Why This Chapter Matters
Chapter
5 • 2. Cells transfer energy from reactions that release
The Working Cell
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Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular
Structures
• You can think of a cell as a machine that
continuously and efficiently performs a variety of
functions, such as
• movement,
• energy processing, and
• production of various products.
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Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular
Structures
• Enzymes within the cell carry out a process called
glycolysis.
• During glycolysis, the energy released from the
breakdown of glucose is used to produce
molecules of ATP.
• Within a living sperm, the ATP produced during
glycolysis and other processes provides the energy
that propels the sperm through the female
reproductive tract.
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• 1. Living organisms require energy to survive.
energy to reactions that need energy.
• 3. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in cells. -
- Without enzymes, life would not be possible.
• 4. Transport of substances into and out of a cell
is regulated by membranes. These interactions are
essential to life and an understanding of many
forms of disease.
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Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular
Structures
• Like other cells, a sperm cell generates energy by
breaking down sugars and other molecules that
pass through its plasma membrane.
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Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular
Structures
• To harness this energy-producing system,
researchers attached three glycolysis enzymes to a
computer chip.
• The enzymes continued to function in this artificial
system, producing energy from sugar.
• The hope is that a larger set of enzymes can
eventually be used to power microscopic robots.
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 Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular What is Energy?
Structures
• Cells control their chemical environment using • Energy is defined as the capacity to cause change.
• energy,
• Some forms of energy are used to perform work,
• enzymes, and such as moving an object against an opposing
• the plasma membrane. force.

• Cell-based nanotechnology may be used to power

microscopic robots.

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Figure 5.1
Types of Energy
Greatest
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion potential
energy
• Thermal energy or heat -associated with random movement of
atoms or molecules

• Potential energy is stored energy, energy that an object

has because of its Climbing
converts kinetic
• location or energy to Diving converts
potential energy. potential
• Structure energy to
kinetic energy.
• Energy stored in food, gasoline and fuel is a type of
potential energy, also called as chemical energy

• Life depends on countless similar conversions of energy

from one form to another. Least
potential
energy

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Chemical Energy
Conservation of Energy
• Living cells and automobile engines use chemical
• Conservation of energy explains that it is not possible to energy stored in their fuels to do the work.
destroy or create energy.
• Process breaks organic fuel into smaller waste
• When energy is converted from one form to another,
entropy increases. molecules that have much less chemical energy
than the fuel molecules did, thereby releasing
• Entropy is a measure of disorder, or randomness, in a energy that can be used to perform work.
system.

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Figure 5.2
Fuel rich in
chemical
Waste products
poor in chemical
Chemical Energy
energy Energy conversion in a car and a cell energy

Heat
• Cellular respiration is
energy
• The breakdown of fuel molecules (food) to release
Octane
(from gasoline) Combustion Carbon dioxide energy

 Kinetic
energy of • It stores the energy from food in ATP, which the cell
movement
Oxygen Water can use to perform work.
Energy conversion in a car
• Humans use about 34% of food energy to do the
Heat work and the rest is released as heat
energy

Cellular respiration
Carbon dioxide
Glucose
ATP 
(from food)


Energy for cellular work Water

Oxygen
Energy conversion in a cell
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Food Calories
Energy Transformations: ATP and Cellular
Work
• A calorie (cal) is the amount of energy that can
raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of water by • Chemical energy released by the breakdown of
1°C. organic molecules during cellular respiration is
used to generate molecules of ATP.
• Food Calories are kilocalories, equal to 1,000
calories.
• The energy of calories in food is used to fuel the
activities of life.

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Energy Transformations: ATP and Cellular The Structure of ATP

Work
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
• ATP • consists of an organic molecule called adenosine
• acts like an energy shuttle, plus a tail of three phosphate groups and
• stores energy obtained from food, and • is broken down to ADP, adenosine diphosphate,
• releases it later as needed. and a phosphate group, releasing energy.

• Such energy transformations are essential for all • The release of the phosphate at the tip of the
life on Earth. triphosphate tail makes energy available to cells.

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 Figure 5.4
Figure 5.6

• ATP
• acts like an energy shuttle,
The ATP cycle
• stores energy obtained from food, and
• releases it later as needed Cellular respiration: Energy released by
• Transfers energy from the reaction that releases chemical energy breaking down ATP is
energy to the one that needs energy harvested from food used for cellular work
Cellular work
molecules is used to ATP
• Transport
• Chemical
make ATP from ADP
Energy • Mechanical and Phosphate

Triphosphate Diphosphate

Adenosine P P P Adenosine P P P

ADP P
Phosphate
(transferred
ATP ADP to another Up to 10 million ATPs are consumed and recycled
molecule) each second in a working muscle cell.
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Figure 5.5
Motor
protein
Phosphate Transfer
ATP ADP P
ADP P

