T H E E C O N O M I C W E E K L Y ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964

The Sanctity of the Cow in Hinduism

W Norman Brown

At the close of the Vedic period the cow was still an article of food and was appreciated for that
reason, as well as for its other economic values. The doctrine of the cow's sanctity does not appear at all in
Vedic literature.

The general Buddhist and Jain, and later Hindu, doctrine of Ahimsa appears at the end of the Vedic
period and at that time enters the stream of Brahmanical religious teaching, but the doctrine of the special
sanctity of the cow is not at first associated with it.

The sanctity of the cow is first recorded in the works composed close to the beginning of the Christian
era, though the texts of that time treat it equivocally.

The doctrine gets a strong position by the time of the completion of the Mahabharata, say at the
beginning of the Gupta dynasty, about the 4th Century A D. Its position J was made firm doctrinally in
Brahmanical circles in the period of composition of the Puranas, and it becomes widely diffused among
the Hindu community, gaining ever increasing prestige from then on.

I Neither does it seem possible to so much appreciated for its econo-

a t t a c h importance for the develop- mic value. The cow or ox was an
THE purpose of this paper is to ment of the doctrine to such pheno-
asset in producing food directly
identify those notions w h i c h have mena as the buffalo or bull used as
through its m i l k and flesh and in
been c r i t i c a l in the f o r m a t i o n of the a scapegoat, 3 or the use of cowdung
serving as assistance for agriculture
H i n d u doctrine that the cow has a as a purificatory substance for wash-
and for transportation. A l l these
special sanctity and i n v i o l a b i l i t y i n g the walls and floors of houses,
phases of the cow's or ox's usefulness
g i v i n g it a position above all other or the abhorrence of the cow and its
are abundantly stressed in Vedic
animals and precluding the eating m i l k by the Shins in G i l g i t , 4 or the
literature, especially in the R i g Veda.
of i t s flesh. Most of these notions common designation of the b u l l as
appear in the period of Vedas, though Shiva's vehicle or the dedication of Besides its economic role, the cow
the doctrine of the cow's sanctity bulls to h i m . These various notions and b u l l and ox had an i m p o r t a n t
does not come into existence u n t i l are not accompanied by a doctrine r i t u a l i s t i c function in the Vedic sac-
after t h a t period. The doctrine is es t h a t the cow, bull, ox—cattle in gene- rifice, w h i c h was the centre of the
sentially one concerning the cow; r a l - a r e inviolable and t h e i r meat Vedic religion, a function not remote-
the accompanying sanctity of the forbidden. ly approached by any other animal.
b u l l seems to be more obscure in Cattle were the chief sacrificial vic-
o r i g i n and l i k e l y to stem in large p a r t In Vedic Literature t i m s and the products of the cow
f r o m n o n - A r y a n sources. I t w i l l not Before advancing suggestions were the oblation (havis). So, too,
be treated in this paper-1 of the o r i g i n of the sanctity of no other animal figures so frequent-
the cow in I n d o - A r y a n society it ly in simile or metaphor applied to
The doctrine of the cow's sanctity seems in order to review b r i e f l y the a wide range of subjects- the pheno-
seems to be influenced only tangen- a t t i t u d e t o w a r d cattle, especially the mena of nature, such as dawn or
t i a l l y by notions o r i g i n a t i n g in non- cow, in Vedic and early post-Vedic r a i n f a l l or streams; deities both
A r y a n cultures. For example, it can- literature. In the t o t a l mass of Vedic male and female, human beings, the
not be shown to derive from the c i v i - literature the cow, the bull, t and the paraphernalia of the sacrifice such as
lizations of the Indus V a l l e y in the ox, collectively cattle, are mentioned the stones f o r pressing out the
t h i r d and second millennia B.C. I t more frequently than any other spe- soma, whose sound as they rub to-
is true t h a t representations of the cies o f a n i m a l . I t i s doubtful i f any gether m a y be spoken of as bellow-
b u l l and the ox appear on seals and other large body of literature, belong- i n g of bulls, or the soma drops of-
among the terra-cotta figurines of Ing to any other people in any period, fered in the sacrifice, w h i c h m a y be
the H a r a p p a culture, and that some gives t h a t animal so much i m p o r t - called bulls because of t h e i r power.
of these have been considered to have ance- The Veda has a couple of doz- Y e t in a l l this richness of reference
a religious significance, but they ap- en or more separate specialized words to cattle there is never, I believe, a
pear r e l a t i v e l y seldom, less frequent- for cattle, as for heifer, barren cow, h i n t t h a t the animal as a species or
ly, it happens, t h a n representations cow t h a t has ceased to bear after the cow for i t s own sake was held
of the w e l l - k n o w n Indus V a l l e y " u n i - h a v i n g one calf, four-year old ox, sacred and inviolable. A n d further
corn," and the cow is ignored, at three-year old ox, large castrated there is no knowledge whatever in
least in the terra-cottas. 2 The i n - ox, and other kinds of differentiation. Vedic literature, except at i t s v e r y
terpretation of these representations Cattle or herds of cattle or the pro- end, of the wide doctrine of Ahimsa.
is at best problematic, and it is u n - ducts of the cow are the standard non-injury of l i v i n g creatures, w h i c h
w a r r a n t e d to conclude t h a t the scenes items mentioned in descriptions of in modern H i n d u i s m covers not only
of bulls g o r i n g h u m a n beings indicate wealth. Cattle constituted the great m a n k i n d b u t the entire animal k i n g -
a n y t h i n g about the animal's sanctity. booty in war. No other animal was dom, w i t h special emphasis on the

