QUIZ 1
water through the condenser,
Air preheater or air heater general term to describe any
device designed to heat air before another process (for
example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective
of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process.
Arched Dam are curved in plan, arching between
the two abutments of the valley, with the convex face
on the water side. This type is suitable for sites with
narrow gorges and steep stops of solid rock which
support the dam against water pressure
Atmospheric relief valves provide automatic protection
of costly condenser equipment.
Balanced Draft is obtained through use of both
induced and forced draft.
Base Load the plant will supply this at the time of low
water flow, because maximum capacity of the station is
based on the minimum flow of water, and hence it
becomes uneconomical; Generating units work on
almost constant load and their operating efficiency is usually
high
Boiler Feed Pump this pump closes the boiler,
steam and condensate loop by returning the
condensate back into the system for reuse.
British Standard BS845:1987 describes the methods
and conditions under which a boiler should be tested
to determine its efficiency.
Bulb Turbine the generator is enclosed in a water fight
housing (or bulb like casing), to protect it from water;
Very high speed axial flow runners with adjustable
blades, are used for very low heads (3 to 10m)
Butterfly Valves consists of a circular lens shaped disk,
mounted usually on a horizontal shaft in a flame, having
diameter equal to that of the penstock
Carry over velocity The loss of energy due to its higher
exit velocity
Chute Spillways simple in design and construction and
are adoptable to almost all foundation conditions; The
type of spillway is provided through the abutments of the
dam when it is not possible to pass floods over the dam
as in the case of earthen and rock fill dams.
Closed feedwater heaters typically shell and tube heat
exchangers where the feedwater passes throughout the
tubes and is heated by turbine extraction steam.
Closed loop (or closed circuit) cooling tower systems
also called indirect cooling tower systems, do not allow the
water to come into contact with any outside substance,
therefore keeping the water more pure due to the lack
of foreign particles introduced.
Combustion Rate Determined by the rate at which
parcels of rate unburned gas are broken down into
smaller ones (create sufficient interfacial area between
unburned mixture & hot gases to enable reaction)
Combustion efficiency The effectiveness of the burner
only and relates to its ability to completely burn the fuel.
Condensate pumps those kinds of pumps that are used to
collect and transport condensate back into a steam system
for reheating and reuse or to remove unwanted condensate.
Condenser Circulating Pumps are used to pump cooling
Condenser has its main purpose of condensing the
exhaust steam from the turbine for reuse in the cycle and to
maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum.
Cooling Tower extracts heat from water by evaporation into
a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to the rest
of that water stream; Do the job of decreasing the
temperature of the cooling water after condensing the steam
in the condenser
Crest Control simplest way of limiting head water and may
be affected by flash boards, timber needles, stoplogs or
tilting or drum gates, but these devices are adaptable in
case of small dams only
Cross compound turbine arrangement features two or
more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that
often operate at different speeds.
Deaerating feed tank If the tank is designed to remove
dissolved oxygen from the condenser
Dampers are used to control the quantity of air admitted
to the furnace.
Deaerator special case of the opern feedwater heater
wchich is specifically designed to remove non-condensable
gases from the feedwater.
Detention Dams are constructed primarily to store flood
water. A real detention dam is to kept empty to receive the
flood waters when the floods are anticipated
Direct contact Condensers condense the turbine exhaust
steam by mixing it directly with cooling water
Direct Method Testing also known as”input-output
method” due to the fact that it needs only the useful output
(steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the
efficiency.
Diversion Dams are constructed to raise the water level
and to divert the river flow in another direction
Diversion Tunnels are constructed when the flow of river
required to be diverted away from the construction when the
flow of river required to be diverted away from the
construction operation
Draft Tube is a diverging passage from the point of runner
exit down to the tail race
Drum or Cylindrical Gates consists of a segment of a
cylinder which can fit in the top of spillway.
Earth Fill Dams are used for smaller capacity power plants.
They are more economical for sites where excavation of the
foundation soil is considerable.
Field Assembled Towers are shipped in pieces and
assembled on site by a highly qualified and certified
installation team.
Fill Dams or Embankment Dams may be earth fill or rock
fill dams. These dams need over ten times the material is
required for concrete or masonry dams are often quite long
in span
Flash Boards are wooden boards placed in the series on
the dam crest to raise pond level
Flumes used when it becomes difficult or expensive to
construct canals
Forebay or head pond it is where the water carried by the
power canals is distributed to various penstocks leading to
the turbines
Full Reservoir Level (FRL) the spillway does not start
discharging till the water reaches a predetermined level
Guide wheel controls the flow to the turbine and distribute it
axisymmetrically to the runner
Head Race Water surface in the storage reservoir
High pressure feed water heaters are used in feedwater
system between the boiler feed pump discharge and the
boiler, and utilize high pressure turbine extraction steam for
heating the feed water.
Hotwell at the bottom of the shell, where the condensate
collects, an outlet is installed.
Hybrid Draft they are equipped with mechanical draft fans
to augment airflow.
Impulse Turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam
flow into high speed jets.
Indirect Method Testing the efficiency can be measured
easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers
using the principles to be described.
Induced Draft this is obtained one of three ways, the first
being the “stack effect” of a heated chimney, in which the
flue gass is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the
boiler.; Removes flue gases from the furnace and forces
draft the exhaust gas up the stack
Isentropic Efficiency used to determine machine
performance trends and effects of maintenance activities
Kaplan turbine (propeller type) The blades are pivoted at
the hub and the angle turbine is changed automatically to
suit the operating conditions
Low Head Plants or Canal Power Plants when the
operating head is less than 30 meters
Low pressure feed water heaters are used in the
condensate system between the condensate pump
dischage and boiler feed pumps, and utilize low pressure
turbine extraction on auxiliary turbine exhaust steam for
heating the condensate.
Maximum continuous rating Steam boiler's rated output
Maximum Water Level (MWL) the highest level up to which
the water is allowed to rise in the reservoir even during high
floods
Mechanical Draft Towers uses fans (one or more) to move
large quantities of air through the tower.
Mechanical Efficiency index of the external losses
Natural Draft Towers are typically about 120 m high,
depending on the differential pressure between the cold
outside air and the hot humid air on the inside of their tower
as the driving force.
Non-over flow dams are dams on the top of which water
is not allowed to flow
Open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a
micing chamber, where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump.
Open Cooling Towers also called direct cooling towers,
allow the water to come into contact with outside air.
Open Cycles the working fluid is renewed at the end of
each cycle instead of being re-circulated
Over flow dams the dams over which water is allowed to
flow
Penstock the pipe connecting the forebay or the surge tank
and the scroll case of the turbine.
Pondage water behind the dam at the plant; Collection of
the water behind a dam near the plant and increases stream
capacity for short periods
Pumped Storage Plants are special type power plants
which work as ordinary conventional hydro power stations
for part of the time
Rock fill-Dam It has high resistance to earthquakes
because of its flexible character which permits considerable
movement
Rolling Gates consist of cylindrical drums which span the
piers and to which attached facings which act as water
barrier
Rotors the primary purpose is to carry the moving blades
that convert the steam’s kinetic energy to rotating
mechanical energy.
Safe Yield Method where it is intended to provide enough
storage so as to be useful even during the worst dry periods
Shaft packing glands prevent the leaking of steam out of
or air into the turbine casing where the turbine rotor shaft
extends through the turbine casing
Shaft Spillway or Morning Glory Spillway The water
drops through the vertical shaft and passes through a
horizontal conduit passing through the dam at the bottom
which conveys the water to the downward site of the dam
Shell is the condenser’s outermost body and contains the
heat exchanger tubes
Side channel spillways In this type, the flow being carried
over the crest passes in a channel almost parallel to the
Single Casing Units are the most basic style where a
single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator.
Sluices opening for withdrawal of water, and are provided
with gates called sluice gates to control discharge
Solid Gravity Dam bulky and derives its stability against
forces by virtue of its weight
Soot Blowers control the formation of soot and reduce its
corrosive effects and reduce the water softening capacity to
a considerable extent.
