Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr

Behavior of steel tension members subjected to

uniaxial loading
K.E. Barth a,∗, J.G. Orbison b, R. Nukala a
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
26506-6103, USA
b
College of Engineering, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837, USA

Received 3 May 2001; received in revised form 15 August 2001; accepted 5 October 2001

Abstract

Current design specifications for statically loaded tension members do not consider the bend-
ing effects due to connection eccentricity. However, recent experimental investigations have
shown that connection eccentricity induced bending effects have the potential to significantly
reduce the net section rupture capacity of a section. This study focuses on examining the
effects of connection eccentricity and connection length on the ultimate capacity of bolted
WT tension members. In particular, complementing prior experimental investigations by the
authors and others, the main objective of this work is to develop robust finite element tools
capable not only of estimating the failure loads but also to trace the entire load versus deflection
path. In this study, the finite element analysis (FEA) of the WT section is carried out using
eight node incompatible hexahedral elements (ABAQUS C3D8I element) capable of rep-
resenting large deformation geometric and material nonlinearities. The connecting bolts are
assumed to be rigid and a surface-to-surface contact is used to fully transfer the load from
the gusset plate to the web. An elasto-plastic von Mises yield criterion combined with a tri-
linear type constitutive model is used to represent the material nonlinear effects. The load
corresponding to the load limit point is taken as the failure load of the WT specimen.
Results of the finite element analyses are compared with experimental results, code predic-
tions, and analytical predictions of the section capacity. The failure capacities predicted by
the FEA are in excellent agreement with the experimentally observed failure capacities of the
WT sections subjected to tensile loading.  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tension members; Bolted connections; Shear lag; Finite element analysis

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kebarth@mail.wvu.edu (K.E. Barth).

0143-974X/02/$ - see front matter  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 3 - 9 7 4 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 8 2 - 7
1104 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

1. Introduction
Tension members with bolted end connections are frequently used in trusses and
lateral bracing systems, and three limit states are normally considered in the design
of these members: full yield of the gross area (producing excessive elongation but
not rupture); a block shear failure at the connection; and rupture of the net section.
The presence of bending moments in tension members substantially reduces the
member load capacity. Such moments may develop directly from transverse loading,
or from connection eccentricity. The latter is a common occurrence in lateral bracing
members, which are often designed using single and double angles, WTs, and similar
sections, with bolted connections. Connection eccentricity arises when the bolt line
(or centroid of multiple bolt lines) does not coincide with the neutral axis of the
bracing member. Present design specifications for statically loaded tension members
do not consider the bending effects due to connection eccentricity. Recent investi-
gations on tension members have shown that connection eccentricity induced bending
effects have the potential to significantly reduce the failure capacity of a section.
This paper aims at developing robust finite element methodology for accurately pre-
dicting the effect of connection eccentricity on the failure capacities of the experi-
mental specimens.
Finite element studies are useful when used in conjunction with an experimental
testing program. Examining the block shear and net section rupture failure modes
using a finite element analysis (FEA) method allows for a more extensive parametric
investigation of the underlying behavior than is possible in a laboratory setting. In
previous years, much progress has been made in the finite element modeling of
the net section rupture and block shear failure of tension members with bolted end
connections. Ricles and Yura [1] conducted full-scale testing of coped and uncoped
double-row bolted-web connections supplemented by an elastic FEA to develop a
modified block shear failure model. Easterling and Giroux [2] investigated the shear
lag provisions for welded tension members relative to the bolted tension members
using an experimental study that was complemented by an elastic stress analysis.
An extensive parametric finite element study was conducted by Epstein [3] to capture
the influence of bolt stagger spacing and shear lag effects on block shear failure of
angles in tension. Additionally, Epstein conducted a large suite of finite element
studies focused on understanding the influence of staggered hole patterns on section
capacity [4]. Kulak and Wu [5] conducted a large experimental investigation of single
and double angle tension members to examine the effect of shear lag on net section
rupture of cross-sections. This experimental study was further complemented by
finite element modeling of a select number of experimental specimens to predict the
failure capacities. The above finite element investigations have been successful in
predicting the failure capacities reasonably well.
The bulk of the above mentioned FEA studies have been conducted using elastic
analyses with small deformation formulations. Experimental studies of WT section
specimens with medium to large connection eccentricities suggest that failure is typi-
 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1105

