Prof. Ir. Jamasri, Ph.D., IPU., AER.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

Engineering Faculty UGM

1
 Structural Welding
• Common method for connecting structural steel is welding
• Welding can be performed in the shop or in the field
• Many fabrication shops prefer to weld rather than bolt
• Welding in the field is avoided if possible due to welding
condition requirements
• There are several welding processes, types, and positions
to be considered in building construction

2
 Structural Welding

• The American Welding Society (AWS) is a nonprofit organization with a goal to

advance the science, technology and application of welding and related joining
disciplines
• AWS develops codes, recommended practices, and guides under strict
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) procedures
• AWS D1.1 2015 for common structural steel and AWS D1.5 2015 Bridge
Structures)
3
 AWS WELDING CODES
• 34 PAGES OF CODES, • D1.1 STRUCTURAL
SPECIFICATIONS, AND WELDING CODE –
RECOMMENDED STEEL
PRACTICES • D1.2 –ALUMINUM
• D1.3 – SHEET STEEL
• D1.4 -REINFORCING
STEEL
• D1.5 BRIDGE WELDING
 AWS WELDING CODES, cont.
• D1.6 -Structural Welding • ASME BPVC
Code—Stainless Steel • API 1104
• D1.8 Structural Welding • Other industries and
Code -Seismic companies, automotive,
Supplement airframe & powerplant,
• D1.9 Structural Welding Navy Nuclear …
Code—Titanium
• D3.6 UNDERWATER
WELDING
 Structural Welding

• Welding is the process of fusing multiple pieces of metal

together by heating the filler metal to a liquid state
• A properly welded joint is stronger than the base metal

6
 Strength of Structural Welds
• Welds may be loaded in shear, tension, compression, or a combination of
these
• Capacities for welds are given in the AISC Specification Section J2 (2016)
• The strength of a weld is dependent on multiple factors, including: base
metal, filler metal, type of weld, throat and weld size

(Part of Table J2.5 AISC 2016)

7
 Welding Terminology

• Tack Weld (above left): A temporary weld used to hold parts in place while more
extensive, final welds are made
• Continuous Weld: A weld which extends continuously from one end of a joint to
the other
• Stitch Weld (above right): A series of welds of a specified length that are spaced
a specified distance from each other

8
 Welding Terminology

Butt
Lap Corner

Edge
Tee

• Shown above are types of structural joints which are established by positions of
the connected material relative to one another
• Lap, tee, and butt joints are most common

9
 Welding Terminology

Fillet Full penetration Partial penetration

single bevel single bevel
groove weld groove weld

Full penetration Partial penetration

Plug double vee single J groove
groove weld weld

• Weld types define the configuration of the weld and its underlying design
approach
• Fillet welds and groove welds are most common
• Groove welds fall into two categories
 Full penetration – the entire member cross-section is welded
 Partial penetration – just part of the member cross-section is welded
10
 Fillet Welds

Symbolic Profiles

Actual Profiles

• The most commonly used weld is the fillet weld

• Fillet welds are theoretically triangular in cross-section
• Fillet welds join two surfaces at approximately right angles to each other in
lap, tee, and corner joints

11
 Groove Welds

• Groove welds are specified when a fillet weld is not appropriate for the job
 The configuration of the pieces may not permit fillet welding
 A strength greater than that provided by a fillet weld is required
• Groove welds are made in the space or groove between the two pieces being
welded
12
 Full Penetration Groove Welds

• The bevel or “J” preparation extends over most of or the entire face of the material
being joined
• Complete fusion takes place
• In some types of full penetration groove welds the material will be beveled from
one side of the plate with a separate plate on the opposite side – called backing or
a backing bar 13
 Partial Penetration Groove Welds

Partial joint penetration welds are used when it is not necessary for the strength of
the joint to develop the full cross section of the members being joined.
14
 Welding Positions

• There are four recognized welding positions:

 Flat – The face of the weld is approximately horizontal and welding is
performed from above the joint
 Horizontal – The axis of the weld is horizontal
 Vertical – The axis is approximately vertical or in the upright position
 Overhead – Welding is performed from below the joint
• The flat position is preferred because it is easier and more efficient to weld in
this position.
15
 Arc Welding Positions
Welding positions defined here for
groove welds: (a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c)
vertical, and (d) overhead
 Weld Symbols
• Weld symbols are used
to communicate the
specific details and
requirements of each
weld to the welder
• Weld symbols are
included on fabrication
and erection drawings

Horizontal Weld Line

Field Weld Symbol Tail

Note
(Indicating this is
a typical weld)
Leader Line

Length and Spacing of weld

(In Inches)
Size of weld
(In Inches) Basic Weld Symbol
(Fillet weld symbol shown)
17
 Elementary Weld Symbols

