ecosystems maintain a vast genetic
library that has already provided people with
countless (16) ________ and has the
potential for providing many, many more.
Exercise 5. Watch the video (9). Retell it. Why do we need

biodiversity? What is "HI COP"? Comment on “massive
extinction”. What are conservation measures?
Exercise 6. Watch the video (10). Translate it into your

native language.

47
48

1. “Why is it a big deal if we lose another one or two species? After all,
the strongest survive”. Is it the right way to think? Why (not)?
2. To what extent is man responsible for protecting endangered species
and their natural habitat?
3. Several African governments opposed the ivory ban saying
“conservation programmes run by international bodies are a form colonialism
in disguise”. Do you agree with this attitude?
4. People hunt animals both for pleasure and commerce, which
inevitably leads to loss of biodiversity. Would you ban hunting altogether?
Процес вимирання видів - такий самий звичайний процес еволюції,

як і виникнення нових. Проте до перетворення людини в планетарну
силу розвиток біосфери йшов у напрямі збільшення "суми життя": місце
вимерлих видів займали нові, і в кожну наступну епоху розвитку Землі
кількість видів збільшувалася. З розвитком людства цей процес
змінився. Місце зниклих унаслідок прямого чи непрямого
переслідування людиною видів не займали нові. Почався період
антропогенного вимирання тварин і рослин та зменшення
біорізноманіття. Ще в доісторичний час людина винищила багатьох
своїх найбільших ворогів і конкурентів - хижих ссавців, а також великих
травоїдних і птахів. Пізніше темпи вимирання видів прискорилися. У
XVII - XVIII ст. зникало приблизно 1 -2 види за кожні 10 років, а в другій
половині XX ст. - до 10 видів тварин (хребетних і безхребетних) щодня і
не менше 1 виду рослин щотижня. В результаті на даний час під
загрозою вимирання перебуває понад 2000 видів тільки хребетних
тварин.
49
Земля вступила в новий період вимирання, одними з перших жертв
якого можуть стати люди. Про це йдеться в дослідженні, проведеному
трьома провідними американськими університетами - Стенфордським,
та Прінстонським і університетом Берклі.
Згідно зі звітом, хребетні зараз зникають зі швидкістю в 114 разів
вище, ніж зазвичай. Такі висновки підтверджуються і результатами
минулорічного дослідження іншого американського університету -
Дюкського.
Один з авторів останнього дослідження заявив: "Зараз ми входимо
в шостий етап масового вимирання".
Останній раз планета стикалася з подібним явищем 65 млн років
тому, коли, ймовірно, в результаті зіткнення Землі з великим
метеоритом, на ній вимерли динозаври.
Вчені досліджували історичні темпи вимирання видів хребетних з
допомогою, в тому числі, викопних решток тварин. Вони виявили, що
нинішні темпи вимирання видів живих в
більш ніж сто раз вище в порівнянні з
попередніми періодами.
З 1900 року зникли понад 400 видів
хребетних, констатують автори доповіді.
Зазвичай стільки видів зникало з планети
протягом 10 000 років.
Перелік причин такого положення справ, зазначеного в
дослідженні, що включає в себе кліматичні зміни, забруднення і
знищення лісів.
"У всьому світі є види, які вже є, власне, ходячими мерцями", -
говорить професор Стенфордського університету Пол Ерліх.
За оцінками Міжнародного союзу охорони природи, не менше 50
видів тварин щорічно наближаються до межі зникнення. З цією загрозою
сьогодні стикаються 41% всіх видів земноводних і 25% видів ссавців.
Автори нової доповіді стверджують, що "різке ослаблення
біорізноманіття" все ще можна уникнути, однак для цього потрібно
негайно приймати необхідні заходи.
50
Natural Resource Depletion and the Future of Energy
Natural Resource Depletion and the

Future of Energy
We are using up 50% more natural resources than the Earth can
provide. At our current population, we need 1.5 Earths
All the materials and energy India, China, Brazil and few other
essential for the survival and welfare countries use only 15%. India
of living beings including humans- contains the world’s second largest
are provided by nature. They are resource of coal and third and four
called natural resources. largest resource of manganese and
A thing becomes resource only iron. Fossil fuels (coal, petrol, and
when it is used by humans to perform natural gas) on which modern
a function. Man lives in nature and industrial centres are based are
depends on the resources of nature. limited.
The sustenance and welfare of At present rate of consumption,
mankind depend upon the the fossil may be drastically depleted
exploitation of different natural leading to severe energy crisis. Coal
resources. The utilization of soil, reserves of the world are higher than
water minerals, coal, electricity, oil, petroleum and natural gas and they
gas and nuclear energy is very may last longer. Now the shortage of
important for the development of a natural resources is a matter of
nation. These resources have international concern. There is
changed the level of living standard increasing deficiency of energy,
of man. metals, coal, non-fuel and non-
Of the world’s total population metallic materials.
of six billion, one billion in U.S.A. Due to its unending greed, man
and Europe alone use 84% of world’s has destroyed the nature to the
total energy. Three billion people of maximum and made himself the
51
master of nature. However, all efforts or threatened with extinction. It is
to have mastery over the nature have estimated that over 1000 animal
increased his further dependence on species and 20,000 flowering plants
nature. On account of such are likely to be endangered globally.
unthoughtful and ruthless There is a great controversy
exploitation the human society has over the sufficiency of the mineral
vastly modified the ecosystems in resources to retain domestic and
different parts of the world and has economic development all over the
brought undesirable changes in the world. According to “Resources and
natural habitats. Man” (1969), “true shortages exist or
Consequently, some natural threaten for many substances that are
stocks of plants and animals have considered essential for current
disappeared. About 1000 species are industrial society.” Mercury, tin,
currently threatened with extinction tungsten and helium, are known
or are dangerously rare. The human examples and the prospective
encroachment of nature has deprived resources of these substances will be
the world civilization of 130 mammal nearly exhausted by the end of this
species and has endangered more century or early in the next, and new
than 250 species. Out of the total sources or substitutes to satisfy even
approximately 0.3 million species of the relatively short-term needs will
plants in the world, over 20,000 are have to be found out.
in the category of either endangered
1. Define natural resources.

2. What does sustenance and welfare of mankind depend upon?
3. What are fossil fuels?
4. What proves that the man made himself the master of nature?
5. How do you understand the expression “human encroachment of
nature”?
6. Are mineral resources sufficient to retain domestic and economic
development all over the world? Prove.
52
space.
Due to tremendous (1) _____ of population, most of the (2) ____
resources are being rapidly (3) _____. This high (4) ____ of consumption has
(5) _____ our ecosystems. But, on the other hand, many of the natural
resources are (6) _____ basic human needs. Many industries require (7) _____
materials which are essential for the (8) _____ of the country. However, their
rapid (9) _______ will affect adversely the quality of our environment either
by (10) _______ use of natural resources or by increasing pollution.
Due to (11) _____ consumption of minerals of the (12) ______ by
cropping or soil erosion or other natural events, (13) ______ of soil is lost and
the land (14) _____ gradually. Sometimes (15) _____ also results in
deterioration of land and many (16) ______ of the top soil are destroyed and
soil fertility is lost. As a result of (17) _____, the cycling of soil mineral
nutrients is greatly reduced.
1. a) decrease b) increase c) investment

2. a) natural b) artificial c) fossil
3. a) eaten b) consumed c) spent
4. a) number b) increase c) rate
5. a) annoyed b) bothered c) disturbed
6. a) essential b) rigorous c) depleting
7. a) initial b) raw c) rough
8. a) leap b) development c) advancement
9. a) eating b) consumption c) digging
10. a) unwise b) clever c) wise
11. a) excessive b) external c) expired
12. a) ground b) soil c) land
13. a) fertility b) ability c) capacity
14. a) diminishes b) deteriorates c) declines
15. a) desert b) avalanche c) drought
16. a) nutrition b) nutrients c) fertilizers
17. a) growing b) cropping c) planting
53
line.
Erosion has depleted soil _____ because most of FERTILE

the minerals remain in the ______ part of the soil and UP
they are easily ________ by wind or washed away by MOVE
water. Sometimes water ______ takes its toll of fertile EROSE
soils.
Man has also _________ agricultural land and DETERIORATE
ultimately caused the _____ of national economy. It is LOSE
__________ seen that man cannot degrade one part of COMMON
his environment without ___________ affecting other SIMULTANEOUS
parts. For proper economic _____________ lands for DEVELOP
cropping, forest, _______, transportation and wildlife CREATE
are needed but their ______________ is reducing day AVAILABLE
by day. Therefore, integrated policy of ____________ SOURCE
_____________ should be practiced, otherwise MANAGE
unexpected future ________ might upset the national SHORT
economy.
Despite many technological (1) _________, humans of the twenty-first

century are still dependent on some of the same (2) _________ resources that
sustained the first civilizations: (3) _________ water and (4) _________ soils.
In addition, there is enormous (5) __________ for wood, metals, minerals, and
other natural materials from which goods are (6) __________. Finally,
(7) _________ fuels (coal, (8) __________, petroleum, and natural gas)
provide the bulk of the world's power. Since the latter (9) ________ of the
twentieth century, scientists have been (10) ________ that these natural
resources have limits in (11) ________ of quantity and quality.
54
Natural (12) ________ are important not only for their practical value
and economic worth but also for their (13) ________ to environmental health.
For example, forests and wetlands provide (14) ________ for a wide variety
of plant and (15) ________ life. These (16) ________ are also appreciated by
humans for their aesthetic appeal and recreational purposes. However,
developers and (17) _________ entities have an interest in using these lands
for different (18) _________.
Exercise 5. Watch the video (11). Retell the video.

explaining CCS project is.
55
56
1. Explain how the following are interrelated when environmental
issues are discussed: recycling, saving natural resources, reducing energy
consumption, diminishing the amount of waste.
2. If you were to launch “an anti-depletion campaign” how would you
do it and would you do it in the first place? Why (not)?
3. Do you think there could be a major war over finite fossil fuels in
the next 100 years? If so, who will win it?
4. Would you invest in ‘green’ investments? Why/why not?
5. Would you consider powering your home using solar panels? What
are the pros and cons of doing so?
У зв'язку з ростом населення Землі та надмірним споживанням,

збільшився рівень експлуатації природних ресурсів. Це зумовлює їх
втрати, які можуть бути незворотними.
Неймовірні темпи економічного росту, що базуються, в основному,
на збільшенні використання ресурсів, не можуть тривати вічно в такій
обмеженій системі, як Земля. Рівень споживання перевищив її
продуктивну здатність ще в сімдесятих роках ХХ ст. З тих пір людство
перебуває в стані надспоживання, оскільки використовує природні
ресурси швидше, ніж вони можуть бути відновлені. Іншими словами, ми
використовуємо ресурси, що мали б служити майбутнім поколінням.
Проте, результат нераціонального використання ресурсів відчувається
вже сьогодні у зростаючій кількості економічних, екологічних та
соціальних питань: таких, як економічно напружені відносини внаслідок
виснаження ресурсів і нерівноправного доступу до них, зміни клімату і
втрати біорізноманітності, а й також проблеми зі здоров'ям через
забруднення навколишнього середовища. Якщо не збільшувати зусиль
для реалізації програми сталого розвитку, то економічні, екологічні та
соціальні проблеми вирішені не будуть.
57
Overpopulation
Overpopulation
Overpopulation death rate have always been able to

Overpopulation is an balance each and maintain a
undesirable condition where the population growth rate that is
number of existing human population sustainable.
exceeds the carrying capacity Since the time of the Bubonic
of Earth. Overpopulation is caused Plague in the 1400’s, the growth of
by number of factors. Reduced population has been on a constant
mortality rate, better medical increase. Between the time of the
facilities, depletion of precious plague and the 21st century, there has
resources are few of the causes which been hundreds and thousands of
results in overpopulation. It is wars, natural calamities and man-
possible for a sparsely populated area made hazards. However, none of
to become densely populated if it is these have made a dent on the
not able to sustain life. population.
Growing advances in Causes of Overpopulation
technology with each coming year Decline in the Death Rate: At
has affected humanity in many ways. the root of overpopulation is the
One of these has been the ability to difference between the overall birth
save lives and create better medical rate and death rate in populations. If
treatment for all. A direct result of the number of children born each
this has been increased lifespan and year equals the number of adults that
the growth of the population. In the die, then the population will stabilize.
past fifty or so years, the growth of Talking about overpopulation shows
population has boomed and has that while there are many factors that
turned into overpopulation. In the can increase the death rate for short
history of our species, the birth and periods of time, the ones that increase
58
Overpopulation
the birth rate do so over a long period psychological component as well.
of time. The discovery of agriculture For thousands of years, a very small
by our ancestors was one factor that part of the population had enough
provided them with the ability to money to live in comfort. The rest
sustain their nutrition without faced poverty and would give birth to
hunting. This created the first large families to make up for the high
imbalance between the two rates. infant mortality rate. Families that
Better Medical have been through poverty, natural
Facilities: Following this came the disasters are simply in need of more
industrial revolution. Technological hands to work are a major factor for
advancement was perhaps the biggest overpopulation. As compared to
reason why the balance has been earlier times, most of these extra
permanently disturbed. Science was children survive and consume
able to produce better resources that are not
means of producing sufficient in nature.
food, which allowed Technological
families to feed more Advancement in Fertility
mouths. Medical science Treatment: With latest
made many discoveries technological advancement
thanks to which they and more discoveries in
were able to defeat a medical science, it has become
whole range of diseases. Illnesses possible for couple who are unable to
that had claimed thousands of lives conceive to undergo fertility
until now were cured because of the treatment methods and have their
invention of vaccines. Combining the own babies. Today there are effective
increase in food supply with fewer medicines which can increases the
means of mortality tipped the balance chance of conception and lead to rise
and became the starting point of in birth rate. Moreover, due to
overpopulation. modern techniques pregnancies
More Hands to Overcome today are far more safer.
Poverty: However, when talking Immigration: Many people
about overpopulation we should prefer to move to developed
understand that there is a countries like US, UK, Canada and
59
Overpopulation
Australia where best facilities are making that place simply
available in terms of medical, overcrowded.
education, security and employment. Lack of Family Planning:
The final result is that those people Most developing nations have large
settle over there and those places number of people who are illiterate,
become overcrowded. Difference live below the poverty line and have
between the number of people who little or no knowledge about family
are leaving the country and the planning. Getting their children
number of people who enter narrows married at an early age increase the
down which leads to more demand chances of producing more kids.
for food, clothes, energy and homes. Those people are unable to
This gives rise to shortage of understand the harmful effects of
resources. Though the overall overpopulation and lack of ignorance
population remains the same, it just prompts them to avoid family
affects the density of population planning measures.
1. Define overpopulation.
2. What is carrying capacity of earth?
3. What is overpopulation caused by?
4. What adjectives are used in the text to describe an area depending on
the amount of people living there?
5. What kind of balance does nature need to maintain a population
growth rate that is sustainable?
6. Since when has the population been on a constant increase?
7. What created the first imbalance between the two rates: birth and
death?
8. What can be called a starting point of overpopulation?
9. What is a psychological reason of overpopulation?
10. What kind of treatment is recommended to couples who are unable
to conceive and how is it related to the issue in question?
11. How does immigration effect overpopulation?
12.In what way can lack of education contribute to overpopulation?
60
Overpopulation
space.
The (1) _______of overpopulation are quite severe. The first of these is
the (2) _______of resources. The Earth can only (3) _______a limited amount
of water and food, which is falling (4) _______of the current needs. Most of
the environmental (5) _______being seen in the last fifty odd years is because
of the (6) _______number of people on the planet. They are cutting
(7) _______forests, hunting wildlife in a reckless manner, causing
(8) _______and creating a host of problems. Those (9) _______in talking
about overpopulation have noticed that (10) _______of violence and
aggression outside of a war zone have increased tremendously while
competing for (11) _______. With the (12) _______ of coal, oil and natural
gas, it has started (13) _______some serious effects on our environment. Rise
in the number of (14) _______ and industries have badly affected the quality
of air. Rise in amount of CO2 (15) _______leads to global warming. Melting
of polar ice (16) _______, changing climate patterns, rise in sea level are few
of the consequences that we have to face due to environment pollution.
1 a) effects b) affects c) effect
2 a) usage b) depletion c) use
3 a) produce b) make c) create
4 a) deprived b) long c) short
5 a) effect b) impact c) damage
6 a) climbing b) growing c) bigger
7 a) down b) out c) off
8 a) dirt b) pollution c) litter
9 a) forced b) endangered c) engaged
10 a) cases b) events c) acts
11 a) resources b) sources c) materials
12 a) consumption b) overdose c) overuse
13 a) making b) producing c) facing
14 a) machines b) machinery c) vehicles
15 a) emissions b) production c) evaporation
16 a) caps b) hats c) hoods
61
Overpopulation

line.
Overpopulation in __________ countries puts a DEVELOP

major strain on the __________ it should be utilizing SOURCE
for ___________. Conflicts over water are becoming DEVELOP
a source of ________ between countries, which could TENSE
result in wars. It causes more diseases to spread and
makes them harder to control. _______ is a huge issue STARVE
______ the world and the mortality rate for children is FACE
being _________ by it. Poverty is the biggest hallmark FUEL
we see when talking about ______________. All of POPULATE
this will only become worse if ________ are not sought SOLVE
out for the factors affecting our __________. We can no POPULATE
longer prevent it, but there are ways to control it.
When a country becomes overpopulated, it gives
rise to ______________ as there fewer jobs to support EMPLOY
large number of people. Rise in unemployment gives
rise to crime as people will steal ________ items to feed VARY
their family and provide them _________ amenities of BASE
life.
Probably the most serious of (1) __________problems we

(2) __________ as humans is overpopulation. People are in the frame of mind
that if we run (3) __________ of room in one town, we can just simply
(4) __________ out more. We can move people into areas that are less
populated, and we can continue to reproduce and expand at an (5) __________
rate. What most people don’t (6) __________ when they continue to build
more stores and houses is that we are quickly (7) __________ out of the
62
Overpopulation
natural resources necessary to
(8) __________ the population we have
right now.
Fresh water is one of the biggest
(9) __________ with overpopulation, and
this (10) __________ a huge environmental
(11) __________. Different cities have what
is (12) __________ as “water rights” from a
certain mountain area’s snowmelt, or certain
freshwater lakes and streams. There are more people (13) __________ water,
however, than being (14) __________ and the result is that we now have dried
up lakebeds, which create dust particles. These (15) __________ particles are
then polluting the environment and the air we (16) __________. So, not only
is there not enough (17) __________ water for the current population to drink,
but the air is getting (18) __________ with dust (19) __________ that
contribute to health (20) __________.
For decades, many landfill managers have been emphasizing just how
quickly they are (21) __________ out of space. The more people there are on
the planet, the more waste is being (22) __________. Some of this
(23) __________ is quite toxic, and even landfills which are double-lined are
finding that some toxic (24) __________ are leaching into the
(25) __________ and the groundwater supply. This (26) __________ even
more of a risk to our freshwater (27) __________, and can contribute to the
decimation of many species sharing the earth today.

explaining the historical backgrounds and prospects of
world population.

explaining the paradox described. What is demographic
transition?
63
Overpopulation

