SHORT NOTES CLASS-XII

CHAPTER-1:-REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

1. Life span, reproduction

2. Types of reproduction:- asexual and sexual
3. Asexual reproduction:-binary fission, budding, zoospores, conidia, gemmules, vegetative
propagation (vegetative propagules- runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb), terror of
Bengal or water hyacinth or Eicchornia crassipes(draws oxygen from water)
4. Juvenile phase or vegetative phase, reproductive phase and senescent phase
5. Bamboos flower only once in life time and die generally after 50-100 years.
6. Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelkuranji) flowers once in 12 years.
7. Oestrus cycle (non-primates), menstrual cycle (primates)
8. Seasonal breeders and continuous breeders
9. Pre-fertilisation changes:- gametogenesis and gamete transfer
10. Gametogenesis:-homogametes or isogametes (some algae), heterogametes (male gamete
or antherozoid or sperm and female gamete or egg or ovum), sexuality in organisms
(homothallic or monoecious and heterothallic or dioecious)
11. Unisexual flower (staminate or pistillate), bisexual flower, bisexual animal or
hermaphrodite
12. Haploid parent forms gametes by mitosis and diploid parent forms gametes by meiosis.
13. Gamete mother cell or meiocyte
14. Gamete transfer:- male gamete is motile, in some cases female gamete is also motile
15. Water is the medium of transfer in bryophytes and pteridophytes
16. To compensate the loss during transport, more number of male gametes is produced.
17. Pollination
18. Fertilization or syngamy:- fusion of male gamete with the female gamete to form zygote
19. Parthenogenesis :- development of female gamete in to an individual without fertilization
(rotifers, honeybees, lizards,turkey)
20. External fertilization and internal fertilization
21. Post fertilization events:- zygote
22. Embryogenesis :- zygote undergoes cell division and cell differentiation
23. Oviparous and viviparous animals
24. Fruit=pericarp + seeds

CHAPTER-2:-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Stamen, microsporangium and pollen grain

2. Stamen:- filament, anther(bilobed), each lobe has two theca (dithecous), anther is
tetragonal and has four microsporangia
3. Anther (corner cells become elongated and called primary archesporial cells)
4. Primary archespoial cells undergo periclinal division to form parietal cell and
sporogenous tissue/cell
5. Parietal cell undergo mitosis to form 4 layers- epidermis (single layered),
endothecium(single layered), middle layers (2-3 layered), tapetum (single layered,
nutritive, coenocytic)
6. Sporogenous tissue divides mitotically to increase its number.
7. Each sporogenous cell is a pollen mother cell (2n).
8. Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis (microsporogenesis) to form a microspore
tetrad (group of 4 microspores (n))
9. As the anther matures and dehisces, microspores dissociate from each other and develop
into pollen grain (n)
10. Microspore= pollen grain= male gametophyte
11. Structure of pollen grain:-
I. Pollen grain (single-celled,n)=wall + plasma membrane + cytoplasm
II. Wall= outer exine (sporopollenin, ornamental, discontinuous, presence of germ
pores) + inner intine (pecto-cellulosic, continuous, forms germ tube)
12. Mature pollen grain is two-celled- larger vegetative cell and smaller generative cell
13. Generative cell (n) divides mitotically to form two male gametes.
14. Vegetative cell nourishes developing male gametes.
15. The pistil, megaspoangium (ovule) and embryosac:-
I. Gynoecium may be monocarpellary, multicarpellary and syncarpous or
apocarpous.
II. Pistil= stigma+style+ovary
III. Diagram of pistil and ovule (integuments,micropyle, chalaza, nucellus, embryo