Spillway acts as a safety valve for a dam. The part of the
dam which discharges the flood flow to the downstream side
Stationary plate regenerative preheater The heating plate
elements in this type of regenerative air preheater are also
installed in a casing, but the heating plate elements are
stationary rather that rotating.
Steam Turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal Waterbox The tube sheet at each end which tube ends
energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary rolled, for each end of the condenser is closed by a
motion. fabricated box cover
Storage Water held in upstream reservoir Wheeled Gates when flat plain gates are supported on self-
Storage Dams are mainly for storing water and using it aligning roller bearing wheels
subsequently as and when required for various uses such Yearly Used Method where it is intended to provide just
as hydro power, irrigation and water supply sufficient storage (taking losses into account) for one year
only so that there is no carryover water for the next season
Storage Plants or Reservoir Plants they can supply water
at a constant rate which is substantially higher than the
minimum natural flow of the stream
Storage water held in upstream reservoir
Substructure used to support the hydraulic and
electrical equipment
Sump Pump this pump is installed in compartments to
remove the unwanted build-up of water
Super structure mostly is a building, housing an operating
equipment; House and protect equipments
Surge Tanks are additional storage space near the power
unit, usually provided in high head or medium head plants
when there is a considerable distance between the water
source and the power unit, necessitating a long penstock
Surge Tanks Serves to regulate the flow of water through
the conveyance system, to relieve water hammer pressures,
and to improve performance of the machines by providing
better speed regulations
Tail Race a passage for discharging the water leaving the
turbine into the river and certain cases, the water from
Tandem Compound are used where two or more casings
are directly coupled together to drive a single generator.
Thermal Efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer
in a boiler. It does not take into account boiler radiation and
convection losses.
Trash Racks remove floating or submerged debris directly
at the intake entrance
Tube Sheets provided at each end of the shell with
sufficient
thickness usually made of stainless steel with holes and for
the tubes to be inserted and rolled.
Tubular Preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which
pass through the outlet ducting of the boiler and open at
each end outside of the ducting.
Tunnel made by cutting the mountains where canal or pipe
cannot be used due to topography; act as open channels
when flowing partially full and act as pressure conduits when
flowing fully
Turbine runner a wheel having vanes or buckets along its
periphery
Unit System or Direct System So called from the fact that
each burner or a burner group and pulveriser constitutes a
unit.
Vapor Cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase
during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during
another part.

Water Hammer sudden increase of pressure in the

penstock due to sudden decrease in the rate of water flow to
the turbine when the load on the generator decreases

DIESEL PLANTS
Diesel plants are more efficient than any other heat
engine of comparable size. These plants are cheap by
way of initial cost, can be started and stopped quickly
and can burn a wide range of fuels.
Diesel plant does not require any warming period; it
need not be kept running for a long time before peaking
up loads. As a result, there is no standby losses. Another
advantage of such a plant is that it does not need large
amount of water for cooling.
Diesel plant can be commissioned in such a much little
time compared with a hydro, steam or nuclear power
station.
Diesel station is suitable for localities where fuel costs
are low,where water supply is limited, where oil is
cheaper than coal and where loads are of such
magnitudes that they can be handled by a plant of small
capacity.
Diesel plant provides the most economical means of
generating electricity on small scale particularly where
there is no convenient site for micro-hydro plants,
cheap fuels are not available and load factors are
considerably large.
Diesel electric power plants have been chiefly used as
peak load and standby units, for the hydroelectric
power plants. These are used as emergency standby
units which normally remain idle and are run only
where there is a failure of the central station and where
key industrial processes cannot be interrupted to avoid
financial loss.
3.2. DIESEL ENGINE: WORKING PRINCIPLE AND
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Internal combustion engine in which the fuel is ignited
by injecting it into air that has been heated to a high
temperature by rapid compression; hence, diesel
engines are also called compression-ignition engines.
The concept of ignition compression was patented by
Rudolf Diesel in 1892, and first demonstrated in an
engine, five years latter.
Compression ignition engine is a heat engine (i.e. one
that converts heat partially into mechanical work)
operating on an approximation to the idealized Diesel
cycle in which combustion of the fuel, that is, the heat
addition stage, occurs at essentially constant pressure.
Diesel cycle A repeated succession of operations(or
cycle) representing the idealized behaviour of the
working fluid in the diesel engine form of heat engine.
Suction operation at constant pressure in which air is
sucked inside the cylinder from atmosphere at nearly
atmospheric pressure.
Adiabatic compression of the working fluid i.e.,air (gas)
along a-b; the temperature and pressure are increased.
Heat addition along b-c constant pressure; the gas
temperature and volume are increased.
Adiabatic expansion along c-d, work is done by the
expanding gas, and, the temperature and pressure
decrease.
Heat removal (rejection) along d, a at constant volume,
the pressure and temperature decrease,and the gas is
restored to its initial condition at a. Here cycle is
completed.
Intake or Suction The piston moving downward (i.e.,
out of the cylinder) draws air into the cylinder by way of
the open intake valve. The exhaust valve is closed
(operation oa).
Compression The intake valve is closed and piston
moving upward (i.e., into the cylinder) compresses the
air. The pressure is increased to about 35 to 40 atm.
(3:5 to 4MPa), and the air temperature rises to 450 to
500°C.
Power Just before the point of maximum compression,
with both valves closed, a spray of very small droplets
of fuel is injected into the top of the cylinder. At the
existing high temperature of the air the fuel burns
rapidly and produces extremely hot compressed gases.
The gases expand and push back the piston; this is the
power stroke in which mechanical work is done. Not all
of this work is available, however since part is utilized in
the other strokes, especially in the compression stroke.
Exhaust The piston moving upward pushes the
somewhat cooled gases out through the open exhaust
valve.
Diesel Fuels A diesel engine can use a wide variety of
fuels, ranging from natural gas to fairly heavy petroleum
distillate oils which are cheaper than gasoline. High-
speed diesel engines use lighter fuels than do those
operating at lower speeds. The heavier fuels require
larger times to be injected and to vaporize prior to
combustion and hence are more suited to low speed
engines.
Mixture of liquid hydrocarbons used as fuel in diesel (CI)
engines.
Diesel fuels are either various distillates obtained in
petroleum refining operations or blends of such
distillates with residual oil. The boiling range (200-360°C)
and specific gravity (0 82 to 0-92; 40 to 20 AP) are
higher than for gasoline; diesel fuels are also more
viscous.
An important criterion of diesel fuel is the ignition
quality as indicated by the cetane number.
Cetane numbers of diesel fuels are usually in the range
of 30 to 60. A high cetane number is desirable for easy
starting and smooth operation.
In practice, short time, called the ignition delay, elapses
between the start of fuel injection and ignition in a
diesel engine.
Ignition delay is usually not more than a few
thousandths of a second (i.e. a few milliseconds), but a
relatively long delay time, may be accompanied by
difficult starting from cold and, rough and noisy
operation. The property of a diesel fuel that affects
ignition delay is expressed by the cetane number; an
increase in the cetane number decreases the ignition
delay, facilitates cold tarting and makes the engine run
more smoothly.
3.3. DIESEL ELETRIC PLANT MAIN COMPONENTS
The essential components of a diesel electric plant are:
1. engine.
2. engine air intake system.
3. engine fuel system.
4. engine exhaust system.
5. engine cooling system.
6. engine lubrication system.
7. engine starting system.
Diesel engine This is the main component of the plant
which develops power. Generally,engine is coupled
directly to the generator.
Diesel engine may be a four stroke or a two stroke
engine. Four stroke engine is generally preferred as it
has higher efficiency, lower specific fuel consumption
and more effective lubrication than a two stroke engine.
Other things which may be specified in diesel engines
are: arrangement and number of cylinders used, simple
aspiration or supercharging, efficiency and economical
fuel consumption.
Engine air intake system This includes air filters, ducts
and supercharger (an integral part of the engine). The
system supplies the required quantity of air for
combustion. Air requirements of large diesel plants are
considerable, around 4-8 m° per kwh. Air is drawn from
outside the engine room and delivered to the intake
manifold through the air filters which remove the dust
and other suspended impurities from air.