64
Overpopulation
1. What problem would you consider more serious: overpopulation or
underpopulation? Why?
2. Is there anything positive about overpopulation? What can be done
about it?
3. Given the scale of overpopulation, natural calamities might not be
such a curse. After all, in this way Mother Nature might be trying to keep
balance between our appetites and the resources She can provide us with. Do
you agree? Why (not)?
4. Do you think governments should impose a limit on the number of
children a couple can have in overpopulated countries?
5. Should infertility research and treatment (surrogacy including) be
continued? Why (not)?
6. Nothing is free in this world. Who, do you think, pays for
overpopulation: poor people who don’t have enough resources to survive or
taxpayers of rich countries that are trying to deal with the problem on a global
level?
Двоє дослідників з Університету Аделаїди створили комп’ютерні

моделі, що дозволяють підрахувати, скільки років піде на скорочення
населення Землі до прийнятного рівня, який не створює зайвого
навантаження на екосистему. Висновки виявилися невтішні: навіть при
жорсткому обмеженні народження дітей і масовій загибелі населення у
разі катаклізму чисельність землян не скорочуватиметься в порівнянні з
сьогоднішньою ще як мінімум 90 років, пише IFLScience.
Для побудови моделей вчені використовували статистику
Всесвітньої організації охорони здоров’я (ВООЗ) і дані переписів
населення, прораховуючи різні варіанти розвитку подій до 2100 року.
Як з’ясувалося, навіть якщо всі країни впровадять політику “одна
сім’я – одна дитина”, кількість людей на планеті залишиться приблизно
на сучасному рівні. Скороченню населення не допоможе навіть
катастрофічне вимирання двох мільйонів людей в середині XXI століття
65
Overpopulation
– при збереженні поточних тенденцій і в цьому випадку до 2100 року
число землян складе близько 8,5 мільярда.
На свій подив учені також виявили, що навіть нова п’ятирічна
світова війна, яка забере життя тієї ж частки населення, що Перша і
Друга, практично ніяк не позначиться на зростанні популяції.
Експерти підрахували, що без обмежень народжуваності та
випадків масової загибелі людей до початку XXII століття їх чисельність
зросте до 11-12 мільярдів. Між тим вони надають непомірне
навантаження на екосистему і ресурси планети. Якщо народжуваність
залишиться на сучасному рівні, найбільші проблеми з населенням
будуть в Африці і Південній Азії, попереджають вчені.
“Населення Землі за останні сто років росло настільки стрімкими
темпами, що зараз на планеті живуть близько 14% всіх людей, які коли-
небудь існували. Ці цифри повинні нас протверезити, – йдеться в прес-
релізі провідного автора дослідження Корі Бредшоу. – Через ряд причин
вважається, що забезпечити придатні для життя умови для такої
кількості людей неможливо, не в останню чергу тому, що ми просто не
можемо нагодувати стільки ротів. Крім того, це створює непомірне
навантаження на клімат і навколишнє середовище”.
Бредшоу підкреслює, що в цих умовах найбільш продуктивні
способи зменшити це навантаження – технологічні та соціальні
інновації. Користь від грамотної демографічної політики, впровадженої
зараз, зможуть відчути тільки досить віддалені нащадки, каже другий
учасник дослідження Баррі Брук. Виправити становище для сучасного
людства ці заходи не допоможуть. Тому потрібно зосередитися на тому,
як зменшити вплив на середовище і скоротити споживання природних
ресурсів.
Однак ці висновки не означають, що потрібно відмовитися від усіх
спроб скоротити народжуваність, підкреслюють дослідники. Широке
впровадження сексуальної освіти і планування сім’ї здатне вже до 2050
року зменшити ріст людства на сотні мільйонів.
66
Pollution and Waste Disposal

What is pollution? Air Pollution is the most
Pollution, we hear it every other prominent and dangerous form of
day and read about it in newspapers. pollution. It occurs due to many
So what is it? Pollution occurs when reasons. Excessive burning of fuel
pollutants contaminate the natural which is a necessity of our daily lives
surroundings; which brings about for cooking, driving and other
changes that affect our normal industrial activities; releases a huge
lifestyles adversely. Pollutants are amount of chemical substances in the
the key elements or components of air every day; these pollute the air.
pollution which are generally waste Smoke from chimneys, factories,
materials of different forms. vehicles or burning of wood basically
Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and occurs due to coal burning; this
the balance in the environment. With releases sulphur dioxide into the air
modernization and development in making it toxic. The effects of air
our lives pollution has reached its pollution are evident too. Release of
peak; giving rise to global warming sulphur dioxide and hazardous gases
and human illness. into the air causes global warming
Pollution occurs in different and acid rain; which in turn have
forms; air, water, soil, radioactive, increased temperatures, erratic rains
noise, heat/ thermal and light. Every and droughts worldwide; making it
form of pollution has two sources of tough for the animals to survive. We
occurrence; the point and the non- breathe in every polluted particle
point sources. The point sources are from the air; result is increase in
easy to identify, monitor and control, asthma and cancer in the lungs.
whereas the non-point sources are Water Pollution has taken toll of
hard to control. all the surviving species of the earth.
Almost 60% of the species live in
67
water bodies. It occurs due to several Release of industrial waste, mining
factors; the industrial wastes dumped and deforestation also exploits the
into the rivers and other water bodies soil. Since plants can’t grow
cause an imbalance in the water properly, they can’t hold the soil and
leading to its severe contamination this leads to soil erosion.
and death of aquatic species. Noise pollution is caused when
Also spraying insecticides, noise which is an unpleasant sound
pesticides like DDT on plants affects our ears and leads to
pollutes the ground water system and psychological problems like stress,
oil spills in the oceans have caused hypertension, hearing impairment,
irreparable damage to the water etc. It is caused by machines in
bodies. Eutrophication is another big industries, loud music, etc.
source; it occurs due to daily Radioactive pollution is highly
activities like washing clothes, dangerous when it occurs. It can
utensils near lakes, ponds or rivers; occur due to nuclear plant
this forces detergents to go into water malfunctions, improper nuclear
which blocks sunlight from waste disposal, accidents, etc. It
penetrating, thus reducing oxygen causes cancer, infertility, blindness,
and making it inhabitable. defects at the time of birth; can
Water pollution not only harms the sterilise soil and affect air and water.
aquatic beings but it also Thermal/heat pollution is due to
contaminates the entire food chain by the excess heat in the environment
severely affecting humans dependent creating unwanted changes over long
on these. Water-borne diseases like time periods; due to huge number of
cholera, diarrhoea have also industrial plants, deforestation and
increased in all places. air pollution. It increases the earth’s
Soil pollution occurs due to temperature, causing drastic climatic
incorporation of unwanted chemicals changes and extinction of wildlife.
in the soil due to human activities. Light pollution occurs due to
Use of insecticides and pesticides prominent excess illumination of an
absorbs the nitrogen compounds area. It is largely visible in big cities,
from the soil making it unfit for on advertising boards and billboards,
plants to derive nutrition from. in sports or entertainment events at
68
the night. In residential areas the lives astronomical observations and
of the inhabitants is greatly affected activities by making the stars almost
by this. It also affects the invisible.
1. Define pollution and pollutants. What can it be?

2. What are the sources of pollution?
3. What are the causes and effects of air pollution?
4. What are the causes and effects of water pollution?
5. What are the causes and effects of soil pollution?
6. What are the causes and effects of noise pollution?
7. What are the causes and effects of radioactive pollution?
8. What are the causes and effects of thermal pollution?
9. What are the causes and effects of light pollution?

each space.
The more waste we (1) ________, the more we have to (2) _______ of.
Waste recycling offers one (3) _______ of reducing the impacts of waste
disposal (4) _______ the atmosphere, but there are other methods of waste
disposal which are more environmentally friendly.
The most (5) _______ disposal methods, particularly in the UK, are
(6) _______ and to a lesser extent (7) ________. Each year approximately 111
million tonnes of controlled waste ((8) _______, commercial and industrial
waste) are disposed of in landfill sites in the UK. As landfill waste
(9) _______, methane is released in considerable quantities. Methane is a
strong greenhouse gas and (10) _______ to global warming. Furthermore, the
leachate (11) _______ formed from decomposing waste can (12) _______
through the underlying and surrounding geological (13) _______, polluting
groundwater which may be used for drinking water (14) _______.
Incineration is the second largest waste disposal method in most countries.
When (15) _______ waste, a large amount of energy, carbon dioxide and other
potentially (16) _______ air pollutants is given (17) _______. Modern
69
(18) _______ however, can use this waste energy to (19) _______ electricity
and hence prevent the energy from being wasted.
1. a) make b) generate c) do
2. a) dispose b) oppose c) pose
3. a) means b) mean c) meaning
4. a) of b) in c) on
5. a) common b) average c) usual
6. a) landsite b) landslide c) landfill
7. a) incineration b) inscenuation c) cremation
8. a) household b) home c) residence
9. a) decomposes b) destructs c) dissembles
10. a) helps b) contributes c) brings
11. a) waters b) solutions c) fluids
12. a) absorb b) permeate c) flow
13. a) stratum b) strata c) stratus
14. a) pile b) stock c) supplies
15. a) burning b) decomposing c) generating
16. a) decomposing b) hazardous c) polluting
17. a) away b) out c) off
18. a) incinerators b) fluids c) means
19. a) generate b) contribute c) permeate

line.
As well as ________ waste, individuals can adopt more RECYCLE

___________ ways of disposing it. One way is to compost SUSTAIN
any ______________ waste such as food and garden waste. ORGAN
Organic waste breaks down over a few weeks into a
mulch which can be used as a soil ___________. Individual FERTILE
_____________ have practiced small-scale composting for HOUSE
70
many years, and the UK ________________ is now GOVERN
encouraging this on a wider scale. Large-scale
_____________ schemes are also being developed, with the COMPOST
______________ of organic waste from parks and civic COLLECT
amenity sites. Garden and food wastes are collected
______________ from households in separate kerbside DIRECT
collections.
All parts of the nuclear fuel cycle produce some (1) __________ waste
(radwaste) and the relatively modest cost of managing and (2) __________ of
this is part of the electricity cost, i.e. it is internalised and paid for by the
electricity (3) __________.
Unlike other (4) __________ wastes, the level of hazard of all nuclear
waste – its (5) __________ – diminishes with time. Each radionuclide
(6) __________ in the waste has a half-life – the time taken for half of its
atoms to decay and thus for it to lose half of its radioactivity. Radionuclides
with long (7) __________ tend to be alpha and beta emitters – making their
handling easier – while those with short half-lives tend to emit the more
penetrating gamma (8) __________. Eventually all radioactive wastes
(9) __________ into non-radioactive elements. The more (10) __________ an
isotope is, the faster it decays.
The main objective in (11) __________ and disposing of radioactive (or
other) waste is to protect people and the environment. This means isolating or
diluting the waste so that the rate or (12) __________ of any radionuclides
returned to the biosphere is (13) __________. To achieve this, practically all
wastes are contained and (14) __________ – some clearly need deep and
permanent burial. All toxic wastes need to be (15) __________ with safely,
not just radioactive wastes. In countries with nuclear power, radioactive
wastes (16) __________ less than 1% of total (17) __________ toxic wastes
(the balance of which remains hazardous indefinitely).
71

classification of radioactive waste and its criteria. When
are radioactive elements removed from the equipment?
Where is radioactive waste stored? What is IAEA?
Exercise 7. Watch the video (16), retell it comparing with

waste management and disposal in our country.
72

1. We are leaving behind a horrible legacy for future generations in the
form of nuclear and toxic waste. People aren’t happy about hazardous
radioactive rays it emits but don’t seem to be ready to give up all goods and
services which generate this kind of waste. Is there anything that can be done
about it?
2. Companies care about packaging not any less than about goods they
produce to catch our attention. The more lavish and colourful the wrapping,
the more chances that we will buy the product. Millions of tons of plastic,
glass and aluminium are thus being wasted. How can a consumer understand
that it’s not the packaging he should be after but a good quality of the product?
3. The number of cars has multiplied dramatically in recent years. This
brings enormous profit to car manufacturers and the motor industry, as well
as meets the demand of car owners. Yet, each vehicle contributes to air
pollution and leaves a huge carbon footprint. Its owner, who is aware of the
damage his vehicle is doing to the environment, will shrug his shoulders
saying: "Why should I give up driving my car and not other drivers?"
Одним із наслідків діяльності людини на Землі є забруднення