cally caused by severe necking of the outside edge adjacent to the lead bolt hole,
followed by the fracture of the outside edge. Thus, for an accurate representation of
the failure, it is essential to capture the underlying necking behavior in the vicinity
of the lead bolt hole. This study conducts a comprehensive finite element modeling
of the tension members with bolted end connections that include both geometric as
well as material large deformation effects for capturing block shear and (partial) net
section rupture failure modes. Finite element modeling of experimental specimens
will allow for a better understanding of stress flow in the member and to better
investigate the influence of shear lag and connection eccentricity.
The organization of the paper is as follows. Section 2 describes the current design
methodology adopted for tension members with bolted end connections. In Section
3, a brief description of the experimental behavior of the WT section specimens
conducted at West Virginia University (WVU) is given. Section 4 describes a litera-
ture review of finite element techniques used for modeling the block shear and net
section rupture failure modes of tension members with bolted end connections. A
comprehensive finite element modeling of the WT sections that includes both geo-
metric as well as material large deformation effects is described in Section 5. The
finite element modeling procedure described in Section 5 is validated against the
experimental results available in the literature for angle and WT section specimens.
Numerical simulation of angle and WT section specimens is presented in Section 6.
Section 7 presents a comparison of the FEA results with experimental results, AISC
code predictions, and the analytical results. Lastly, Section 8 presents summary
and conclusions.

2. Present design considerations

Tension members used in building construction are designed according to the

American Institute of Steel Construction building specifications LRFD [6] and ASD
[7]. LRFD [6] requires that the designer make three calculation checks to determine
the capacity of a tension member: yielding of the gross cross-sectional area; net
section rupture of the critical cross-sectional area; and block shear. The lower of the
three controls the allowable load capacity of a specified member.

2.1. Gross section yielding

Yielding of the cross-section at service loads is considered to be a serviceability

criterion so as to prevent large elongations of a member. Yielding of the net section
area is not considered because the length, over which its gross area is reduced, due to
connection details, is small compared to the overall length of the member. Therefore,
significantly larger elongations than yielding of the gross area would not occur
(Gaylord et al. [8]). Gross section yielding is calculated in LRFD (see Ref. [6] Eq.
D1-1) as follows:
Pn ⫽ FyAg (1)
1106 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

where Fy represents the yield stress of the material and Ag represents the gross cross-
sectional area of the tension member.

2.2. Net section rupture

The net section rupture strength of a member is based on the fracture of the net
area of the cross-section. The net section rupture equation as given by Chapter D
of LRFD is shown below:
Pn ⫽ FuAe (2)
where
Ae ⫽ UAn,
Fu is the ultimate tensile strength of the material, An the net area of the cross-section,
and Ae the effective net area of the cross-sections.
In the above equation, U represents the shear lag reduction factor that accounts
for member’s inefficiency due to the inability of its elements to transfer load in a
connected region.
The reduction effects due to shear lag need be considered when only some of the
elements of a member transfer load [6]. The calculation of the shear lag factor
according to LRFD [6] is Eq. B3-2):
For a member with all of its elements transferring load
U ⫽ 1.0 (3)
else
U ⫽ 1⫺(x / L) ⬍ 0.9 (4)
In the above equation, x represents the connection eccentricity and L represents the
connection length. From the above equation, it is clear that the effects of connection
eccentricity and connection length have been combined into one factor in estimating
the failure capacities of tension members. This equation is based on the test data
with small connection eccentricities. Using the above equation for medium to large
connection eccentricities often results in a small or negative U factor. Furthermore,
recent efforts on investigating the effect of shear lag on failure capacities demon-
strated that AISC predicted failure capacities using the above equation may be overly
unconservative for large connection eccentricities. This forms the motivation for the
current study to investigate the effect of connection eccentricity and connection
length on the failure capacities of tension members with bolted end connections.