Filter catch any air borne dirt as it otherwise may cause
the wear and tear of the engine. The filter should be
cleaned periodically. Filters may be of dry type (made
up of cloth, felt,glass wool etc) or oil bath type.
Oil bath types filter the air is swept over or through a
bath of oilin order that the particles of dust get coated.
Supercharger increases the pressure of air supplied to
the engine so that it could develop an increased power
output. Superchargers are generally driven by the
engine.
Fuel system This include fuel storage tanks,fuel transfer
pumps, strainers, heaters and connecting pipe work.
Fuel transfer pumps are required to transfer fuel from
delivery point to storage tanks and from storage tanks
to engine.
Strainers (filters) are needed to ensure clean fuel.
Heaters for oil may be required especially during winter
Fuel oil delivered to the power plant is received in
storage tanks.
Oil is pumped from storage tanks and supplied it to the
smaller day tanks from where it is supplied to engine.
Storage tank may be located underground. Greater
amount of impurities settle down in the storage tank
and rest are removed bypassing oil through the
strainers.
Air injection system, a multistage compressor is used to
supply air at a pressure of approximately 60-80 kg/cm
into the fuel nozzle. This system is now rarely used. The
fuel delivered to the nozzle by the fuel pump thus,
discharged into the combustion chamber. The
governing is affected by controlling the operation of the
fuel pump.
The solid/mechanical-injection systems are available in
three types:
1. The common rail system;
2. The distributor-injection system; and
3. The pump and pressure operated nozzle systems.
The last is the most often used.
Common rail injections This method uses a multi-
cylinder fuel pump to maintain a constant high pressure
in the fuel discharge line which supplies fuel to all
injector valves of the engine,these valves being always
under pump pressure.
High pressure header or 'common rail' is supplied by a
single pump with built in pressure regulation which
adjusts pumping rate to maintain the desired injection
pressure.
Pressure relief and timing valves regulate the injection
time and amount.
Spring loaded safety valve acts merely as a check.
When injection valve lifts to admit high pressure fuel to
spray valve, its needle rises against the spring when the
pressure is vented to the atmosphere, the spring shuts
the valve.
Distribution system It is also called unit injector
method, in which the whole process of metering,
pressurizing timing, and injection take place in a pump-
cum-atomizer unit, called the unit injector, one such
injector being used for one cylinder. The high pressure
fuel pipes are eliminated and the device is fitted in the
cylinder head, actuated by a push rod and rocker arm in
a way similar to the operation of
the overhead valve. In the distributor block, cam-
operated poppet valves feed fuel to the cylinders in
proper firing order by opening just before injection.
Controlling a by-pass valve in the pump or in the pump
discharge line or varying the time of closure of the fuel
pump inlet valve generally provides the governing effect.
Pump injector method A typical pump and pressure
operated nozzle system.. In this system fuel nozzle is
connected to a separate injection pump. The measuring
of the fuel charge and control of the injection timing are
done by the pump itself. The delivery valve in the nozzle
is actuated by fuel oil pressure. The atomizers or the
injection valves which are spring loaded inject the fuel
into the combustion chamber in a fine spray.
Engine Exhaust System The function of the exhaust
system is to discharge the engine exhaust to the
atmosphere outside the building. This includes silencers
(muffler) and connecting ducts/ pipes. A good exhaust
system should keep the noise at a low level, exhaust
well above the ground level to reduce the air pollution
at breathing level and should isolate the engine
vibrations from the building by using a flexible selection
of exhaust pipe. The exhaust pipe is provided with a
muffler to reduce pressure in the exhaust line and
reduces the noise level.
Exhaust stack usually stands on the muffler top. As the
temperature of the exhaust gases is suificiently high,
heat of these gases is utilized in heating oil or air
supplied to the engine. The heat of exhaust gases may
also be waste-heat boilers for steam recovered in
generation.
Engine Cooling System This includes coolant pumps,
spray ponds, water treatment or filtration plant and
connecting pipe work. The purpose of the cooling
system is to carry heat from engine cylinder to keep the
temperature of the cylinder within safe limits. The extra
heat, not used for doing useful work, has to be removed
from the engine, otherwise this extra heat may
disintegrate the lubricating oil film on the cylinder walls
and damage the cylinder liners,heads, walls, piston and
rings. Small engines maybe air-cooled, but large
stationary engines use water circulating in cylinder
jacket with the help of a pump. The hot water is cooled
in a spray pond and recirculated.
Direct air cooling method employs fins casted on the
cylinder head to increase the exposed surface of
contact with air. Air for cooling the fins, may be
obtained from a blower or fan driven by the engine. Air
movement relative to engine may be used to cool the
engine as in case of motor cycle engine.
Direct air cooling is employed in small industrial
engines,motor cycle engines and air craft engines.
Indirect cooling system may use natural circulation
(thermosiphon) or forced circulation of water.
Thermo-syphón method the change in the density of
water duct to change in temperature causes it to
circulate in the system. As the water is cooled in the
radiator is descends while the hot water in the jacket
rises and flows to the radiator at the top. This system is
simple,but the motive force producing circulation of
water is small and can provide only slow rate of
circulation, necessitating larger cooling elements.
Sometimes a water tank of sufficient apacity may be
used instead of the radiator to provide thermo-siphon
cooling.
Forced circulation, indirect cooling system is most
widely used in large and medium sized units. Cold water
is passed through the cylinder jacket with the help of a
pump usually mounted on the engine frame and getting
the power from the engine crank shaft. The hot-water is
sent to a cooling device, such as, cooling tower or a
spray pond, whence it is taken in again for circulation
after being cooled.
Open or single circuit system in this system pump
draws the water from cooling pond and forces it into
the main engine jackets. After circulating through the
engine jacket, water is returned to the cooling
pond.This system may subject to corrosion in the
cylinder jackets because of dissolved gases in the cooing
water.
Closed or double circuit system In this system raw
water is made to flow through the heat exchanger when
it takes up the excess heat of the jacket water and then
is returned back to cooling pond. The double-circuit
system largely eliminates internal jacket corrosion but
may have corrosion in the raw water circuit of the heat
exchanger.
Lubrication system This system is of great importance
for diesel engines. High pressure and small clearances
necessitate a good lubrication system for a diesel
engine. The life of the engine and the efficiency depend
largely on the lubrication system.
Lubricating oil to lubricate the moving parts, to remove
the heat from the cylinders and the bearings, to help
the piston rings to sea! the gases in the cylinder and to
carry away the solid dirt particles from the rubbing
parts. The parts of the engine, which need lubrication
include piston and cylinders,gears, crankshaft, and
connecting rod, bearing etc. piston and cylinder need
special-lubricating oil.
Settling, i.e. allowing the oil to stand undisturbed for a
time till impurities settle down at the bottom of the
tank or container,
Centrifusing, in it the oil is centrifuged through
centrifuges. Centrifuging widely used, gives excellent
purification when properly done.
Filtering, filtration through strainers and filters of
absorbent and non-absorbent type.The effectively
remove small amounts of impurities but are costly for
large amounts.
Chemical-reclaiming This uses a combination of heat
activated clays.
Modern lube oils have additives to act as oxidation
inhibitors, foam reducing agents, pour point
depressants, and other agents. Dopes and additives
may be used in oils to refresh them.
Engine Starting system Because of the high
compression pressure, even a small diesel engine in a
power plant cannot be started by hand cranking. The
various methods used for starting are:
(1) Compressed air starting for medium and large
capacity stationary and mobile units,
(2) Electric-motor starting for small high-speed gasoline
and diesel engine, and
(3) Auxiliary-engine starting for medium capacity
mobile units.
Compressed air system is mostly used for starting
diesel engines in power plants.
Electrical starting system Includes electric motor which
drives a pinion which is engaged a toothed rim on
engine flywheel. A small electric generator driven from
the engine supplies electric for the motor. Storage
battery (12 to 36volts) may also be used to supply
power to the electric motor for small plants. As soon as
the engine is started, electric motor disengages
automatically.
