Curtain Wal System

International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Technology (IJAERT) 428
Volume 5 Issue 6, June 2017, ISSN No.: 2348 – 8190
AN ASSESSMENT ON THE USE OF GLASS AS A CURTAIN WALLING

MATERIAL IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS IN GHANA
KODWO AMOA-ABBAN, BSc. MSc.

Department of Building Technology, Accra Technical University
ABSTRACT
Façades are the first aesthetical feature of a building that distinguishes one building from another. The use of glass as a
component of the building envelope has been increasing since its initial introduction as a building material, accelerating in
the twentieth century owing to the development of high-rise steel framing systems and curtain wall cladding techniques.
Little has changed in the core technology of glass curtain walls and façades since their initial development. However, in
the building arts much has changed in the past decade alone in terms of aesthetic and performance drivers, as well as in
available structural systems and materials. The push by leading architects, engineers and building professionals for
aesthetics, durability and transparency in the building envelope has historically been drivers in the development of the
new façade types. This research aims at identifying the major factors contributing to the increasing use of glass as
cladding and curtains walling material in high rise buildings as well as the type of glasses used, design considerations and
cladding methods.
Keywords: aesthetics, cladding, curtain walls, façade, glazing.
INTRODUCTION
Glass is arguably the most remarkable material ever discovered by man (Wigginton M. 1996). Glass as used in
construction is a compound of elements of silica, lime, soda, magnesia and aluminium. No other building system
combines as significant an impact to both a building’s performance and aesthetics. The use of glass as a component of the
building envelop has been on the increase from when it was introduced as a building material and accelerating from the
20th century due to the development of high rise steel framed systems and curtain wall cladding techniques.
Glass when used as cladding material, fulfils a variety of functions from aesthetic point of view, the glass provides
transparency and natural light. Functionally, it provides solar, acoustic and heat insulation, whilst having additional self-
cleaning property.
Curtain wall is a light weight external wall system that is hung on the building structure. It is characterised by grids of in-
filled materials such as glass or metals or a combination of these materials. Because curtain walls are flexible, architects
are able to create amazing designs for new buildings and refurbishments of old buildings. Curtain wall / cladding system
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is a major investment in both the construction and the long-term success of the building. Curtain wall system is not just a
barrier to the external envelop of the building, it is crucial to the image and the perception of a building. A good curtain
wall / cladding design system with excellence and performance is essential; otherwise, it will cause a large expenditure in
future maintenance.
GLASS AS ARCHITECTURAL MATERIAL
Soda-lime glass is the most common form of glass. The various material properties of glass; transparency, durability,
resistance to corrosion and high temperatures, coupled with the huge production capacity of the industry and relative low
cost, render it a uniquely appropriate material for application in architecture. The glass used in structural glass facades,
while varying substantially among projects, is almost always annealed flat product yielding from the float glass process,
subject to modification through some form of secondary processing adding value in some manner.
1. TINTED GLASS
Tinted glass is produced by the addition of small (typically less than 1%) amounts of other metal oxides. These small
amounts do not change the basic physical properties of the glass, other than the colour and solar/optical
transmission/reflection” (Pilkington 2008). The light transmission properties of glass, and thus colour, can be changed
within limits by the alteration of the glass chemistry. The performance objective in using tinted glass is to reduce the
amount of infrared transmission, visible light and ultraviolet (UV) radiation from entering windows. In terms of privacy,
tinted glass reduces visibility offering an unimpeded view from the low-light side but virtually no view from the high-
light side. It may also be frosted, rendering it translucent but not transparent.
2. LOW-IRON GLASS
Low-iron glass is used extensively in structural glass facades. The low iron-oxide content of the melt produces a glass
without the slight greenish tint that characterises conventional clear glass, and provides a noticeably more transparent
product.
3. MONOLITHIC GLASS
Monolithic glass refers to a glass panel comprised of a single sheet. Monolithic glass is frequently used in structural glass
facades, as it provides for a distinctly smaller silicone joint that enhances the overall effect of the façade transparency. The
side effect of this strategy is poor thermal performance, and for this reason insulated glass panels are often used,
particularly in temperate climates where cold winters can present thermal challenges to enclosures with large areas of
glazing.
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4. LAMINATED GLASS
Laminated glass consists of two or more pieces of glass bonded together by polyvinyl butyral (PVB). The thickness of the
laminate is usually a function of the thickness of the glass pieces being laminated. Laminated glass can utilise tinted glass,
high performance coatings, silk-screened patterns and pigmented interlayers together or alone. The gluing or laminating of
sheets of glass in layers provides additional safety by eliminating the risk of injury from sharp glass shards resulting from
the breaking of monolithic glass.
ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE: GLASS AS A SOUND BARRIER