навколишнього середовища. Заводський дим, вихлопи автомобілів,
небезпечні викиди при пожежах - все це отруює повітря. Земля
забруднена звалищами, ядерними відходами й іншим сміттям нашої
цивілізації.
Забруднення повітря
Найбільше повітря отруюють автомобільні вихлопи, викиди в
атмосферу із труб фабрик і електростанцій, пожежі. Зокрема, при
спалюванні нафти, газу й вугілля в атмосферу попадає так багато
вуглекислого газу, що Земля незабаром швидко почне нагріватися через
парниковий ефект. У результаті викидів в атмосферу на промислових
73
підприємствах все частіше стали йти кислотні дощі. Будь-який дощ має
трохи кислоти, але якщо сонячне світло змішує в повітрі двоокис азоту,
сірчистий газ, кисень і вологу, то випадає дощ, наповнений слабкими
розчинами азотної й сірчаної кислот. Рівень вуглекислого газу в
атмосфері в результаті роботи автомобілів піднявся за останнє сторіччя
майже в півтора рази.
Забруднення ґрунту
Величезні площі поверхні Землі забруднені відходами
життєдіяльності людини. Велика кількість відходів токсичні, небезпечні
для життя тварин і людини. Учені підрахували, що за рік один міський
житель викидає одну тонну сміття! Сьогодні все сутужніше знайти місце
для зберігання навіть такого не дуже небезпечного сміття, як пластмаса.
Багато відходів дійсно отрутні й навіть радіоактивні. В одній тільки
Великобританії в 1990 р. існувало 4800 звалищ небезпечного токсичного
сміття.
Забруднення води
У світі залишилося небагато рік, які не були б забруднені
продуктами життєдіяльності людини. Зі стічними водами в ріки
попадають добрива й пестициди із сільськогосподарських земель.
Забруднення вод рік і озер нітратними добривами росте на планеті
практично щотижня. На жаль, навіть у тому випадку, якщо заборонити
використовувати нітратні добрива вже завтра, ситуація буде
погіршуватися. Нітрати повільно, уже протягом багатьох років,
просочуються через землю в русла рік або озер.
Ядерні відходи
Найнебезпечнішими для всього живого на планеті є відходи від
ядерного виробництва. Ядерні відходи можуть викликати рак, зміни
ДНК і смерть. Щоб відходи стали нешкідливими й зникла
радіоактивність, повинно минути 80 тис. років. Але сьогодні рідкі
відходи часом просто скидають у моря, а газоподібні потрапляють у
повітря. Тверді відходи накопичують. В основному радіоактивне сміття
закопують, а іноді зберігають на землі в контейнерах.
74
Progress test
Progress test
1. ……………one aluminium can saves enough energy to run a TV for three
hours.
a) Recycling b) Deteriorating c) Replenishing
2. We ……………..over 80 trillion aluminium cans every year.
a) impair b) consume c) emit
3. Every day, American businesses …….enough paper to circle the earth 20
times!
a) generate b) convert c) multiply
4. Only 1% of the world's water ………..is usable, 97% are the oceans and
2% is frozen (for now).
a) content b) supply c) storage
5. The amount of …………and paper we throw away each year is enough to
heat 50,000,000 homes for 20 years.
a) logging b) nutrients c) wood
6. Plastic bags and other plastic ………….thrown into the ocean kill as many
as 1,000,000 sea creatures every year.
a) garbage b) particles c) solutions
7. A modern glass bottle takes 4000 years or more to …………...
a) deteriorate b) combust c) decompose
8. More than 20,000,000 Hershey's Kisses are wrapped each day, using 133
square miles of tinfoil. All that foil is…………….!
a) recyclable b) acidified c) dissolved
9. Rainforests are being cut ………… at the rate of 100 acres per minute.
a) out b) off c) down
10. Humans and elephants are the only …………… with chins.
a) species b) advents c) animals
11. There are more than 1,200 …….. of bat in the world and not one of them
is blind.
a) species b) types c) kinds
12. ………….substances can be separated into very small parts by bacteria so
that they are not harmful to the environment.
75
Progress test
a) Biodegradable b) Disrupted c) Disposed
13. A lot of things may …………harm to people or to the environment,
especially a poisonous chemical or an infectious disease.
a) neutralise b) cause c) generate
14. A carbon capture and storage is the process of collecting carbon dioxide
that is produced by ...... coal or oil and storing it to stop it getting into
the atmosphere.
a) decomposing b) modifying c) burning
15.A carbon …………. is the amount of carbon dioxide a person,
organization, building, etc. produces, used as a measure of their effect
on the environment.
a) quantity b) storage c) footprint
16.A carbon sink is an ocean, forest, or other area of ..............that helps to
protect the environment by taking in large amounts of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
a) vegetation b) disruption c) extinction
17.A catalytic converter a piece of equipment fitted to a car in order to
……….the amount of poisonous gases that it sends into the air.
a) facilitate b) perpetuate c) reduce
18.A cleantech is a technology which provides benefits such
as clean energy,
and environmentally……………products and services.
a) sustainable b) intact c) barren
19.A climate change is the changes that are thought to be ………….the
world’s weather so that it is becoming warmer.
a) effecting b) affecting c) contributing to
20. Conservation is the………..of land and water in ways that prevent it
from being damaged or destroyed.
a) conversion b) application c) management
21.To ………. means to make something dirty, polluted, or poisonous by
adding a chemical, waste, or infection.
a) proliferate b) contaminate c) pollinate
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Progress test
22.To decarbonize means to reduce the amount of gaseous
carbon………released into the atmosphere as
a result of human activity.
a) compounds b) solutions c) toxicity
23.In England there is an ecotown, a new town that is designed in a way
that reduces people's ……….on the environment to a minimum.
a) violation b) sustainability c) impact
24.Emissions trading is the practice of buying and selling the right to
produce chemicals and other ………. that have a harmful effect on the
environment.
a) compounds b) solutions c) substances
25.An endangered species is a type of animal or plant that may soon become
…...
a) irreversible b) extinct c) potent
26.An environmentally ………….area is an area where the natural
environment can easily be harmed.
a) sensitive b) barren c) unabated
27.A feed-in tariff is a payment made by the government to someone who
……. energy that is renewable (= that can be replaced and is never
completely used up).
a) produces b) excesses c) neutralises
28.The greenhouse effect is the process in which ……….. is unable to
escape from the atmosphere and causes the temperature of the Earth to
rise.
a) vapour b) heat c) toxicity
29.Greening is the process of taking a greater interest in environmental
………and acting to protect the environment.
a) issues b) combustion c) amenities
30.To reprocess means to process a(n)…………substance so that it can be
used again.
a) waste b) illiterate c) fertile
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Progress test
31. A ………development is the development of a country or region that
does not use more natural resources than can be replaced and so does
not harm the environment.
a) erratic b) severe c) sustainable
32.The water cycle is a continuous process by which water in seas, rivers,
soil, living things etc. ……….into the atmosphere, where it forms
clouds that produce rain or snow so that it goes back into the seas, rivers,
soil etc. again.
a) absorbs b) evaporates c) decomposes
33.A new nuclear ……… site for transuranic refuse is under construction.
a) particle b) deterioration c) dump
34.It is hoped that, with the passage of time, the salt caverns will converge,
………….. the waste.
a) malfunctioning b) contaminating c) entrapping
35.One thousand years of isolation is the time projected for the radioactive
elements to decay into stable substances.
a) decay b) seek out c) leach
36.Environmental watchdogs have presented a …… of criticism saying
that if the process of converging does not take place, leakage of slurry
may occur, seeping into and contaminating the water supply.
a) barrage b) mortality c) amenity
37.A similar risk faces the new, long-awaited, nuclear waste ………which
stretches one kilometer out under the sea-bed.
a) repository b) dump c) leakage
38.Undisputedly, nuclear energy will help reduce the greenhouse effect,
acid rain and other environmental ……….., as it has none of the
drawbacks posed by the burning of fossil fuels.
a) calamities b) disasters c) amenities
39.What causes the most ……..., however, are the early nuclear-waste
burial sites.
a) concern b) issue c) conception
40.The ……….. cargo was initially refused entry permission for
processing because of inadequate identification.
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Progress test
a) sustainable b) erratic c) hazardous
41.Today’s revelation has caused an outcry from ………….. .
a) insecticides b) pesticides c) environmentalists
42. It is still disputed whether high-temperature ………. of PCB’s
produces dioxins, furans and other toxic substances, or not.
a)release b) depletion c) combustion
43.Still, it is better to know where the cargo is, rather than having it
illegally ……….. – the worst crime against the environment that can be
committed.
a) engineered b) dumped c) fueled
44.Today’s consumption is rapidly ……… waste products.
a) depleting b) deteriorating c) multiplying
45.Each household ………… tons of rubbish.
a) makes b) does c) produces
46.This ……is usually either tipped into the ground at landfill sites or
incinerated.
a) dump site b) by-product c) refuse
47.When buried, the ……… waste rots away, producing methane which
causes pollution and is one of the “greenhouse gases”.
a) nutritious b) organic с) illiterate
48.Inorganic wastes, such as polystyrene foam and glass, do not
…………… but remain forever.
a) expose b) restrict c) decompose
49.But, more environment-friendly alternatives are being sought as
countries are running ………. of dumping sites.
a) into b) off c) out
50.Scientists are experimenting with ………… materials, notably new
plastics.
a) amplifying b) pollinated c) biodegradable
51.However, the future clearly lies with the recycling of ………… waste.
a) decimated b) fertile c) reusable
52.This is possible with efficient waste ……….. policies.
a) ruling b) directing c) management
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Progress test
53.Only by being more thrifty can we avoid being buried under heaps of
…….. .
a) litter b) dirt c) rubbish
54.Increased consumption generates more garbage and, in turn, causes
………. problems.
a) combustion b) disposal c) dumping
55. Bearing in mind that …….. of natural resources are not renewable,
recyclable materials like metals, paper, rags, melted-down plastic and
hardwood cutoffs, should be put to good use.
a) layers b) deposits c) entities
56.The biggest savings would be in energy ………., but it is also important
to conserve natural resources and be environment-friendly by
producing less waste.
a) incorporation b) evaporation c) consumption
57.Waste Watch has started the campaign by targeting ………., offering
advice on local recycling schemes.
a) houses b) homes c) households
58.By buying ……., the public will show their awareness of environmental
issues.
a) recyclables b) acidifiers c) fertilisers
59.A car has been constructed which halves the environment - damaging
of carbon dioxide ……… pumped out by an ordinary vehicle.
a) submissions b) emissions с) pollution
60.This concept is hoped to lead to more breathable air and the ………. of
deadly smog in the major industrialised cities of the world.
a) deterioration b) multiplication c) elimination
61.This equipment absorbs 90% of the noxious gases but increase ……
consumption.
a) fossil b) fuel c) greenhouse
62.Electric cars do not ……….. the problem.
a) treat b) solve c) take toll on
63.…………the damage is done, it will take years for the atmosphere to
return to a safer state.
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Progress test
a) But for b) Unless c) Once
64.The pollutants already …….. will be with us for the whole of the 21st
century.
a) absorbed b) excessed c) released
65.The continued accumulation of the so-called ………gases results in the
world’s heat being trapped in the atmosphere like the glass walls of a
greenhouse.
a) trapping b) leaking c) greenhouse
66.Carbon dioxide, which ………up to 60% to global warming, comes
from power stations, where it is generated from the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal or oil.
a) incinerates b) decomposes c) contributes
67.Burning forests and car exhaust ………… produce CO2.
a) pollutants b) fumes c) pollinators
68.Greenhouse gases include methane, generated by ……….. refuse and
livestock, and chloro – fluorocarbons.
a) decaying b) multiplying c) reused
69.Scientists predict that over the next century the world will warm up
……. 3C.
a) in b) by c) for
70.The polar ice ……… will begin to melt, unlocking up to 90% of the
earth’s surface water.
a) caps b) hats c) blankets
71.According to this …………. prediction, because of the increased
weather turbulence and the redistribution of rainfall, the global food
production pattern will change.
a) alarming b) transuranic c) considerable
72.Most cultivated areas become …………….. deserts.
a) water-born b) barren c) hazardous
73.To solve the problem, emissions of carbon dioxide must be cut
……least 60 %.
a) In b) on c) by
74. Widespread ………….. is an absolute necessity.
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Progress test
a) reforestation b) deforestation c) incineration
75.Experts are warning against an increasing ……….. of the ozone layer,
particularly in the Polar region.
a) depletion b) emission c) ignorance
76.The thinning of the ozone shield and the greenhouse effect, two major
environmental problems, are both related to ……… rays.
a) UV b) DNA c) CO2
77. There is little doubt that the continuing ozone reduction will make
people more …………… .
a) sustainable b) mortal c) vulnerable
78.Every year, industry releases millions of tons of toxic ………. into the
air.
a) substances b) eutrophication c) detergents
79.Among airborne …….. pumped into the air are Sulphur dioxides and
nitrogen oxides.
a) pollutants b) hypertension c) impairment
80.The concentration of pollutants is particularly high in countries whose
…….. plants depend largely on fossil fuels, and low-quality brown coal
in particular.
a) electricity b) power c) light
81. Acidic clouds, which do not respect political borders, can ……..
waterways, vegetation and buildings thousands of miles away from the
industrial complexes that created them.
a) affect b) effect c) contribute
82.Nitric and sulphuric acid coming down in rain, snow and fog are said to
be responsible for a wide variety of harmful effects such as dead lakes,
decimated forests, lifeless soil, …………. statuary and architecture and
aggravated respiratory conditions in people.
a) malfunctioning b) deteriorating c) releasing
83.In the worst hit areas, the ……….. is so serious that there are no fish in
the acidified lakes, and trees permanently lose their foliage.
a) impairment b) contamination c) detergent
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Progress test
84.The situation is becoming intolerable and, whatever the consequences,
man must stop ……….. the delicate balance of the ecological system.
a) contaminating b) polluting c) upsetting
85.Opposition to forest ……… is very strong because every sixty seconds
trees are being felled and 50 acres of forests are being destroyed
somewhere in the world.
a) logging b) deforestation c) deterioration
86.Temperate rainforests are the last untouched ……………. in the world.
a) species b) ecosystems c) detergents
87.People who are destroying environment are committing ecological rape
……… a gigantic scale.
a) in b) on c)from
88.Forests are burned ……… to make way for cattle grazing, as man needs
meat to sustain an ever growing population.
a) up b) down c) away
89.The delicate soil quickly ………….. and after a few years the farmers
move further on.
a) depletes b) incorporates c) excesses
90.By burning forests, man ……….. to global warming and gains little in
return.
a) contributes b) impairs c) adopts
91. “Slash-and-burn” farming is a great contributor to both deforestation
and soil ……….. .
a) blindness b) erosion c) consumption
92.Land cleared of forests exposes low-fertility soil which becomes ……..
in only two years.
a) fertile b) broken down c) exhausted
93.Chlorine, used in bleaching processes, reacts with other chemicals to
release harmful ……… like dioxins, which leave waterways devoid of
aquatic life.
a) compounds b) solutions c) detergents
94.Even with ……. working at full capacity, sewage often overflows, or is
pumped untreated directly into water reservoirs.
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Progress test
a) treatment plants b) power plants c) power stations
95.In addition to viral contamination, bacteria from untreated sewage are
also often found, ……. an additional health hazard.
a) stating b) facing c) posing
96.Statements have been …….. saying that the spillage, which is bound to
have long-term toxic effects on marine life, is threatening seabirds and
colonies of sea lions.
a) permeated b) issued c) contributed
97.The residue from the spill will stay in the area for a long time before it
eventually …….. .
a) incorporates b) degrades c) absorbs
98.A worldwide campaign has been launched to save scores of animals
from the brink of ……….. and to preserve their habitats.
a) extinction b) deterioration c) repository
99.Millions of dollars have been raised and allocated to various ……
projects to protect threatened wildlife and slow the reduction in the
diversity of living thigs.
a) ecological b) conservation c) deposit
100. Only by providing safe sea and land sanctuaries will we succeed in
saving these ………….. from extinction.
a) diversities b) biodiversity c) species
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You can claim to be really successful not when
you obtain one hundred victories in one hundred
battles, but when you seize your enemy without
even fighting.
Chinese strategist Sun Tzu (VI-V cent. B C E)
Warfare issues
1. Attrition and Maneuever Warfare
2. Coercive Diplomacy
3. Coup D’etat and Revolution
4. Cyber Warfare
5. Hybrid Warfare
6. Terrorism
7. Massive Distruction Warfare
Lead-in questions:
1. Would you volunteer to become a soldier?

2. Would you fight for another country other than your own?
3. Would you be a conscientious objector if your country went to war?
4. Why is terror used more in some countries than others?
5. Why does your country have an army?
6. Why do you think people want to become soldiers?
7. Why do people use terror?
8. Why do people commit terrorist acts?
9. Who's winning the war on terrorism?
10.Who matters more to the Internet’s future, states or individuals?
11.Which job would you like to have in the army?
12.Which countries have been victims of terrorist plots?
13.Which countries have been accused of harbouring terrorists?
14.Which army would you join if you had to?
15.Where do terrorists get their money and weapons from?
16.What terror actions do you remember?
17.What should be done to prevent terror?
18.What methods/tactics do terrorists use?
19.What kind of person makes an ideal soldier?
20.What is the role of government in securing cyberspace?
21.What is the difference between a 'freedom fighter' and a 'terrorist'? Is there a
difference?
22.What is terrorism about?
23.What is military service? Is it compulsory in your country?
24.What is cyberwar to you? When does it begin or end?
25.What is a hero?
26.What group or organization do you think is the biggest cyber threat?
27.What do you understand by the phrase "might is right"?
28.What do you think soldiers find the most difficult to get used to?
29.What do you think of people whose job is in the army?
30.What do you think of hacktivism’s means and ends?
31.What do you think is the average age for soldiers in the world?
32.What do you know about suicide bombers?
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33.What do you believe is the best way to deal with terrorism?
34.What cyber threat concerns you the most?
35.What causes countries to engage in a war?
36.What cause would you fight/die for?
37.What are the emerging and future technologies that we will have to worry the
most about from a security perspective?
38.What are some of the jobs that soldiers do?
o Religion?
o Race?
o Nationality?
39.Is it possible for governments to cause terror? If so, give examples.

40.Is it ok for a victimized organization to “hack back”? What are the dangers?
41.Is it important to distinguish between different types of cyber attacks? How
should we do it?
42.Is having an army a waste of money in your country?
43.Is cyberspace at risk of being “militarized”?
44.In your opinion will terrorism spread or decline in the future?
45.If the money was right, would you work in a known terrorist-plagued state?
46.How much do you believe extremists are open to dialogue with Governing
bodies?
47.How do terrorist groups operate?
48.How can we build a safer cyber world?
49.Does war have any positive consequences for mankind?
50.Do you want to become a soldier?
51.Do you think women should be soldiers?
52.Do you think it is morally wrong to kill?
53.Do you know of any countries where military service is compulsory?
54.Do you know anything about terrorist activities?
55.Do many young people in your country join the army? Why/why not?
56.Can you truly be anonymous online? Should you?
57.Can you think of a war that you believe was justified?
58.Can you name any terrorist groups?
59.Can you name any fugitive terrorists?
60.Are you afraid of traveling because of terror?
61.Are governments listening hard enough to extremists? If not, why not?
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Attrition and Manoeuvre Wars
Regardless of whether aircraft, ground captured and enemy

ground forces, space ships or destroyed.
waterborne ships are used, there are Manoeuvre War is different.
three different types of war that can While Attrition War is fought to
be waged. The most common type is destroy the enemy’s ability to fight,
called Attrition Warfare. This is Manoeuvre War is fought to destroy
what most movies and books the enemy’s will to fight. This is not
portray. It is simply a matter of force as easily measured as Attrition War,
on force. “The enemy is here, we however, the effects of Manoeuvre
attack at dawn” type mentality is War can be devastating. Desert
attrition warfare. Storm was an example of
In attrition warfare, forces Manoeuvre War on a grand scale.
attack in an attempt to destroy While many Iraqi’s were killed they
enemy forces. Units move to trap still remain a powerful force today.
and concentrate fire on the enemy. In A practitioner of Manoeuvre
this case, quantity is usually the key. War frequently goes around main
Three men firing at one man are battle units, infiltrating or breaking
usually going to win, all else being through the enemy battle line. Once
equal. Three battalions attacking one behind enemy lines the Manoeuvre
are usually going to win, all else Warfighter attacks the enemy
being equal. World War One and support structure, headquarters, or
Two were wars of attrition. Attrition whatever is available. Frequently a
war is often bloody and can be target is already decided before the
decisive. It can be easily measured in penetration.
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By attacking the enemy’s rear, three squads will attack one squad,
the enemy’s morale is attacked. The etc.
front line soldier begins to realize Another formula of Attrition
that the enemy could come at him War is that the objective will be
from any direction. If his supply heavily bombed before the attack in
lines are cut he begins to starve and order to soften up the opposition.
get thirsty. If his headquarters is These are formulas for success, they
destroyed he doesn’t know what is don’t need brilliant commanders to
going on and what he should do. execute, just a lot of firepower and
Attrition War is simple because cooperation between the units. Very
it works like simple and strait
clockwork. forward, you
Units follow a don’t need smart
set battle plan, troops, just
initiative is troops that will
encouraged in follow orders.
smaller units Manoeuvre
because it warfare
might upset practitioners
the battle don’t play this
plan. Coordination and planning is ‘game’. A practitioner of Manoeuvre
the key to Attrition War. Manoeuvre War must be willing to take risks, he
War is almost the opposite, the must be able to realize when a
fighters enter combat and act situation presents itself so he can
aggressively. War is about taking take advantage of it. This means
risks, the bigger the risk, usually the small unit leaders must be well
bigger the gain. Attrition Warfare trained and encouraged to take the
seeks to minimize the risk by using a initiative.
formula. An example of this In Attrition War soldiers are
‘formula’ is that a unit will only trained to follow orders, not to think
attack an enemy if it has three to one for themselves. Officers are the ones
odds in its favour. Three platoons (a who make plans and give the orders,
company) will attack one platoon, synchronizing the operation so it is
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successful. In Manoeuvre War it is Manoeuvre Warfare recognizes
the small unit leader, the platoon that the enemy soldier is intelligent
commander, the squad leader who and is not a simple stupid automaton.
uses the natural chaos of the The enemy soldier has hopes and
battlefield to seize an advantage. In fears. Manoeuvre warfare attempts
Manoeuvre War a leader may not to exploit the enemy’s weaknesses
wait for orders before taking action. and fears.
1. Define attrition war. What is its core principle? How is it measured?

2. Define manoeuvre war. What is its core principle? How is it
measured?
3. What are the formulas of attrition war?
4. What are the formulas of manoeuvre war?
5. What is the role of commander-in-chief in both kinds of war?
space.
The word (1) ________ is synonymous with the First World War on the
Western and Italian fronts, and the term is often used when accusing generals
(2) ________ lacking imagination and simply throwing (3) ________ at their
opponents in the hope that greater numbers would (4) _______ victory. This
argument implies that attrition in warfare can somehow be avoided.
Unfortunately, attrition is a key (5) ________ to winning any war as a
(6) ________ typically wins when their enemy has been worn (7) ________
to the point of physical collapse, when their enemy’s (8) ________ (will to
fight) has been eroded to such an extent that they are unwilling to further
(9) ________ the war, or through some combination of both. To achieve this
effect it is necessary to destroy or to continuously (10) ________ the enemy’s
forces and morale, and this typically involves heavy (11) ________. Ideally,
an army uses manoeuvre to (12) ________ itself to its advantage so that when
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a fight occurs the attrition is one sided and the enemy suffers
disproportionately greater (13) ________ of men and (14) ________.
Attrition, however, is often necessary in order to create the space required to
(15) ________ in the first place. Thus, the two approaches to war fighting are
closely inter-linked, with attrition being, in many ways, the more important of
the two.
1. a) manoeuvre b) attrition c) atrocious

2. a) in b) for c) of
3. a) soldiers b) adversary c) losses
4. a) provide b) sustain c) fight
5. a) manoeuvre b) approach c) condition
6. a) soldier b) fighter c) combatant
7. a) off b) down c) away
8. a) morality b) morale c) mentality
9. a) sustain b) provide c) lead
10. a) evaporate b) deprive c) damage
11. a) fighting b) fight c) combating
12. a) pose b) position c) dispose
13. a) losses b) victims c) casualties
14. a) tanks b) guns c) materiel
15. a) strategy b) operations c) manoeuvre
same line.
The problem of the First World War was that the

stalemate caused by the ________________ of trench DEVELOP
_________ meant that manoeuvring to gain advantage WAR
was __________ difficult if not impossible for much of INCREDIBLE
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the conflict even with extensive _________preparation. ATTRITION
Thus, advantage could only be gained by an __________ ATTACK
(before the development of ___________ tanks, aircraft, EFFECT
and the means to coordinate them with artillery and
__________) massing greater quantities of artillery and INFANT
____________ at a place where the enemy had to fight MAN+POWER
and where they could not mass similar amounts of
manpower and _________. Ideally, this would allow an MATER
attacker to grind down the morale, ________________, EQUIP
manpower, and ________ of an enemy faster than they SUPPLY
could do in response and this would bring their defeat,
or _________ that, a local collapse of the enemy’s army FAIL
that might create a ___________ and allow manoeuvre BREAK
warfare to resume and a _____ to be sought more easily. DECIDE
In the words of one strategic (1) ________, attrition is "war waged by

industrial methods." In the (2) ________ approach, the (3) ________ is
defined as a series of targets to be "serviced" (that is, destroyed). Other than
the achievement of initial surprise in the attack, there is little (4) ________ or
artifice in the approach. As an ideal type it takes as its prime (5) ________ the
physical destruction of the adversary's material (6) ________; it associates
success with material (7) ________; and it adopts as a basic (8) ________ the
simple imperative: "more."
In (9) ________ warfare, by contrast, "the goal is to (10) ________ by
systemic disruption" and dislocation. The target is the coherence of the
adversary's (11) ________ systems, methods, and plans. The hope is that a
very selective action can have a (12) ________ effect – an effect
disproportionately greater than the degree of effort. An analogy from
architecture would be the (13) ________ or destruction of the keystone of an
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arch. Here the arch is conceived as a "system" whose dynamic element is
gravity which has been converted to useful purpose by the positioning of the
keystone – the removal of which (14) ________ the stability of the system,
resulting in its destruction.
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Exercise 6. Watch the video (17), retell it answering the
following questions:
1. What episode of WW1 described in the video?
2. What kinds of troops were involved in the conflict?
3. What are the memories of the interviewed pilot?
4. What are the memories of the interviewed infantry soldiers?
5. What were the commander’s orders?
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6. What caused the casualties?
7. Who was Edward Smout and what are his memories?