The use of auxiliary engine usually petrol driven in this
method a small petrol engine is connected to the main
engine through clutch and gear arrangements. The
clutch is first disengaged and the auxiliary engine
started by hand, or by a self-starter motor. When it has
warmed up and runs at normal speed the drive gear is
engaged through the clutch, and the main engine is thus
cranked. Automatically disengagement of clutch takes
place after the main engine has started.
3.5 DIESEL PLANT EFFICIENCYAND HEAT BALANCE
Indicated horse power (IHP) of a diesel engine is
computed on the basis of the indicator diagram. The
work done in the engine cylinder per cycle equals the
net area of the indicatord iagram (i.e. area of positive
loop less area of negative loop). From the area of
indicator diagram it is possible to find an average gas
pressure which while acting on piston throughout one
stroke would account for the net work done.
Indicated mean effective pressure is calculated by
finding the mean height of the indicator diagram, and
multiplying it by the spring constant of the indicator
spring. The work done on the piston in each working
stroke is calculated from the mean effective pressure
the area of the piston and length of the stroke.
BHP or Brake horse power is defined as the net power
available at the crank shaft. It is measured on the brake
drum of a dynamometer,which gives it the name of
brake horse power(bhp).
Torque resist the motion of the brake drum of the
dynamometer
Frictional Horse power (FHP) The difference of IHP and
BHP. It is utilised in overcoming frictional resistance of
rotating and sliding parts of the engine.
Mechanical efficiency The ratio of BHP and IHP
Indicated thermal efficiency The efficiency of
conversion of the heat energy of fuel into work. It is the
ratio of heat equivalent of IHP per minute to heat
energy supplied in fuel per minute.
Brake thermal efficiency or overall efficiency is the
ratio of heat equivalent of BHP per minutea nd heat
energy supplied through the fuel per minute.
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) of a diesel engine is an
important parameter of engine performance and is
calculated to judge the economy in production with a
particular engine,using a particular fuel. It is defined as
the amount of fuel burnt per b.h.p. brake power per
hour.
Heat Balance Account A study of heat distribution in a
given engine will give sufficient indication as to how
efficiently the engine is working and the general
distribution of heat in an1.C. engine as shown below.
Plant maintenance depends on various factors. It is
usual to maintain a correct record of instrument
readings and condition of operation at regular intervals,
say every half hour. Such records form log sheets. For
proper plant maintenance various temperatures,
pressures electric load etc.
3:8. SUPER CHARGING
Super charging the method of increasing the air
capacity of an engines.
Supercharging the supply of air is pumped into the
cylinder at a pressure greater than the atmospheric,
usual rap-ge being 0-28 to 1-4 kg/cm.
Supercharger The apparatus used to increase the air
density. It is rarely a compressor which provides a
denser charge to the engine, thereby enabling the
consumption of a greater mass of the charge with the
same total piston displacement.
Power is required to drive the supercharger. This is
usually taken from the engine and thereby removes,
from over-all engine output, some of the gain in power
obtained through supercharging.
Positive displacement superchargers may be further
divided into the piston and cylinder, the rotary, and the
'screw' types.
Piston and cylinder arrangement, a piston compresses
air in a cylinder in much the same manner as it,
compresses the air in a C.I.engine.
Rotary type, the air may be compressed by a meshing
'gear' arrangement(exemplified by a Roots, blower), or
by a rotating vane element.
"Screw' arrangement traps air between the inter
meshing helical shaped gears' and forces it axially
toward the outlet end. The 'gears' are in some cases
designed so that the volume of the pocket of entrapped
air is reduced as it proceeds through the axially thus
compressor producing compression of the air.
Centrifugal compressor is widely used as the
supercharger for reciprocating engines, as wen as the
compressor for gas turbines. It is found in both
stationary plants and in the power plants for vehicles. It
is almost exclusively used as the supercharger with
reciprocating power plants for aircraft,because it is
relatively light and compact, and produces continuous
flow-rather than pulsating flow as in some positive
displacement types.
Axial flow compressor consists of several stages of
alternating fixed and moving blades which compress the
air as it moves axially along the compressor. While it is
seldom used to supercharge reciprocating engines, it is
widely used as the compressor unit of gas turbines.
For maximum advantage the supercharger blower may
be coupled to an exhaust turbine and by driven by the
velocity of exhaust gases. Such a combination is known
as "Turbo-charger' and is used in many heavy diesel
engines.
REFRIGERATION
Natural ice - was used for Refrigeration purposes which
was quite inconvenient and inadequate for large
requirements. (in olden days)
Refrigeration - is the process of removing heat from a
space or substance to reduce and maintain temperature
lower than its surrounding.
Ferdinand Carre - devised vapour absorption system.
(1859)
Ammonia -water cycle - still used in absorption type
domestic refrigerators
Thomas Midgely and his associates Henne and McNary
– discovered dichlorodifluoromethane methane, CCL2F2
(Freon-12 which was) confirmed as super refrigerant
with low -level of toxicity and non-flammable.
Principle of Refrigeration
Refrigeration - is defined as the production of
temperature lower than those of the surrounding and
maintain the lower temperature within the boundary of
a given space.
Refrigeration effect - is usually produced by transferring
heat from a low temperature source to a high
temperature source by spending mechanical work.
To produce this effect requires certain machinery,
hence, the method is called mechanical refrigeration.
The working media of such machines are called
refrigerants.
Classification of Refrigerators
Refrigeration - implies the cooling of a system. It may
be obtained by adopting the following methods.
1. Natural methods.
2. Artificial or mechanical methods
Mechanical refrigerators found wide industrial
applications. They may be further classified as
1. Air refrigerators
(a) Reversed carnot cycie; (b) Bell
coleman cycle
2. Vapour refrigerators
(a) Vapour compression refrigerator; (b)
Vapour absorption refrigerator
4.2 METHOD OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration effect - may be produced by bringing the
substance to be cooled in direct or indirect contact with
cooling medium such as ice. The common methods of
refrigeration are as follows.
1. Ice refrigeration systems - consist of an insulated
cabinet equipped with a tray or tank at the top, for
holding blocks of ice pieces.
Refrigeration by ice - is the most common form of
artificial cooling.
In this, the following methods are used:
a) Direct Method - the ice is kept in the same
compartment with the articles to be cooled. This
method is used in hotels for cooling the drinks.
b) Indirect Method - the ice is isolated from the storage
space and cooling of the articles is carried by circulation
of brine. This system is more suitable for large plants
and no danger of food infection by impure ice.
2. Dry lce Refrigeration – the dry ice in the form of
flakes or slabs is placed on the cartons containing food
stuffs, when dry ice sublimates, it will absorb heat from
food stuff in the cartons and thus keeps them in a
frozen condition. This is used for preservation of frozen
foods and ice creams in storage and transportation. It
has twice the heat absorbing capacity of ice
refrigeration. However, its cost is high.
Dry ice - is the solidified form of CO2. It evaporates
directly from solid to vapour without liquid phase. This
phenomenon is called sublimation.
3. Air Expansion Refrigeration - In this method, air is
compressed to 5 bar and cooled down at constant
pressure. It is then expanded adiabatically to a pressure
of 1 bar. This gives the maximum temperature
reduction.
4. Evaporative Refrigeration - water evaporates by
absorbing latent heat from the surrounding air. Thus,
the air is cooled, and circulated to the cold chambers.
5. Gas Throttling Refrigeration - there is no change in
enthalpy and also for a perfect gas, there is no change
in temperature. However, for actual gases there is a
substantial change; usually a decrease in temperature.
This temperature drop depends upon the Joule-
Thomas coefficient, the pressure drops, and the initial
state of the gas.
6. Steam - Jet Refrigeration - is based on the principle
that the boiling point of water is lowered as the
pressure is reduced. In this, water is a refrigerant and a
steam ejector is used to lower the pressure and to
reduce the boiling point of water.