sac, antipodals, synergids, egg, filiform apparatus, secondary nucleus/polar
nuclei)
IV. Ovule= megasporangium, embryo sac= female gametophyte
16. Megasporogenesis
I. A nucellar cell near the micropylar region differentiates to become megaspore
mother cell (MMC).
II. MMC undergoes meiosis to form 4 megaspores.
III. 3 megaspores degenerate and only one near the micropyle survives.
IV. The nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form 8 nuclei (free
nuclear), 4 nuclei at each pole.
V. Later cell wall is laid around each nucleus to form cell. Three cells at micropylar
region (2 synergids+1 egg), three cells at chalazal end (3 antipodals).
VI. One nucleus from each pole come to the centre and surrounded by single cell
membrane and cell wall to form secondary nucleus/polar nuclei.
17. Pollination
I. Autogamy or self pollination
 II. Xenogamy or allogamy or cross pollination
III. Geitonogamy or functionally cross but genetically self pollination
18. Requirements for self pollination:- bisexual flowers, synchrony between pollen release
and stigma receptivity, cleistogamous flowers
19. Agents of pollination
I. Biotic {animals, insects (major part)}, abiotic {wind,water (less)}
II. Wind pollination: - light and non-sticky pollens, well exposed stamens and large
feathery stigma. Numerous flowers get packed into inflorescence.
III. Insect pollinated:- large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar flower, sticky
pollens
20. Outbreeding devices to avoid inbreeding depression caused due to continuous self
pollination:-
I. Dichogamy-No synchrony between pollen release and stigma receptivity.
II. Heterostyly- stamens and pistils are at different heights
III. Herkogamy- barrier between anther and stigma
IV. Self incompatibility-inhibiting pollen germination on stigma
V. Unisexual flowers and dioecious plants
21. Pollen-pistil interaction
22. Formation of germ tube, entry into the embryo sac through micropyle, then enters one of
the synergids
23. Emasculation and bagging
24. Double fertilization= syngamy and triple fusion
25. Syngamy= male gamete+ egg= zygote ( develops into embryo)
26. Triple fusion= male gamete+ polar nuclei=primary endosperm nucleus/cell (develops in
to endosperm)
27. Development of endosperm
I. Primary endosperm nucleus undergoes free nuclear division. Later cell wall is
laid.
II. Endosperm may be totally consumed by developing embryo(e.g. pea, groundnut,
beans) or persist (e.g. castor, coconut) to help in seed germination.
28. Embryo and embryogeny
I. Zygote divides mitotically to form pro embryo then globular then heart-shaped
and finally mature embryo.
II. Dicotyledonous embryo- embryonal axis, two cotyledons, epicotyl (terminates in
to plumule or stem tip),hypocotyls (terminates in to radicle or root tip)
29. Seed:- Seed coat, cotyledons, embryo
30. Endospermic or albuminous seed-wheat,maize,barley,castor
31. Non-endospermic or ex-albuminous seed:-pea, ground nut
32. Perisperm (residual nucellus):- black pepper, beet
33. False fruits (thalamus contribute):- apple, cashew, strawberry
34. Parthenocarpic fruits- fruits without fertilization, seedless-banana
35. Advantage of having seeds:- dispersal to new habitats and decreasing competition, seed
coat provides protection to embryo, new genetic recombination, dormancy
36. Apomixis:- development of seeds without fertilization (asteracae, grasses)/diploid egg
cell does not undergo meiosis and develops in to embryo.
37. Polyembryony:- each seed contains more than one embryo. E.g. citrus, mango
38. Significance of apomixes:- hybrid seeds are made into apomicts, to save time and money
spent in hybridization and also to prevent segregation of characters in the hybrid progeny