1. In Attrition War a commander gives very detailed orders to his
subordinates telling them exactly what he wants them to do and they do it. If
ordered to do so a unit will throw itself at the enemy repeatedly, suffering
horrible casualties because they were ordered to do so. In Manoeuvre War a
commander will tell his subordinates what he wants accomplished and why,
not how. He leaves it up to his leaders to get the job done. Think of different
wars throughout the history of mankind and describe four of them in this
respect.
2. Huge amounts of money are spent on army in some countries: leaders
are obsessed with military build-up, though attrition war seems to be gradually
supplanted by other types of war, including manoeuvre one, in which the
adversary can be defeated even with much smaller force. Why would the
leaders of these countries still burden their taxpayers with such expenses if
there are cheaper and less bloody ways to win?
3. Try to find any connection between the type of army training
(attrition – to have a total control over the troops, or manoeuvre – to shape
thinking and intelligent soldiers) and the polity/regime of a country. What is
it?
4. Sun Tzu, an ancient Chinese philosopher once wrote “you don’t hit
the enemy where he is strong, you hit him where he is weak”. What weakness,
do you think, he meant by that?
5. If you were in charge of a platoon what training would you pay more
attention to: physical or psychological? Why?
6. How can countries prevent conflicts when other nations are not trying
to bring peace?
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В середньостроковій перспективі (протягом найближчих 15-20
років) матимуть місце воєнні конфлікти як попередніх, так і нового
(четвертого) покоління, але з трендом на зміщення інтенсивності в бік
війн четвертого покоління. Воєнні дії у цих конфліктах будуть вестися у
всіх фізичних сферах, доступних сторонам протиборств: на суші, на
морі, в повітрі та космосі.
Різко зросте значення маневреності в сучасних воєнних і бойових
діях, а масування живої сили й техніки стане недоліком і буде
зустрічатися набагато рідше, оскільки в нових умовах створює зручну й
велику ціль для ураження потужними високоточними вогневими
засобами противника. Передбачається, що в цій ситуації для підрозділів
і частин буде характерна децентралізована, різноманітна та нешаблонна
тактика бойової чи то «вовчої зграї».
Величезного значення набуває в нових умовах підготовка окремого
бійця професійних збройних сил (бойового оператора). Для комбатантів
воєн нового покоління будуть характерні ініціативність і індивідуалізм,
інші в порівнянні з існуючими морально-етичні цінності (що дозволяють
спокійно вражати об’єкти культури і цивільної інфраструктури).
Слухняні виконавці будуть змінені в збройних силах нового зразка
ініціативними й розуміючими цілі й загальний план операцій, не
потребуючими детального керівництва кожною їхньою дією
грамотними бійцями-професіоналами.
Таким чином теорія «війни четвертого покоління» заснована на
уявленні про те, що перевага політичної волі при правильному й
всебічному використанні сили й наявних ресурсів, а також вразливостей
противника, здатні забезпечити розгром навіть переважаючого по
економічній і військовій могутності ворога. На відміну від воєн
попередніх поколінь, вона не націлена на досягнення перемоги шляхом
розгрому збройних сил противника або знищення його воєнно-
економічного потенціалу, а збройна перевага не розглядається
достатньою й необхідною умовою перемоги у війні.
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Coercive Diplomacy
Coercive Diplomacy
Coercive diplomacy is one of It should be remarked that

the most intriguing and common coercive diplomacy offers an
practices of conducting inter-state alternative to reliance on military
relations and embodies the essence of action; it is based on the threat of
the art of diplomacy: achieving force rather than the use of force in
political objectives and fostering a order to get other actors to comply
state’s national interest without with one’s wishes. If force is used at
waging a war. all, it takes the form of an exemplary
The meaning and the aim of or symbolic use of military action, to
coercive diplomacy is to make an demonstrate motivation and
enemy stop or undo an action without resolution to escalate to high levels of
resorting to military action, but military action if necessary. Hence,
through issuing a specific demand in coercive diplomacy, force is not
backed by a threat of punishment for employed as part of conventional
non-compliance with it. Clearly, the military strategy, but as a component
threat must be credible and potent of a political-diplomatic strategy
enough to persuade the opponent that aimed at persuading the adversary to
it is in his interest to comply with the back down. It is a more flexible,
demand. psychological instrument in contrast
A state can coerce its adversary to the ‘physical, quick and decisive’
threatening political consequences, use made in military strategy.
such as the expulsion from an Furthermore, unlike
international organization, economic conventional military strategy, the
sanctions, such as an embargo and threat and use of force in coercive
the suspension of an economic diplomacy is coupled with clear
agreement, or the use of force. communication, signalling and
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Coercive Diplomacy
bargaining in order to make the of the spectrum of available
opponent aware of one’ s intentions, strategies are the “try-and-see”
motivation and credibility at every approach and the ultimatum. The
step of the ongoing crisis. former occurs when the coercing
Interestingly, the notion of power takes one threatening step at a
coercive diplomacy can be time, waiting for the reaction of the
distinguished by other related adversary before making additional
concepts. threats. This strategy avoids putting
First of all, coercive diplomacy pressure on the counterpart and, thus,
is regarded as a defensive strategy, prevents the crisis from escalating
thus distinct from blackmail – an sharply. The latter consists in making
offensive strategy – which occurs a specific and detailed request backed
when a threat is employed to coerce a by a rigid time limit. The conditions
subject to give up something of value included in the ultimatum are
without putting up resistance. presented as final and require
Coercive diplomacy has also to unconditional and categorical
be distinguished from deterrence, acceptance by the opponent. The
i. e. a strategy that makes use of terms of compliance can range from
threats to dissuade an opponent from several days to only a few hours: for
undertaking an encroachment of instance, the Italian ultimatum to the
one’s interests not yet initiated. On Ottoman Empire in 1911, with regard
the contrary, coercive diplomacy is to the surrender of Libya, had a
directed at stopping an action already deadline of twenty-four hours, while
undertaken. the U.S. ultimatum to Germany in
The term compellance (strategy 1916 demanded compliance
that employs threats to make an ‘immediately’.
opponent stop an action already A state employing coercive
undertaken) is often used to diplomacy can achieve a wide range
encompass coercive diplomacy as of objectives. The most limited one is
well. The strategy of coercive to make the enemy stop an action
diplomacy can take a variety of forms already undertaken; a more
along a continuum and pursue very ambitious one is the reversal of what
different objectives. At the extremes has been already accomplished,
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Coercive Diplomacy
namely the opponent is forced not the opponent’s hostile behaviour
only to stop its enterprise, but also to through a change in the composition
give up the advantages that its action of his government or in the nature of
had previously gained; finally, the the regime.
most difficult one is the cessation of
1. Define coercive diplomacy and its aim.

2. What can a state coerce?
3. Why is diplomatic warfare different from other types of warefare in
terms of force?
4. Compare coercive diplomacy, blackmail and deterrence.
5. Describe “try-and-see” approach in coercive diplomacy.
6. What is ultimatum?
7. Describe possible objectives of coercive diplomacy.

same line.
It is possible to _________ a number of conditions that IDENTITY

favour the __________ use of coercive diplomacy in a SUCCESS
dispute between two states: ________ of the objective, CLEAR
efficient communication of _________ and signalling INTEND
of interests at stake, __________ information about SYMMETRY
each side’ s _________ to escalate, strength of WILL
motivation, strong __________, asymmetry of LEAD
_________ in favour of the coercing power, sense of MOTIVE
urgency, adequate _________ and international, DOME
support _________ by the adversary of the ACCEPT
threatened escalation, _________ coercive LATERAL
diplomacy, _________ of the adversary. A key- ISOLATE
variable that _________ all these is, however, a PIN
balance of power in favour of the coercing state:
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Coercive Diplomacy
its availability of massive material ____________ is ABLE
more likely to persuade the ___________ to back off, PART
as it will perceive the threat as ___________ credible SUFFICIENT
and potent. These conditions rest, __________, on the OBVIOUS
___________ of a “rational” opponent who correctly ASSUME
evaluates whether the danger and risks of not
complying ____________ the costs and gains to be WEIGH
expected from __________ to the demand of the YIELD
coercing power.
space.
Coercive diplomacy is, in fact, an attractive (1) ________ because it

offers the possibility of achieving political (2) ________ without
(3) ________ to the use of traditional military force and with less bloodshed
and political (4) ________. In the history of international conflict, it has
proved to be particularly (5) ________ to (6) ________, with little risk,
weaker (7) ________. Nevertheless, it is also a dangerous option as it can
(8) ________, quicken the escalation and lead to an (9) ________ war. This
happens when the (10) ________ power boxes into the corner a highly
motivated adversary which is inclined to (11) ________ the crisis in order to
avoid a humiliating (12) ________. Moreover, the opponent can
(13) ________ the request thinking it is a (14) ________, and challenge the
coercing power, especially in the case of ultimatum. Thus, two key-variables
of coercive diplomacy are the (15) ________ of the demand made
(16) ________ the opponent and his motivation not to (17) ________ with it;
these two variables are strictly connected as the strength of the adversary’ s
(18) ________ to comply with the request is deeply sensitive to the magnitude
of the request (19) ________ by the coercing power.
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Coercive Diplomacy
1. a) warfare b) course c) strategy
2. a) magnitude b) objects c) objectives
3. a) going b) resorting c) making
4. a) costs b) price c) values
5. a) reluctant b) efficient c) supportive
6. a) frighten b) scare c) intimidate
7. a) combatant b) adversaries c) stuff
8. a) backfire b) reaction c) intimidation
9. a) unanticipated b) unpredicted c) unsustainable
10. a) coercing b) coercive c) coerce
11. a) promote b) deescalate c) escalate
12. a) execution b) wearing down c) defeat
13. a) reject b) object c) subject
14. a) trick b) bluff c) cheating
15. a) force b) attraction c) magnitude
16. a) to b) on c) for
17. a) comply b) obey c) agree
18. a) reluctance b) anticipation c) rejection
19. a) advanced b) promoted c) supressed
The (1) ________ of coercive diplomacy is widely (2) ________ by

states in the international system as it proves to be a (3) ________ means to
achieve political objectives without (4) ________ to war, which is
(5) ________ also for the winner. However, its successful use is conditional
to a (6) ________ strategic environment and to the presence of a number of
circumstances for the coercing (7) ________, such as higher interests at
(8) ________ than the opponent, clear communication of its (9) ________ to
escalate and availability of material (10) ________ in order to make its threats
credible.
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Coercive Diplomacy
The art of coercive diplomacy could be (11) ________ as one of
‘brinkmanship’, i. e. the ability to coerce an (12) ________ through a constant
management of the common risks, showing enough resolution to
(13) ________ him to back (14) ________, but at the same time stopping its
(15) ________ on the “brink” before the crisis escalates into war.
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Coercive Diplomacy
Exercise 6. Watch the video (18), presenting the review of

the book. Put down and answer the questions explained
in the video.
Exercise 7. Watch the video (19), retell it answering the

following questions:
1. What is the advice concerning diplomatic atrategy the speaker it talking

about? What is the positive achievement of negotiations according to
the speaker?
2. What international economic tool is mentioned in the video? What are
its effects?
3. In what context was france mentioned in the video and what diplomatic
trick did the speaker play?
4. What do the negotiators aim at? How is the international community
described in the video?

1. Life as a diplomat is not all Ferrero-Rocher chocolates and cocktail

parties, and it takes more than smooth talking to clear up the mess
during or after the war: diplomats’ smooth talking is the result of their
tough thinking. The tougher the thinking, the smoother the talking. How
would you evaluate coercive diplomats’ job in different conflicts? Take
any three for the analysis.
2. Compare brute force and coercion. Can you be definitely positive that
these are two different things?
3. Coercive diplomacy is a kind of “carrot and stick” policy that has been
successful in quite a few conflicts, but would you agree that it always
works out? Prove your answer.
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Coercive Diplomacy
4. Coercive diplomacy resorts to “gradual turning of screw“, sometimes
too gradual to avoid the bloodshed. It can operate against the
background of an active bloody conflict with seemingly nonbursting
diplomats’ patience. To speed the process up an averge citizen would
like to make it less diplomatic and more coercive. Would it be the right
thing to do?
Конфлікти і примусова дипломатія

Уміння дієво використовувати сучасний арсенал переговорів
набуває дедалі більшого значення у міжнародних відносинах, великій
політиці. Особливо актуальним сьогодні є використання так званої
примусової дипломатії.
Примусова дипломатія є не що інше як захисна стратегія, при якій
переконують противника у необхідності припинення розпочатої агресії
або дій, які загрожують безпеці інших держав (прагнення заволодіти
ядерною зброєю або технологією, розробка хімічних або
бактеріологічних збройних засобів, організація терористичних актів
тощо). Це спроба переконати опонента зупинити агресію за рахунок
погроз та санкцій, які можуть бути використані до нього. Якщо
військові сили і використовуються при примусовій дипломатії, то у
вигляді мінімізованого варіанту, наглядно демонструючи можливості
наслідків. Противник має або припинити свої дії, або ж відмовитися від
розпочатої агресії.
Два рівні комунікації, які присутні у примусовій дипломатії – це
слова і дії. Для примусової дипломатії обов'язковою є невербальна
комунікація. Це можуть бути військові передислокації, різноманітна
політична або дипломатична активність. Ультиматум, переданий
опоненту, спрацьовує в залежності від того, чи побачить опонент, які
військові сили починають концентруватися, як і якими політичними,
дипломатичними, інформаційними засобами країна готується до того,
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Coercive Diplomacy
щоб застосувати силові дії. Причому важливо, аби вимоги не були
завищенними, мотивація до їх виконання має бути достатньо високою.
У залежності від невербальної комунікації вербальна може бути
посилена або послаблена. В реальній ситуації дії можуть бути посилені
сильними словами, або вони можуть компенсувати слабкі слова, коли
немає можливості сказати інакше. Водночас слова можуть пояснити
деякі дії, які противник може розглядати як не суттєві. Дії повинні
розглядатися так, щоб противник не сприймав загрозу як чистої води
блеф.
А. Джордж визначає вісім складових примусової дипломатії.
1. Тип провокації (розвиток кризи залежить від типу провокації,
яка викликає кризу).
2. Розмір і глибина конфлікту інтересів (якщо ставиться питання
"все або нічого", то досить складно знайти розв'язання конфлікту.
3. Імідж війни (коли виникає реальний образ війни, то обидві
сторони намагаються знайти будь-які можливості запобігти цьому).
4. Часова напруга (з часом ситуація може змінюватися внаслідок
зміни позицій, військового чи технологічного потенціалу, помилок
тощо).
5. Однобічна або коаліційна примусова дипломатія (коаліція дає
можливість знаходити спільні стимули, використовувати міжнародний
вплив, мати більше ресурсів для проведення своїх дій).
6. Сильне
лідерство (проведення
примусової дипломатії
у значній мірі
залежить від
становища лідера у
верхніх ешелонах
влади).
7. Ізоляція ворога.
8. Післякризові
стосунки з ворогом.
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Coup D’état and Revolution

A major trend in warfare during military action. In other words,

the 20th century has been a shift from revolutionary warfare is much more
conventional warfare with its large, than just guerrilla warfare.
heavily equipped armies to guerrilla Revolutionary warfare has a political
operations in support of goal or objective and seeks to
revolutionary warfare. Revolutionary completely overthrow the social,
warfare has been a powerful force in political, and economic order.
the world during the past fifty years, Guerrilla warfare is but one tool used
and all indications are it will continue by revolutionaries to gain their
to shape the future. objectives. Therefore, defeating a
The historical origins of revolutionary war movement
revolutionary warfare go back requires a broader approach than just
centuries. However, the theory and the military option.
practice of revolutionary warfare is There is disagreement on
really a 20th century development. virtually every aspect of
Marx and Engles provided some revolutionary warfare to include its
early strategic guidance (mobilize the definition. For instance, many
masses) while Lenin and Trotsky civilian officials as well as a good
worked out many of the tactical number of military people believe
considerations (only negotiate to gain revolutionary warfare is just another
time; a strong organization is a must). name for guerrilla warfare, partisan
The most influential revolutionary, warfare, or terrorism, all of which
nevertheless, was Mao Tse-tung who many people tend to lump under the
espoused the importance of heading of low-intensity conflict
protracted struggle, strength of will, (LIC). Is there a real difference
and political considerations over between the types of warfare
107
commonly found at the lower end of importance, are military, political,
the spectrum of conflict or are the economic, social, and psychological.
arguments just over semantics? Just To clear up any lingering doubts
what is revolutionary warfare; and, about what revolutionary warfare is
perhaps just as instructive, what is it and what it is not, it may be useful to
not? Even many standard reference point out the difference between
books are silent on the matter. In fact, guerrilla warfare and revolutionary
history is awash with examples of warfare. They are not the same. As an
rebellions, coup-d’états, revolts and interesting aside, it was during the
guerrilla wars. Jews that called Wars of the French Revolution that
themselves Zealots fought for an the term "guerrilla" was coined in
ideology against the Romans in English. The word comes to us from
Judaea during the 1st century. the Spanish word for "little war."
History tells us they committed After Napoleon invaded and
suicide at Masada rather than conquered Spain, many of her people
surrender. The Middle Ages saw took up arms against the French
numerous peasant revolts and noble invaders. The Spanish guerrilla's
uprisings. Later, and probably more lacked weapons and numerical
familiar to many, the American and strength to fight conventional battles
French Revolutions of the 18th and so developed what we now call
century helped change the course of hit and run tactics or guerrilla
history. But were they true warfare.
"revolutionary" wars that have Revolutionary warfare defines
captured the world’s attention in the the "ends" to be achieved in terms of
20th Century. political or social goals. On the other
Revolutionary warfare is never hand, guerrilla warfare is but one of
confined within the bounds of the "means" to achieve the goals or
military action. Because its purpose "ends" of revolutionary warfare.
is to destroy an existing society and Coup d’état, also called Coup,
its institutions and to replace them the sudden, violent overthrow of an
with a completely new structure, any existing government by a small
revolutionary war is a unity of which group. The chief prerequisite for a
the constituent parts, in varying coup is control of all or part of the
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armed forces, the police, and other political groups. Among the earliest
military elements. Unlike a modern coups were those in which
revolution, which is usually achieved Napoleon overthrew the Directory on
by large numbers of people working Nov. 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire), and in
for basic social, economic, and which Louis Napoleon dissolved the
political change, a coup is a change assembly of France’s Second
in power from the top that merely Republic in 1851. Coups were a
results in the abrupt replacement of regular occurrence in various Latin
leading government personnel. A American nations in the 19th and
coup rarely alters a nation’s 20th centuries and in Africa after the
fundamental social and economic countries there gained independence
policies, nor does it significantly in the 1960s.
redistribute power among competing
1. What kind of shift took place in the warfare during 20th century?
2. Is revolutionary warfare a relatively modern phenomenon? Prove.
3. Who is considered to have been the most influential revolutionary and
why?
4. What is LIC and what are its constituents? Provide examples from
history.
5. What is the purpose of revolutionary warfare?
6. What is guerrilla warfare? When was the term coined?
7. What is a coup d’état? What is its chief prerequisite?
space.
(1) ________ declared as statement on national TV and radio says