Steam ejector - draws evaporated vapour from the
chamber and sends the fluid to condenser at a high
velocity.
Water as refrigerant is very safe and widely used in air
conditioning system.
7. Liquid gas refrigeration - It is filled in a well-insulated
cylinder which is connected to a pipe with intermittent
perforations. This method is used for cooling fluids,
vegetables, meat, fish and other food stuffs place in the
cold storage. This type of cooling is also used in
transporting vehicles carrying food stuffs.
The quantity of nitrogen is regulated by means of valve.
4.3. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
1. Compressor - is that part in mechanical refrigeration
system which sucks the refrigerant vapours at low
temperature and at low pressure and compresses it to a
lower volume at higher temperature and at higher
pressure. Moreover, it creates the flow of refrigerant
from one place to another.
Compressor - is located near the condenser.
There are mainly two types of compressor are used.
They are
a) Open type Compressor – is that in which the prime
mover drives the compressor by means of belt. in such a
unit the prime mover and compressor are separately
serviceable. In this, the compressor is enclosed in crank
case and crank shaft projects out through the
compressor housing.
These compressors are used in the plants employed for
ice making, cold storage and food processing
applications.
b) Hermetically Sealed Compressor - the compressor
and motor are enclosed in one housing which known as
Hermetically sealed compressor. These types of
compressors are normally used for small capacity
refrigerating systems as household refrigerator or small
capacity coolers.
The main parts of a sealed unit are Electric motor,
Compressor, Muffler, Dome.
2. Condenser - is a heat exchanger in which heat
transfer takes place from high temperature vapour
refrigerant to low temperature air or water which is
used as cooling medium. Its purpose is to convert all the
vapour refrigerant to liquid refrigerant delivered by the
compressor.
Types of Condenser
a) Air Cooled Condensers - Air is used as the cooling
medium. Heat transfer takes place air convection
around the condenser surface.
Natural air-cooled condensers - large condensing
surface area is required as the circulated air quantity is
less. This type of condensers is used in domestic
refrigerator, deep freezer, etc.,
Forced air cooled condensers - air is circulated by
means of a fan air-cooled or blower. This type of
condensers is compact in design and are relatively more
efficient
b) Water Cooled Condenser - condenser which cooled
by water. These are always preferred where adequate
supply of and inexpensive means of water disposal are
available.
There are three types of water-cooled condenser.
(i) Shell and Tube Condenser - consist of a cylindrical
shell, in which a large number of parallel tubes are
fitted and connected with tube sheets on both ends of
these tubes. These tubes are made of steel or copper
tubes.
(ii) Shell and Coil Type Condenser - is used for small
tonnage low pressure units. It consists of shell that
contains a coil for circulating the water. These are
preferable where clean water is available because its
coil cannot be cleaned easily.
(iii) Double tube type Condenser – has condensing
water tube inside the refrigerant tube. The refrigerant
flows in the space between the tubes while water is
pumped through inner tube. These condensers are
difficult to clean and do not provide enough space for
separation of gas liquid.
The scales formed in tubes are removed by chemical
treatment.
Since copper tubes cannot be used with ammonia.
These are made of steel pipes for ammonia.
c) Evaporative Condenser - combines the function of
the condenser and cooling tower. It works on the
principle of Evaporative cooling. In this, both air and
water are used as the cooling media. These are used
where there is scarcity of water, draining facilities are in
adequate. It is suitable for refrigerant plants above 100-
ton capacity.
3. Evaporator - is a device in which the heat is removed
from the substance to be cooled. It is part of the system
in which the refrigerant evaporates or boils. It is the
cooling unit and sometimes called the cooling coil or
freezing coil or liquid cooler.
(i) Flooded type Evaporator - a constant refrigerant
liquid level is maintained. It consists of shell into which
the refrigerant liquid is fed through the float valve. It
provides rapid cooling and used in large capacity
equipment.
Float valve - is used as throttling device which
maintains a constant liquid level in the evaporator.
(ii) Dry -Expansion Evaporation - In this, the liquid
refrigerant is fed by expansion valve.
Feeler bulb - is provided to control the flow of
refrigerant into the evaporator.
(iii) Bare tube Evaporator - are constructed of either
steel pipe or copper tubing. Steel pipes used for large
evaporators and copper tubes used for small
evaporator. These are used where the temperature is
maintained below 0°C.
(iv) Finned Tube Evaporator - are bare tube coils upon
which metal plates or fins are installed. These
evaporators are mostly used in Air-Conditioning system.
Fins - increase the surface area of the evaporator and
there by improves effective cooling.
Number of fins - depends on the capacity of evaporator.
(v) Plate Surface Evaporator - In this, the coils are
welded together at the edges. It is easily clean and
defrosted manually. It is used in domestic Refrigerator
or freezer.
(vi) Shell and Tube Evaporator – it consists a steel
cylindrical shell fitted with a large number of parallel
tubes. These are used for chilling water or brine. These
are mainly two types:
Flooded shell and tube type evaporator – In this, the
fluid to be cooled flows through the tubes and
refrigerant flows over the tubes.
Non-Flooded shell and tube evaporator - the
refrigerant flows inside tubes and evaporates as it
abstract heat from the fluid being cooled flows over the
tubes. In this, the baffles are provided to improve the
heat transfer.
(vii) Shell and Coil Evaporator – it consists of shell and
helical coil. The fluid to be cooled enters at the top and
leaves the bottom of the shell. The refrigerant flows
through the coil. The fluid to be cooled, comes in direct
contact with coil. These are used in water cooler and
small capacity units ranging from 2 to 10-toncapacity.
(viii) Tube - in - Tube Evaporator - These are called as
double tube evaporators. It consists two concentric
tubes. The fluid to be cooled flows through innertube
whereas the refrigerant flows through the annual space
between the two tubes. These are used in dairy,
beverages and oil plant.
4. Expansion Device or Valve - A device which reduces
the pressure of the refrigerant coming from the
condenser and temperature as per the requirement of
system. It regulates the flow of refrigerant as per the
loan on the evaporator.
The various types of evaporators are:
a) Capillary Tube - is a coil or length of fine tube that
has a very small orifice usually 0.5to 2.25mm inside
diameter and length is about 1 to 6 m. It is a constant
restrict type expansion device, because the opening
through which the refrigerant flow is constant. It
controls the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator.
b) Pressure Control or Automatic Expansion Valve - is a
constant pressure regulator. It is designed and
constructed to maintain a constant evaporating
pressure.
c) Thermostatic Expansion Valves - These valves are
similar in general design to automatic valves but having
the space above the bellows or diaphragm filled with
the liquid refrigerant used in the main system and
connected by capillary tube to a remote bulb. These
valves are the most commonly employed and are
suitable for the control of systems where changes in the
loading are frequent.
d) Solenoid Valve - is shut off valve that is actuated by
an electromagnetic coil when the coil is energized.
Solenoid valve - is installed in the liquid line just a head
of the expansion valve. They are used to control the
condensing fluid whenever solenoid valve is used in a
system, it is essential that the strainer should be
installed ahead of it to prevent the entry of any
contaminants.
e) High Side Float Valve - maintains the liquid level
constant in a float chamber that is connected to the
condenser on the high-pressure side.
(f) Low Side Float Valve - metering device that controls
the flow of a sail on the side of low pressure metering
valve. It maintains a constant level of liquid in the
evaporator
4.4 REFRIGERATIONAPPLICATION
1. Domestic Refrigerator - works on vapour
compression cycle. It is compact and more efficient in
use of electric energy. The refrigerant used in this is
Freon 12. Its main function is to the space for provide
low temperature preservation of food. The domestic
Refrigerator is also used in medical shops, hospitals,
hotels, offices, laboratories etc.
Thermostat - is provided to control the temperature in
the freezer.
Chiller tray - is provided below the freezer to prevent
the accumulation of water drops in the freezer.
The various functions of the components of domestic
refrigerator are:
Compressor - In this, rotary type compressor is used
and is sealed unit. It compresses the refrigerant gas to
high pressure and temperature.
