Chapter 3

General Laws and Equations

Subdivisions of Engineering Thermodynamics
Two phases into which the study of engineering thermodynamics divides itself
1. Thermodynamics of gases
2. Thermodynamics of vapors
❖ Gas is fluid which cannot be liquefied except by large changes in pressure and
temperature; gases are highly superheated vapors.
Example: air and hydrogen are considered perfect or ideal gases because they
obey the laws governing ideal gases.
❖ Vapor is a fluid which can be liquefied by minor changes in temperature and pressure.
Example: steam and ammonia
First Law of Thermodynamics
❖ Is law is the same as the law of conservation of energy
❖ States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; the quantity of energy in the
universe is constant
❖ The thermodynamic aspect of the law lies in the implication that one form of energy may
be converted into another form.
The First Law for an Open or Steady-flow System
Having learned of the various forms in which energy may appear and having established
the relation between heat and work, we are now in a position to write an equation representing
the energy balance for a steady-flow device.
Steady-flow device:
❖ Fluid going to and from the device is moving continuously at constant rate
❖ There is no accumulation nor diminution of energy within the device
❖ Quantity of matter entering the device is equal to the quantity leaving
The general energy equation is set up in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. If
no energy is stored in the device, the energy entering it is equal to the energy leaving it. The
different forms of energy that will appear in the equation are
1. Potential mechanical energy: E = mgy
2. Kinetic mechanical energy: 1
K = 2 mv 2
3. Internal energy: U
4. Flow energy or flow work: Wf = pV
- Energy which accompanies the flow of fluids
5. Work: W
6. Heat: Q
 W
2 U2
E2
K2
Wf2
U1 1
y2
E1
K1 Q
Wf1
y1

Ref axis
Note: Q is positive when added; negative when removed
W is positive when done by the system; negative when done on the system
Total energy entering = total energy leaving
U1 + E1 + K1 + Wf1 + Q = U2 + E2 + K 2 + Wf2
U1 + E1 + K1 + p1 V1 + Q = U2 + E2 + K 2 + p2 V2 + W
E1 + K1 + h1 + Q = E2 + K 2 + h2 + W

Example 3.1 A thermodynamic steady flow system receives 10 kg/s of a fluid where p = 20
N/m2 , V = 6 m3 /kg, v = 4 m/s and U = 130 J/kg. The fluid leaves the system at a boundary
where p = 80 N/m2 , V = 3 m3 /kg, v = 6 m/s and U = 400 J/kg. During the passage through the
system, the fluid receives 500 cal/s of heat and rises 5 m in elevation. Determine the work in hp.
Ans. -3.2 hp
Example 3.2 An air compressor receives air at a pressure of 14.4 psia and with a specific
volume of 2 ft 3 /lb. The air flows steadily through the compressor and is discharged at 100 psia
and with a specific volume of 0.4 ft 3 /lb. the initial internal energy of the air is 12 Btu/lb and the
internal energy at discharge is 47 Btu/lb. The cooling water around the cylinder carries away 33
Btu/lb or air. If the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are considered to be zero,
what is the work in Btu? Ans -70 Btu
Example 3.3 Steam enter a turbine with an enthalpy of 3628 kJ/kg at 70 m/s and leaves the
same stage with an enthalpy of 2846 kJ/kg and a velocity of 124 m/s. Calculate the work done
by the steam. Ans. 776.8 kJ/kg
The First Law for a Closed system
There are many processes in thermodynamics in which no flow of the fluid occurs, for
example the expansion process in a steam engine. It will be convenient, therefore, o reduce the
general energy equation a simple form that will be applicable to these non-flow processes.
Consider again the general energy equation
U1 + E1 + K1 + p1 V1 + Q = U2 + E2 + K 2 + p2 V2 + W
If there is no flow, obviously the velocity and the kinetic energy are zero and the flow work is
zero. Ignoring the change in elevation, the equation becomes
U1 + E1 + K1 + p1 V1 + Q = U2 + E2 + K 2 + p2 V2 + W
U1 + Q = U2 + W
Q = U2 − U1 + W
Q = ∆U + W
The simple energy equation in differential form
dQ = dU + dW
where: dU is exact differential

∫ dU = U2 − U1
dQ and dW are not exact differential, therefore

∫ dQ ≠ Q 2 − Q1 and ∫ dW ≠ W2 − W1
Example 3.4 In a certain non-flow expansion of 30-lb gas, 422 Btu are transferred to the gas.
At the same time, there is a loss of internal energy of 1270 Btu. What work done per pound of
gas? Ans. 56.4 Btu/lb
Example 3.5 The work and the heat per degree change of temperature for a system executing
a non flow process are given by dW/dt = 80 watt-/F o and dQ/dt = 15 cal/F o , respectively.
Determine the change of internal energy for the system as it temperature increases from 150 ℉
to 250 ℉. Ans. -1.66 Btu
Example 3.6 During a reversible process executed by a nonflow system, the pressure
increases from 400 kPaa in accordance with pV 2 = c, and the internal energy increases 25 Btu;
the initial volume is 3.176 ft 3 . Determine the heat transfer in kJ and Btu.
Ans. -5.128 kJ; -4.577 Btu
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Two statements which interpret the meaning of the law, as it applies to engineering
thermodynamics.
1. When heat is continuously change into work, a source must exist at a high temperature
from which heat must flow to a medium whereby work is done. From the medium, heat must
flow to a refrigerator at some lower temperature. Only a portion of the heat which is taken from
the source can be changed into work; the balance will reappear as stores thermal energy
energy in the refrigerator.
2. Heat cannot flow from a body at a lower temperature to another at a higher temperature;
thermal energy can be continuously “lifted” to a body at higher temperature only if energy is
continuously supplied by some external system to bring about the change in location.

Source Qs W
T1 Engine

QR

Refrigerator

T2

The first statement establishes definite conditions and limits for the performance of heat engines
and indicate that no heat engine can convert into work all the heat which is supplied to it. A
portion, must be rejected in the form of unused heat or rejected heat.
Efficiency of a heat engine – proportion of the heat supplied to the engine which is converted
into work or
W
e=Q
s

Qs −QR
e= Qs

Where: e = efficiency, expressed as a decimal fraction

Q 𝑠 = heat supplied to the engine from the high-temperature source
Q R = heat rejected to the refrigerator
Example 3.7 A heat engine receives 55 000 Btu per hour from its source and rejects 47 000
Btu per hour to its refrigerator. What is its efficiency? Ans. 0.145
Example 3.8 A heat engine develops 100 hp and receives heat from its source at the rate of
1 000 000 Btu/hr. What is its efficiency? Ans. 0.25
Example 3.9 The efficiency of an aircraft engine is 29% at rated power. If it is rated at 400 hp,
how many pounds of 18 000 Btu gasoline will it require per hour at rated power? Ans. 195 lb/hr