245
 ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964
cow. On the contrary, the animal sac-
rifice is a w e l l established feature
of the Vedic religion;" 5 it included
both ox and cow; 6 and the priests ate
the flesh after it had been offered."
Further, the cow was regularly used
as foods in circumstances c a l l -
ing for elaborate entertainment
For a .special guest, such as "a k i n g
or a B r a h m a n , " one " w o u l d cook a
large ox or a large he-goat." 8 A
great k i n g of the R i g Veda named
Divodasa is frequently mentioned
by an epithet A t i t h i g v a , meaning
"he who (always) has a cow for a
guest"-' There was a special t e r m
for the ceremony of such entertain-
ment (go-arghya ' C O W offering") and
the celebrant "prepared or did the
cow" (gam k u r u t e ) . 1 0 The eating
of meat seems to have been a com-
m o n enough occurrence in Vedle
society for those who could afford
i t . Consequently at the ceremony of
consecration when various p u r i f i -
catory and self-denying personal
observances, such as shaving and
bathing, are prescribed, one of them
is? abstention f r o m eating beef,
whether of the m i l c h cow (dhenu)
or of the ox (anaduha). A myth is
related to support the rule. B u t the
celebrated Vedic sage Yajnavalkya,
whose name figures as a great autho-
r i t y in the fields of both r i t u a l and
metaphysical speculation, would have
none o f the p r o h i b i t i o n . Said he, " I ,
for one, eat it (beef), provided t h a t
it is tender (amsala). " 1 1 In another
passage the yearly performance of
the animal sacrifice, w h i c h the text
says means "cattle," is recommended
for perpetuating the sacrificer's own
herds, for, says the text, "flesh is
the best k i n d of food."*-
I n the
Sutra literature meat-eat-
i n g is taken for granted. The laws
of Apastamba, for example, merely
restrict the manner of k i l l i n g the
a n i m a l ; the t e x t says, "He (the B r a h -
man householder) shall not eat meat
w h i c h has been cut w i t h a sword (or
knife) used for k i l l i n g . " 1 3 A g a i n , the
laws of Gautama forbid a B r a h m a n
to eat the flesh of a number of kinds
of animals including m i l c h cows and
draught oxen, except those slain for
sacrifice, 14
There is an i t e m in Vedic l i t e r a -
ture w h i c h has seemed to some
scholars to i m p l y or foreshadow the
later wide H i n d u doctrine of the i n -
violability of the cow. This item I
246
believe to be overstressed, if not
actually misinterpreted. I t concerns
the stem aghanya/aghnya, w h i c h means
basically "not to be s l a i n " a n d is
used four times in the R i g Veda
and the A t h a r v a Veda as a mascu-
line noun equivalent to " b u l l " or
" o x " and 42 times w i t h a feminine
ending to mean "cow." The question
is w h y the cow or the bull or the
ox should be characterised as "not
to be slain." Is the answer t h a t these
animals were acquiring sanctity and
i n v i o l a b i l i t y ? This is the interpreta-
tion given by Macdonell and K e i t h . 1 5
Or is the answer something else?
t believe t h a t it is the latter. The
problem is really confined to the fre-
quently o c c u r r i n g feminine stem;
the infrequent masculine stem 16
seems to be merely a reflex of the
feminine, as if a speaker of E n g l i s h
were to use an expression "male
cow" (cf. Sanskrit pumgava). The
feminine aghnya I suggest, could
mean or i m p l y t h a t the cow which
it designates is not to be slain be-
cause it is productive and of econo-
mic value; t h a t is, it has or could
have a calf, or it gives or could give
m i l k , and is not barren, economically
w i t h o u t value. Possibly the masculine
f o r m should be understood to mean
a b u l l or ox capable of propagating
or serving as a draught animal.
Doctrine of Ahimsa
If we survey r a p i d l y the 42 occur-
rences of the feminine stem in the
R i g Veda and the A t h a r v a Veda
we can see t h a t this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
is not implausible. In three passages
aghnya is used as an appositive to
dhenu " m i l c h cow" ( R V 4 . 1 . 6 ;
8.69.2; 9 . 1 . 9 . ) . In 12 passages the
text refers to the animal's a b i l i t y to
give m i l k ( R V 1.164.27; 7 . 6 8 . 8 . 9 ;
10.60.11; 10.87.16; AV 6.91.2 ( — R V
10 60.11 ); 7.73.8 ( — R V 1.164.27); 8.
3.15 (= RV 10.87.16); 12.5-58,60,63,65
(and cf. 23) ). One passage refers
to the animal's swollen udder (RV
9 . 9 3 . 3 ) , E i g h t mention its calf ( A V
330.1); 6.70.1,2,3; 9.4.2, 4 . 1 7 . 1 9 ) .
F o u r use the w o r d as an epithet of
the cosmic waters, w h i c h are regu-
l a r l y stated to have the sun as t h e i r
embryo or calf ( R V 9.80.2 ( ? );
10.46.3) (possibly the reference is
to the Cloud as the mother of A g n i
- t h e l i g h t n i n g ) ; ( A V 7 . 8 3 . 2 ; 19.44.
9). In one passage ( R V 8.102.19) a
sacrificer complains t h a t he is handi-
capped in p e r f o r m i n g the sacrifice
THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY
because he has no cow (presumably
to supply the m i l k and its products
needed as offerings) and no axe
(presumably to cut the wood for the
sacrificial fire). In seven other pas-
sages the t e x t implies, though it
does not definitely assert, t h a t the
cow or cows mentioned can bear: in
one of these ( R V 10.102.7) the w o r d
aghnya, is used of cows w h i c h are
said to have a lord or husband ( p a t i ) ;
in one, rainfall is besought of the
storm god Parjanya to nourish the
cows ( R V 5.838); in three others,
the w o r d is applied to the sacrifice
metaphorically called a cow ( A V 10.
9.3,11,24); in one, it is applied to the
cow (vasa) w h i c h is the all-produc-
i n g and all-containing universe ( A V
1 0 . 1 0 . 1 ) ; and in one, it is probably,
but not certainly, meant to indicate
the anustarani cow (AV 18.3.4),
w h i c h is slaughtered in the funeral
ceremony and is therefore, in spite
of its epithet, not inviolable in any
absolute sense.'" In the remaining
six occurrences of aghnya (RV 1.164.
40; 8.75.8; AV 7.73.11 (=RV 1.164.
40); 8.7.25; 18,4.49; 19.162) the
context is either inconclusive or ob-
scure. B u t in no passage is the con-
t e x t such as to exclude the interpre-
t a t i o n t h a t the cow is called "un-
slayable" because it is s t i l l economi-
cally productive. The w o r d aghnya,
is not used in association w i t h words
w h i c h mean a barren cow (start
dhenustart) or a cow barren after
calving ( sutavasa.) or one * w h i c h
miscarries (vehat), nor is it used
w i t h the w o r d vasa when the l a t t e r
is applied to a barren cow. 18
Lesser items from Vedic literature
have been cited in support of the
idea t h a t either the wide doctrine
of Ahimsa or the narrow doctrine
of the inviolability of the cow ap-
pears or is presaged in Vedic litera-
ture. K e i t h alludes in this connec-
t i o n to the p r o h i b i t i o n against beef-
eating at the consecration ceremony
mentioned above. 19 The t e x t (Sata-
patha Brahmana 3.1.2.21) says thai
one who eats beef is l i k e l y to be re-
born as a man of evil fame. B u t it
is clear f r o m the context t h a t this
result follows only if he eats the
beef in the consecration h a l l . K e i t h
also refers in the same place to the
evil consequences for one who eats
the Brahman's cow ( A V 12.4), b u t
here again the inference is unwar-
ranted. It is quite clear f r o m the
 THE E C O N O M I C W E E K L Y
ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964