Evaporator - The evaporator cools the air in its
surrounding in the cabinet. The convection currents are
formed in the cabinet which enable the maintain of
uniform temperature.
Drier - is connected between the receiver and the
evaporator to eliminate the traces of moisture, if any.
Accumulator - It is connected between the evaporator
and compressor, which accumulates liquid droplets of
the refrigerant and prevent the compressor from any
possible damage.
Capillary Tube – it is a throttling devise used in
domestic refrigerator. In this, the pressure equalizes
throughout the system during off- cycle, and hence a
low starting torque motor can be used.
2. Water Cooler - is a device which is used to cool and
supply this water at temperature about 7 to13 C.
Storage type water cooler - a cooling coil is wrapped
around the water storage tank and the cold water is
available always in the tank.
Instantaneous water cooler - the cooling coil is
wrapped around the pipeline. Water is cooled to
desired temperature and reaches the tank.
3. Ice Plant – it is where ice is made. The ice is produced
by natural form and artificial system.
Snow - the ice is produced with contact of cold air at
the peak mountain.
Frost - when water freezes on the tree, plant etc. with
the coldness of air in plant.
Crystal ice - ice making is to freeze the simple water
Compressor - It pumps the refrigerant vapour towards
the condenser by which condenser coverts the vapour
into liquid form.
Expansion Coil - It is a direct expansion freezing coils
and the coil is in U form. The refrigerant is circulated in
this coil.
Liquid Receiver - It is a storage tank which the liquid
refrigerant from the condenser receives and supplies it
to evaporator according to the requirement.
ammonia - is used as primary refrigerant and
brine - as secondary refrigerant.
Ammonia - is colorless liquid. It is a combustible or
explosive when mixed with air in certain proportion and
much more so when mixed with the oxygen. It is very
toxic and requires heavy steel fittings.
4. Cold Storage - is a process of preserving perishable
food stuffs on the large scale by refrigeration.
4.5. REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Ton refrigeration - the standard unit of refrigeration is
imply ton denoted by TR. It is to the rate of heat
transfer needed to produce 1 ton (2000 lbs) of ice at
32°F from water at 32 °F in one day, 1.e., 24 hours.
144 Btu/lb - the enthalpy of solidification of water from
and at 32F in British thermal unit is. Thus,
1 TR means 200 Btu of heat removal per minute.
Refrigeration effect - is an important term in
refrigeration that defines the amount of cooling
produced by a system.
Coefficient of performance (COP) - is the ratio of the
refrigeration effect to energy input.
Vapour Compression Cycle - is an improved type of air
refrigeration cycle in which a suitable working
substance, termed as refrigerant, is used.
The refrigerants generally used for this purpose are
ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and Sulphur-
dioxide (SO2).
Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
It consists of the following essential parts:
Compressor - The low pressure and temperature
vapour refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into the
compressor through the inlet or suction valve A, where
it is compressed to a high pressure and temperature.
This high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant
are discharged into the condenser through the delivery
or discharge valve B.
Condenser - The condenser or cooler consists of coils of
pipe in which the high pressure and temperature
vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed.
The refrigerant, while passing through the condenser,
gives up its latent heat to the surrounding condensing
medium which is normally air or water.
Receiver - The condensed liquid refrigerant from the
condenser is stored in a vessel known as receiver from
where it is supplied to the evaporator through the
expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.
Expansion Valve - It is also called throttle valve or
refrigerant control valve. It allows the liquid refrigerant
under high pressure and temperature to pass at a
controlled rate after reducing its pressure and
temperature.
Evaporator - consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid-
vapour. refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is
evaporated and changed into vapour refrigerant at low
pressure and temperature.
AIR-CONDITIONING
Air-conditioning is necessary to provide a
controlled atmosphere in buildings where industrial
process are to be carried out and in private and public
buildings such as offices and cinema halls for human Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio is defined as
comfort. the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry
Humidity of air was to be responsible for air in a given volume of the mixture.
human comfort and number of experiments were Dew Point Temperature If a sample of such
conducted with variable humidity and temperature and unsaturated moist air containing superheated water
it was found that a particular temperature and humidity vapour is cooled (at constant temperature), the mixture
of air was comfortable for large percentage of people. will eventually reach the saturation temperature td of
Air-conditioning is used in industries for efficient water vapour corresponding to its partial pressure pv,
functioning of machines, in cold storage to preserve at which point the first drop of dew will be formed,i.e.,
food products, in textile industry for better product the water vapour in the mixture will start condensing.
quality and pharmaceuticals. Superheated state when the water vapour existing
Air-conditioning is a process by which the at temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure PV
temperature, humidity, flow and purity of the air is of the vapour in the mixture
controlled simultaneously to meet the requirements of
the conditioned space. *Moisture can be removed from humid air by bringing
Control of temperature means maintaining of the air in contact with a cold surface or cooling coil
temperature for human comfort, i.e, it needs increasing whose temperature is below its dew point temperature.
the temperature in winter whereas decreasing the During the process of cooling,the partial pressure pv of
temperature in summer. water vapour and specific humidity remain constant
Control of humidity means increasing or decreasing until the vapour starts condensing.
the moisture content in the air. Degree of Saturation is a measure of the capacity of
Moisture content in the air increases in winter and air to absorb moisture. The ratio of the actual specific
decreases in summer. humidity to the specific humidity of saturated air at
Cleanliness of air means improving the purity of air by temperature T is termed as the degree of saturation.
removing dust and undesirable elements. Saturated air the air containing moisture in such a
Distribution of air means the circulation of pure state
air through the controlled space or room. Relative Humidity is defined as the ratio of the
Psychrometric properties are the properties of mole fraction of water vapour in moist air to mole
moist air fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same
Psychrometry the subject which deals with the temperature and pressure.
behaviour of moist air Enthalpy of a mixture of perfect gases can be
Moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. obtained by the net summation of the enthalpies of the
They form a binary mixture. respective constituents
Mixture of two substances requires three Enthalpy of the moist air is equal to the
properties to completely define its thermodynamic summation of the enthalpies of dry air and of the water
state vapour associated with the air
Pure substance requires only two properties to Humid Specific Heat It is the specific heat of
completely define its thermodynamic state moist air (1 + ω) kg per kg of dry air
Water vapour is present in the atmosphere at a very Dry bulb thermometer is directly exposed to the air and
low partial pressure. At this low pressure and measures the actual temperature of air and is called dry
atmospheric temperature, the water vapour behaves as bulb temperature
a perfect gas. Wet bulb temperature the temperature which is
Partial pressure of dry air is also below one measured by the wick-covered bulb of such a
atmosphere which may also be considered to behave thermometer indicates the temperature of liquid water
very much as a perfect gas. in the wick. It is an indirect measure of the dryness of
Gibbs-Dalton laws of perfect gas mixture can be air.
applied to the moist air. Wet bulb depression(WBD) the difference between
Since the water vapour part is continuously variable, all the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature
calculations in air conditioning practice are based on the Thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or Adiabatic
dry air part. saturation temperature is The temperature at which
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) the actual temperature the air can be brought to saturation state, adiabatically,
of moist air the total pressure P which is equal to the by the evaporation of water into the flowing air.
barometric pressure is constant.
Extra water or Make-up Water is added to the
chamber at this temperature to make the water level
constant.
Adiabatic saturation process when the partial pressure
of vapour increases, although the Total pressure of the
air-vapour mixture remains constant.
Psychrometric Chart consists of summarized data for
the complete thermodynamic and psychrometric
analysis of air-conditioning processes. The chart is
normally constructed for a standard atmospheric
pressure of 760 mm Hg or 1.01325 bar, corresponding
to the pressure at the mean sea level.
ω-t Chart the chart which is most commonly use. A
chart which has specific humidity or water vapour
pressure along the ordinate and the dry bulb
temperature along the abscissa.
Saturation Line represents the states of
saturated air at different temperatures.
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the
mole fraction of water vapour in moist air to mole
fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure
Relative humidity lines are curved lines and follow the
saturation curve
Saturation curve represents the 100% relative
humidity
Constant specific volume lines are obliquely
inclined straight lines and uniformly spaced. These lines
are drawn up to the saturation curve.