Glass is an inherently poor acoustical barrier. Façade acoustic design is a function of utilising the best performing
materials for the frequencies that will be relevant to the architectural purpose. Different materials display varying
behaviour as a function of the material properties and the frequency of sound. A sound rating can be determined for a
particular glass type, but the glass is usually incorporated into some kind of framing and/or support system, and the
system as a whole may exhibit quite different acoustic behaviour than the glass in isolation. Making glass thicker does
little to improve its Sound Transmission Loss (STL). In fact, at certain frequencies thicker glass can actually amplify
sound. A more productive strategy is to use laminated glass, insulated glass, or better still, a combination of the two.
Varying the ply-thicknesses of laminated glass can improve acoustic performance.
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
Curtain wall systems are cladding systems intended for multi-story buildings. Vertical mullions of extruded aluminium
are most commonly used as the spanning members, and the vertical and horizontal mullions provide full perimeter support
to the glass. Structural glass facades span longer distances, from approximately 20 feet (or 7 meters), with an upper range
defined only by the limits of the structural design. Curtain walls are most subjected to wind loads, extreme events,
building movements, sudden temperature changes, driven rain, atmospheric pollution and corrosion (Hunton et al. 1987).
Curtain walls are rather more like a screen than a true curtain.
1. STICK SYSTEMS
Most curtain wall systems to date have been constructed of long vertical mullions, spanning across supporting floor slabs.
Horizontal mullions span between the verticals. This system is sometimes referred to as a mullion - transom frame. The
framing members are shop fabricated, factory painted, and installed; a piece at a time. The glass or other cladding panels
are then attached to these framing members. The systems are referred to in the industry as “stick-built”. It involves a lot of
labour on site during installation.
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2. UNITISED SYSTEMS
This is a system in which large framed units are built up under factory controlled
conditions, shipped to the site and the entire unit lifted and set into position. The units are
typically designed in response to an installation strategy. These units can span multiple floors
vertically and can be as wide as transport will allow. Unitised systems are inherently framing
intensive to provide for the structural integrity of the unit while it is handled in the factory and
the field, and would likely prevent a high level of integration between the structural system
and cladding as is typical of structural glass facades. However, the reasons for utilising
unitised systems also apply to large structural glass facades and it is conceivable that a
unitised approach could balance the considerations of aesthetics and efficiency.
3. PANEL SYSTEMS
Panellised systems consist of glass panes assembled with framing elements to form a glazed panel. The frames possess
structural properties allowing for interim support by the truss system while providing
continuous support to the glass pane, thus minimising deflections to the glass pane itself.
The frames can provide two-sided or four-sided support, and can mechanically capture
the glass pane or be structurally glued to the glass pane using appropriate silicone glazing
materials. When environmental concerns dictate the use of insulated glass units,
panellised systems can prove to be more economical solutions than point-fixed glass
systems, with little or no loss to façade transparency.
4. POINT-FIXED SYSTEMS
Point-fixed glazing systems find most frequent use in structural glass façades. The glass panes are either bolted or
clamped with components providing attachment to the truss system. The most common
system type is often referred to as a “spider” system. A four-armed fitting, usually of cast
stainless steel, supports four glass panes at adjacent corners on the glazing grid and ties
back to the truss system. The spider fitting is designed to provide for glazing system
movement under environmental loading, as well as to accommodate specified field
tolerance during assembly. A variety of spider systems are available from the suppliers of
cable and rod rigging systems.
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5. STRUCTURAL GLAZING
Structural glazing is sometimes done in the field with the glass being glued directly to an aluminium framing member
already attached to the building as with a stick type curtain wall system, but this is rare. The technique is most often
used with a unitised curtain wall system. This method eliminates any mechanical capture of the glass, and presents a
glass surface interrupted only by the seams between the glass panels; nothing is raised above the glass surface.
Obviously, the adhesion of the glass to the substrate is critical. Structural glazing is seldom used with structural glass
facades.
NATURAL FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
Obviously all exterior walls of whatever material are subject to and must withstand the ravaging effects of nature. The
following are the effects created by the natural environment.
a) Sunlight
Sunlight provides warmth, colour, visual definition and life itself. But it also creates certain problems in curtain wall
design thus, its deteriorating effect on organic materials such as colour pigments, plastics and sealants. The actinic rays,
particularly those found in the ultra-violet range of the spectrum produce chemical changes which cause fading or more
serious degradation of materials. Another problem when uncontrolled sunlight passes through glass wall is the discomfort
of glare, brightness and degradation of interior furnishings. Conventionally, such effects are combated by use of solar
control shading devices, either inside or outside of the vision glass. A newer approach is the use of glare-reducing or
reflective types of glass which provide relief without restricting vision.
b) Temperature
Temperature creates two kinds of problems in curtain wall design which are:
1. The expansion and contraction of materials,