context t h a t the punishment follows number of other virtues suitable to eaten by that same animal in yond-
not because the a n i m a l eaten is a be a priest's g i f t s : the others are aus- er w o r l d (5.55). In another stanza
cow b u t because it belongs to the t e r i t y , alms-giving, rectitude, t r u t h - it forbids i n j u r y to cows, along w i t h
B r a h m a n as his right.20 fulness (atha y a t tapo danam arjavam i n j u r y to one's teacher, a reciter of
S t i l l another passage is cited by ahimsa; satyavacanam 23
iti ta asya the Vedas, one's father, mother, spi-
Keith i n this connection. I n i t dakdinaah). r i t u a l preceptor, Brahmans, and all
(Kausitaki Brahmana 11.3, inadvert- In Indic Civilisation ascetics (4162). In s t i l l another (11.
ently cited as 12.3), he says, ''are W h e n we leave the Vedic period 60) it includes cow-slaughter (go-
warnings of r e t r i b u t i o n in the next and pass to t h a t of the rise and for- vidha) in a long list of crimes. These
w o r l d w h i c h are offered to eaters of m a t i o n of characteristic Indie c i v i - passages support Ahimsa and the
meat in this" 2 1 . The context again lization we find the idea of Ahimsa sanctity of the cow, but there are
makes clear t h a t this interpretation and the doctrine of the sanctity of others w h i c h essentially deny the
is incomplete and misleading. The the cow slowly g a i n i n g status in doctrines. One of the latter classifies
t e x t deals w i t h the usage of various Brahmanical circles. The period is animals into those which may and
metres in the m o r n i n g sacrificial roughly f r o m about the 5th century those which may not be eaten (5.11.
litany, and the section in question B.C. to the 4th century A . D . D u r i n g ff.). Another specifically says, "One
explains w h y t w o of these metres, it a number of i m p o r t a n t texts have should eat flesh which has been con-
the Bihati and the Usnth, should be allusions of greater or less explicit- secrated, and at the desire of Brah-
used- By using them the priest en- ness to these notions. mans, and when duly required, and
circles the cattle and confers them in danger of life. Prajapati made all
One of these is the Bhagavad Gita.
upon the p a t r o n of the sacrifice. If In it the sanctity of the cow is not this food for life; both movable and
the priest does not use these metres mentioned at a l l and the wider doc- immovable, a l l is food for life. The
and thus encircle the cattle w i t h t r i n e of Ahimsa is little developed. immovable (things are) food of those
them, then, j u s t as in this w o r l d The Bhagavad Gita uses the w o r d t h a t move about; the toothless, of
men eat cattle, so in the next w o r l d Ahimsa four times 10.5; 13.7; 16.2; those w i t h teeth (or fangs); those
the cattle of the p a t r o n of the sac- 17-14), and each time w i t h no spe- w i t h o u t hands, of those w i t h ; the
rifice w i l l eat h i m . B u t if the priest cial significance but rather in a cata- cowardly (such as deer), of the bold
does use these t w o metres, then in logue of human characteristics, good *(such as the t i g e r ) . An eater who
the next w o r l d the cattle w i l l not eat and b a d (10.5) or of the content of even day by day eats eatable l i v i n g
the patron of the sacrifice in requi- knowledge (13.7) or of virtues (16.2) beings is not polluted, for the eat-
t a l . Rather the patron, j u s t as he or of the elements of bodily auste- able l i v i n g beings were created by
eats and enjoys the cattle in this r i t y (17,14). It never elaborates on the creator as w e l l as the eaters"
world, w i l l eat and enjoy them in Ahimsa as a doctrine; rather its at- (5.27-30).25 The general position of
the next w o r l d . The w a r n i n g issued t i t u d e is the opposite. Krishna's Manu's l a w book is t h a t one should
in the t e x t is not against eating teachings are meant to dispel A r - eat consecrated flesh, but not un-
cattle but against o m i t t i n g a certain juna's qualms at shedding the blood consecrated flesh; that is, he should
p o r t i o n of the sacrificial r i t u a l ' 2 2 not eat flesh w h i c h has not been
of his opponents and his correspond-
offered in sacrifice (5.36-38). By
The various passages cited from i n g willingness to submit unresist-
eating consecrated flesh he does good
Vedic literature show no knowledge i n g l y to their weapons (1,28-47). In
both to himself and to the slain ani-
of the doctrine of the sanctity and this purpose K r i s h n a is successful
m a l (5.39-42). B u t if he does not
i n v i o l a b i l i t y of the cow or of cattle. and A r j u n a leads his side to battle
eat i t , he w i l l be reborn as a beast
Rather Vedic literature points to a and v i c t o r y (18.73). A s F . Edgerton
for twenty-one existences ( 5 . 3 5 ) .
general practice of offering cattle remarks: " . . . . s o m e lip-homage is
as sacrificial v i c t i m s and a wide- paid to it ( A h i m s a ) . B u t it is never Another celebrated t e x t of the
spread custom of eating their meat. definitely and sharply applied in same general period which is ambi-
Vedic l i t e r a t u r e is also silent on such a f o r m as 'Thou shalt not valent on these questions is the
the wide doctrine of Ahimsa u n t i l its kill.''24 Arthasastra. In this w o r k the sale
very end and then alludes to it in N e x t I would like to refer to the of meat is recognised as legal, and
only the barest manner. The doc- laws of M a n u . This w o r k is equivo- butchers are required to see t h a t the
t r i n e of Ahimsa makes its real ap- cal on the subjects of Ahimsa and meat they sell is fresh; however,
pearance w i t h Jainism and Buddh- the inviolability of the cow. On one cattle—calf, bull, milch cow—were
ism in the 6 t h and 5th century B.C., side it prescribes that a student of not to be slaughtered ( 2 2 6 ) . If cat-
a t i m e w h i c h corresponds to the the Veda, w h o is of course a B r a h - tle are w r o n g f u l l y grazed in land
closing centuries of the Vedic period. man, should avoid flesh, along w i t h not belonging to their owner they
Mahavira and the Buddha gave honey, perfume, garlands, women, m a y be driven out but are not to be
Ahimsa the p r i n c i p a l place in their gaming, and other h a r m f u l things injured (3.10). The i n s t i t u t i o n of set-
ethical s y s t e m s . I n the Vedic l i t e - (2177; 11.159), and includes Ahimsa t i n g free a b u l l consecrated to a
rature of approximately this same w i t h truthfulness, non-stealing, p u r i t y , deity to wander is recognised (3.10).
period Ahimsa makes a brief appear- and r e s t r a i n t of the senses in a These passages favour the cow. B u t
ance. There is a single occurrence of s u m m a r y of the duties of the four another passage refers to "cattle
the w o r d in the early Upanishads, classes of society (10.63). A g a i n it w h i c h are fit only for the supply of
those attached to Brahmanas. where says t h a t he w h o eats the meat of flesh" (2.19), thus indicating that
it is listed inconspicuously w i t h a any animal in this w o r l d w i l l be not all cattle were inviolable. Pos-