Protein moved
• ATP energizes other molecules in cells by
(a) Motor protein performing mechanical work (moving a muscle fiber) transferring phosphate groups to those molecules.
Solute
Transport
protein
• This energy
P P

• helps cells change shape,

ATP ADP P
• enables the transport of ions and other dissolved
Solute transported
substances across the membranes, and
(b) Transport protein performing transport work (importing a solute)
• drives the production of a cell’s large molecules.
P

ATP X P X Y ADP P
Y

Reactants Product made

(c) Chemical reactants performing chemical work (promoting a chemical reaction)
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Figure 5.7
Enzymes
Activation Energy
• Metabolism is all chemical reactions in an • Activation energy is the energy that needed to start a
chemical reaction
organism.
• Enzymes speed up reactions by reducing the amount of
• require enzymes, proteins that speed up chemical activation energy required to break the bonds of reactant
reactions without being consumed by the reaction. molecules.
Activation
• Require energy or release energy energy barrier Activation
without enzyme Enzyme energy barrier
reduced by
• All living cells contain thousands of different enzyme
enzymes, each promoting a different chemical
Reactant Reactant
reaction.
Energy
Energy

Products Products

(a) Without enzyme (b) With enzyme

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 The Process of Science: Can Enzymes Be The Process of Science: Can Enzymes Be
Engineered? Engineered?
• Observation: Genetic sequences suggest that • Experiment: Using the process of directed
many of our genes were formed through a type of evolution, many copies of the lactase gene were
molecular evolution. randomly mutated and tested for new activities.
• Question: Can laboratory methods mimic this • Results: Directed evolution produced a new
process through artificial selection? enzyme with a novel function.
• Hypothesis: An artificial process could be used to
modify the gene that codes for lactase into a new
gene coding for an enzyme with a new function.

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Figure 5.8
Gene for lactase
Structure/Function: Enzyme Activity
Gene duplicated and
mutated at random
Mutated genes
(mutations shown in orange)
Enzymes are very specific for the reactions they
catalyze

Mutated genes screened

by testing new enzymes
Genes coding for enzymes
that show new activity
Genes duplicated
and mutated at random
Mutated genes screened
by testing new enzymes
- The reactant that an enzyme acts on is called the
enzyme’s substrate
Genes coding for enzymes
that do not show new activity
- The enzyme binds to its substrate, forming an
Computer-generated model
of the enzyme lactase
enzyme-substrate complex
- The active site is the region on the enzyme where
the substrate binds

After seven rounds, some genes

code for enzymes that can
efficiently perform new activity.
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Figure 5.9-s4

Structure/Function: Enzyme Activity 1 Ready for Substrate (lactose)

substrate
• After the products are released from the active site, Active site
2 Substrate
the enzyme can accept another molecule of its binding
substrate.
Enzyme
(lactase)
• The ability to function repeatedly is a key
characteristic of enzymes.
Galactose
• Many enzymes are named for their substrates, but
H2O
with an –ase ending. Glucose

4 Product 3 Catalysis
release

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 Figure 5.10-2

Enzyme Inhibitors Enzyme Inhibitors

Some of these enzyme inhibitors are actually substrate
• Certain molecules inhibit a metabolic reaction by imposters that plug up the active site.
• binding to an enzyme and
• disrupting its function.

Inhibitor Substrate
Active site

Enzyme
(b) Enzyme inhibition by a substrate imposter
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Figure 5.10-3

Enzyme Inhibitors Enzyme Inhibitors

Other inhibitors bind to the enzyme at a site other than the
active site, • Many beneficial drugs work by inhibiting enzymes.
• but the binding changes the enzyme’s shape
• Penicillin blocks the active site of an enzyme that
• active site no longer binds the substrate
bacteria use in making cell walls.
• Disrupts enzyme function
Substrate • Ibuprofen inhibits an enzyme involved in sending
Active site pain signals.
• Many cancer drugs inhibit enzymes that promote
cell division.
Inhibitor • Many toxins and poisons also work as inhibitors.

Enzyme

(c) Inhibition of an enzyme by a molecule

that causes the active site to change shape
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Enzyme Inhibitors Membrane Function

• In some cases, the binding of an inhibitor is
reversible.
• If a cell is producing more of a certain product than
it needs, that product may reversibly inhibit an
enzyme required for its production, keeping the cell
from wasting resources that could be put to better
use.
• Membranes regulate the flow of materials into and
out of the cells
• Plasma membrane is made of a double layer of fat
(a phospholipid bilayer) with embedded proteins.
• Figure 5.11 describes the major functions of these
membrane proteins.