2.3. Block shear

The most accurate model for block shear failures seemed to be the rupturing of
the net tension plane and yielding on the gross shear plane, which increases towards
a rupturing of the shear plane as connection lengths become shorter. This study led
to the development of the present LRFD equations provided in Chapter J (see Ref.
 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1107

[9]). Note that similar results were observed in experimental tests on bolted gusset
plates conducted by Hardash and Bjorhovde [10].
The LRFD block shear provisions incorporate two possible modes of failure: rup-
ture of the net tension area combined with simultaneous yielding of the gross shear
area; or yielding of the gross tension area combined with simultaneous rupture of
the net shear area. The two LRFD block shear equations are shown below (see Ref.
[6] Eq. J 4-3a and J 4-3b, respectively):
Rn ⫽ FuAnt ⫹ 0.6FyAgv (5)
Rn ⫽ FyAgt ⫹ 0.6FuAnv (6)
The controlling equation being the one with larger net area rupture term i.e. if
FuAntⱖ0.6FuAnv then the first equation controls, else the second equation is used to
calculate the allowable block shear capacity. It is interesting to note that in design
typically the second equation governs, while experiments in which block shear is
evident tend to exhibit a failure mode similar to that described by first equation.
This ambiguity in code prediction equations and experimental results forms the
motivation for the current study to investigate the block shear failure of WT speci-
mens.

3. Experimental behavior of WT specimens

The WVU experimental program consisted of three sets of WT section specimens

(two sets of WT 155 × 10.5 and one set of WT 100 × 18) that are 914.4 mm in
length and fastened at both ends with a single row of 19.05 mm bolts through their
webs. The main focus of the experimental program has been on the effects of connec-
tion eccentricity, connection length, and hole drilling methods on the failure
capacities as determined by the net section rupture and block shear failure modes.
In the experimental specimens, the connection length is varied by changing the num-
ber of bolts in a given connection while keeping the pitch constant. Pitch and end
distances are held constant at 76.2 and 63.5 mm, respectively in all specimens. Table
1 gives general specimen information and Fig.1 shows a representative sample in
the test frame. A more detailed description of the experimental testing program is
given in Orbison [11].
In the experimental test program, three modes of failure were observed. The first
failure mode, typically exhibited by the specimens having medium and large connec-
tion eccentricities, is caused by severe necking of the outside edge adjacent to the
lead bolt hole, followed by the fracture of the outside edge. This failure mode is
termed as partial rupture of the net section. The second failure mode is due to block
shear failure as evidenced by the rupture of net tension area and either partial or
full rupture of the gross shear area. The third mode of failure is due to full net
section rupture of the web on either side of the lead bolt hole, which propagated
through the rest of both the flange and web areas simultaneously. These failure modes
are shown in Fig. 2. Note that the specimen numbers in parenthesis correspond to
the numbers shown in Table 1.
1108 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

Table 1
WVU specimens

Specimen no. WT section n Edge d tw dh Fy Fu

1a (p) 155×10.5 4 23.241 150.241 4.953 19.812 404.9 517.6

2a (d) 155×10.5 4 23.749 150.749 4.953 20.853 404.9 517.6
3a (p) 155×10.5 4 61.722 150.622 4.953 19.812 404.9 517.6
4a (d) 155×10.5 4 61.087 149.987 4.978 20.777 404.9 517.6
5a (d) 155×10.5 4 87.122 150.622 4.877 20.371 404.9 517.6
6a (p) 155×10.5 4 88.087 151.587 5.055 19.812 404.9 517.6
7a (p) 155×10.5 4 105.283 151.765 4.953 20.676 404.9 517.6
8a (d) 155×10.5 4 104.013 150.495 4.928 20.676 404.9 517.6
1b (d) 155×10.5 5 23.419 150.419 5.207 20.701 427 526
2b (p) 155×10.5 5 23.012 150.012 5.207 20.625 427 526
3b (d) 155×10.5 5 61.011 149.911 5.207 20.701 427 526
4b (d)a 155×10.5 5 61.824 150.724 5.207 20.625 427 526
5b (d) 155×10.5 5 88.316 151.816 5.207 20.803 427 526
6b (p) 155×10.5 5 88.113 151.613 5.105 20.625 427 526
7b (d) 155×10.5 5 103.505 150.012 5.207 20.701 427 526
8b (p) 155×10.5 5 104.318 150.825 5.207 20.625 427 526
1c (d) 100×18 3 25.019 101.219 7.315 20.625 402 474
2c (p) 100×18 3 25.502 101.702 7.315 20.523 402 474
3c (d) 100×18 3 37.821 101.321 7.315 20.701 402 474
4c (p) 100×18 3 37.516 101.016 7.315 20.523 402 474
5c (d) 100×18 3 52.908 103.708 7.417 20.803 402 474
6c (p) 100×18 3 51.105 101.905 7.315 20.625 402 474

Dimensions are in mm, and strengths are in MPa.(p) designates a specimen with punched holes and (d)
a specimen with drilled holes.
a
Due to a fabrication error specimen 4b’s bolt holes were drilled rather than punched.