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248
 THE E C O N O M I C W E E K L Y ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1934

sibly the t e x t implies that these ani- of w h o m one was the Jain convert circles in the period of composition
mals were otherwise economically K i n g Kumarapala, who reigned in of ter Puranas, and it becomes wide-
worthless and expresses an idea Gujarat 1142-1172. He is stated to ly diffused among the H i n d u com-
similar to t h a t w h i c h I suggested have imposed the death penalty upon munity, gaining ever increasing
above lies at the bottom of the use an unfortunate merchant who was prestige from that time on.
of the Vedic w o r d aghnya. found in possession of meat near a
sanctuary in the capital c i t y of A n h i l - II
The Mahabharata, taken as a wadapatan, according to the Prabha- It seems possible to recognize a
whole, shows Brahmanic rule and vakacarita 22.823-830.30 H i n d u mo- constellation of at least five elements
popular practice to be at variance. which have produced the doctrine of
narchs gave the doctrine of Ahimsa
In one passage the t e x t states t h a t the sanctity of the cow. These are:
greater or less support , especially
he who k i l l s a cow lives as many the importance of the cow and us
when they felt strong enough to
years in hell as there are hairs on products for the performance of the
enforce i t . F o r example, the historian
the cow's body (1374.4; cf. Ordin- Vedic sacrificial r i t u a l ; the figurative
Kalhna records instances in the
ances of M a n u 5.38), and various uses of words for the cow in Vedic
Rajatarangini (3.5-6; 5.119).
other passages command Ahimsa. literature and the later understand-
Yet elsewhere meat-eating is men- F i r m l y Fixed i n Dogma
The bulk of mediaeval Brahmanic i n g of these figurative expressions
tioned in a casual manner and the as indicating l i t e r a l t r u t h ; the pro-
existence of a butcher shop is nothing literature and even the later strata of hibitions against violation of the
out of the ordinary (3.207).26 the Mahabharat treat Ahimsa and
Brahman's cow; the inclusion of the
the sanctity of the cow as establish-
The Buddhist records during this ed doctrine and ignore such evidences cow under the general doctrine of
an
same period also show t h a t the doc- of dissidence as we have been notic- Ahimsa d the association of the
t r i n e of Ahimsa was not well esta- i n g above F o r example, a long sec- cow w i t h the mother-goddess cult.
blished in popular practice, though t i o n of the Mahabharat (Anusasana The importance of the cow in the
the Buddhists and Jains were pro- parvan 76-83) is devoted to incul- Vedic r i t u a l and the increase of
m o t i n g it zealously. Asoka, on being cating worship "of the cow. The doc- esteem for the cow in consequence
converted to Buddhism (perhaps 1 trine of the cow's sanctity and i n - of that importance have already
around 262 B.C.), became an un- violability is also w e l l elaborated in been recognized in other discussions
swerving adherent to the doctrine of the Puranas 31 The epic, the pura- of the cow's sanctity in India. 3 3 The
Ahimsa. He instituted a strict set nas, and a great mass of ancillary use of the cow as a sacrificial animal
of rules to enforce i t , w h i c h are re- literature express the idea of the and of its products as offerings in
corded in his P i l l a r Edict V, and cow's sanctity in the f o r m w h i c h r i t u a l fire has been mentioned above
appointed officers to enforce these modern Hinduism accepts as ortho- in this paper, is widely known and has
and other m o r a l legislation (Rock dox, and on their a u t h o r i t y the doc- been well covered in various descrip
Edicts V , X I I ; Pillar E d i c t V I I ) . trine is so firmly fixed in dogma, tions and analyses of the Vedic sacri-
Yet the Pali texts make it clear t h a t whatever the case may be w i t h prac- fice. It need not be elaborated here.
hunters, trappers, and butchers were tice, that it is possible for a modern B u t that element in itself is not suffi-
recognised traders, and there were a u t h o r i t y on Hinduism to say that cient to account for the cow's sanctity.
shops to handle their wares.27 About caste, rebirth, and the sanctity of the Other ideas have been added to i t .
s i x t y years after Asoka's death a cow are the principal tenets of
The importance of the figurative
H i n d u dynasty arose in his capital, Hinduism on the popular level.•'*-
uses of words for cow, bull, ox in,
whose founder Pusyamitra is said to
Let me now summarize this dis- Vedic literature require more speci-
have revived the horse-sacriflce, as
cussion of the history of the doc- fic statement in our present discus-
was recorded w i t h o u t shock about
trine of the cow's sanctity. It does sion. No symbol of fecundity or
five centuries later by Kalidasa in
not appear at a l l in Vedic literature. m a t e r n i t y or source of nourishment
the Malavikagnimitra. Both Pusya-
The general Buddhist and Tain, and compares in the Veda to the cow. No
mitra's dynasty (the yungas) and
later Hindu, doctrine of Ahimsa ap- symbol of v i r i l i t y compares to the
the f o l l o w i n g dynasty (the Andhras)
pears at the end of the Vedic period bull. A n y female at all, whether a
are said to have reinstituted the old
and at that t i m e enters the stream deity like Usas, or a cosmic element
Vedic animal sacrifices. 28
of Brahmanical religious teaching, like the Waters (apas), or a human
When we get to mediaeval I n d i a but the doctrine of the special sanc- queen, or just a beautiful young wo-
we find that the doctrines of Ahimsa t i t y of the cow is not at first asso- man ( R V 10.95.6) seems flattered
and the sanctity of the cow are s t i l l ciated w i t h i t . The sanctity of the if she is called a cow or compared to
f i g h t i n g their w a y against popular cow is first recorded in works com- a cow or is characterized as a mother
resistance or apathy. The Buddhist posed close to the beginning of the of cows (RV 4.52.2). And, of course,
emperor Harsha (606-647 A . D . ) end- Christian era, though the texts of a heroic god like I n d r a or A g n i , or a
eavoured to enforce the doctrine of that time treat it equivocally. The human being is gratified to be lauded
Ahirnsa and imposed penalties for doctrine gets a strong position by as a b u l l . The very gods are to be
its violation up to and including the time of the completion of the born of a cow (gojata). I t h i n k
capital punishment, according to the Mahabharata, say at the beginning I can say without needing to
Chinese p i l g r i m Hsuan-tsang, who of the Gupta dynasty, about the 4th make a count that the words for
visited I n d i a 630-644.20 Various other century A . D . I t s position i s made cow and bull are used as epithet or
rulers endeavoured to enforce Ahimas firm doctrinally in Brahmanical in simile and metaphor w i t h reference