CHAPTER-3:-HUMAN REPRODUCTION

1. Gametogenesis, insemination, fertilization, implantation, gestation, parturition

2. The male reproductive system:-Testes (inside scrotum), accessory ducts (rete testis, vasa
efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens), glands (seminal vesicles, bulbourethral
glands,prostrate gland), external genitalia (penis)
3. T.S of testis:-each testis=about 250 testicular lobules, each lobule=1-3 seminiferous
tubules
4. Each seminiferous tubule=2 types of cells (male germ cells or spermatogonia and
sertoli or nutritive cells)
5. Outside seminiferous tubules are present interstitial cells or leydig cells(secrete
androgens)
6. The female reproductive system:-ovaries, oviduct (fallopian tube),
infundiblum,fimbriae,ampulla,isthmus,uterus (womb),cervix, vagina, external genitalia
7. Ovary:- thin epithelium covering inner stroma (peripheral cortex and inner medulla)
8. Uterus- external thin membranous perimetrium, middle thick smooth muscle layer
myometrium, inner glandular endometrium
9. External genitalia-mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, clitoris
10. Each breast or mammary gland=15-20 mammary lobes, each lobe= cluster of cell
(alveoli)
11. Alveoli open in to mammary tubules. Tubules of each lobe join to form mammary duct.
Mammary ducts join to form mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous duct.
12. Gametogenesis:-Spermatogenesis, oogenesis
13. Spermatogenesis
I. Spermatogonia (male germ cells) undergo mitosis to increase number.
II. Some spermatogonia become primary spermatocytes(2n) and undergo meiosis.
After meiosis I two secondary spermatocytes (n) are formed and after meiosis II
4 spermatids (n) are formed. Spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa or
sperms through spermiogenesis. Sperm heads are embedded in sertoli cells.
Sperms are released through spermiation.
 III. GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH.
LH acts on leydig cells to secrete androgens to help in spermatogenesis. FSH acts
on sertoli cells to help in spermiogenesis.
14. Structure of sperm- head (acrosome),neck,middle piece(mitochondria),tail
15. Oogenesis
I. Oogonia or gamete mother cells at foetal stage.Oogonia start meiosis and get
arrested at prophase-I to form primary oocyte.
II. Each primary oocyte (2n) gets coveed with a layer of granulosa cells to be
primary follicle.
III. Many primary follicles degenerate and only 60000-80000 follicles are there in
each ovary at puberty.
IV. Primary follicles are surrounded by more granulosa layers to form secondary
follicles.
V. A fluid filled cavity called antrum is formed in secondary follicle and it becomes
tertiary follicle.
VI. Tertiary follicle completes meiosis-I to form secondary oocyte (n) and first polar
body.
VII. Tertiary follicles undergoes changes to become mature follicle or Graafian
follicle.
VIII. Secondary oocyte forms a covering called zona pellucid.
IX. Graafian follicle ruptures to release secondary oocyte.
X. When sperm comes in contact with zona pellucid/ plasma membrane, secondary
oocyte undergoes meiosis-II to form ovum(ootid) and second polar body.
16. Menstrual cycle- menarche and menopause,Starts with menstrual phase (3-5 days) and
Followed by follicular phase (primary follicle develops into Graafian follicle,
endometrium of uterus regenerates or proliferates
17. Secretion of LH and FSH increases , secretion of estrogens, peak level in the middle (14th
day)
18. Ovulation (release of ovum from graafian follicle), formation of corpus luteum
19. Corpus luteum secetes progesterone for maintenance of endometrium
20. In the absence of fertilization, corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegration of
endometrium.
21. Fertilization and implantation:-
I. Fertilization occurs at ampullary-isthmus junction. Zygote moves to uterus.
Zygote divides mitotically on the way to uterus to form 2,4,8,16 blastomeres.
II. Embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called morula.
III. Morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst.
IV. Blastomeres get arranged into outer trophoblast layer and inner cell mass.
V. Trophoblast layer gets attached to endometrium and inner cell mass gets
differentiated into embryo.
 VI. The uterine cell divides continuously to cover the blastocyst.
22. Pregnancy and embryonic development---
I. Finger like projection on trophoblast called chorionic villi surrounded by uterine
tissue and maternal blood.
II. Chorionic villi and uterine tissue gets interdigited with each other to form
placenta.
III. Placenta is connected with the embryo through umbilical cord.
IV. Placenta secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin and human placental lactogen.
V. Later relaxin is secreted by ovary.
VI. Estrogen, progesterone, cortisols, prolactin, thyroxine increase.
VII. Inner cell mass differentiates into outer ectoderm and inner endoderm. Mesoderm
appears between these two layers.
VIII. Inner cell mass contains stem cells.
IX. 1 month-heart,2-limbs and digits,3-limbs and external genital organs well
developed,5-movement of foetus, har on head,6-body hair, separate eye
lid,eyelashes
23. Parturition and lactation-

CHAPTER-4:-REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

1. WHO-DEFINITION OF HEALTH
2. Family planning-1951 RCH- Reproductive and Child Healthcare
3. Amniocentesis-test based upon the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid
surrounding the embryo
4. Saheli-CDRI, Lucknow,MMR and IMR
5. Contraceptive methods-
I. Natural methods:-(periodic abstinence-day 10 to day 17 0f menstrual cycle,coitus
interruptus, lactational amenorrhoea-up to 6 months after parturition)
II. Artificial methods:-barrier method (condoms, diaphragm,cervical caps, vault),
chemical method(spermicidal jellies, creams,foams), hormonal method (oral
contraceptive pills) IUDs ( Cu-T, LNG), surgical method(vasectomy,
tubectomy),Oral contraceptive pills-pregesteron and estrogen combination. Taken
for regular 21 days (within the first 5 days of menstrual cycle).Then a gap of 7
days during menstruation.
6. Medical termination pregnancy- legalized in India in 1971. Safe up to 12 weeks of
pregnancy.
7. Sexually transmitted diseases-
8. Infertility:-ART- Assisted Reproductive Technologies
I. In vitro fertilization or test tube baby- zygote or early embryo up to 8 blastomeres
can be transferred to fallopian tube. ZIFT- zygote intra fallopian transfer.
 Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres are transferred to uterus and called intra-
uterine transfer (IUT).
II. In vivo fertilization- inside females body.to assist those females who cannot
conceive
III. Gift- gamete intra fallopian transfer. Transfer of an ovum from a donor to another
femalesfallopoian
IV. Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)-
V. Artificial insemination (AI)-Intra-Uterine-Insemination(IUI)