4. State-of-the-art FEA models for tension members with bolted connections

In the literature, finite element analyses of tension members have been performed
with increasing degree of complexity, ranging from simple linear elastic analysis to
large deformation geometric and material nonlinear analysis. The results from linear
elastic analysis are used in estimating the failure capacities through simple block
shear failure models. Although these models have been successful in predicting the
stress flow in the member prior to yielding, stress re-distribution after yielding is
not captured. Further, the predicted failure capacity of a section depends on the
accuracy of the adopted failure model. Finite element analyses that include material
and geometric nonlinearities have been successful in predicting the failure capacities
of tension members with varying degrees of accuracy. Following is a brief summary
of the finite element modeling studies used to estimate the failure loads of connec-
tions subjected to block shear and net section rupture.
An extensive parametric finite element study was conducted by Epstein [3] to
capture the influence of bolt stagger spacing and shear lag effects on block shear
failure of angles in tension. A 20-node brick element is used in the finite element
 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1109

Fig. 1. Typical WT specimen in universal testing machine.

modeling of the angle sections to capture the stress concentration effects in the vicin-
ity of bolt holes. The material nonlinear effects were modeled using the von Mises
yield criterion and the material stress–strain curve is assumed to be elastic–perfectly
plastic. In this study, a strain based failure criterion in which failure is assumed to
have occurred once the maximum strain reached five times the initial yield strain
was employed to capture the failure load. Further, in the finite element model, the
bolts were assumed to be rigid and the load is transferred from the gusset plate to
the angle fully by the bearing of the bolts. Therefore, the longitudinal and the in-
plane transverse displacements of the nodes attached to the bearing surfaces, i.e. the
surfaces on which the bolt surface bears against the hole surfaces, are coupled to
one another. This finite element study included only the material nonlinear effects
and the geometric nonlinear effects were considered to be negligible. In all of the
finite element simulations, failure was initiated at the outside edge of the connected
leg adjacent to the lead bolt on the outer gage. From the experimental and finite
element results, it was concluded that the shear lag effect present in these angles
significantly reduced the load carrying capacity of the tension member.
Kulak and Wu [5] conducted a large experimental investigation of single and
double angle tension members to examine the effect of shear lag on net section
rupture of the cross-sections. Subsequently, FEA was employed to evaluate the stress
1110 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

Fig. 2. Typical failure modes: (a) partial net section rupture (specimen 1); (b) block shear failure
(specimen 8); and (c) full net section rupture failure (specimen 7).

distribution of the critical cross- section at ultimate load. A large strain four node
quadrilateral shell element (ANSYS STIF43) with six degrees of freedom per node
was used in the finite element modeling of the angle sections. This element uses
incompatible displacement interpolation functions for in-plane effect along with a
mixed interpolation of the tensorial stress components for the out-of-plane effect. The
gusset plate is modeled using elastic four-node quadrilateral shell element (ANSYS
STIF63) as yielding of the gusset plate was not observed in the experimental tests.
An elasto-plastic von Mises yield criterion is adopted to represent the material non-
linear effects. The material stress–strain curve is described by a multi-linear isotropic
 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1111