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ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964

to entitles of the highest religions s p i r i t or attitude or q u a l i t y of con- more feature of A d i t i ' s mythology,
significance m u c h oftener t h a n in servatism i n e r t i a or restraint w h i c h namely her identification w i t h the
their p r i m a r y sense w i t h reference w o u l d have prevented creation. In the earth. This may possibly appear in
to actual animals. creation m y t h the forces leading to the R i g Veda and the A t h a r v a Veda
Figurative Uses or inducing change and creation are ( R V 1.72.9; A V 13.1.38). where
There are a few of these uses w h i c h personified as her sons ( adlteh putrah ) A d i t i is described as prithivi (cf. RV
I w i s h to mention w i t h some poin- and called Adityas, t h a t is, promo- 4 . 5 5 . 1 ; 7.62.4, where Sky and
tedness- One is the characterization ters of expansion, in contrast to the E a r t h are possibly equated w i t h A d i t i ,
of the cosmic waters as cows. In the Danava Vrtra who stood for bind- and note RV 1.89.10, w h i c h is quot-
Vedic creation m y t h , where the god i n g or non-expansion and is called ed above). The word prithivi "the
I n d r a is cast as the hero, the change son of Danu ( " r e s t r a i n t " ) . By get- wide one" (fern.) is the commonest
of the cosmos f r o m its uncreated or t i n g I n d r a t o f i g h t t h e i r battle of a l l the words for earth in the Rig
pre-created chaotic state to one ope- against V r t r a and Kill h i m and so to Veda, as it probably is in post-Vedic
r a t i n g b y l a w ( r t a ) requires f i r s t o f release the waters when the "cover- Sanskrit as w e l l . Whether the appli-
a l l t h a t these Waters should be re- ing'' (vrtra) has been split or remov- cation of p r t h i v i to A d i t i in the R i g
leased f r o m confinement. V r t r a has ed, they give the impetus to the pro- Veda and A t h a r v a Veda merely
been holding them in a cave. When cess of creation. In the late R i g Veda means that she is wide extending or
I n d r a slays V r t r a , the Waters, now A d i t i receives a certain amount of instead means that she and the earth
released, come f o r t h like l o w i n g cows personality as a personification of are identical, there is no doubt
( R V 1.32.2). N o t only do they ap- the cosmic generality. Say a stanza t h a t the latter identification does
pear as cows, but they are, it hap- ( R V 1.89.10): " A d i t i is the sky; occur in Vedic r i t u a l literature.36
pens, pregnant, and they give b i r t h A d i t i is the atmosphere; A d i t i is tho A n d the earth, it hapens, is another
to the Sun, who is called their Calf mother ( e a r t h ? ) ; the father ( s k y ? ) ; feminine e n t i t y which, under the name
(vatsa). Thus moisture, w a r m t h , the son ( I n d r a ? or A g n i ? ) ; A d i t i is of Prlthivi or Mahi, is called a cow hi
and l i g h t are made available in the a l l the gods and the five folk; A d i t i the R i g Veda ( 4 . 4 1 . 5 ; 10.133.7;
universe. Cosmic law or t r u t h (rta ) is w h a t is born; A d i t i is w h a t is to be perhaps also 10.67.5; 10101.9). A
is established, the earth is spread out born". Since her name means ''free- l i t t l e later in time, in the great hymn
and the sky is extended above i t , the i n g " she acquires a m o r a l f u n c t i o n , of the A t h a r v a Veda (12.1) to the
sun is put on its course, gods and and is conceived as freeing f r o m sin. goddes E a r t h (Prthlvi,) she mates
men are assigned their respective She is also connected w i t h l i g h t , w i t h the bull I n d r a (stanzas 6, 37),
functions ( v r a t a ) . This is how our w h i c h spreads f a r and wide. She is m i l k s benefits for her worshippers
universe of earth, atmosphere, and called a m i l c h cow (dhenu) who (stanzas 7, 9, 10) as a steady cow
sky came into existence. 34 Through- issues full streams [of blessings] for that does not k i c k when being m i l k -
out the Veda the cosmic Waters are pious f o l k w h o make the oblation" ed (stanza 45), has sweet mti:<
described in simile or metaphor or ( R V 1.153.3). In the soma ceremony in her udder (stanza 59), is A d i t i
by epithet as cows, m o t h e r l y cows, her name ( a d i t i ) is used as an epithet y i e l d i n g m i l k as desired (stanza 61).
cows of plenty. So, too, in another of t h a t cow whose daughters are the
mood the r a i n clouds m a y be called m i l k sought by the masculine ele- Aditi, Earth and Cow
cows and they have a calf w h i c h is the ment soma, here compared to a taw- The equation in Vedic literature
lightning. A n d A g n i , the god of the ny bellowing bull inflamed w i t h lust and thought of A d i t i , Earth, and
Vedic sacrifice and the counterpart ( harir akran nrmna sisano Cow is recognized in the Naighan-
on e a r t h to the l i g h t n i n g in the at- mahiso na sobhate). A g a i n , in en- tuka (1.1.4-5; 2.3.16), where cow
mosphere and the sun in the sky, is other passage dealing w i t h the same (go) is synonymous w i t h many things
called "Son of the W a t e r s " (apam ceremony ( R V 9.96.15) A d i t i is said including earth, heaven, speech (Vac),
napat) or "the bull, who has g r o w n to pour out m i l k payo na dugdham A d i t i . The use of the w o r d or words
great in the lap of the W a t e r s " ( R V aditer isiram). In a different sort for "cow" had by then g r o w n from a
1 0 . 8 . 1 ) . A l l life depends upon W a t - of context ( R V 10.11.1) A d i t i has descriptive figure of speech applied
ers. They p u r i f y their worshipper in compliment to feminine entities
an active undeceivable b u l l as her
and give healing, both physical and u n t i l it had become a symbol of the
son—just who is meant is uncertain,
moral. They are, in short, both sanc- holiest of those entities and had
perhaps A g n i or I n d r a — w h o m i l k s
tified and sanctifying, and when they finally won identity w i t h them. The
f r o m her the streams of heaven's
are called cows they invest the cow, metaphor or symbol had r u n away
m i l k for another b u l l , perhaps the
at least for the time being, w i t h a part f r o m those who employed i t . They
Sun ( v r s l visne duduhe dohasfi, divah
of their sanctity. had ceased to distinguish it from
paytinis" yahvo aditer adabhyah) .
the object it had been meant to
Another i m p o r t a n t feminine figure In the performance of the Vedic r i -
adorn or to represent, and thus the
of the Veda who is frequently called tual she is symbolized by a cow, as is cow had acquired their holiness as a
a cow is A d i t i . A d i t i is a personifi- also the personified sacrificial food, quality of its own.
cation of a pure abstraction. Her consisting of the cow's products m i l k
name means "boundlessness, freedom, and butter and called Ha or I d a 3 5 The t h i r d item of Vedic practice
expansion." A d i t i is the spirit or a t t i - There is no need to be exhaustive and thought which I w a n t to relate
tude or force of change w h i c h at the about the comparison or symbolism to the doctrine of the cow's sanctity
beginning of things led to creation, or identification of A d i t i w i t h the cow. is that of the cow as the Brahman
and as such stands in contrast to the I w o u l d o n l y call attention to one priest's sacrificial fee The cow was