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Figure 5.11
Cell signaling Enzymatic activity
Membrane Function
Cytoplasm
Fibers of
• Major functions of membrane proteins
extracellular
matrix • Transport in and out of the cell
• Enzymes
• Cell Signaling
• Cell-cell recognition

Cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
Attachment to the cytoskeleton Transport Intercellular Cell-cell
and extracellular matrix joining recognition
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Figure 5.12
Molecules of dye Membrane
Passive Transport: Diffusion across Membranes
• Passive transport is the diffusion of a substance across a
membrane without the input of energy

• Diffusion is the movement of molecules spreading out

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium
evenly into the available space.
(a) Passive transport of one type of molecule
• In passive transport, a substance diffuses down its
concentration gradient from where the substance is more
concentrated to where it is less concentrated
• 3 Types of Passive Transport
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium 3. Facilitated diffusion

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(b) Passive transport of two types of molecules

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Osmosis and Water Balance

Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
• In the facilitated diffusion, polar substances that • The diffusion of water across a selectively
do not cross membranes can be transported permeable membrane is osmosis.
across the membrane with the help of proteins
• A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a liquid
solvent, such as the salt in salt water, and the
resulting mixture is called a solution.

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Figure 5.13-s2
Osmosis and Water Balance
Lower Higher Equal concentrations
concentration concentration (isotonic) • Compared to another solution,
(hypotonic) (hypertonic)
• a hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of
solute,
• a hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of
solute, and
Osmosis
(net movement • an isotonic solution has an equal concentration of
Sugar
of water)
molecule solute.
(solute)

Selectively
permeable
membrane

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Figure 5.14
Water Balance in Animal Cells

(a) Isotonic (b) Hypotonic (c) Hypertonic • The survival of a cell depends on its ability to
solution solution solution balance water uptake and loss.
Animal cell
H2O H2O H2O
• An animal in hypotonic solution gains water, swells
H2O
and may burst.
• An animal cell in a hypertonic solution, loses water,
Normal Lysing Shriveled shrivels and dies
Plant cell Plasma
H2O H2O H2O membrane H2O • The control of water balance is called
osmoregulation.

Flaccid (wilts) Turgid (normal) Shriveled

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Figure 5.15

Water Balance in Plant Cells Active Transport: The Pumping of Molecules

Plant cells have rigid cell walls
Plant cells in hypertonic
environment, lose water, wilts,
plasma membrane may pull
away from the cell wall, cell dies
Plant cells are healthiest (turgid)
in a hypotonic environment
with a net inflow of water, which
expands their cell walls without
bursting.
across Membranes
• Active transport requires that a cell expend
energy to move molecules across a membrane.
• Cellular energy (usually provided by ATP) is used to
drive a transport protein that pumps a solute against
the concentration gradient.
• Active transport allows cells to maintain internal
concentrations of small solutes that differ from
environmental concentrations.

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Figure 5.16-s2
Figure 5.UN03

Active transport
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Passive Transport Active Transport

(requires no energy) (requires energy)
Lower solute concentration
Diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis
Solute Higher solute concentration Higher water concentration Higher solute
(lower solute concentration) concentration
Solute

Solute

Solute

Water

Solute
ATP
ATP Lower solute concentration Lower water concentration Lower solute
(higher solute concentration) concentration

Higher solute concentration

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Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18

Exocytosis: Traffic of Large Molecules Endocytosis

Exocytosis is the movement of materials out of the cytoplasm
of a cell via membranous vesicles or vacuoles that fuse with
the plasma membrane.
Outside of cell
• In endocytosis, a cell takes material in via vesicles that
bud inward.
• For example, in a process called phagocytosis (“cellular
eating”), a cell engulfs a particle and packages it within a
food vacuole.

Plasma
membrane

Molecule to be exported
Cytoplasm
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You should now be able to

Evolution Connection: The Origin of Membranes
• The formation of membrane-enclosed collections of
molecules would have been a critical step in the evolution of
the first cells.
• A membrane can enclose a solution that is different in
composition from its surroundings.
• A plasma membrane that allows cells to regulate their
chemical exchanges with the environment is a basic
requirement for life.
• Indeed, all cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane
that is similar in structure and function—illustrating the
evolutionary unity of life.
• 5.2. Define the terms energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, and the principle
of conservation of energy, entropy
• 5.4. Compare the processes by which a car and a human use “fuel” to perform
work.
• 5.5. Which is most commonly used energy term on food labels?
• Energy Transformations: ATP and Cellular Work
• 5.6. Explain how ATP powers cellular work and how ATP is recycled.
• Enzymes
• 5.7. Explain why enzymes are needed in living organisms and how they
speed up specific chemical reactions.
• 5.8. Explain how inhibitors and poisons can affect enzyme activity.
• Membrane Function
• 5.9. Define and distinguish between the following pairs of terms: diffusion
versus osmosis, passive transport versus active transport, hypertonic versus
hypotonic, and endocytosis versus exocytosis.

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