2. The necessity to control the passage of heat through the wall.
Temperature fluctuations, both diurnally and seasonally critically affect wall details. All building materials expand and
contract to some extent with temperature changes, but the amount of movement is greater in aluminium than in most other
building materials. The control of heat passage through the wall affects heat loss in cold weather and heat gain in hot
weather depending on the geographical location of the structure. When transparent glass areas predominate, the use of
insulating glass lowers the overall heat transfer.
c) Water
Water, in form of rain, snow, vapour or condensate, is probably the most persistent cause of potential trouble. As wind-
driven rain, water can enter very small openings and may move within the wall and appear on the indoor face far from its
point of entrance. In the form of vapour it can penetrate microscopic pores and condense upon cooling and if trapped
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within wall, can cause serious damage that may long remain undetected. Materials used in metal curtain wall are
impervious to water and potential leakage is limited to joints and openings. Though this greatly limits the area of
vulnerability, it greatly increases the importance of proper joints and seals designs.
d) Wind
Wind acting upon the curtain glass wall produces the force which largely dictates its structural design. On high rise
structures, the structural properties of framing members and panels as well as the thickness of the glass are determined by
maximum wind loads. Winds also contribute to the movement of the wall, affecting joint seals and wall anchorage. The
pressures and vacuums alternately created by high winds not only subject framing members and glass to stress reversal,
but causes rain to defy gravity, flowing in all directions over the wall face. Thus wind must be recognised also as a major
factor contributing to potential water leakage.
e) Gravity
Gravity, unlike the other natural forces is static and constant, rather than dynamic and variable. Because of the relatively
light weight of materials used in curtain walls, it is a force of secondary significance, rarely imposing any serous design
problems. It causes deflections in horizontal load-bearing members, especially under the weight of large sheets of heavy
glass, but because the weight of the wall is transferred at frequent intervals to the building frame, gravity forces affecting
structural design are generally small in comparison with those imposed by wind action.
THERMAL PERFORMANCE VERSUS TRANSPARENCY

Monolithic or laminated glass provides the highest level of transparency in structural glass façade applications while
insulated glass units provide superior thermal performance. The thermal performance of glass is at odds with
transparency. The offsetting attribute of transparency is day lighting. The balancing of these behaviours is a challenge in
the design of any enclosure with a large glazed area.
THE STUDY
Both primary data and secondary data were employed to obtain data for this research. Accra, the capital of Greater Accra
Region, officially divided into four geographic regions – North, West, East and Central was used as the case study.
Building and Civil constructions companies as well as glass sub-contractors (glazing companies) operating within the case
study area were considered under this study. A sample size of 35 out of a population of 50 professionals working with
construction/glazing companies was arrived at using the Kish formula with a response of only 24 representing a rate of
68.57%. The Microsoft Excel Relative Importance Index (RII) was used to analyse the four-point and five point lickert
scale tables within the structured questionnaires.
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FINDINGS
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS USED IN GHANA