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 T H E E C O N O M I C W E E K L Y
the characteristic fee and the name
of the fee, daksina, means "the r i c h l y
m i l k i n g one." The interest of the
Vedic B r a h m a n in his fee has been
v i v i d l y described b y M . Bloomfleld. 3 7
There are m a n y references in Vedic
l i t e r a t u r e to the Brahman's cow, his
r i g h t to i t , and the dire consequences
that w i l l befall one who withholds it
or injures or misappropriates it and
the corresponding benefits accruing
t o h i m w h o bestows i t . The B r a h -
man's cow is equated w i t h A d i t i and
the E a r t h a n d a l l else that is f u l l
of good for the pious. The R i g Veda
develops the theme in several places,
one of w h i c h I quote ( R V 8.101.15-16).
It consists of t w o threatening stanzas
couched in riddlesome language:
" M o t h e r of the Rudras, daughter of
the Vasus, sister of the Adityas,
navel of the nectar ( i m m o r t a l i t y ) —
to one w h o can understand let me
proclaim this, ' I n j u r e not the g u i l t -
less cow A d i t i ! ' [ T h e n A d i t i speaks:]
'Me, w h o k n o w the spell, raising up
the sacrificial voice (vacam) inherent
in a l l pious devotions, a goddess ar-
rived f r o m the gods, me, the cow, the
m o r t a l of slight intelligence has ap-
propriated as his own.' "38 The
A t h a r v a Veda has four hymns devot-
ed exclusively to guaranteeing the
Brahman secure possession of his
cow, or in a wider sense of a l l his pro-
p e r t y (5.18; 5.19; 12.4; 12,5). To
injure the Brahman's cow is to i n -
j u r e the B r a h m a n himself and thus
to violate the v e r y ordinances of the
cosmos. L e t me quote a few stanzas
f r o m these hymns in Bloomfield's
l i v e l y translation:39
[ f r o m 12.4]
2. W i t h his offspring does he
trade, of his cattle is he deprived,
t h a t refuses to give the cow of the
gods to the begging descendants
of the Rsis.
3. T h r o u g h (the g i f t of) a cow
w i t h b r o k e n horns his (cattle)
breaks down, through a lame one
he tumbles into a pit, t h r o u g h a
mutilated one his house is burned,
t h r o u g h a one-eyed one his property
is g i v e n a w a y .
6. He t h a t pierces her ears
[ t o insert his own t a g of owner-
ship] is estranged f r o m the gods.
H e thinks: " I a m making a mark
(upon h e r ) , " ( b u t ) he diminishes
his o w n property.
11. F o r those t h a t come request-
ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964
i n g her the cow has been created as t h y share of water,
by the gods. Oppression of B r a h -
mans it is called, if he keeps her 14. The water w i t h w h i c h they
bathe the dead, w i t h which they
for himself,
moisten his beard, that very one,
[ f r o m 5.181
O oppressor of Brahmans, the gods
1. The gods, O k i n g , d i d not did assign to thee as t h y share of
give to thee this (cow) to eat. Po water.
not, O prince, seek to devour the
15. The rain of M i t r a and Varu-
Cow of the Brahmana, w h i c h is
na does not moisten the oppressor
unfit to be eaten!
of Brahmans; the assembly is not
2. The prince, beguiled by complacement for h i m ; he does not
dice, the wretched one w h o has guide his friend according to his
lost as a stake his own person, he will.
may, perchance, eat the cow of
the Brahmana, ( t h i n k i n g , ) "let me It is clear from these hymns t h a t the
Brahman's cow is a sacred and for-
live today ( i f ) not t o m o r r o w ! "
bidden cow, by cosmic decree, for all
7. He swallows her (the cow), but the B r a h m a n ; or at any rate it
b r i s t l i n g w i t h a .hundred hooks, is clear t h a t the B r a h m a n authors
(but) is unable to digest her, he, of these hymns wanted the rest of
the fool who, devouring the food the w o r l d to t h i n k so. A f t e r hearing
o f the Brahmans, thinks, " I a m such inprecations a n d curses as
eating a luscious (morsel)." these hymns express, t h a t k i n g must
have been a c h i l l and hardened atheist
10. They who ruled over a thous-
who w i t h h e l d the cow that was due
and, and were,themselves ten hund-
the B r a h m a n or took it or any other
red, the Vaitahavya, when they
p r o p e r t y away f r o m the B r a h m a n
devoured the cow of the Brahmana,
who owned i t .
perished,
[ f r o m 5.19] It should be noted t h a t though the
Brahman's cow is sacred, it is not
3. They who spat upon the Brah-
sacred because it is a cow. It is sac-
mana, who desired t r i b u t e f r o m
red because it is a Brahman's. A l l
h i m , they sit in the middle of a
his property is equally inviolable.
pool of blood, chewing hair,
The wicked king's sin lay in robbing
4. The cow of the Brahmana the priesthood, not in t a k i n g animal
w h e n roasted, so f a r as she reaches or specifically bovine life.
does she destroy the lustre of the
We can now summarize the attitude
k i n g d o m ; no lusty hero is born
towards the cow at the close of the
(there).
Vedic period. It was s t i l l an article
5. A cruel (sacrilegious) deed of food, and was appreciated for t h a t
is her slaughter; her meat, when reason economically as wc31 as for
eaten, is sapless; when her m i l k is i t s other economic values. It had also
drunk, t h a t surely is accounted a a great deal of religious context,
crime against the Fathers. w h i c h had put around it an aura
which it perhaps did not. posse,i3
10. K i n g Varuna pronounced this when the A r y a n s entered India w i t h
(to be) poison, prepared by the their herds. This aura started w i t h
gods: no one who has devoured the importance of the cow and its
the cow of a Brahmana retains the products as r i t u a l offerings. A l l the
charge of a kingdom. economic and r i t u a l merits of the
cow had led to an extensive figura-
12. The kudi plant ( Christ's
tive use of the animal in the Vedic
thorn) t h a t wipes away the t r a c k
hymns and the rest of Vedic l i t e r a -
(of death), w h i c h they fasten to
ture, w i t h reference to the cosmic
the dead, that very one, O oppres-
Waters, the cosmic generality A d i t i ,
sor of Brahmans, the gods did de-
and the all-productive and all-nourish-
clare (to be) t h y couch.
ing Earth. These had been called
13. The tears w h i c h have rolled cows so often that they had come to
f r o m (the eyes of) the oppressed be considered cows. At the same time
( B r a h m a n a ) ' as he laments, these the Brahmans were p r o m o t i n g w i t h
very ones, O oppressor of B r a h - a l l the force they could command the
mans, the gods did assign to thee idea that the Brahman's cow was i n -
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 ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY

violable. The Brahman's cow was in t i m i n their edifying exempla. A n d the motherland India. The idea of cow
itself a symbol of all those honoured when Ahimsa is first mentioned in as Mother is one of the most f r u i t f u l
feminine figures to w h i c h the name H i n d u , or B r a h m a n i c a l texts (Chan- elements in s t i m u l a t i n g the sentimen-
cow had been applied in figurative dogya Upanishad, B h a g a v a d Gita), t a l treatment of the cow in R a j p u t
language. B u t the figurative quality there is no i n t i m a t i o n of the content p a i n t i n g as well as in mediaeval
of such application was fading f r o m of the idea there, no suggestion t h a t H i n d u literature. I n m o d e r n I n d i a
sight. By the close of the Vedic it applies to the cow more than to the same attitude has been abundant-
period the older texts, especially the any other animal, or even t h a t it ap- l y evident i n Mahatma Gandhi's
hymns of the four S a m i t i s , were plies to animals at a l l rather than w r i t i n g s on the cow, w h i c h was to
becoming obscure and difficult to merely to human beings. h i m a "peom of p i t y . " 1 2
understand. 40 As the past dimmed,
metaphor and epithet were taken as The stages by w h i c h the doctrine of
Moral Sanction
l i t e r a l and the sacred figures were the cow's sanctity spread through-
The mere acceptance of the doctrine out the H i n d u c o m m u n i t y are not
considered actually to be cows In of Ahimsa does not in itself explain
reversal, the cow was considered to the origin of the sanctity of the cow clearly discernible. It comes conspi-
be those figures. Coupled w i t h this in Hinduism. B u t the acceptance of' cuously into view d u r i n g the period
misunderstanding was an enhanced that doctrine at a t i m e when the of M u s l i m invasion and conquest, when
importance given to the idea of the Vedic attitude t o w a r d the cow had Hindus were shocked by the constant-
i n v i o l a b i l i t y of the Brahman's cow acquired the special characteristics ly r e c u r r i n g examples of cow-slaught-
and the fearful penalties for k i l l i n g i t . w h i c h we have er. To the M a r a t h a chieftain, Shiva-
described seems to ji (1627-1680), cow protection was a
The sanctions w h i c h applied to the have played a decisive part in the
Brahman's cow were ready at hand cardinal issue along w i t h protection
belief that the cow was holy and of Brahmans and the observance of
to be applied to cows in general.
should be held inviolable. Further, caste rules and distinctions.43 Sanc-
At this juncture the doctrine of the doctrine of Ahimsa gave to the
t i t y of the cow has long been a dog-
Ahimsa came to the A r y a n commu- idea of the i n v i o l a b i l i t y of the cow a
ma which a p r i m i t i v e tribe must
n i t y . The roots of this doctrine are k i n d of m o r a l sanction hitherto accept on coming into H i n d u i s m ,
obscure; they are certainly not to be lacking. Compass on t o w a r d l i v i n g though again we cannot say how long
found in the Veda, but where they creatures touched the heart of Hindus,
this has been the case.44 Today in
are to be found is a problem s t i l l un- as w e l l as of Jains and Buddhists,
India the sanctity of the cow, is a
solved. It is, however, a justifiable in- and became an ethical principle of
subject of discussion, interpretation,
ference, and an inference common great power. It expressed the need agitation, political pressure, public
among students of Indian thought, that not merely for kindliness towards hygiene, national economic develop-
Jainism and Buddhism popularized the one's fellow man but towards ment. But this aspect of the doc-
doctrine They gave it a sanction in all animal creation, w i t h which I n -
trine's history is not a subject for
associating i t w i t h another doctrine dians feel themselves to be fellows.
consideration in the present paper,
also becoming prominent at that When it was expressed towards the
time, that of K a r m a and Rebirth. already exalted cow, it had the result however much change m a y come to
Violation of Ahimsa would have an of g i v i n g the cow a place at the top that doctrine.**
effect upon the violator in a future of all animal life, as is so frequently
existence. At the end of the Vedic expressed in H i n d u l i t e r a t u r e . 4 1 This paper was originally published
period the doctrine of Ahimsa makes in the Journal of the Madras Univer-
sity, volume 28, number 2, January
its first appearance in H i n d u litera- At some period, not ascertainable 1957, pp 29-49. It is presented here
ture, as was pointed out above. B u t the doctrine of the cow's sanctity, with only a few changes from the
the doctrine of Ahimsil as the Jains when grew up in the A r y a n B r a h - original.
and Buddhists preached it did not manic environment, became associat- Professor Ludwig Alsdorf has pub-
discriminate in its application in fav- ed w i t h the ancient p r e - A r y a n con- lished an excellent article "Beitrage
our of the cow or cattle. It applied ception of the Great Mother or E a r t h zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus and
to the entire animal w o r l d . A l l ani- Goddess. This has been k n o w n in Rinderverehrung in Indien" as Num-
ber 6 for 1961 of the Abhandlungen
mals were viewed alike; none was I n d i a since the time of the Indus tier geistes — and sozialwissenschaft-
translated above the others and valley civilizations of the 3rd and lirhfri Klasse of the Akademie der
venerated. An examination of the 2nd m i l l e n n i a B, C. It is certainly Wissenschaften and der Literatur in
sermons incorporated in the canons one of the oldest cuits of civilized Mainz. This long article (pp 557-
625) treats the 'history of vegetaria-
of these two faiths w i l l show this to I n d i a . Its ramifications in non nism, the sanctity of the cow, and the
be true on the level of a u t h o r i t y . An A r y a n communities and i n A r y a n doctrine of Ahimsa which is sum-
examination of the copious supply or are widespread today. There is an marised in the first part of the pre-
parables, legends, tales, novelle. t r a d i - obvious affinity between it and the sent paper. Alsdorf does not search
for the basis of these doctrines. He
tions, w h i c h appear in non-canonical Vedic conception of the cosmic W a t - merely says: "sie (ahimsa) hat
literature, w i l l also confirm it on the ers, A d i t i . and the E a r t h as "mother" ursprunglich mit Ethik in unsersm
level of popular acceptance- The slay- of "motherly". T h o u g h the pre-Aryan Sinne nichts zu tun, sondern Ost-
i n g of any k i n d of creature—goat, bird, (or non-Aryan) and the Vedic notions ein magisch-ritualistisches Tabu auf
das Lcben, das in keiner seiner Formen
whatever it may b e — w i l l be followed never blended into a single well-inte- zerstort warden d a r f (571, 589; cf
by just as severe r e t r i b u t i o n as the grated doctrine, they dovetailed well p 610). He considers ahlfpsu, to be
slaying of any other, such as a cow. enough to produce the idea of the cow "vorarisch" or "urarisch" (p 609)
In fact, a cow is very seldom the vic- as our mother, and in recent times as along with the doctrine of the trans-
migration of the soul and the "rituelle
254