hardening behavior. Based on the symmetry considerations of the specimen, only

half the length of the specimen is modeled. Similarly, due to the symmetry of the
double angle members about the gusset plate, only one of the pair angles is modeled.
In the finite element model, the effect of bolts is modeled by coupling the longitudi-
nal and in-plane transverse degrees of freedom of the nodes attached to the hole
surfaces on which the bolts bear against during deformation. The finite element
model included both geometric as well as material nonlinear effects. An incremental
iterative strategy based on Newton–Raphson method was used to capture the nonlin-
ear load versus deflection behavior of the angle specimen. In the analysis, the failure
load of the angle section was taken as the load corresponding to the last converged
load step. At failure, significant necking of the net area between the leg edge and
lead bolt hole was observed.
Ricles and Yura [1] conducted full-scale testing of coped and uncoped double-
row bolted-web connections supplemented by an elastic FEA. The main objective
of this analysis was to obtain elastic stress distributions in the vicinity of shear
connector bolt holes and to develop a modified block shear failure model which is
in close agreement with the experimental results. The beam and the connection were
assumed to be in a plane stress condition. The finite element model consists of two-
dimensional four-node quadrilateral and three node triangular elements. The material
response is modeled by an elastic stress–strain curve. The clip angle is idealized as
a simple connection plate with attached springs to simulate the stiffness of the out-
standing leg to the rotation of the clip angle. The results of the experimental and
analytical studies showed that present block shear equations, which were the govern-
ing failure model for these experiments, did not accurately predict failure loads.
Ricles and Yura developed a set of modified semi-empirical block shear expressions
that captured the behavior of the specimens in their study.
In conclusion, the above finite element studies represent the state-of-the-art meth-
odologies for capturing block shear failure and net section rupture of steel members.
Ricles and Yura [1] developed a simple modified block shear failure model based
on the elastic stress distributions in the vicinity of the bolt holes. Using a small-
deformation elasto-plastic analysis, Epstein [3] was able to capture the qualitative
behavior of bolt stagger spacing and shear lag effects on the failure load of angles
in tension. Kulak and Wu [5] included both geometric as well as material nonlinear
effects to capture the pre-peak nonlinear load versus deflection behavior of angles.
However, the analysis was unable to trace the entire pre- and post-peak load versus
deflection behavior beyond the load limit point. In addition, none of the above analy-
ses include the interaction between the bolt and the web holes and its effect on the
failure load. Furthermore, necking of the net area between the leg edge and the lead
bolt hole was not accurately captured by the above analyses. Failure criteria adopted
in the previous studies do not include the effects of triaxiality and deformation gradi-
ents in the vicinity of the hole. Hence, a comprehensive finite element modeling of
the angle sections that include large deformation geometric and material nonlinear
effects need to be performed to trace the load versus deflection behavior beyond the
limit point. This, in conjunction with appropriate failure criteria, is essential to predict
the ultimate failure load of connection assemblies. These observations form the basis
1112 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

for the current numerical study of connections subjected to block shear and net sec-
tion rupture of cross-sections.

5. Finite element modeling of WVU specimens

In this section, finite element modeling of the experimental WT section specimens

is described. The main objective of the FEA is not only to estimate the failure loads
of the WT section specimens but also to trace the entire load versus deflection path.
The FEA is performed using 3D solid elements that are capable of representing large
deformation geometric and material nonlinearities. In the current study, each of the
WVU four bolt specimens, shown in Table 1, have been analyzed.
Finite element analyses of the WT sections is carried out using eight node incom-
patible hexahedral elements (ABAQUS C3D8I) that are capable of representing large
deformation geometric and material nonlinearities. An elasto-plastic von Mises yield
criterion combined with a tri-linear true stress–true strain curve is used to represent
the material nonlinear effects. Fig. 3 shows a plot of the constitutive model used in
these analyses.
Based on the symmetry considerations of the specimen, only half the length of
the specimen is modeled. Similarly, due to the symmetry of the WT sections about
the mid-surface of the web, only half of the WT section is modeled. That is, a
symmetric boundary condition is applied on the mid-surface of the web. The leading
edge of the gusset plate is constrained in all the directions except for the longitudinal
direction. A longitudinal displacement boundary condition is applied at the leading
edge of the gusset plate.
In the finite element model, the connecting bolts are assumed to be rigid and a

Fig. 3. Tri-linear constitutive model employed in FEA.