1 = Very Frequently 2 = Frequently 3 = Fairly Frequently 4 = Not at All
Methods 1 2 3 4 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking
Panel System 14 4 4 2 24 42.00 0.44 96.00 1st
Stick System 4 14 4 2 24 52.00 0.54 96.00 5th
Point-Fixed Drilled 9 7 7 1 24 48.00 0.50 96.00 3rd
Unitised System 3 15 5 1 24 52.00 0.54 96.00 4th
Structural Glazing 13 4 4 3 24 45.00 0.47 96.00 2nd
Point-Fixed Clamped 5 10 5 4 24 56.00 0.58 96.00 6th
Table 1: Field Survey, February 2017.
The most frequently curtain wall system used as indicated in table 1 above was the panel system. When environmental
conditions (temperature, water, sunlight and noise) require the use of insulated glass units, it proved to be more
economical with negligible loss to façade transparency. Structural glazing system was next. The system presented the
surface of the glass with an uninterrupted finish and it eliminated any mechanical capture of the glass. The third was the
Point-Fixed Drilled system followed by the unitised system of cladding. The Point-Fixed Clamped system was the least
method used. The Point-Fixed Drilled system has the disadvantage of drilling and countersinking of the glass panes with
frequent cracks or breakages. Where insulated glass units were required, a sealing ring was inserted in the space between
the glass panes and around the bolt holes and this obviously added significantly to the total glass panels cost.
TYPES OF GLASS USED FOR CLADDING IN GHANA

Glass Types 1 2 3 4 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking
Tinted Glass 18 4 2 0 24 32.00 0.75 1.33 1st
Low-Iron Glass 1 10 8 5 24 65.00 0.33 2.71 5th
Monolithic Glass 1 4 15 4 24 70.00 0.68 2.92 3rd
Laminated Glass 13 6 3 2 24 42.00 0.73 1.75 2nd
Plain Glass 13 6 2 3 24 43.00 0.44 1.79 4th
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Tinted glass is most commonly used as a cladding material in most high rise structures. Because of its reflective coated
surface, tinted glass immediately converts incoming solar radiation to infrared radiation, which is then rejected back
through the glass to the exterior. It is believed that tinted glass has the advantage of privacy, heat and glare reduction,
thermal insulation, UV filtration, safety and security. Laminated glass is the second most frequently cladding material
used on building structures. In terms of acoustic properties, laminated glass is preferred to plain glass blocks. Laminated
glass, depending on the thickness of the laminate, could improve acoustic performance by dampening sounds/noise from
the exterior to the interior and vice-versa. Other reasons are that, the laminating material has properties that improved
upon the thermal performance, fire, safety and security of glass.
EFFECTS OF NATURAL FORCES ON CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS

Natural forces 1 2 3 4 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking
Wind 9 11 4 0 24 43 0.45 96 1st
Sunlight 9 12 0 3 24 45 0.47 96 2nd
Acoustic (sound) 9 7 7 1 24 48 0.50 96 3rd

Temperature 3 14 7 0 24 52 0.54 96 4th
Water 4 10 8 2 24 56 0.58 96 5th
Gravity 5 9 7 3 24 56 0.58 96 5th
Expansion 3 11 7 3 24 58 0.60 96 6th
Contraction 2 9 11 2 24 61 0.64 96 7th
Transparency 3 8 8 5 24 63 0.66 96 8th
When considering the effects of natural forces on curtain wall systems in high rise buildings, the first consideration is
wind. This is attributed to the fact that structural properties of framing members and panels, as well as the thickness of
glass, are determined by maximum wind loads. Winds also contribute to the movement of the wall, affecting joint seals
and wall anchorage. The pressures and vacuums alternately created by high winds subject framing members and glass to
stress reversal.
Sunlight consideration is next as it creates certain problems in curtain wall design. One of these problems is its
deteriorating effect on organic materials such as colour pigments, plastics and sealants. The actinic rays produce chemical
changes which cause fading or more serious degradation of materials.
The increase in high-rise condominium projects in the city of Accra has caused many developers and designers to be
concerned about the acoustics of these residential spaces. The acoustic behaviour of glass wall systems is becoming
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predominant issue among the building professionals. Making glass thicker to some extent mutes sound from adjoining
structures or from the environment. At higher frequencies thicker glass can actually amplify sound. Laminated glass (the
interlayer has certain sound dampening properties) or insulated glass is a preferred choice in acoustic considerations.
Varying the ply-thicknesses of laminated glass can improve acoustic performance.
Gravity has very little effect on glass because of its relatively light weight. Rather, gravity forces cause deflections in
horizontal load-bearing members thereby transferring the load to the building walls and further to the building frame. It is
therefore very important that, connections to the wall from the frame must be designed to provide for sufficient relative
movement to insure that displacements do not impose vertical loads on the wall itself.
Transparency is the last consideration of natural forces effects on curtain wall systems. The offsetting attribute of
transparency is day lighting. While insulated glass units provide superior thermal performance, there is a price to pay in
relative transparency – that is to say transparency is at odds with thermal performance.
FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT FOR THE INCREASING USE OF GLASS AS CLADDING MATERIAL IN GHANA
1 – Very Low 2 – Low 3 – Medium 4 – High 5 – Very High
Factors 1 2 3 4 5 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking
Durability 1 0 5 12 6 24 94 0.78 120 1st
Aesthetics 2 3 5 1 13 24 92 0.77 120 2nd