(2) ________ president is no longer in power
(3) _________ military has declared that it controls the country,
confirming that a (4) ________ has taken place just weeks before elections.
109
The announcement, (5) ________ on national television and radio, said
the transitional government was (6) ________ and the interim president was
no longer in power.
A curfew was (7) ________ and borders were closed. Heavy
(8) ________ was heard in the main square of the capital after (9) ________
poured into the streets to (10) ________ the actions of the coup leaders, who
are members of the elite presidential guard unit.
The elite guard, who had (11) ________ publicly with the (12) ________
government in recent months, (13) ________ themselves as the National
Council for Democracy and said they had taken control from a “deviant
regime”.
The (14) ________ of the interim president and the prime minister who
were both arrested after (15) ________ stormed into a cabinet meeting, was
unclear.
Interim parliament speaker (16) ________ the masses to immediately
rise up to protest against a coup.
1. a) Curfew b) Coup c) Interim

2. a) impeached b) interim c) temporary
3. a) A b) – c) The
4. a) coup b) transition c) combatant
5. a) said b) aired c) passed
6. a) impeached b) removed c) dissolved
7. a) declared b) announced c) aired
8. a) arms b) gunfire c) blasts
9. a) protestants b) adversaries c) protesters
10. a) denounce b) announce c) air
11. a) agreed b) disagreed c) discontented
12. a) temporary b) dissolved c) transitional
13. a) identified b) defined c) associated
14. a) doom b) fate c) destiny
15. a) corps b) infantry c) troops
16. a) invited b) urged c) insisted
110

same line.
________ gathered in the streets in large numbers PROTEST

and set the ________ building on fire, forcing the PARLIAMENT
president to flee into exile in ________ Côte NEIGHBOUR
d’Ivoire. The former president retained the ______ of LOYAL
elements within the military, however, and ________ ELECT
laws _______ politicians who had supported electoral BAR
________ to extend his stay in office from running in FORM
elections seemed to have provided the coup-________ PLOT
with an excuse to act.
Crowds gathered with whistles and vuvuzelas near
the ________ palace on Thursday morning, shouting PRESIDENT
“Down with the presidential guard”. The ________ QUARTER
of Progress party was ________ in the evening. SACK
An activist called the (1) ________ of the president and prime minister
“a serious attack on the republic”. He said: “We call (2) ________ all patriots
to (3) ________ to defend the motherland. Duty (4) ________ us because the
nation is in danger. We call on the (5) ________ that active forces, political
forces, (6) ________ society and the international (7) ________ have with all
the people to defeat this operation.”
The military (8) ________-grab drew swift (9) ________ from many
quarters. Civilised countries (10) ________ condemn any attempt to seize
power through extra-constitutional (11) ________ or resolve internal political
(12) ________ using force. They expressed (13) ________ after the
presidential guard burst into a cabinet meeting. It came less than a month
111
before an election to complete a (14) ________ back to democracy after a
popular (15) ________ toppled long-time ruler last year.
The UN security council also condemned in the strongest (16) ________
the detentions and demanded the immediate (17) ________ of all government
officials.
“The members of the security council (18) ________ all actors of the
conflict to (19) ________ from any violence,” the 15-nation council said in
the statement, which diplomats said was (20) ________ by France.
Iranian
Coup d'état. 1953.
Mohammad
Mosaddegh
112
113
Exercise 6. Watch the video (21), answering the following

questions:
1. What was the coward action described in the video?
2. Why do the Iranian people hate the Americans according to the video?
3. What methods do the Iranian resort to?
4. How was the coup d’état realized?
5. What is the moral of the video?
Exercise 7. Watch the video (22), retell it using active

vocabulary.

1. In Raymond Tanter and Manus Midlarsky’s “Theory of revolution” it
is stated that “The lower the level of educational attainment prior to the
revolution, the greater the duration and violence of the revolution…..The
longer the revolution persists, the greater the polarization of the society around
the warring factions. Traditional associations are broken. Factions which at
the start of the conflict might have been able to settle their differences by
negotiation now find that, with the passage of time, enmities have increased
to the extent that only unconditional surrender by one of the factions can
terminate the revolution.” What role, do you think, education plays in
revolutionary conflicts, if any?
2. The term revolution is used in different collocations: it can be virtual,
minor, agrarian, agricultural, computer, cultural, economic, electronic,
environmental, industrial, political, scientific, sexual, social, technological,
and silent. What do all these revolutions mean and what brings them together
to be united by the term revolution?
3. Familiarize yourself with and shed some light on the current situation
in a country undergoing political upheaval. Any reputable news outlet would
carry the latest updates (BBC, CNN etc.).
114
4. One of the very few coups that ultimately led to great success for both
combatants is the American Revolution. We are all familiar with the story; a
small group of British citizens became fed up with their lack of representation
in Parliament. Despite protests, King George refused to grant them
representation. The citizens organized, militarized and overthrew the reigning
government. If King George had granted the colonies representation in
Parliament, the American Revolution never would have happened and the
United States would never have existed. Rather, this country would still be
part of the United Kingdom. How would America be different if there never
was a revolution?
5. Why aren’t bloodless coups more popular? Why aren’t they more
effective?
6. How has technology impacted the ways in which coups occur?
(Consider the case of Egypt in 2011.)
7. What is the aftermath of a coup – what steps must a country go
through in order to rebuild its government? Does it depend on the type of
government that existed prior to the coup?
8. Are there other countries in which coups are likely to occur in the
near future?

1. Державний переворот – це насильницьке і досконале в порушенні
конституції повалення або зміна конституційного (державного) ладу,
захоплення державної влади. Якщо державний переворот здійснений
при вирішальній участі армії, він називається військовим переворотом.
Під державним переворотом розуміють раптову нелегітимну зміну
уряду, зроблену організованою групою для зміни законної влади.
Відмінністю перевороту від революції є в те, що революція відбувається
в результаті протестів в інтересах значної групи населення, і призводить
до радикальної зміни політичного режиму. Термін «державний
переворот» вперше ввів в оборот Габріель Ноде (бібліотекар кардинала
Рішельє) в своїй праці «Політичні міркування про державні перевороти»
(1639). Описуючи події Варфоломіївської ночі (1572), він виправдовував
115
право влади вдаватися до насильства. Класичним зразком державного
перевороту рахується повалення Наполеоном Бонапартом влади
Директорії 18 брюмера 1799 року. Зміну конституції і політичного ладу
Бонапарт здійснював при збереженні старих республіканських правових
форм, а потім відкинув і їх, встановивши, врешті-решт, режим
монархічного правління. Термін як «повзучий державний переворот»
означає, що нелегітимна зміна влади відбувається не відразу, а
розтягнуто в часі плану, в результаті багатоходових політичних
комбінацій. При цьому досягається мета легітимації влади, яка заперечує
звинувачення в узурпаторстві і представляє себе захисницею
конституційного ладу. У 20 столітті теорія «державного перевороту»
стала частиною революційної стратегії послідовників марксизму-
ленінізму. Порівняльно-історичне дослідження державного перевороту
виконав італієць Курціо Малапарте в книзі «Техніка державного
перевороту» (1931). Він доводив, що в масовому суспільстві в умовах
соціальної кризи складна бюрократизована інфраструктура державного
управління спрощує захоплення влади політичною меншиною при
вмілому використанні спеціальної технології перевороту.
2. Багато людей сприймає слово «революція» як щось позитивне. Як
очищення, руйнування старого, котре стоїть на заваді прогресу.
Водночас революція – надія на краще. Сподівання, що чимало проблем
буде розв’язано і більш ефективно запрацюють механізми управління. І
що, зрештою, народ заживе краще.
Насправді, люди, які хоч трохи розбираються в історії, знають:
революція – це часто трагедія. Вона супроводжується вбивствами,
смертями, розбитими долями людей. Революція не лише змінює системи
управління. Революція – це перерозподіл власності, влади. Коли ті, що
вчора були «ніким», сьогодні стають «всім».
Революція – вимушене зло. Її можна порівняти із хірургічною
операцією. Щоб організм поборов хворобу, потрібне радикальне
втручання. Добре, якщо це все пройде успішно. А якщо – ні?
Певно, кращим шляхом для спільнот є шлях еволюційний.
Принаймні такий шлях не супроводжується різкими потрясіннями.
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Cyber Warfare
Cyber Warfare
Cyberwarfare is Internet-based intellectual development as we were

conflict involving politically in the 1950s in relation to possible
motivated attacks on information nuclear war."
and information systems. Future state-on-state conflict,
Cyberwarfare attacks can disable as well as conflicts involving non-
official websites and networks, state actors such as al-Qaida, would
disrupt or disable essential services, increasingly be characterised by
steal or alter classified data, and reliance on asymmetric warfare
cripple financial systems – among techniques, chiefly cyber-warfare,
many other possibilities. Chipman said. Hostile governments
Cyber-warfare attacks on could hide behind rapidly advancing
military infrastructure, government technology to launch attacks
and communications systems, and undetected. And unlike conventional
financial markets pose a rapidly and nuclear arms, there were no
growing but little understood threat agreed international controls on the
to international security and could use of cyber weapons.
become a decisive weapon of choice "Cyber-warfare may be used to
in future conflicts between states. disable a country's infrastructure,
IISS director-general John meddle with the integrity of another
Chipman said: "Despite evidence of country's internal military data, try to
cyber attacks in recent political confuse its financial transactions or
conflicts, there is little appreciation to accomplish any number of other
internationally of how to assess possibly crippling aims," he said.
cyber-conflict. We are now, in Yet governments and national
relation to the problem of cyber- defence establishments at present
warfare, at the same stage of have only limited ability to tell when
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Cyber Warfare
they were under attack, by whom, as hacker tools become cheaper and
and how they might respond. easier to employ by adversaries
Cyber-warfare typically whose skills are growing in
involves the use of illegal sophistication."
exploitation methods on the internet, Defensive measures have
corruption or disruption of computer already begun. Last June the
networks and software, hacking, Pentagon created US Cyber
computer forensics, and espionage. Command and Britain announced it
Reports of cyber-warfare attacks, was opening a cyber-security
government-sponsored or otherwise, operations centre attached to GCHQ
are rising. at Cheltenham, in coordination with
The US Defence Department's MI5 and MI6.
Quadrennial Defence Review, William Lynn, US deputy
published this week, also defence secretary, described the
highlighted the rising threat posed by cyber challenge as unprecedented.
cyber-warfare on space-based "Once the province of nations, the
surveillance and communications ability to destroy via cyber now also
systems. "On any given day, there rests in the hands of small groups
are as many as 7 million DoD and individuals: from terrorist
(Department of Defence) computers groups to organised crime, hackers
and telecommunications tools in use to industrial spies to foreign
in 88 countries using thousands of intelligence services … This is not
war-fighting and support some future threat. The cyber threat
applications. The number of is here
potential vulnerabilities, therefore, is today,
staggering." the review said. it is
"Moreover, the speed of cyber here
attacks and the anonymity of now,"
cyberspace greatly favour the Lynn
offence. This advantage is growing said.
1. Define cyber warfare.

2. What are the possibilities of cyber attacks?
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Cyber Warfare
3. Can cyber attacks be called a weapon? Why (not)?
4. How is cyber warfare appreciated internationally?
5. In what way is cyber war different from other types of war in terms
of time, place and subject of the aggression?
6. What particular methods does cyber warfare involve?
7. Characterise the scale of possible cyber attacks.
space.
The Pentagon has made clear in recent weeks that cyber warfare is no
longer just a (1) ________ threat – it is now a real one. The battle has begun.
“External actors (2) ________ and scan networks for (3) ________ millions
of times each day, and over 100 foreign (4) ________ agencies continually
attempt to (5) ________ DoD networks,” assistant secretary for (6) ________
defence and global security, testified.
After years of debate as to how the fog of war will (7) ________ to the
Internet, more and more leaders sign (8) ________ orders declaring cyber
attacks (9) ________ from abroad against their countries target a “national
emergency” and (10) ________ sanctions against those responsible.
(11) ________ include freezing the (12) ________ of cyber attackers and
those aiding them as well as preventing residents from (13) ________ financial
transactions with those targeted by the executive order.
If cyber attacks continue to increase at the current (14) ________, they
could destabilize already (15) ________ world situations. “Nations must
begin to create real consequences for (16) ________ action in cyberspace
because they are leading, in aggregate, to serious damage, and there is
potential for much larger damage than we have seen so far,” he adds.
1. a) futuristic b) future c) prospective

2. a) probe b) sample c) pattern
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Cyber Warfare
3. a) inalienability b) susceptibility c) vulnerabilities
4. a) intelligent b) intelligence c) intellectual
5. a) investigate b) infiltrate c) wash through
6. a) home b) domestic c) homeland
7. a) expand b) extend c) invade
8. a) executive b) working c) legislative
9. a) ruled b) managed c) launched
10. a) levying b) burdening c) resting
11. a) Punishment b) Penalties c) Sentence
12. a) values b) assets c) money
13. a) launching b) conducting c) extending
14. a) point b) indicator c) rate
15. a) tense b) dim c) vulnerable
16. a) executive b) malicious c) infiltrating

same line.
The components of cyber warfare are the very same

components as warfare using guns and ________, only EXPLODE
much faster. An ________ would seek to damage a ATTACK
________ infrastructure such as power, banking, or CRIITISE
________ by damaging the computer COMMNICATE
systems that control those ________. “The STRUCTURE
instrument of ________ that damage is generally some CREATE
form of ________ software that is inserted into such MALICE
systems by a ________ of means including hacking VARY
into the system by taking advantage of some known
but as yet unpatched or as yet ________ COVER
________,” he adds. VULNERABLE
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Cyber Warfare
China recently admitted that it has both military and (1) ________ teams
of programmers developing (2) ________ weapons, and documents disclosed
by National (3) ________ Agency. All technically (4) ________ countries are
developing both offensive and defensive (5) ________ to prepare for the
potential of cyber conflict both by itself and as one aspect of (6) ________
conflicts including (7) ________ warfare, which involves bombs and bullets.
The goal of many such countries is to be able to (8) ________ complete
dominance and control over any part of (9) ________, anywhere and anytime
it serves their national interests.
Cyber war itself may be difficult to define but cyber (10) ________ pose
an even bigger challenge. In some sense it is a bit like asking bank robbers in
the old wild West to (11) ________ a non–bank-robbing treaty. Many
countries are benefiting from the lack of rules. Many countries are exploring
this new arena of warfare and do not quite understand it well (12) ________
to agree to stop exploring it.
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Cyber Warfare
Exercise 6. Watch the video '60 Minutes' investigates

cyber-warfare (22), retell it answering the following
questions:
1. What cyber attack is described in the video?

2. Why is cyber warfare a controversial subject?
3. In what way did the attack operate?
4. How is the accident described metaphorically in the video and why is
this particular image involved?
Exercise 7. Watch the video Is Cyber Warfare The Future

Of War (23), retell it answering the following questions:
1. What is PLC? What are the synonyms of a cyber warfare mentioned in

the video? Enumerate them.
2. What attack on the U S government described in the video?
3. Who takes the responsibility of the attack?
4. Why is “The Science of Military Strategy” mentioned in the text?
5. How is the concept of war presented in the video?
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Cyber Warfare

1. At what point does a cyber conflict become a cyber war?

2. Are cyber threats, cyber attacks and cyber espionage acts of cyber
war?
3. Cyber war is a great irony of the last twenty years. Our commitment
to digital technologies has in certain respects played into the hands of our
enemies. Might target countries need to sacrifice openness to protect
themselves?
4. We are often naive about how vulnerable we are as a "connected
society". We have real enemies, even as individual citizens, targeting our
identities and financial accounts. These individual attacks are already
happening at increased rates, usually with unsophisticated predators searching
for victims from outside the country. Do you believe that unfriendly
governments are not involved in planning to wreak havoc on our nation with
devastating consequences?
5. When it comes to cyber war, it can be impractical to predict the
future. However, this does not mean one should resign all hope and take a
“come what may” attitude toward cyber warfare and cybersecurity. A deep
understanding and awareness of cyber threats and their prevention and
mitigation is crucial. Try to predict the future of the cyber space security.
6. Ethics is defined as “a system of accepted beliefs which control
behaviour, especially such a system based on morals.” Ethics is highly
subjective and can vary between cultures, businesses, or even individual
upbringing. When considering activities that might be classified as cyber
warfare, one also needs to consider the ethics of the situation. Because, as in
business, ethics are important in cyber warfare too. Try to develop a code of
laws for cyber troops taking into account secrecy in attacks, non-combatant
immunity, use of force, mistaking a technical problem for an attack, intent
behind an attack, and collateral damage resulting from an attack.
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Cyber Warfare