Ausformung des Kastenwesens ( i m
Unterschied von der arischen D r e i -
oder Vier-Stande-Ordnung", p 609),
but includes no discussion of this
opinion.
Notes
Cf J H Hutton, Caste in India
1946, pp 10, 131, 196. There is a
wealth of allusions to sanctity of the
bull in the many ethnological studies
dealing with India.
2 R E M Wheeler, The Indus Civili-
zation (supplementary volume to the
Cambridge History of India), 1953,
p 63.
3 H A Rose, A Glossary of the Tribes
and Castes of the Punjab and North-
West Frontier Province (Lahore,
1919), vol 1, p 140.
4 F Drew, Jammoo and Kashmir Terri-
tories, London, 1875, p 428.
5 A B Keith, Religion and Philosophy
of the Veda, pp 324-326.
5 RV, 8.43.11.
7 H Oldenberg, Religion des Veda,
P 355.
B Satapatha Brahmana, 3. 4. 1. 2.
9 M Bloomfield, Journal of the Ame-
rican Oriental Society, vol 16, 1894,
p exxiv.
M Bloomfield, loc cit; E W Hopkins
in Cambridge History of India, vol
I , p 232.
Satapatha Brahmana 3.1,2.21. The
word amsala may mean "coming from
the shoulder" or " f i r m " (presumably
because not decomposed; see J Eggel-
ing, Sacred Books of the East, vol
26, p 1 1 ; A A Macdonell and A B
Keith, Vedic Indpx, vol II, p 145;
and note the prohibition in the
Arthasastra 2.26 against selling
rotten meat).
Satapatha Brahmana 11.7.1.1-3; for
translation see J Eggeling, Sacred
Books of the East, vol 44, pp 118-1! 9.
Apastamba 1.5.16; translated by G
Buhler, Sacred Books of the East,
vol 2, p 59.
Gautama 17.30 and 17.37; translated
by Buhler, op cit, pp 266, 267.
A A Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p
151; A A Macdonell and A B Keith,
Vedic Index, vol I I , p 146.
RV 1.30.9; 1.37.5; 3.33.13; AV
14.2.16 ( =R V, 3.33.13).
The anustarani cow is normally one
that has not calved (Satapatha Brah-
mana 4.5.2.1 ff). In the Atharva
Veda stanza the aghnya cow is to
accompany the dead man to heaven
(svarga); he is her herdsman or lord
(gopati) and she is to enjoy him
(tam jusasva); she is possibly the
same female who is mentioned in the
preceding stanza of the hymn as a
maiden (yuvati).
18 Cf Macdonell and Keith, Vedic /a-
dex, vol 11, p 273; M Bloomfield,
Hymns of the Atharva-Veda, trans-
lated in Sacred Books of the East,
vol 42, pp 656, 658.
19 A B Keith, Religion and Philosophy
of the Veda, p 192.
20 M Bloomfield, loc cit. See below in
this paper,
21 Keith, loc cit.
22 For a translation of the passage see
A B Keith, Rigveda Brahmanas, 1 he
Aitareya and Kausitaki Branmanas of
the Rigveda, Harvard Oriental
Series, vol 25, 1920, p 409.
23 Chandogya Upanishad 3.17.4.
24 The Bhagavad Gita, vol 2, p 83.
25 Following generally the translation in
A C burneii and E W Hopkins, The
Ordinances of Manu, 1884, p 114.
26 E W Hopkins, in Cambridge History
of India, vol I, p 271.
27 Mrs C A F Rhys Davids in Cam-
bridge History of India, vol 1, pp
207, 215.
28 L Renou, Religions of Ancient
India, p 100.
29 S Beal, Buddhist Records of the
Western World, vol 1, p 214.
30 G Buhler, Ueber das Leben des Jaina
Monches Hemachandra, p 39.
31 H Jacobi in Encyclopedia of Religion
and Ethics, vol I V , p 225 f.
32 J N Farquhar, A Primfr of Hindu-
ism, section 115.
33 H. Jacobi, loc cit,
34 See W Norman Brown, Journal of
the American Oriental Society, vol
62, 1942, pp 85-98.
35 A B Keith, Religion and Philosophy
of the Veda, pp 200, 270.
36 A A Macdonell, Vedic Mythology,
p 121.
37 Religion of the Veda, pp 69 ft;
Hymns of the Atharva Veda (Sacred
Books of the East, vol 42, pp 430
656).
38 The first stanza is used in the guest
ceremony, Paraskara Grhya Sutra
1.3.26.
39 Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva
Veda, pp 169-172; 174-179.
40 Hence there arose those studies of
lexicography, phonology, morphology,
syntax, metre, which led the Hindus
to develop linguistic science, dis-
covered more than two .millennia
later by the West, to become the
fountainhead of our modern linguistic
studies. See M B Emeneau in Jour-
nal of the American Oriental Society,
vol 75, 1955, pp 145-153.
41 For example, in Hitopadesa story 1.2,
where the aged, incapacitated, and
hypocritical tiger explains to the
ANNUAL NUMBER FEBRUARY 1964
gullible wayfarer whom he is planning
to devour that he has turned ascetic
to atone for his great sins, which he
mentions in an obviously descending
order of magnitude as the slaying of.
many cows, Brahmans, and human
beings. Note, in particular, the long
section in the Anusasana parvan of
the Mahabharata (13.69-83) dealing
with the profit one gains from making
gifts of kine to worthy recipients, that
is, to Brahmans, and containing a
great deal of information of many
sorts concerning cows The section
includes the story of King Nrga,
who unknowingly got possession of a
strayed cow belonging to a Brah-
man, and in a moment of un-
fortunate generosity gave it to anotner
Brahman in Consequence of which
he was reborn as a lizard living in
a 'well. There is a cow heaven, which
is a bucolic paradise beyond com-
pare, where only the very righteous
go. Kine are proclaimed the mothers
of all creatures . ., No one should
kick at kine or proceed through the
midst of kine. Kine are goddesses
and homes of auspiciousness. For tins
reason they always deserve worship
. , . Kine, by yielding milk, rescue
all the world from calamity . .. One
should not, even in one's mind, do
an injury to a cow . . . When giving
away kine, the donor should enter
the cowpen and say, "The cow is
my mother; the bull is my sire.
[Give me] Heaven and earthly pros-
perity. The cow is my refuge!1' . ..
One should never go to bed without
reciting the names of kine. Nor
should one rise in the morning with-
out a similar recitation of the names
of kine, Morning and evening one
should bend one's head in reverence
to kine. One should never feel any
repugnance for the urine and the
dung of the cow. One should never
eat the flesh of kine. As the conse-
quence of this, one is sure to attain
great prosperity . ., The cows yield
the essential milk and ghi which
constitute the offering (havis) of the
sacrifice and hence the sacrifices rest
on them. (Following the translation
by P G Ray)
The references to the cow's sanctity
are literally inexhaustible. One other
work in particular could be singled
out, namely, the Bhagavata Purana,
42 For Gandhi's attitude toward the
cow see the collection of scattered
remarks and short essays by him
published as a booklet with the title
How to Serve the Cow? (Ahmedabad:
Navajivan Publishing House, 1954).
43 See V A Smith, The Oxford History
of India, 2nd edition, 1923, p 431.
44 For an illustration, see Stephen Fuchs,
The Children of Hari, 1951, p 358.
45 Some interesting remarks on the
sanctity of the cow, which at points
approach some of the ideas in this
paper, appear in Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee, Letters on Hinduism,
M M Bose. 1940, pp 39-42.
255
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