Sustainability 1 4 6 9 4 24 83 0.69 120 3rd
Security 1 5 6 9 3 24 80 0.67 120 4th
Transparency 0 5 11 4 4 24 79 0.66 120 5th
Cost 2 2 14 1 5 24 77 0.64 120 6th
.
The oldest finds of glass date from 10,000 BC in Egypt. Glass is extremely durable and has excellent resistance to salt
water, strong acids, organic acids, ultraviolet radiation and aerated water and has poor resistance to strong alkali. Security
concerns also play a critical role in the choice of glass as a cladding material. Multiple laminations including a
combination of polycarbonate and glass have been shown to provide resistance to bullet and blast loads. The beauty of the
façade alone is enough for designers to use glass as cladding material. Initial cost does not affect the choice of cladding
method, type of glass, but durability and aesthetics do. That is why cost is not an initial consideration as can be seen from
the table 4 above.
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CONCLUSION
From the study, it can be concluded that the type of glass used, methods of cladding, design considerations and factors
that account for the use of glass as cladding in high rise buildings are dependent upon the geographical location of the
structures, frequency of demand, clients preference, usage purposes of the structure and aesthetics.
 Methods of Cladding
The most dominate method used according to the survey is the panel system and the structural glazing method. The panel
system proved to be more economical with negligible loss to façade transparency when environmental concerns are
required. The structural system has the advantage of presenting a glass surface with an uninterrupted finish. The Point-
Fixed clamped method was the least.
 Types of Glasses Used
Tinted glass proved dominant in the cladding of high rise buildings in Accra. Its advantage of privacy, heat and glare
reduction, thermal insulation, UV filtration, safety and security makes it a preferred choice. Laminated glass followed
tinted glass. Its acoustic properties, thermal performance, fire and security performances are an added advantage. The least
used is the Low-Iron glass.
 Design Considerations
Wind consideration was first from the survey followed by sunlight effect. Transparency was the least considered.
 Factors that Account For The Increasing Use of Glass
Durability topped the list of factors that affect the increasing use of glass as cladding in high rise buildings in Ghana. Its
resistance to salt water, strong acids, organic acids, ultraviolet radiation and poor resistance to strong alkali makes glass
very durable in its use. This is followed by aesthetics – beauty of the structure. Cost is the least factor considered.
RECOMMENDATION
1. Tinted glass should be incorporated frequently into the design of curtain walls in the high rise buildings to reduce
the amount of infrared transmission, visible light and ultraviolet (UV) radiation from entering windows.
2. Unitised system of cladding is a new trend of cladding and should be adopted for use due to the following:
 It balances the considerations of aesthetics and efficiency.
 It is built up under factory controlled conditions and the entire unit can be lifted and set into position thus,
minimising site labour.
3. Aesthetics must be coupled with performance of the entire building.
4. The city of Accra has of late become very noisy. This requires that acoustics considerations need to be
incorporated in structural designs by the use laminated glasses.
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5. Laminated glass should find an increased use in security applications. Where security issues are of prime
importance, multiple laminations and laminations including a combination of polycarbonate and glass, should be
employed.
6. Critical attention should be paid to the effects of the natural forces on the curtain wall systems when designing
high rise structures. Wind effects, which to some extent cause slight vibrations in multi-storey structures should
be considered at the design stage.
7. The type of glass used as cladding in high rise buildings should be assessed in terms of durability, aesthetics,
sustainability, security, transparency and cost.
REFERENCES
1. AAMA (American Architectural Manufacturers Association), 1996, ‘Curtain Wall Design Guide Manual’
2. AAMA N.D. A brief history of the aluminium curtain wall, American Aluminium Manufacturers Association
(now the American Architectural Manufacturers Association).
3. Behring, R.A., Minor, J.E. and Norville, H.S. (1993):‘Structural behaviour of architectural laminated glass’.
Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 119 (1)
4. Bramante, G 1993. Willis Faber & Dumas building: Foster Associates, Phaidon, London.
5. D.A.T. Hunton, O. Martin, 1987, ‘Curtain Wall Engineering
6. DuPont 1995. Benefits of laminated glass, E.I du Pont de Nemours and Company, accessed 23 February 2016,
7. DuPont 1995 Corning museum of glass educated and delights in laminated glass’, DuPont, accessed 12 February
2016,
8. DuPont 2002. BanquePopulaire de l'Ouest, digital photograph, DuPont, accessed 22nd February 2016,
9. Pilkington 2005. Glass selection, Pilkington technical bulletin ATS-122, 2005/07/12, accessed 23rd November
2015,
10. Pilkington 2008. Properties of soda-lime-silica float glass, Pilkington technical bulletin ATS- 129, 2008/01/22,
accessed 23rd November 2015,
11. Rice, P & Dutton H 1995. Structural glass. New York: E & FN Spon.
12. Rick Quirouette, 1999, ‘Glass and Aluminium Curtain Wall Systems’
13. T.S. Wilkinson and P.L. Bhandarkar, Methodology and Techniques of Social Research, Himalaya Publishing
14. Viracon 2008a. Laminated glass, accessed 1st March 2016,
15. Viracon 2008. ‘Monolithic glass specs & tech’, Viracon commercial brochure.
16. Wigginton, M 1996. Glass In Architecture, Phaidon, London
17. Wigginton, M & Harris, J 2002. Intelligent skins, Butterworts-Heinemann, Oxford House, Bombay, 1979.
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19. Your Home: Low Emissivity Window Glazing or Glass: A Consumer’s Guide To Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy. US Department of Energy.
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International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Technology (IJAERT) 428