Солдатів зазвичай уявляють в уніформі, шоломі та
куленепробивному жилеті. Однак для вояків XXI полем бою може бути
навіть темний підвал із кондиціонером.
Із крану тече лише брудна вода із неприємним запахом. Проте ніхто
не знає, чому. Електроенергію вимкнули, тож доступ до інформації
фактично заблокований. По всьому місті відбуваються ДТП, адже
світлофори більше не працюють. А на сусідній атомній станції не
обійшлося без аварії.
Так або приблизно так можуть у найгіршому випадку виглядати
наслідки кібер-війни – масивного наступу на комп'ютеризовану
інфраструктуру країни. Напад без бомб, керований дистанційно за
допомогою глобальних інформаційних мереж. Здійснений солдатами,
котрі не потребують ані танків, ані гранат, а лише потужний комп'ютер,
професійні знання та під'єднання до інтернету.
Експерти сперечаються щодо того, наскільки реалістичним або
абсурдним є подібний сценарій. Проте фактом лишається те, що донині
не було кібер-атак, наслідки яких можна було би хоч приблизно
порівняти до описаного вище сценарію.
Кібер-атаки відбуваються щоденно по всьому світі – у незначних
масштабах, спрямовані проти інфраструктури урядів, військових
організацій або підприємців. Хто стоїть за цими атаками, у багатьох
випадках так і не вдається з'ясувати, або ж на це йдуть місяці чи роки.
Часто це хакери, котрим просто подобається знаходити слабкі місця і
випробовувати, як далеко за їхньою допомогою можна зайти, аби
завдати збитків. Проте іноді й уряди планують спрямовані кібер-атаки.
Проте, чи можна узагалі розцінювати подібні атаки як воєнні дії? Як
країна, котра зазнала кібер-нападу, може від нього боронитися?
Німецький юрист-міжнародник Вольфф Гайнчел фон Гайнеґґ із
Європейського університету "Віадрина" у Франкфурті-на-Одері
пояснив, як розглядати кібер-атаки у контексті міжнародного права:
"Немає різниці, чи вистріл артилерійського снаряда завдає значної
шкоди, чи кібер-атака".
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Hybrid Warfare
Hybrid Warfare
The term “hybrid war” was the support of the international

coined and gained traction in community”. However, information
military strategic thinking after warfare, like hybrid warfare is not a
Hezbollah's success against Israel in new phenomenon. Shawn Powers
the Second Lebanon War in 2006. In argues that media has been used as a
this kind of warfare, an aggressor weapon since at least the beginning
adapts and simultaneously applies of the 20th century.
both conventional and 2. Psychological warfare. It
unconventional methods, including implies “influencing the target
traditional and irregular forces that audience’s values and belief system,
are supported by new technologies their perceptions, emotions, motives,
and the state's political and reasoning, and ideally, their
economic power, while maintaining behaviour. It is aimed at maintaining
some degree of plausible deniability. the support of the loyal; convincing
This article describes the the uncommitted and undermining
unconventional part of military the opposition. This is achieved
strategies as a method of social through influencing people’s
warfare which include: perception of what is going on and,
1. Information warfare (or in turn, influencing their online and
information war as commonly used offline behaviour by playing on
in the media). According to John J. emotional and logical arguments
McCuen, information warfare is drawn from conversations and
aimed at gaining “the support of the history, and by tapping into an
combat zone’s indigenous existing narrative.”
population, the support of the home The novelty of current
fronts of the intervening nations, and information and psychological
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Hybrid Warfare
warfare is the combination of the As an example he mentions the case
two through the weaponisation of of flight MH17 that was shot down
online media. The factors that make over Ukraine on 17 July 2014. In this
this strategy so powerful are that this case, social network media was
type of ‘warfare’ is continuously extensively used to implicate
ongoing and hard to detect. It is multiple actors and to create
complicated to identify its source, confusion about what actually
particularly as more often than not it happened. Altering the story through
is waged from several sources user-generated content and gaining
simultaneously. And finally, such a control over the narrative has been
warfare strategy penetrates all levels consciously applied by state and
of society at a very low cost. Even if non-state actors in order to influence
the audience does not necessarily and manipulate the population of the
believe in the planted information, opponent.
the abundance of unvetted Finally, according to NATO
information of itself leads to a StratCom COE Internet Trolling is
persistent distrust of public yet another tool of hybrid warfare.
information and the media. As a very recent and highly
In his monograph about the colloquial term it does not have a
weaponisation of internet media, precise definition. However, the
Nissen states that contemporary Urban Dictionary defines a troll as a
wars are “more about the control person who “posts a deliberately
over populations, decision-making provocative message to a newsgroup
and the political space than they are or message board with the intention
about a geographical area” and of causing maximum disruption and
today’s wars are more about argument”. Hybrid trolls
identities and identity claims. The communicate a particular ideology
struggle for influencing public and, most importantly, operate under
opinion takes place in the the direction and orders of a
information environment, to which particular state or state institution.
social network media also belong.
1. Define the term “hybrid warfare”. What military methods does it imply?
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Hybrid Warfare
2. What is an unconventional military strategy thinking?
3. What is information warfare aimed at?
4. What does psychological warfare imply?
5. What is the weaponisation of online media? Why is it so powerful?
6. State Nissen’s thoughts about contemporary wars mentioned in the article.
7. What is Internet trolling? What is the aim of hybrid trolls activity?
space.
Psychological warfare, also called psywar, the use of propaganda against

an enemy, supported by such military, economic, or political (1) ________ as
may be required. Such propaganda is generally intended to (2) ________ the
enemy, to break his will to fight or (3) ________, and sometimes to render
him favourably (4) ________ to one’s position. Propaganda is also used to
strengthen the resolve of (5) ________ or resistance fighters. The twisting of
personality and the (6) ________ of beliefs in prisoners of war by
(7) ________ and related techniques can also be regarded as a form of
(8) ________ warfare.
Although often looked (9) ________ as a modern invention,
psychological warfare is of ancient origin. Cyrus the Great (10) ________ it
against Babylon, Xerxes against the Greeks, and Philip II of Macedon against
Athens. The (11) ________ of Genghis Khan were aided by (12) ________
planted rumours about large numbers of (13) ________ Mongol horsemen in
his army. Centuries later, in the American Revolution, Thomas Paine’s
“Common Sense” was but one of many pamphlets and leaflets used to
(14) ________ the British-American colonists’ will to fight. With modern
scientific (15) ________ in communications, however, such as high-speed
printing and radio, together with important developments in the fields of
public-opinion analysis and the (16) ________ of mass (17) ________,
psychological warfare has become a more systematic and widespread
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Hybrid Warfare
(18) ________ in strategy and tactics, and a larger ingredient of warfare as a
whole.
1. a) measuring b) measurements c) measures

2. a) destabilise b) delegalize c) demoralize
3. a) persist b) resist c) insist
4. a) imposed b) opposed c) disposed
5. a) allies b) aliens c) algae
6. a) manipulation b) incineration c) deoccupation
7. a) brainstorming b) brainwashing c) brain hunting
8. a) invisible b) massive destruction c) psychological
9. a) into b) upon c) about
10. a) employed b) deployed c) ratified
11. a) disturbance b) combat c) conquests
12. a) ferociously b) expertly c) languidly
13. a) imposed b) ferocious c) warfare
14. a) conquer b) strengthen c) impair
15. a) advances b) advantages c) advents
16. a) forecasting b) foretelling c) prediction
17. a) stampede b) media c) behaviour
18. a) technique b) technology c) technocrat

same line.
Most modern armies have ________ units trained SPECIAL

and ________ for psychological warfare. Such units were EQUIP
a major part of the German and ________ forces during ALLY
World War II and the U.S. ________ forces in the Korean ARM
and Vietnam wars. The British and the Malayan
________ forces made extensive use of air-dropped GOVERN
leaflets – promising ________ to those who surrendered – IMMUNE
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Hybrid Warfare
to combat the guerrilla revolt in Malaya in the early 1950s.
Within the ________ framework, “hearts and minds” – THEORY
not only of the civil population in the area of ________ OPERATE
but also those of the enemy and of one’s own ________ COMBAT
become a principal centre of gravity in ________ and OPERATE
tactical planning and ________. Psychological warfare EXECUTE
need not be subtle or sophisticated in conduct and
execution. The use of ________ to demoralize enemy ATROCIOUS
populations is an age-old tactic that has never
disappeared. The ________ use of mass rape and murder SYSTEM
to force the ________ of civilians during the “ethnic LOCATE
________” campaigns of the civil wars accompanying the CLEAN
________ of Yugoslavia in the 1990s is a case in point, as BREAK
were similar tactics used in Hutu massacres of ________ MINOR
Tutsi in Burundi in 1994.
Traditional New
Military Methods Military Methods
1. Military action starts after 1. Military action starts by groups
strategic (1) _____ (declaration of (2) ________ during peacetime (war
of war). is not (3) ________ at all).
2. Frontal (4) _______ 2. (5) ________ clashes between
between large units consisting highly maneuverable interspecific
mostly of ground units. fighting groups.
3. (6) ________ of 3. (7) ________ of the enemy's
manpower, firepower, taking military and economic power by short-
control of regions and borders to time precise strikes in strategic military
(8) _______ territorial control. and (9) ________ infrastructure.
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Hybrid Warfare
4. Destruction of economic 4. Massive use of (11) ______

power and territorial weapons and special operations,
(10) ________. robotics, and weapons that use new
5. Combat operations on (12) ________ principles (direct-energy
land, air, and sea. weapons-lasers, shortwave radiation,
6. Management of etc.).
(13) ______ by rigid 5. Use of (15) ________ civilians
(14) ________ and governance. (4 civilians to 1 military).
6. Simultaneous battle on land,
air, and sea in the (16) ________ space.
7. Use of asymmetric and
(17) ________ methods.
8. (18) ________ of troops in a
unified informational sphere.
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Hybrid Warfare
Exercise 6. Watch the video (24), retell it using active

vocabulary

essence of the video.
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Hybrid Warfare

1. What is the battlefield of a hybrid war?

2. Is it a “new way of war” or is it an old way, fought in a new world?
Prove your answer.
3. Victims of a hybrid war should operationalize all of the instruments of
national power, including the “weaponization” of the media. Those nations
that are facing hybrid aggression on their borders seem to be quite willing to
consider concepts that could ensure their national survival. The time for
“thinking outside of the box” should be over, and the time for “thinking
without the box” must begin. Try to generate some “thinking without the box”
ideas for a hybrid war victim.
4. Those who aren’t quite familiar with the Internet slang definition of
“troll” or “trolling” might automatically think of the mythical creature from
Scandinavian folklore. The mythological troll is known to be an ugly, dirty,
angry creature that lives in dark places, like caves or underneath bridges,
waiting to snatch up anything that passed by for a quick meal.
In some ways, the mythological troll is similar to the Internet troll. The
Internet troll hides behind his computer screen, and actively goes out of his
way to cause trouble on the Internet. Like the mythological troll, the Internet
troll is angry and disruptive in every possible – often for no real reason at all.
Canadian researchers conducted two online studies with over 1,200 people,
giving personality tests to each subject along with a survey about their Internet
commenting behavior. They were looking for evidence that linked trolling
with the "Dark Tetrad" of personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism,
psychopathy, and sadism. "Both trolls and sadists feel sadistic glee at the
distress of others. Sadists just want to have fun ... and the Internet is their
playground!" Taking into account the results of this psychological analysis,
speak of current state and prospects of nation development of the countries
who employ whole trolling farms sponsored by their governments.
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Hybrid Warfare
5. Evaluate the risk potential of trolling, and offer recommendations on
how to mitigate the effects of trolling when used as a tool in hybrid warfare.
В майбутньому, окрім воєнного протиборства комплексно будуть

застосовуватись інструменти інформаційно-психологічного, соціально-
економічного та дипломатичного і суспільно-політичного впливу в будь-
яких формах конфліктів. Загальною метою протиборства в усіх формах
конфліктів буде зміна політичного становища ворога, примушення до
прийняття сприятливих для іншої сторони умов виходу з конфлікту. Але
в залежності від виду (покоління) конфлікту досягнення мети
здійснюватиметься:
Кінець 20-го, початок 21-го століття охарактеризувався новим
етапом у розвитку воєнного мистецтва – появою воєн нового покоління,
що на сьогодні домінує в думках західних військових і політичних
аналітиків, прогнозистів і футурологів, культурологів і військових
істориків. Метою війни стає не фізичне знищення противника або тільки
його збройних сил, а досягнення його внутрішнього колапсу та
системоруйнування шляхом атаки на соціум та політикум, примушення
його до відмови від подальшого опору різними (в тому числі та у більшій
мірі не військовими) способами, як то руйнування культурного
середовища і інфраструктури, порушення управління, втрата довіри до
національних та військово-
політичних лідерів, придушення
волі до боротьби, виведення з
ладу енергетичної й промислової
бази й ін. При цьому не
обов’язково починати відкриту
воєнну агресію проти
противника. Натомість можна
використовувати протиріччя
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Hybrid Warfare
противника з його сусідами для розв’язування між ними конфлікту,
результати якого будуть вигідні організатору. Або використати
внутрішньополітичні протиріччя та нестабільність для формування руху
опору та громадянського конфлікту.
Невід’ємними атрибутами воєн 4-го покоління стануть
використання новітніх технологій, в першу чергу інформаційно-
комунікаційних (як-то соціальних мереж) для залучення та втягування у
конфлікт ангажованих соціальних груп, спільнот, здійснення кібератак
патріотично налаштованими хакерами, ведення витонченої
психологічної боротьби за допомогою маніпуляції засобами масової
інформації. Заклики щодо поширення демократії та захисту прав людини
стануть достатніми приводами для розв’язання конфлікту, а телевізійні
репортажі з місць бойових дій дозволять сформувати потрібний
інформаційний фон і стануть зброєю не менш потужною, ніж
високоточні засоби ураження. Соціальні мережі вже стали надзвичайно
ефективнішою та живучою системою управління та інструментом
нарощування внутрішнього конфлікту, а терористи-смертники й
наркотики – за образним висловленням авторів концепції війн 4-го
покоління – «міжконтинентальними балістичними ракетами для
незаможних».
Полем бою для війни четвертого покоління стане все суспільство
противника цілком. При цьому розмиваються кордони між миром і
війною аж до повного зникнення, а поняття поля бою, лінії фронту,
стратегічного тилу в сучасному розумінні зникне.
У війнах нового покоління передбачається безпосередній вплив на
свідомість і волю суспільства залученого в конфлікт та осіб, що
приймають рішення, руйнація їх політичної волі, використання всіх
наявних можливостей і засобів впливу для того, щоб змінити політичне
положення противника, переконуючи його вище військово-політичне
керівництво у тому, що їх стратегічні цілі або недосяжні, або їх
досягнення нерозмірно дороге. При цьому агресія може здійснюватися
як зсередини, так і ззовні та приймати різноманітні форми.
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Terrorism, Hijacking, Kidnapping

Terrorism is the systematic use implies an act of violence by a state

of violence to create a general against its domestic enemies, since
climate of fear in a population and the 20th century the term has been
thereby to bring about a particular applied most frequently to violence
political objective. Terrorism has aimed, either directly or indirectly, at
been practiced by political governments in an effort to influence
organizations with both rightist and policy or topple an existing regime.
leftist objectives, by nationalistic Terrorism proper is the
and religious groups, by systematic use of violence to
revolutionaries, and even by state generate fear, and thereby to achieve
institutions such as armies, political goals, when direct military
intelligence services, and police. victory is not possible. This has led
Definitions of terrorism are some social scientists to refer to
usually complex and controversial, guerrilla warfare as the “weapon of
and, because of the inherent ferocity the weak” and terrorism as the
and violence of terrorism, the term in “weapon of the weakest.”
its popular usage has developed an A terrorist organization can
intense stigma. It was first coined in have various structures, such as an
the 1790s to refer to the terror used identifiable hierarchy of command, a
during the French Revolution by the horizontal structure where leaders
revolutionaries against their are non-identifiable or have no major
opponents. The Jacobin party of role, or a cell structure where the
Maximilien Robespierre carried out terrorists can be “lone wolves.”
a Reign of Terror involving mass Terrorism is also asymmetric
executions by the guillotine. warfare. Asymmetric warfare refers
Although terrorism in this usage to the use of random/unpredictable
135
violence by a weak group (i.e., one selected for their shock value.
with a smaller force) against a Schools, shopping centres, bus and
stronger power (i.e., military, train stations, and restaurants and
government, or even society in nightclubs have been targeted both
general) to gain advantage. because they attract large crowds
Asymmetrical warfare is fought and because they are places with
between grossly unequal sides. The which members of the civilian
less powerful force does not attack population are familiar and in which
the more powerful force under the they feel at ease. The goal of
conventional rules of war because it terrorism generally is to destroy the
cannot win by following these public’s sense of security in the
tactics. The centrality of asymmetric places most familiar to them.
warfare is the use of unexpected and Technological advances, such
unconventional tactics in combat. as automatic weapons and compact,
This is similar to the notion of war electrically detonated explosives,
without front lines, a war waged in gave terrorists a new mobility and
the shadows against an indescribable lethality, and the growth of air travel
enemy, without a clear provided new methods and
understanding of where it would lead opportunities. Terrorism was
or how it would end. virtually an official policy in
In order to attract and maintain totalitarian states such as those of
the publicity necessary to generate Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler
widespread fear, terrorists must and the Soviet Union under Stalin. In
engage in increasingly dramatic, these states arrest, imprisonment,
violent, and high-profile attacks. torture, and execution were carried
These have included hijackings, out without legal guidance or
hostage takings, kidnappings, car restraints to create a climate of fear
bombings, and, frequently, suicide and to encourage adherence to the
bombings. Although apparently national ideology and the declared
random, the victims and locations of economic, social, and political goals
terrorist attacks often are carefully of the state.
1. What is terrorism? What did the term terrorism originally describe?
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2. What is the aim of terrorism? How is a terrorist group structured?
3. What is an asymmetrical warfare?
4. What kinds of attacks does the term comprise?
5. What are the usual locations of terrorist attacks?
6. How do technological advances contribute to terrorism?
7. What kind of polity resorts to terrorism as an official policy
concealing it, of course?
space.
Hijacking is the illegal (1) ________ of a land vehicle, aircraft, or other
(2) ________ while it is in (3) ________. Although since the late 20th century
hijacking most frequently involved the seizure of an airplane and its
(4) ________ diversion to destinations chosen by the air pirates, when the term
was coined in the 1920s in the United States hijacking generally (5) ________
to in-transit thefts of truckloads of illegally (6) ________ liquor or to the
similar seizure of rumrunners at sea. By the mid 1950s, use of the term had
been broadened to (7) ________ the hijacking of trucks carrying legitimate
(8) ________, as well as the hijacking of legal ships.
Airplane hijacking is also known as skyjacking. The first (9) _________
case of such hijacking (10) ________ in Peru in 1931. The first (11) ________
hijacking in Asia occurred in 1948 on a flight (12) ________ from Macau to
Hong Kong; all 25 people aboard were killed when the airplane crashed into
the Pacific Ocean. During the next decade about 15 airplanes were
(13) ________, and in 1958–67 the number of such (14) ________ increased
dramatically to about 50.
Many hijackings are financially (15) ________, with the hijackers
calling for huge (16) ________ payments in exchange (17) ________
ensuring the safety of the passengers and crew, though few were successful.
1. a) seizure b) capture c) conquest

2. a) conveyance b) transport c) equipment
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3. a) going b) move c) transit
4. a) atrocious b) motivated c) forcible
5. a) referred b) used c) worded
6. a) brewed b) manufactured c) dissolved
7. a) convey b) encompass c) refer
8. a) bargain b) burden c) cargo
9. a) reported b) bound c) seized
10. a) was held b) occurred c) took place
11. a) aerial b) airial c) aloof
12. a) bound b) flying c) going
13. a) blackmailed b) kidnapped c) hijacked
14. a) accidents b) incidents c) precedents
15. a) backed b) maintained c) motivated
16. a) money b) bail c) ransom
17. a) in b) of c) for

same line.
________ is a criminal offense consisting of the KIDNAP
_______ taking and carrying away of a person by force LAW
or fraud or the unlawful seizure and ________ of a DETEND
person against his will. The principal motives for
kidnapping are to subject the victim to some form
of ________ servitude, to expose him to the VOLUNTARY
________ of some further criminal act against his COMMIT
person, or to obtain ransom for his ________ release. SAVE
More recently, kidnapping for the purpose of ________ EXTORT
has become a tactic of political ________ or REVOLT
terrorists seeking ________ from a government. In all CONCESS
countries it is considered a grave offense ________ by PUNISH
a long prison sentence or death.
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The terror is intentionally aimed at (1) ________ targets (i.e., civilians or

iconic symbols), and the (2) ________ is to achieve the greatest attainable
publicity for a group, cause, or individual. The meaning of terrorism is socially
constructed. Terrorism is (3) ________ from murder, assault, arson,
demolition of property, or the threat of the same; the reason is that the
(4) ________ of terrorist violence and damage reaches more than the
immediate (5) ________ victims (e.g., government or military). It is also
directed at targets consisting of a larger spectrum of society (e.g.,
(6) ________ or even society as a whole). Terrorism is distinct from regular
(7) ________ because of its powerful objectives. The (8) ________ is desired
so desperately that the (9) ________ to achieve change is perceived as a worse
consequence than the deaths of civilians. Terrorist acts are both (10) ________
prohibita acts and mala in (11) ________ acts. Mala prohibita acts are “crimes
that are made illegal by (12) ________”; mala in se acts are crimes “that are
(13) ________ or wrong in themselves.” Terrorism is, first and
(14) ________, a method, and it is used in times of peace and conflict. A
terrorist organization is an (15) ________ clandestine organization that
generally consists of planners, trainers, and actual bombers/ (16) ________.
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140
Exercise 6. Watch the video (28), retell it dwelling upon

the mission of MRF agents and their daily routine.
Exercise 7. Watch the video (29), retell it enumerating the

attacks mentioned in the video and describing them.