 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1113

surface-to-surface contact is used to fully transfer the load from the gusset plate to
the web. That is, a surface-to-surface contact option is used between the bolt’s outer
surface and the inner surface of the web holes. Additionally, a surface contact option
is also used between the bolt’s outer surface and the inside surface of the gusset
plate holes. Similarly, a surface contact option is applied between the bottom surface
of the gusset plate and the top surface of the web in order to avoid gap between the
gusset plate and the web. The nodes around the bolt holes on the outer side of the
gusset plate are constrained in the direction normal to the web to simulate the effect
of the head of the bolt. The boundary conditions applied are shown in Fig. 4. To
accurately capture the stress behavior in the region around the bolt holes where it
is most likely that failures would probably initiate, a mapped meshing is done around
the holes as shown in Fig. 4.
The Newton–Raphson method is used to trace the nonlinear load–deflection curve
beyond the load limit point. The load corresponding to the load limit point is taken
as the failure load of the WT specimen. At failure, a substantial amount of necking
of the net area is observed between the web edge and the lead bolt hole.

6. Numerical simulation and comparison with experimental results

In the following, numerical simulation of the experimental specimens conducted

by Kulak and Wu [5], and Epstein [12] is performed to verify the validity of the

Fig. 4. Typical finite element mesh for WVU specimens showing boundary conditions. (a) Typical FEA
mesh; gusset plate; and (c) WT specimen.
1114 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

finite element modeling procedure described in the previous section for predicting
the failure capacities of the angle and WT sections. Subsequently, the same finite
element modeling methodology is used to predict the failure capacities of the WT
section specimens tested at WVU.

6.1. Kulak and Wu experimental specimens

Kulak and Wu’s [5] specimens D7, D9 (double angle members) and S11 (single
angle member) have been analyzed using the finite element methodology presented
in Section 5. The geometric dimensions and the connection details of the specimens
are given in Table 1. Section 5 described the boundary conditions used for modeling
the WT sections with gusset plates placed on either side of the web. However, the
double angle members tested by Wu and Kulak have a gusset plate placed between
the two angles. Although the general methodology remains the same, this arrange-
ment alters the boundary conditions applied on the web and gusset plate surfaces.
In the case of double angle members, a symmetry condition is placed on the mid-
surface of the gusset plate. Similarly, the nodes around the bolt holes on the outer
surface of the web are constrained in the direction normal to the web to simulate
the effects of the head of the bolts. With the exception of these changes, the remain-
ing load and boundary conditions are identical for WT and double angle specimens.
In the case of single angle specimens (S11), the full thickness of the gusset plate is
modeled, i.e. symmetry condition does not exist on the mid-surface of the gusset
plate.
The failure capacities of the specimens D7, D9 and S11 are given in Table 2. The
load versus deflection for specimen D9 and S11 are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 8,
respectively (note that Kulak did not report the experimental load versus deflection
for specimen D7). It should be noted that the failure capacity predicted by the analy-
sis is in close agreement with that of experimental value. The observed discrepancy
in the elasto-plastic transition region of the analytical and experimental load–deflec-
tion curves may be attributed to the differences in the tri-linear material stress–strain
curve used in the present analysis and the multi-linear hardening experimental stress–
strain curve. This difference in constitutive models leads to the additional elongation
predicted in the WVU FEA work as a function of the near elastic–perfectly plastic

Table 2
Kulak and Wu’s specimens (Kulak and Wu et al., [5])

Specimen no: Size n Member Fy Fu PWVU FEA Pkulak FEA Pexpt

length

D7 76×51×4.8 6 1786 340.4 487.8 409 415 412

D9 76×51×4.8 2 1792 338.8 487.2 318 332 321
S11 76×51×4.8 2 1992 338.8 487.2 200 172 200

Dimensions are in mm, and loads are in KN.S designates a single angle specimens and D a double
angle specimens.
 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1115

Fig. 5. Load–deflection curve for Kulak and Wu’s Specimen D9.

region. Behaviorally, however, the WVU analyses pick of the associated necking in
the lead bolt region prior to failure. Figs. 6,7 and 9 present the deformed geometry,
the equivalent stress and equivalent plastic strain distributions at the maximum load
for specimens D9, D7, and S11, respectively. Based on the distribution of the equiv-
alent plastic strain in the specimens, it can be concluded that the ultimate failure of
the specimens occurred due to the necking and subsequent fracture of the outside
edge adjacent to the lead bolt hole. From the load–deflection and stress contour plots,
it is clear that the finite element procedure elaborated in Section 5 may be used for
predicting the failure capacities and the distribution of stress contours in the vicinity
of the bolt holes.

Fig. 6. Deformed shape, stress contours, and plastic strain contours for Kulak and Wu’s specimen D9.
1116 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

Fig. 7. Deformed shape, stress contours, and plastic strain contours for Kulak and Wu’s specimen D7.