Volume 5 Issue 6, June 2017, ISSN No.: 2348 – 8190

AN ASSESSMENT ON THE USE OF GLASS AS A CURTAIN WALLING

KODWO AMOA-ABBAN, BSc. MSc.

Keywords: aesthetics, cladding, curtain walls, façade, glazing.

GLASS AS ARCHITECTURAL MATERIAL

ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE: GLASS AS A SOUND BARRIER

CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS

NATURAL FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS

1. The expansion and contraction of materials,

THERMAL PERFORMANCE VERSUS TRANSPARENCY

CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS USED IN GHANA

Methods 1 2 3 4 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking

Panel System 14 4 4 2 24 42.00 0.44 96.00 1st

Stick System 4 14 4 2 24 52.00 0.54 96.00 5th

Point-Fixed Drilled 9 7 7 1 24 48.00 0.50 96.00 3rd

Unitised System 3 15 5 1 24 52.00 0.54 96.00 4th

Structural Glazing 13 4 4 3 24 45.00 0.47 96.00 2nd

Point-Fixed Clamped 5 10 5 4 24 56.00 0.58 96.00 6th

Table 1: Field Survey, February 2017.

TYPES OF GLASS USED FOR CLADDING IN GHANA

EFFECTS OF NATURAL FORCES ON CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS

Natural forces 1 2 3 4 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking

Wind 9 11 4 0 24 43 0.45 96 1st

Sunlight 9 12 0 3 24 45 0.47 96 2nd

Acoustic (sound) 9 7 7 1 24 48 0.50 96 3rd

Transparency 3 8 8 5 24 63 0.66 96 8th

Table 3: Field Survey, February 2017.

Factors 1 2 3 4 5 Total Ʃ (W) RII Mean Ranking

Durability 1 0 5 12 6 24 94 0.78 120 1st

Aesthetics 2 3 5 1 13 24 92 0.77 120 2nd

 Types of Glasses Used

 Factors that Account For The Increasing Use of Glass

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