1. Do you know of any forms of terror other than bombs?

2. How has airline travel been affected by terrorism? What do you think
of airport security? Have you ever been patted down? Have you ever had a
body scan? What do you think security personnel think when they see you in
a body scanner?
3. Are terror tactics ever effective? When?
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4. Since the 20th century, ideology and political opportunism have led
a number of countries to engage in transnational terrorism, often under the
guise of supporting movements of national liberation. It has been described
variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a holy duty; a justified
reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. We use political
labels: we refer to the bad ones as terrorists. They do not. The terrorists, as
their opponents call them, rarely identify themselves as such. Generally, they
use other terms or terms pertaining to their situation, such as enemy
combatants, freedom fighters, guerrillas, liberators, militants, paramilitary
groups, patriots, revolutionaries, rebels, separatists, unlawful combatants,
vigilantes, or any word with a similar meaning in other languages and cultures.
While some Western pundits call militant groups and individuals in the Arab
world terrorists, the latter call themselves mujahedin (jihadi terrorists),
Fedayeen (suicide squads who are not bombers), and so forth. In fact, such
Arabic words have entered the English lexicon for the past few decades.
Hence, it became a common saying that “One man’s terrorist is another man’s
freedom fighter.” Not being on anybody’s side, do you think that the aim
justifies the means in such cases?
5. Böllinger (1981) conducted interviews with eight members of the
German terrorist group. Böllinger found that some of the respondents’ over-
controlling parents, preventing them from becoming autonomous, led to
identity crises. These youths became Idealists willing to engage in violent
struggle and sacrificing their lives in attacks. Causing drastic societal change
by liberating themselves and joining a terrorist organization was a major
motive for such youths. Do you think, it is just a coincidence or it has some
grounds to be called a regularity?
6. Since the beginning of modern terrorism, women have sometimes
been the leaders and intellectual drivers. According to Harmon (2000), today
“more than 30% of international terrorists are women, and females are central
to membership rosters and operational roles in nearly all insurgencies. Other
figures range from 20% to 30% for many domestic and international terrorist
groups. Between 1985 and 2006, 225 female suicide bombers from various
terrorist organizations were identified and dozens of women were arrested
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after the suicide missions failed. Pape (2005)137 gathered data on 462 suicide
bombers between 1980 and 2003 (including both genders). Fifty percent of
the cases involved Muslim terrorists in Lebanon and Palestine who were
linked to Al Qaeda, and most of the rest were Kurds, Chechens, and Tamil
Tigers. Pape found that the proportion of women differed significantly across
these groups, ranging from no women among the Al Qaeda terrorists to over
50% of women for the Chechens and Kurds. In general, left-wing
organizations have exceedingly more female members than right-wing ones.
Why, do you think, this is the case?
7. Female suicide terrorists are sometimes widows of men killed by the
government or the military. This situation is so common among female
Chechen suicide bombers that they are often referred to as Black Widows. The
average age of the left-wing terrorist is usually lower than other kinds of
terrorists. In fact, many of them do not even have a high-school diploma. On
the other hand, contrary to popular opinion, many terrorists come from
mainstream educational and family backgrounds. The Aum Shinrikyo sect
was composed of many specialists, including scientists and engineers. Scores
of Baader-Meinhof terrorists were noticeably middle class. More recently,
thorough studies of Islamist terrorists have categorized them as middle class,
with a large percentage of engineers and physicians. Osama bin Laden came
from a family with exceptional wealth in Saudi Arabia. Many terrorists have
been exposed to the academic and cultural milieus of the West. As a case in
point, terrorist Mohammed Atta came from a middleclass Egyptian
background. Although he became a well-respected academic in Germany (and
throughout the Western academic world), he was found to be a suspected
mastermind of the September 11, 2001 attacks. He was flying the plane that
crashed into the North Tower. How can you explain the statistics?

Терор (лат. "еrrоr - страх, жах) - означає "лякати", "залякувати".
Саме ця обставина і визначає терор як особливу форму політичного
насильства, що характеризується жорстокістю, цілеспрямованістю та
удаваною ефективністю. Ці особливості визначили широке
143
використання терору протягом людської історії як засобу політичної
боротьби в інтересах держави, організацій і окремих груп суспільства.
Терор був розповсюдженим інструментом боротьби революції і
контрреволюції в період глибоких соціальних потрясінь суспільства.
У сучасних умовах спостерігається ескалація терористичної
діяльності екстремістських організацій, ускладнюється характер їхніх
дій, зростає витонченість і антигуманність терористичних актів.
Причини терору криються в зростанні кризових явищ, нездатності
суспільства регулювати складні соціально-політичні процеси, швидкій
зміні систем людських і політичних ідеалів, цінностей, у підключенні до
активного політичного життя широких мас населення з низькою
духовністю, культурою та освітою, позбавленого політичного досвіду.
Через це активізуються прагнення використати слабкості суспільної та
державної системи і прокласти "найкоротший" шлях до поставленої
мети.
Центральним елементом терору є захоплення заручників,
викрадення політичних діячів, їхнє вбивство, вимагання грошей,
спеціальних матеріалів, транспортних засобів, зброї, звільнення
політичних ув'язнених, поширення загального провокування репресій з
боку держави. Терор у відношенні національної, етнічної, расової або
релігійної групи, здійснюваний з метою її повного чи часткового
знищення, розглядається світовим співтовариством як акт геноциду.
Існує багато варіантів прояву терору і тому важко дати універсальне
його визначення. Хоча певні критерії класифікації визначені: терор як
метод політичної боротьби в мирний та воєнний час; індивідуальний,
організований терор і терор як політика держави; терор як метод
внутрішньополітичної боротьби і терористичні акти міжнародного
характеру.
Тероризм у світі переслідується майже всіма державами. Для цього
існує міжнародне законодавство, за яким терорист переслідується на
території будь-якої країни. Часто терористами стають дуже
неврівноважені, психічно хворі люди. Види і форми тероризму
розрізняються за цілями, формами, методами, суб'єктами та об'єктами.
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Massive Destruction Warfare

The dangers posed by weapons and the materials to produce them.

of mass destruction have come to While states have officially
occupy centre stage in international committed to eliminating all
politics. The term "weapon of mass stockpiles of chemical weapons and
destruction" (WMD) is used to offensive biological weapons and to
characterize a variety of weapons that strive for the elimination of nuclear
share two key features: their potential weapons, nine countries currently
for large-scale destruction and the possess nuclear weapons - Britain,
indiscriminate nature of their effects, China, France, India, Israel
notably against civilians. There are (assumed), North Korea (claimed),
three major types of WMD: nuclear Pakistan, Russia, and the United
weapons, chemical warfare agents, States - and several states are
and biological warfare agents. In believed to possess chemical and/or
addition, some analysts include biological warfare agents.
radiological materials as well as In addition to the dangers posed
missile technology and delivery by existing stockpiles of WMD,
systems such as aircraft and ballistic significant problems arise from the
missiles. While the mass killing of spread (or "proliferation") of WMD
human beings is not a new feature of and related technologies to additional
warfare, weapons of mass destruction countries, nongovernmental actors,
(WMD) pose an unprecedented and non-state terrorist networks
constellation of challenges to peace through clandestine programs and
and security. Over the past century, black-market sales of weapons and
various states have built and related technologies. Fears of the
stockpiled lethal arsenals of nuclear, terrorist use of WMD increased in the
chemical, and biological weapons United States and around the world
145
following the terrorist use of the millions of people in an instant. The
biological warfare agent anthrax in detonation of just one "small" nuclear
the U.S. mail in 2001 and evidence weapon could kill as many as
seized by U.S. forces in Afghanistan 100,000 people. In addition, many
that Al Qaeda was actively seeking thousands more would die over time
nuclear materials. due to the lethal effects of radiation.
Although the term WMD Because of governmental
provides a convenient shorthand for secrecy, it is impossible to give exact
mass-casualty weapons, there are figures on the makeup and yield of
very important differences in the global nuclear arsenals.
characteristics, effects and military Chemical and biological
roles of various nuclear, chemical, weapons also pose the terrifying
and biological weapons. potential of inflicting mass
Nuclear weapons stand apart in casualties. But there are some very
the public imagination because of significant differences in their
their horrific and unmatched properties, effects, and methods of
destructive power: an all-out nuclear delivery.
attack could annihilate billions of Chemical weapons are notable
people within hours. For this reason, because of the widespread and
some argue that nuclear weapons longstanding commercial and
should be distinguished from all military experience in manufacturing
other types of weapons of mass their constituents. Especially
destruction. There are approximately compared with nuclear weapons,
30,000 nuclear weapons in national chemical weapons are considerably
stockpiles of the eight nuclear easier and cheaper to manufacture.
weapons states: Britain, China, Many dangerous chemical
France, India, Israel (assumed), constituents and so-called precursors
North Korea (claimed), Pakistan, of chemical weapons are currently
Russia, and the United States. commercially available. An
Depending upon the yield and international agreement banning
atmospheric conditions, a large chemical weapons, the Chemical
thermonuclear weapon dropped on a Weapons Convention (CWC),
densely populated city could kill entered into force in 1997. The treaty
146
requires signatories to destroy becoming more sophisticated and
existing stockpiles of chemical widely available.
weapons and, as of the end of 2005, Several countries have
at least 2 million chemical weapons developed and maintained active
and 12 million metric tons of biological weapons programs,
chemical agents were destroyed and despite the fact that the 1925 Geneva
175 countries signed on to the Convention prohibits the use of germ
agreement. weapons in war and the 1972
Biological weapons, which Biological Weapons Convention
make use of lethal bacteria, viruses, (BWC) prohibits states from
or toxins, are distinguished by their developing, retaining, and
profoundly uncontrollable nature: transferring these weapons.
once unleashed, a biological agent Unfortunately, the current ban on
such as smallpox can spread quickly offensive biological warfare does not
to cause an epidemic in human have any enforcement mechanisms,
populations. Although biological such as international inspections or
weapons are highly dangerous, they rules governing research and
have only rarely been used in war or development of possible bioweapons
in terrorist attacks. There are growing like anthrax. Negotiations to
concerns, though, about the establish mechanisms to verify
likelihood of future use of biological compliance and assure enforcement
weapons in light of the dynamism of of the ban on offensive biological
biomedical technology and advances weapons have been unsuccessful; the
in the field of biotechnology. The most recent effort broke down in
technologies available to create and 2002 because the United States
disperse biological agents are refused to allow biological weapons
inspections on its soil.
1. What is WMD? What kinds of weapons does it comprise?

2. What is the official commitment towards WMD and what countries
possess it?
3. What is the proliferation of WMD?
147
4. Why should nuclear weapon be distinguished from other types of
mass destruction weapon? What is it capable of?
5. Compare chemical and nuclear weapons.
6. What is CWC?
7. Characterise biological weapons.
8. What is BWC?

same line.
Children are ________ more than adults by chemicals AFFECT

and biological agents. Children’s increased ________ RASPIRATE
rate leads to higher ____ of aerosolized agents such as DOSE
sarin, chlorine or anthrax being ____. The gases, which INHALE
have a greater vapour ______ (sarin and chlorine), have DENSE
their highest ________ closer to the ground - where CENTRATE
the children ____ becomes a factor. New-borns, infants HIGH
and children have more permeable skin and a larger
surface-to-mass ratio that results in greater ________ to EXPOSE
toxins that are _______ through the skin. Vesicants and ABSORB
corrosives produce greater _____ to children because of INJURE
their poor keratinization (wear and tear of the skin).
When showering to ____ children, they are more likely CONTAMINATE
to become _______ as they lose heat quickly due to THERM
their ______ body surface area ratio. Children are at DECREASE
risk for rapid _______ and shock after vomiting and HYDRO
diarrhoea due to low fluid ________. RESERVE
space.
148
The (1) ________ of science or of scientific achievements to create

(2) ________ that poison and (3) ________ disease has always provoked
alarm and (4) ________ in the public mind. For centuries there have been
taboos (5) ________ such weapons, but the use of (6) ________ gas in World
War I led to the first international agreement – the 1925 Geneva Protocol –
(7) ________ asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and bacteriological
methods of (8) ________.
Despite the huge loss of life and destructiveness of World War II, and the
crimes committed against (9) ________, the main (10) ________ did not use
chemical or biological weapons against each other.
The (11) ________ called for renewed efforts to combat the
(12) ________ threats, in particular by mobilizing what it called the “web of
(13) ________” – a global network of all those involved in (14) ________
sciences and biotechnology, public, private, scientific and lay, who could help
prevent the catastrophic consequences of (15) ________ biotechnological
development.
More recently, the concerns have been (16) ________ about the interest
among police, security and armed forces in using toxic chemicals – primarily
dangerous (17) ________ drugs – as law-(18) ________ weapons designed to
(19) render targets unconscious or otherwise severely incapacitated. These
substances have been described as “(20) ________ chemical agents”.
1. a) misuse b) abuse c) disuse

2. a) arms b) warfare c) weapons
3. a) proliferate b) spread c) discard
4. a) disgust b) abhorrence c) restrain
5. a) against b) on c) from
6. a) venomous b) poisoning c) poisonous
7. a) banning b) discouraging c) abusing
8. a) warfare b) fighting c) war
9. a) people b) humans c) humanity
10. a) allies b) belligerents c) combatants
149
11. a) appeal b) address c) interview
12. a) preventing b) misused c) emerging
13. a) detention b) proliferation c) prevention
14. a) living b) live c) life
15. a) unregulated b) unrestricted c) unbelligerent
16. a) created b) raised c) made
17. a) tranquil b) anaesthetic c) painkilling
18. a) enforcement b) binding c) stimulating
19. a) provoke b) render c) turn
20. a) freezing b) paralysing c) incapacitating
Weapon of mass destruction ((1) ________), weapon with the

(2) ________ to inflict death and destruction on such a massive (3) ________
and so indiscriminately that its very presence in the hands of a (4) ________
power can be considered a ________ threat. Modern weapons of mass
(5) ________ are either nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons – frequently
referred to ________ as NBC weapons.
The term weapons of mass destruction has been in (6) ________ since at
least 1937, when it was used to describe massed formations of bomber aircraft.
At that time these high-flying (7) ________ of the air seemed to pose an
unstoppable (8) ________ to civilian centres located far from any war front,
notably in the fire bombings of such cities as Hamburg, Germany, and Tokyo,
Japan, when tens of thousands of (9) ________ died in a single night. With
the (10) ________ of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, the
(11) ________ power of conventional bombs paled before the spectacle of an
entire city centre destroyed and some 66,000 people instantly killed by the
(12) ________ and heat of a single nuclear weapon. (By the end of the year,
radiation (13) ________ brought the death toll to 140,000.) During the Cold
War the United States, the Soviet Union, and other major (14) ________ built
up enormous (15) ________ containing tens of thousands of nuclear bombs,
150
missile warheads, and artillery shells – so many that the military and
diplomatic (16) ________ of that era was sometimes described as a “balance
of terror.”
151
152
Exercise 6. Watch the video (26), retell it
Exercise 7. Watch the video (27), retell it.

1. What’s your opinion on countries with nuclear weapons and those who
want weapons?
2. Do you think terrorists will ever use nuclear, chemical or biological
weapons?
3. What do you think of the weapons trade?
4. Seneca said: "A sword is never a killer, it is a tool in the killer's hands."
Do you agree?
5. Joseph Stalin said: "Ideas are more powerful than guns. We would not
let our enemies have guns, why should we let them have ideas." What
do you think of this quote?
6. Do you think the world will ever be free from weapons of mass
destruction?
7. Would you like to work in the weapons industry?
8. What do you think the personality of a weapons designer is like?
9. Albert Einstein said: "I know not with what weapons World War III will
be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."
What does this quote mean? Do you agree?
Хімічна зброя. В якості хімічної зброї використовують хімічні