Fig. 8. Load–deflection curve for Kulak and Wu’s specimen S11.

 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1117

Fig. 9. Deformed shape, stress contours, and plastic strain contours for Kulak and Wu’s specimen S11.

6.2. WT section specimens conducted at WVU

In this section, finite element methodology presented in Section 5 is used in the

simulation of the WT section specimens tested at WVU (see Ref. [11]). The geo-
metric dimensions and the connection details are given in Table 1. Fig. 10 shows

Fig. 10. Typical WT specimen configuration and grip assembly.

1118 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

Table 3
WVU 4 Bolt specimens

Specimen no. WT section PAISC PWVU FEA Pexpt

1a 155×10.5 (p) 383 232 235

2a 155×10.5 (d) 383 258 264
3a 155×10.5 (p) 458 415 419
4a 155×10.5 (d) 458 460 460
5a 155×10.5 (d) 507 552 560
6a 155×10.5 (p) 521 525 526
7a 155×10.5 (p) 543 585 578
8a 155×10.5 (d) 543 608 609

Dimensions are in mm, and loads are in KN.(p) designates a specimen with punched holes and (d) a
specimen with drilled holes.

the WT specimen configuration and the test set-up used in the experiments. The
reader is referred to Orbison [11] for a detailed description of the experimental pro-
cedure. The boundary conditions and typical mesh used in the finite element simul-
ation are shown in Fig. 4. The material properties of the specimen are based on a
tri-linear true stress versus true strain relationship as shown in Fig. 3.
The failure capacities of WT specimens using the methodology presented in Sec-
tion 5 are given in Table 3. Fig. 11 shows the deformed geometry, equivalent stress
and equivalent plastic strain contours for Specimen 1. The equivalent plastic strain
distribution in Specimen 1 indicates that the failure of the specimen occurred in
partial net section rupture mode. The load versus deflection behavior for all the WT
specimens is shown in Fig. 12. These results indicate close agreement between the
experimentally observed and numerically estimated failure capacities of the WT sec-
tions subjected to tensile loading. In fact, the FEA is capable of representing the
partial net section rupture failure mode by capturing the necking behavior in the
vicinity of lead bolt hole.

Fig. 11. Deformed shape, stress contours and plastic strain contours of WVU specimen 1.
 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120 1119

Fig. 12. Load–deflection curve for WVU specimens.

7. Comparison of failure predictions

Table 3 presents the comparison of experimental, numerical and AISC predicted

failure capacities of WT specimens with medium to large connection eccentricities.
In all of the specimens, failure is caused due to the partial net section rupture of the
connected leg adjacent to the lead bolt hole. However, in the AISC predictions,
block shear failure mode governs the failure capacity. Further, the failure capacities
predicted by the AISC specifications based on net section rupture and block shear
failure modes are unconservative compared to the experimental failure loads when
connection eccentricity is significant. Numerical simulation results based on the pro-
cedure described in Section 5 are in close agreement with the experimental failure
loads. In addition, these models are able to accurately capture the partial net section
rupture failure mode observed in the experimental specimens. These results suggest
that finite element analyses that include large deformation geometric and material
nonlinear effects may be used to predict the failure behavior of tension members
with medium to large connection eccentricities.

8. Summary and conclusions

This paper presents the state-of-the-art review of finite element techniques used
in modeling the tension members with bolted end connections. In particular, comp-
lementing the experimental investigations, the main objective of the work is to pre-
dict the failure capacities of tension members with medium to large connection
eccentricities and varying connection lengths. The finite element methodology
presented in this paper is capable of not only predicting the failure capacities but
1120 K.E. Barth et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 1103–1120

also in tracing the entire load versus deflection path. The numerical simulation results
based on the above analysis indicate an excellent agreement with the experimental
failure capacities of the specimens with large connection eccentricities. Furthermore,
the (partial) net section rupture failure mode of the specimens is accurately captured
through the numerical simulations. Currently, the finite element model described in
this paper is used in conducting a detailed parametric investigation of the connection
eccentricity and connection length on the failure capacities of WT sections with
bolted end connections. The results of this work will ultimately lead to proposed
improved design equations for bolted connections subject to direct tension.

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