Wet bulb temperature lines are inclined straight
lines and non-uniformly spaced. Any point on the
saturation curve,the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures are equal.
Enthalpy (or total heat) lines are inclined straight
lines and uniformly spaced. These lines are parallel to
the wet bulb temperature lines, and are drawn up to
the saturation curve. Some of these lines coincide with
the wet bulb temperature lines also.
Fans and Blowers are used for circulation of air in
Air- Conditioning plants which create positive pressure
in the air and maintained desired speed and rate in the
desired space or room.
Fan is used to handle small quantity of air
Blower is used to handle large quantity of air.
Axial fan are those in which air flows in the direction
parallel to impeller shaft. These are used for handling
large quantity of air at low pressure. They possess
higher efficiency but these are not suitable for duct air
conditioning system.
Centrifugal fan blades are fitted to impeller or rotor
that rotates with in spiral casing. In centrifugal fan the
air enters the impeller axially and is charged radially at
the periphery. These fans are used for duct air
conditioning system. They deliver any quantity of air
over greater range of operating pressure. The
centrifugal force produces in it so the air passes rapidly
and spread to all sides. Such fan has one or two inlets,
which fan has only one inlet is called exhauster and
which have two inlets are called blowers.
Duct system conveys the conditioned air from the
air-conditioning system to the space being conditioned
and carry the return air from rooms or conditioned
space to the air conditioning equipment for
reconditioning and recirculation
Fan has to deliver the required quantity of air
overcoming the resistance offered by the various
components in the air distribution system, such has
cooling coil / air-washer, filters, supply and return air -
outlet, dampers and the resistance offered by the duct
system.
Initial cost depends on the size of the duct. A
smaller sized duct has low cost. But with a smaller duct
the air velocity will increase and so pressure loss due to
friction also will increase.
Ducts are defined as the passage way provided for
conveying the conditioned air to specified location in
order to provide comfort conditions. Smooth surface is
desirable for ducts as they offer minimum resistance to
the flow of air. The system should also be air tight so
that the conditioned air does not leave out to the space
not being conditioned.
Ducts are usually made of Galvanized Iron sheets or
aluminum sheets. Ducts are also made with non-
metallic material such as glass fibre,cement asbestos.
Glass fibre ducts are easy to manufacture to the
required shape and size. They are used in low velocity
applications.
Cement asbestos ducts used for underground air
distribution and for exhausting corrosion materials.
These are made in circular, rectangular, square cross-
sections.
Circular ducts are preferred because they carry more
air in less space
Rectangular ducts are easier to manufacture and are
preferred for good look
Supply air duct carry the conditioned air from
equipment to the space or room to be conditioned
Return air duct Return duct carry the return air
from the space or room to the equipment for
reconditioning or recirculation.
Fresh air duct carries the atmospheric air into the air-
conditioned equipment
Low pressure duct In this, the static pressure is less
than 50 mm of water gauge.
Medium pressure duct In this, the static pressure is
from 50mm to 150 mm water gauge.
High pressure duct In this, the static pressure is
from 15Omm to 250 mm of water gauge.
Low velocity duct In this, the velocity of air less
than 600 m/min
High velocity duct In this, the velocity of air is
more than 600m/ min
Supply air outlets where the conditioned air
enters the conditioned space. These are designed to
distribute air uniformly and prevent noise.
Grill or grill outlets is a perforated covering for an
air inlet or outlet, and is made of screen. It can be
adjustable type which consists of a set of horizontal and
vertical vanes. In this, the air flow can be controlled
both in vertical and horizontal directions.
Fixed bar type grilles the vanes are not adjustable,
but they are either straight or inclined at an angle.
Grills are used in high side wall location. They are not
suitable for ceiling locations as they cause draft
conditions. Grilles are provided with various accessories
for uniform distribution.
Register a combination of a grill and a damper
Slot Diffuser It consists one or more slots and are
installed in a continuous length. The maximum height of
outlet is 75 mm with aspect ratio of 25:1. They are used
in high side wall location or perimeter installation in the
floor. They should not be installed in ceiling.
Ceiling diffusers are mounted in the ceiling. The
most common types are round, square and rectangular
diffusers. They consist of series of flaring rings or
louvers which form a number of air passages. They may
also be fitted with dampers.
Perforated ceiling outlets use the confined space
above the ceiling as a supply plenum. The plenum
pressure ranges from 0.025 to 3.5mm of water
gauge, and flow rates are from 0.3 to 4.5 cub.mm/sq m
of floor area. These outlets have perforated face and
deflection aids to discharge air in any desired direction.
They are suited to large zones of uniform temperature.
Return air outlets are the openings in 2 room
space which allow the exhaust air to enter the return
duct.
Return duct may be connected to air conditioning
equipment if recirculation is necessary to the
atmosphere if the system is designed for 100 percent
fresh air. They can be mounted on ceiling, walls or floor.
The selection of outlets depends on the size of the room,
quantity of air required and discharge velocity of air.
Filters and dust collectors are installed in air-
conditioning system to clean the contaminated air. Air
used in an air conditioning system must be filtered to
clean the contaminated air, outside air contains always
contaminants such as bacteria, pollens ,insects, soot,
ash, dust, and dirt. The return air contains contaminants
such as dust, lint, soot ash etc.
Dry filters or mechanical filters are used to remove
dust particles above certain size. These are constructed
by fibrous materials such as felt, fabric, cotton, wool, or
metallic filters. The air to be cleaned is passed through
these filters. The filters trap the dust particles from the
air passing through it. The surface area of the filter
should be large to eliminate the pressure drop. To clean
this dust, the plates are taken out and are turned round
in the opposite direction with any support, in such a
way all the dust is cleaned. These filters are not suitable
to remove smoke and have little effect on small
particles.
Viscous filters consist of a metal frame which
is filled with wool or fiber, wire screen etc. These
materials are coated with sticky oil which capture and
holds the dust particles from air that flows through the
filter. The dust particles must be uniformly distributed
throughout the filter area. These filters have a large
dust holding capacity and require less maintenance.
However, their efficiency. is low and are expensive.
These are suitable for industrial applications where a
high degree of atmospheric pollution.
Replaceable type filters It is made of cheap material,
discarded after specific period of use.
Manual cleaned type filters It can be cleaned and
reused; Cleaned filters must be coated with viscous oil
Automatic or self-cleaned type filters are made in
the form of a continuous roll of material coated with oil.
It is driven by a motor across the airstream. The roll
passes over the rollers and moves through a trough of
oil and airstream. The oil trough serves the dual
purpose of cleaning the dirt and recoating the filter with
clean oil.
Wet Filters In this, the air to be conditioned is
made wet by water spray. The dust particles in air gain
additional weight and fall down in the water surnp.
Wet filters are used in industrial area where dust and
smoke particles likely to be present in the air.
Electronic filters are based on the principle of
electrostatic on which unlike electrical charges attract
one another. The air to be cleaned is passed between
parallel plates, one set charged positively and other set
of plates negatively charged. The dust particles in the
air stream acquire positive charge and are attracted to
the negative charged plates or collector plates. It works
effectively on finer dust particles. It is useful in large
installations where adequate safety measures can be
taken because of the high voltage involved.
Sticky adhesive coating is given to collector plates to
hold the dust particles. These plates must be cleaned
periodically.These are very efficient.
Heating and Cooling Coils are used to increase
and decrease the temperature of air respectively.
Heating and Cooling of air without changing its moisture
content is termed as sensible heating and sensible
cooling respectively.
Sensible cooling of air takes place when it flows over
cooling coil whose surface temperature is lower than
the temperature of air. The cooling medium may be
chilled water or brine as the secondary refrigerant.
Air conditioning is a process by which the temperature,
humidity, flow and purity of the air are controlled
simultaneously. Control of these factors depends on the
application to which the air conditioning system is
employed.