речовини, які проявляють токсичні властивості в малих дозах і / або
мають відповідні фізичні та хімічні властивості для їх використання в
умовах ведення бойових дій (стійкі до гідролізу; легко переходять у пар
153
або розпорошуються у вигляді пилу, аерозолю; мають велику
температуру розкладання і т.д.).
Хімічна зброя може використовуватися, як для ураження людей
так й для тварин і рослин. Отруйні речовини в умовах ведення війни
можуть потрапляти в організм людини в основному через органи
дихання, шкіру та слизові.
За характером дії на людину бойові отруйні речовини поділяють
на такі основні групи:
· нервово-паралітичні (зарин, зоман, Ві-Екс та ін);
· шкірнонаривні (сірчані і азотисті іприти та ін);
· подразнювальні (хлорацетофенон, Адамс та ін);
· психотропні (ЛСД, ДМТ, сірчана та ін);
· задушливі (фосген, хлор та ін);
· загальноотруйні (синильна кислота та її похідні, оксид вуглецю
та ін.)
Слід зазначити, що хімічна зброя не тільки заподіює шкоду
здоров'ю людини під час військового конфлікту, але і ще довго може
впливати після цього, викликаючи генетичні мутації у наступних
поколіннях людей, які будуть проживати на зараженій території.
Біологічна зброя. Це різні види патогенних мікроорганізмів, які
відносно швидко і на тривалий час виводять з ладу людей, викликаючи
у них інфекційні захворювання. Перевага біологічної зброї перед
хімічною в тому, що для ідентифікації збудника необхідно відносно
велику кількість часу (іноді кілька діб), що дає хворобі поширюватися
і далі, а також ставить під загрозу життя людей, які заразилися
першими. До недоліків можна віднести також можливість появу
неконтрольованих штамів. Застосування цього виду зброї масового
ураження не перспективне при вирішенні швидких бойових завдань,
частіше його використовують для диверсій (при партизанському або
терористичному способі ведення війни).
Після встановлення факту застосування біологічної зброї або
появи масового інфекційного захворювання серед людей, проводиться
екстрена профілактика.
154
Для спеціальної екстреної профілактики використовують
антибіотики або інші антибактеріальні препарати, а також вакцини,
сироватки, анатоксини, бактеріофаги, які діють на збудника після його
ідентифікації та
визначення чутливості
до антибактеріальних
засобів.
Ядерна зброя. Це
зброя масового
ураження, при якому
енергія виділяється в
процесі поділу або
синтезу ядер ізотопів
деяких елементів
(урану, плутонію,
водню тощо).
Потужність ядерного
боєприпасу
характеризується
тротиловим
еквівалентом (енергія
ядерного боєприпасу
еквівалентна масі тринітротолуолу «ТНТ», що вибухає та вимірюється
в кілотоннах або мегатоннах ТНТ).
В результаті вибуху ядерного боєприпасу утворюються такі
вражаючі фактори:
 ударна хвиля (до 50% від енергії вибуху);
 світлове випромінювання (до 35% від енергії вибуху);
 проникаюча радіація і радіаційне зараження місцевості
(відповідно до 5 і 10% від енергії вибуху);
 електромагнітний імпульс (до 10-6 % від енергії вибуху).
155
Progress test
Progress test
1. A terrorist group, Freedom fighters, has been blamed for a bomb explosion
which …………. 28 people at a railway station in Gloomford.
a) incapacitated b) wounded c) disrupted
2. The device was ………………….. in a toilet on platform.
a) planted b) waged c) dislocated
3. The bomb contained one kilogram of plastic explosive, and went
………………… exactly at noon with a deafening roar that shattered
windows in neighbouring buildings.
a) off b) out c) away
4. A train, which had just arrived at the platform, took most of the ………….
a) rear b) stalemate c) blast
5. Passengers were …………… by flying debris and shattered glass.
a) injured b) incapacitated c) wounded
6. Nearby hospitals were put on alert but there were relatively few casualties
and no severe injuries were …………………..
a) sustained b) fostered c) complied with
7. The station was evacuated and bomb ……………. experts carried out an
extensive search for other devices.
a) potent b) deterrence c) disposal
8. The Prime Minister roundly …………………. the attack.
a) revolted b) yielded c) condemned
9. “This murderous act demonstrates,” he told the press, “that criminals who
………………… a political purpose through barbaric attacks directed against
innocent people care about nobody and must be hunted down before they can
strike again”.
a) condemn b) overthrow c) pursue
10. Railway guards ..…….. an appeal to passengers for additional vigilance.
a) meddled b) ransacked c) issued
11. “Everybody should be ………… the alert and report anything suspicious,
however small or unlikely,” the spokesman said.
a) in b) on c) at
156
Progress test
12. The bomb …………………. managed not to sustain any injuries.
a) squad b) infantry c) troops
13. The ………….. disintegrated as the blast engulfed the wreckage in flames.
a) vehicle b) community c) atrocity
14. All onlookers were cleared as …………… experts started a finger-tip
examination of the debris.
a) malicious b) forensic c) offensive
15. The ……………. device is believed to have been attached to the underside
of the car and might have been accidentally detonated by a police radio
scanning device.
a) savvy b) ferocious c) incendiary
16. No one has yet …………… responsibility.
a) inflicted b) claimed c) strived
17. The …………….. devastated three floors of the building and set the
premises on fire.
a) blast b) smallpox c) germ
18. A …………….. device, rather than a remote-controlled one, is believed to
have been used.
a) timing b) indiscriminate c) clandestine
19. ………………… experts now are busy sifting through piles of rubble
searching for clues.
a) Anthrax b) Forensic c) Savvy
20. …………… was scattered over a wide area 10 miles from the village of
Monton.
a) Clash b) Deployment c) Debris
21. How the package passed airport security control ……………….. remains
a mystery.
a) undetected b) rigid c) ferocious
22. A man was blown to pieces by his own bomb before managing to
……………….. a suicide attack at President Colman who was shaking hands
with the crowd during a political rally yesterday.
a) yield b) launch c) strive for
157
Progress test
23. The bomb went ……………. prematurely, killing the man and five people
near him.
a) off b) out c) away
24. An executive of Magus Ltd, John Crasco, has been released after being
held captive at an unknown location by unidentified …………………..
a) infantry b) combatants c) kidnappers
25. Mr. Crasco returned home yesterday after being held 200 days as a(n)
…………………..
a) hostage b) extortion c) fraud
26.Had it been necessary for a third atom bomb, the city ………………….
would have been Tokyo.
a) restrained b) targeted c) inflicted
27. A(n) …………… demand of 2 million of dollars was sent to Magus Ltd.
a) blackmail b) ransom c) abhorrence
28. Nor did they employ a special negotiator who might have been able to
persuade kidnappers to accept a reduced ransom and return the …………….
alive.
a) refugee b) abductee c) employee
29. Russian and Japan still haven’t signed any peace ………….. to end WW2.
An attempt – as recent as 2000 – failed when Russia refused to return four
offshore islands they had taken from Japan after the war.
a) treaty b) extortion c) seizure
30. The drama began on Friday when the girls were snatched from a
playground in Palmon, …………………. and driven away.
a) exposed b) detained c) blindfolded
31. Kidnappers threatened to mutilate the children to make the authorities
comply ……………… their demands.
a) with b) at c) on
snatched
32. A Korean soldier during WW2 was ……………… into the Japanese
Imperial Army. Eventually he was captured and forced to fight for the Red
Army. Later he was captured again and forced to fight for the Wehrmacht
(Germany). Making him a veteran of three armies.
158
Progress test
a) coerced b) enrolled c) sustained
33. Following three days of face-to-face ………………….., the mediators
reported no prospect of a resolution of the crisis.
a) disruption b) treaty c) negotiations
34. During World War II, Russia forced battalions of convicts to run through
minefields, search and clear them ahead of the advancing ……………..
a) troops b) corps c) adversary
35. During the Nazi occupation of Ukraine, the football match between the
Nazis and a group of Ukrainian players from the famous soccer club FC
Dynamo Kyiv took place. The Ukrainians were clearly ………………… to the
occupiers, because they beat them easily over several matches – the last result
being at 8-0.
a) disrupted b) superior c) dislocated
36. A WW2 observation pilot got bored of not being in …………… and
decided to strap 6 bazooka’s to his plane destroying several tanks and
armoured vehicles.
a) adversary b) combat c) manpower
37. The …………………… met with a refusal to refuel the jet.
a) hijackers b) stalemates c) analysts
38. An inquiry has been launched into how the arms and ……………….
escaped detection at the Mardonian airport.
a) devices b) explosives c) trenches
Booby-trapped-
39. The warning comes following a case in which angered passengers took
action on their own and successfully tackled a hijacker by pinning him to the
floor, just seconds before a special …………….. bustled aboard.
a) squad b) troops c) infantry
40. This year’s hijackers are using such weapons as bottles of inflammable
liquids, which do not show up on metal detectors, and may escape
…………….. at airport security checks.
a) scrutiny b) abductee c) fraud
41. This artillery piece is capable of shooting a 2.5 ton …………… over three
miles.
159
Progress test
a) platoon b) squad c) shell
42. The …………….. also agree to prosecute and extradite captured hijackers.
a) signatories b) signatures c) signers
43. That figure includes 325 people on board two planes which were
…………….. earlier this year by bomb explosions.
a) fired b) downed c) shot
44. The United States is the only country that Germany formally
………………. war on in World War II.
a) announced b) declared c) pronounced
45. The long–accepted theory is that, by not ……………. to terrorists’
demands, these hideous acts of violence would, in time, be stamped out.
a) fulfilling b) complying c) yielding
46. The delegates, most of whom were counterterrorism and bomb disposal
experts, shared their knowledge of the latest technology for combating this
………………..
a) scrutiny b) menace c) ransom
47. They concentrated on flight security because the …………….. of a plane
causes the greatest number of casualties.
a) explosion b) downing c) firing
48. This allows the bombs to be ………………… well in advance.
a) planted b) established c) used
49. There are problems involving the widespread use of plastic ………………
which are extremely pliable and can be moulded into practically any shape.
a) blasts b) explosions c) explosives
50. Fusing mechanisms can be ……………….. to altimeters which activate
the device after a plane has reached a certain altitude.
a) wired b) related c) tied
51. Worst of all, plastic explosives are …………………… by conventional
X-ray or vapour-sniffing machines.
a) indefensible b) undeniable c) undetectable
52. That treaty does not eliminate the threat of ……………….. bombers who
are willing to sacrifice their own lives for “the cause”.
a) suicide b) savvy c) forensic
160
Progress test
53. Reports are coming in of a bloodless coup which has …………….. the
president.
a) toppled b) downed c) kidnapped
54. The legal government has been ……………. by a military junta, thus
ending three years of democratic rule.
a) overthrown b) disassembled c) dislocated
55. Mr. Gamba has been ………………. of this power and all existing
political parties have been disbanded.
a) lacked b) stripped c) taken
56. Hiroo Onoda, a Japanese soldier, emerged from the jungle of the Pacific
Island Lubang in 1974.Unaware that Japan had ………………….., he
remained hidden in the jungle for 29 years.
a) surrendered b) reoccupied c) refrained
57. During WWII, all major powers had chemical weapons, such as poison
gas that was first used in WWI to break the trench war ………………….
a) capability b) dismay c) stalemate
58. According to the local radio, the president has been killed in a bloody
…………….. staged by the colonel.
a) stalemate b) rebellion c) bloodshed
59. The overthrow of Sarman was ………………….. following an outbreak
of gunfire in the predawn hours on Friday.
a) announced b) declared c) pronounced
60. Conflict with the ‘ancient enemy’ has ……………… the identities of both
countries, and memories of the war remain long on both sides of the Channel.
a) drown b) revolted c) shaped
61. It is, however, difficult to find any section of English or French society
that was not ………………. by the Hundred Years’ War..
a) affected b) effected c) infected
62. For the time being, executive power will remain in the hands of the
military junta following the ……………….. of the parliament.
a) dissolution b) assembling c) launch
63. The capital remains under a strict shoot-to-kill …………………….
a) curfew b) commandant hour c) invasion
161
Progress test
64. Rebels, seeking to depose the president, …………….. with troops still
loyal to him.
a) fronted b) meddled c) clashed
65. Paratroopers and armoured units, which entered the capital at dawn,
managed to secure strategic points, assaulted the palace, but failed to take over
the radio station, which remains one of the few pockets of ………………..
a) resistance b) clash c) combat
66. Only the ………………… of troops from neighbouring state may restore
the president to power.
a) conquer b) intervention c) enrolling
67. Two previous ……………………… in the past three years were foiled.
a) coupes b) cups c) coups
68. While chronicle accounts allow us to reconstruct the ………………….. of
the battle of Agincourt with some precision, the size of the opposing forces
remains a matter of contention.
a) narrative b) anthrax c) misuse
69. One of the assassins was killed, the other ………………., overpowered
and dragged away by security guards.
a) blistered b) dissolved c) wounded
70. As the president lay bleeding, havoc broke ………………. and the crowd
went berserk.
a) out b) away c) off
71. Four hours later he was ……………………. dead.
a) pronounced b) announced c) declared
72. The assassins were identified as belonging to an extremist ……………….
a) altruistic b) international c) rightist
73. At Agincourt it appears that French ……………….. accounted for a
solitary English archer during the battle, and in 1431 Philip the Good, duke of
Burgundy, fired 412 cannonballs into the town of Lagny and succeeded only
in killing a chicken.
a) artillery b) forensics c) bomb suicides
74. An indefinite nationwide …………………. was imposed and three days
of mourning were declared.
162
Progress test
a) exile b) curfew c) refrain
75. The public are being welcomed to …………….final tributes and their last
respects to the slain leader before the funeral ceremony, which is set for
Sunday.
a) foster b) pay c) resort to
76. Having served four years on the Western Front the 40-year-old was killed
at 9.30am, despite the ……………… being signed at 5am.
a) fire seizure b) armistice c) peace treaty
77. He was one of a staggering 11,000 tragic souls who became
……………… on the last day of the war, even though an end to the conflict
had already been agreed.
a) casualties b) combat c) adversary
78. Officially a British soldier had to be 19 years old to ……………….
overseas but many lied about their age. About 250,000 under-age boys served.
The youngest was discovered to be just 12.
a) pay tribute b) serve c) enrol
79. Average life expectancy in the trenches was about six weeks. Junior
officers and stretcher bearers were some of the people most …………….. risk.
a) at b) in c) under
80. As the war went on the amount of food given to soldiers was reduced. A
common meal in the ………………… was maconochie – a stew of turnips,
potatoes and carrots.
a) shells b) debris c) trenches
81. The war …………………… the lives of at least 6,000 men a day. More
than nine million soldiers died during the fighting.
a) claimed b) proclaimed c) pronounced
82. Some 25,000 miles of zig-zagging ……………… were dug on the
Western Front alone. Many had nicknames like Bond Street or Death Valley.
German lines were given names like Pilsen Trench.
a) stalemates b) trenches c) debris
83. A soldier spent 15 per cent of the year on the …………………, usually
for no more than two weeks at a time.
a) clash line b) frontline c) clandestine
163
Progress test
84. At the Battle of Mons in 1914, the British …………….. fired their Lee-
Enfield rifles so efficiently that the Germans thought they were facing
machine guns.
a) infantry b) constellation c) armistice
85. At Christmas 1914 an unofficial truce was observed along two-thirds of
the Western Front. Near Ypres, Belgium, some German and British troops
played a football match in …………Germany won 3 – 2 (but not on penalties).
a) No Man's Land b) No Human’s Land c) No Man’s Territory
86. Sixty per cent of casualties on the Western Front came from
……………….. There were also 80,000 recorded cases of shell shock.
a) shellfire b) trenches c) armistice
87. Disease accounted ………………. a third of deaths during the war. Duck
boards eventually helped ease cases of trench foot, an infection caused by
damp and cold.
a) for b) in c) from
88. A total of 346 British soldiers were shot by their own side, mostly for
…………………... Another sanction, called Field Punishment No 1, saw
offenders strapped to a gun wheel or post, sometimes within range of enemy
fire.
a) armistice b) ransom c) desertion
89. There were 16,000 British conscientious objectors who refused to fight.
Many received white feathers as a sign of cowardice. Some were given
…………………. roles, others were imprisoned.
a) non-combatant b) ferocious c) ballistic
90. Kitchener himself was killed when the ship he was on ………………. a
German mine in 1916.
a) sustained b) stroke c) struck
91. The Victoria Cross was awarded 628 times. The youngest recipient was
Jack Cornwell, 16, who remained at his post during the Battle of Jutland
despite ……………….. ultimately fatal injuries.
a) inheriting b) suffering c) obtaining
92. One of the biggest ………………… of the war occurred when the British
detonated a million pounds of explosives under the Germans at Messines
164
Progress test
Ridge, in Belgian West Flanders. The resulting explosion could be heard 150
miles away in London.
a) armistices b) clashes c) blasts
93. In 1917 food shortages at home caused by the loss of British shipping to
German U-boats meant the government ………………….. the use of rice at
weddings and the feeding of pigeons.
a) banned b) imposed c) condemned
94. Trench language contributed many words to the English language: lousy
and crummy for the lice that infested soldiers as well as dud, bumf and blotto.
Trench butterflies were bits of toilet paper blowing around the ……………….
a) battlefield b) curfew c) ban
95. On the morning of the Battle Of The Somme, July 1, 1916, the British
suffered 60,000 casualties – 20,000 dead. It was the worst …………………
for a single day in military history. Allied forces advanced six miles.
a) toll b) data c) record
96. The shortest war on record took place in 1896 when Zanzibar
…………………. to Britain after 38 minutes.
a) detonated b) inflicted c) surrendered
97. The first recorded revolution took place at around 2800 BC when people
from the Sumerian city of Lagash ……………………. bureaucrats who were
lining their own pockets but kept raising taxes.
a) overthrew b) punished c) levied sanctions
98. During the 1991 Gulf War, the Allies dropped more than 17,000 smart
bombs and 210,000 dumb (unguided) bombs on Iraqi ………………..
a) armistice b) troops c) forensics
99. Chemical and biological warfare have been used long before
World War 1. During the Peloponnesian War in the 5th century BC, Spartans
used ……………….. and pitch to overcome the enemy.
a) sulphur b) infantry c) curfew
100. One out of every two casualties of war is a civilian ………........ in the
crossfire.
a) got b) planted c) caught
165

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We Need to Talk…

Nature provides a free lunch, but

Exercise 2. Decide which answer (a, b, or c) best fits

1. a) acidified b) acidity c) acids

Exercise 3. Use the word given in capitals at the end of

Acid precipitation or acid __________________, DEPOSE

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one word only.

Exercise 5. Describe the pictures using active vocabulary.

Exercise 6. Watch the video (1), retell it explaining the

Exercise 7. Watch the video (2), retell it dwelling upon

Exercise 8. Be ready to take part in the discussion

1. What motivated you to do something about rain acidity? •

Exercise 9. Translate into English.

Кислотні дощі – це випадання опадів, в яких містяться сірчана і

Exercise 2. Decide which answer (a, b, or c) best fits

1. a) happens b) occurs c) encounters

Exercise 3. Use the word given in capitals at the end of

Common methods of _____ are burning trees and clear FOREST

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one word only.

Deforestation and climate change

Exercise 5. Put the sentences into the text. There is one

you will not need.

carbon storage, water cycling and wildlife habitat

 Rebuilding wildlife habitats

Reforestation won't completely fix the damage, though. For example,

Exercise 6. Translate the video presentation (3) into your

Exercise 8. Describe the pictures using active vocabulary.

Exercise 9. Be ready to take part in the discussion

Exercise 10. Translate into English.

Exercise 2. Decide which answer (a, b, or c) best fits each

Exercise 3. Use the word given in capitals at the end of

_______ engineering poses serious risks to human GENE

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one word only.

Genetically modified (1) __________, like all seed, cannot be easily

Exercise 5. Watch the video (5). Retell it dwelling upon

Exercise 6. Watch the video (6). Retell it dwelling upon

Exercise 7. Describe the pictures using active vocabulary.

Exercise 8. Be ready to take part in the discussion

1. What is your position regarding the use of genetically engineering

Exercise 9. Translate into English.

1. What is global warming?

1. a) fundamentals b)basics c) causes

Exercise 3. Use the word given in capitals at the end of

Today, because of greenhouse gas ________, the POLLUTE

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one word only.

Exercise 5. Watch the video (7). Retell the video. What is

Exercise 6. Watch the video (8). Retell the video

Exercise 8. Be ready to take part in the discussion

Вміст в атмосфері парникових газів, що утворюються в результати

Exercise 2. Decide which answer (a, b, or c) best fits each

1. a) related b) linked c) tied

Exercise 3. Use the word given in capitals at the end of

What then will happen if the current ________ of DECIM

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one word only.

The extirpation of populations and (1) _______ of organisms exerts its

Exercise 5. Watch the video (9). Retell it. Why do we need

Exercise 6. Watch the video (10). Translate it into your

Exercise 7. Describe the pictures using active vocabulary.

Exercise 8. Be ready to take part in the discussion

Exercise 9. Translate into English.

Процес вимирання видів - такий самий звичайний процес еволюції,

Natural Resource Depletion and the

1. Define natural resources.

The (1) of coercive diplomacy is widely (2) by