Comfort air conditioning intends to provide a
comfortable environment for human beings round the
year. This involves sensible heat gains during summer
and sensible heat losses in winter. This further involves
dehumidification in summer and relative humidity in
the conditioned space is allowed to be reduced during
winter. Human beings are comfortable in wide range of
relative humidity varying from 30 to 70%.he
temperature range for human comfort is22 to 26.5 C.
Industrial air-conditioning or Air conditioning
for industrial application is different, as well
defined inside conditions are strictly to be maintained
within permissible limit, otherwise the work to
performed suffers. A few applications of industrial
applications are computer centers,research laboratories,
control rooms, in power generating stations, operation
theatres in hospitals, electronic industrial
establishments etc.
Air Cooler For conditioning the room is also used
instead of air conditioner. These are called as space
cooler.
Air humidified when quantity of water mixed with dry
air and humid air is cold than dry air. In this, quantity of
water will be more needed. There is no use of
refrigerant as the air conditioner.
Air cooler works on the principle of evaporating cooling.
In this, water is used as a cooling medium. The
temperature of air is decreased by the water when air is
brought in contact with water. Water absorbs heat from
the air and evaporates.
Make-up water is added to compensate the loss of
water due to evaporation.
Electrical driven pump it pumps the water from the
bottom tank to the top headers. The cool air is
discharged by the motor driven fan into the room or
space to be cooled. The direction of air flow can be
adjusted with the help of grills fitted on the discharge
side of the cooler. For better performance pads to be
changed every year and water tank should be cleaned
from time to time.
Headers have holes through which water trickles down
and pass through pads fitted on three sides of the
cooler. Air sucked through pads from three sides gets
cooled.
Sturdy design air cooler is made of thermoplastic
material having excellent aesthetic appeal and
corrosion free life.
Four-way Air deflection system this feature enables
uniform circulation of air by motorized louvers to
maintain same cool temperature throughout the room.
Uniform Water distribution pads water is distributed to
wet the wood wool through a p and valve arrangement
that delivers control is provided which controls water to
the shower pipes. Independent humidifier is provided
to controls quantity of water released on the wood
wool pads.
Speed control Independent controls for three
different air speeds. LED indicator is used for indicating
power on.
Special wood wool pads or Wood wool pads are
provided for odorless and fresh cool air.
Auto water level controller The air cooler when
connected by the water inlet to the overhead tank
maintains the required water level in the tank by the
float valve arrangement.
Water level indicator: An easy to view water level
indicator on the front panel. You can easily check the
water level in the tank.
Safe The body is electrical shock proof plastic
material and earthing is provided on the fan motor.
Air-conditioning system consists of assembly of
different component to produce design conditions of air
within the required space.
Summer air-conditioning is used to provide
comfort conditions during summer seasons. The
comfort conditions required are 24 C and 60% relative
humidity, irrespective of outdoor conditions.
Winter air conditioning the air is heated and
humidified to achieve designed conditions.
Year-round air conditioning this system consists of
heating and cooling equipment with automatic control
to produce desired conditions irrespective of climatic
conditions.
In winter, heating and humidification of air achieved by
the heating coils and humidifier and cooling is made
inoperative. The conditioned air is distributed into the
space to be conditioned. In summer, Cooling and
dehumidification is achieved by a cooling coil whose
DBT is below the dew point temperature of entering
air.In this case heating coil is made inoperative.
The conditioned air circulated through the space to be
conditioned.
Comfort air conditioning or Human comfort air-
conditioning means to provide the inside conditions
which are comfortable to the occupants.
Industrial air-conditioning provides air at required
temperature and humidity to perform a specific
industrial process successfully.
Unitary system all the components of the unit
air conditioning system are assembled in the factory
itself. The unit air conditioner is usually installed in or
immediately adjacent to the space to be conditioned.
They are preferred for low capacity requirements.
Central station system In this system, all the major
components are located at the central place, away from
the area to be conditioned. The conditioned air is
supplied to different rooms by ducts. The exhaust air
can be returned and partly reused.
Window Air-Conditioner also called as room air
conditioner, which is installed on the window of a room
or wall opening. It works on principle of vapour
compression refrigeration system. The refrigerant used
is Freon-12 (R -12) or Freon 22(R-22).
Construction: It consists of steel chassis. In the center of
it, a hermetically sealed compressor motor unit is fitted.
The Reciprocating type compressor is used in it. A
discharge line, fin and tube type condenser and remote
bulb or capillary tubes are fitted at one end and suction
line and fin and tube type evaporator on the opposite
end.The complete refrigeration system is charged with
Freon-22 refrigerant.
The shaft is fitted on the both side of the sealed motor.
A blower is fitted behind the evaporator on one side of
the motor shaft and on the other end, a fan with water
splashing ring or belt his fitted behind the condenser.
Evaporator and blower housing are insulated with the
felt. The bottom tray of the evaporator is connected
with the condenser by means of rubber tube. An air
filter is fitted in front of the evaporator for cleaning the
air. A grill is fitted on the front portion of the air
conditioner in which having provision for changing the
direction of the air.
Electric motor drives the fan to circulate air through
condenser coil and runs a blower.
Blower sucks air through the filter and forces it through
the evaporator coil which cools as well as dehumidifies
the air. The conditioned air is circulated through the
room or the space to be conditioned.
Dampers are used for the appropriate air
distribution in the room. It is also provided with
thermostat to maintain the desired temperature by
means of an on-off control of the compressor.
Window air conditioners are available in sizes up to 2
ton capacity. It is employed to condition the air of a
given space such as office rooms, salons, bed rooms,
drawing offices etc.
Outdoor part This part consists of hermetically
sealed compressor and motor unit,condenser and
motor driven fan.
Indoor part This part consists of a filter,evaporator,
motor driven fan and remote bulb refrigerant control.
Hermetically motor sealed motor and compressor unit
The compressor and motor are mounted on the
only one shaft and are enclosed in welded dome.
Compressor and motor work one same shaft. There is
arrangement so that dirt, moisture, etc. cannot enter in
this. The refrigerant vapour enters directly in to the
compressor and then goes to the suction tube fixed
inside. This tube fitted on the top end of the oil bath
surface. Oil goes to the tube and the compressor starts.
Condenser In this, the refrigerant vapour comes
from compressor and cool with air or
water or both.
Fan operating motor A single phase capacitor run
motor is fixed to operate the condenser fan, outside air
is forced over the condenser coil by this fan.
Filters are used for purifying air because the air
supplied to the conditioned space must be free from all
foreign matter such as dirt,fumes and harmful bacteria.
Carbon filters absorbs the smell of different gases.
Evaporator absorbs heat and liquid refrigerant changes
into vapour. The heat inside the room absorbs by the
refrigerant and room becomes cold. The pressure of
vapour refrigerant becomes less and goes towards
compressor.
Evaporator absorbs heat and liquid refrigerant changes
into vapour. The heat inside the room absorbs by the
refrigerant and room becomes cold. The pressure of
vapour refrigerant becomes less and goes towards
compressor.
Blower driven by single phase motor and used to draw
air through the filter and forces it over the evaporator
coils. The condenser fan and blower may be operated
by the same motor or each may have a separate motor.
Split type air-conditioner consists the indoor and
outdoor sections. These are separated into two units.
The distance between the indoor and outdoor units of a
split air-conditioner should kept as small as possible
otherwise the increase in distance increases the
pressure drop in the suction line and liquid line.
Indoor unit consists of evaporator,blower, air filter,
grills etc. and is installed inside the room to conditioned.
It may be ceiling suspended, wall mounted or kept on
floor as console model.
Outdoor unit consists of compressor, air cooled
condenser, fan and is installed outside the room
Packaged air -conditioner is a self-contained unit
with all needed equipment in a single cabinet. This
available up to 20 ton capacity. In this, the evaporator,
condenser, and compressor are all located in one
cabinet. This is usually placed on roof. Air supply and
return ducts come from indoors through the house
exterior wall or roof to connect with the packaged air
conditioner, which is located outdoor. The system is
usually water cooled. It is used in restaurants,
stores,banks, laboratories etc.