• Most common are fillet, square groove and flare

bevel weld joints
Supplementary Weld Symbols

• Contour symbols not used much in the past

 Weld Symbol Orientation

• Reference lines and weld

symbol details remain the
same regardless of which
end the arrow is on.
 Weld Both Sides
• Appropriate weld
symbols above and
below reference
lines.
• Dashed line not
required where the
weld joint is exactly
symmetric.
 Combined Weld Symbols

• More than
one weld
type.
• Size
specified
individually
for each.
 Fillet Weld Size

• Required minimum
weld size
dimension (mm)
z = leg dimension
a = throat dimension
 Butt/Groove Weld Size

• Required minimum
throat dimension
(mm)
• No direct
measurement -
requires
destructive test
and evaluation
Intermittent Weld Dimensions

• ISO vs AWS (App 2)

• Size convention is the
same
• Number and length of
segments
• Spacing between
segments vs AWS ctr to
ctr method
 Symmetric Intermittent Weld
• Same weld symbol and
dimensions both sides
• Dashed line not
required
• Anchor welds at each
end
 Staggered Intermittent Weld

• Usually specified to avoid

weld distortion or
interference
• Offset dimension specified
in detail vs default
• Anchor welds - standard
shop practice

Z denotes staggered
intermittent weld
 Intermittent Weld on Circular Part

• If necessary, start location

must clearly be identified
• Weld size
• Number and length of
segments
• Spacing between segments
(chord dimension)
 Weld All Around

• Simplified details
• Exactly the same
joint conditions
and welds all the
way around
 Weld Size

• The size of a weld must match the size specified on the drawings
• Some welds may meet the required size after a single pass of the welder
• Larger weld sizes may require multiple passes to meet the size
requirement
• Common single pass welds include fillet welds up to and including 5/16
inch and thin plate butt welds with no preparation
• Common multiple pass welds include single bevel full penetration groove
welds, single bevel partial penetration groove welds, and fillet welds over
5/16 inch
• The weld in the above picture is a multiple pass fillet weld

30
 Weld Accessibility
• Access holes are required for
some welds, such as the welded
flange connection shown to the Extension Bar
right
 The top access hole allows
for a continuous backing
bar to be placed under the
Backing Bar

Column
top flange
 The bottom access hole Weld Access
allows for complete access Holes
to weld the entire width of
the bottom flange
• A detail of a weld access hole
for a welded flange connection
is shown below

Seat Angle

(Adapted from Figure 8-13 in AISC 2011)

(Adapted from Table 1-1 in AISC 2012)
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ARC Welding Processes

32
 SMAW Welding

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is also known as manual, stick, or hand
welding
• An electric arc is produced between the end of a coated metal electrode and
the steel components to be welded
• The electrode is a filler metal covered with a coating
• The electrode’s coating has two purposes:
o It forms a gas shield to prevent impurities in the atmosphere from getting
into the weld
o It contains a flux that purifies the molten metal
33
 GMAW Welding

• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is also known as MIG welding

• It is fast and economical
• A continuous wire is fed into the welding gun
• The wire melts and combines with the base metal to form the weld
• The molten metal is protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield which is fed
through a conduit to the tip of the welding gun
• This process may be automated
34
 FCAW Welding

• Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is similar to the GMAW process

• The difference is that the filler wire has a center core which contains flux
• With this process it is possible to weld with or without a shielding gas
 This makes it useful for exposed conditions where a shielding gas may be
affected by the wind

35
 SAW Welding

• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is usually performed by automatic or

semiautomatic methods
• Uses a continuously fed filler metal electrode
• The weld pool is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a blanket of
granular flux fed at the welding gun
• Results in a deeper weld penetration than the other process
• Only flat or horizontal positions may be used
36
Shop welding Field welding

Stud Welding
 Welding Equipment

• Equipment used for welding will vary depending on the welding process and
whether the welding is being done in the shop or in the field
• A Flux Cored Arc Welding machine for shop welding is pictured above left
• A Shielded Metal Arc Welding machine for field welding is pictured above right 38
 Weather Impacts on Welding

• Welding in the field is avoided if possible due to welding condition requirements

• Field welding is not to be performed while it is raining, snowing, or below 0° F
• In certain ambient temperatures preheating of the material to be welded is
required
• AWS Code D1.1 (2010b) specifies minimum preheat and interpass
temperatures, which are designed to prevent cracking
39
 Welding Safety
 Because of the chemical reactions, energy transfers, and
electricity involved in welding proper safety must be
addressed
 Welding can be safe when sufficient measures are taken to
protect yourself and others from potential hazards
 Welders should read and understand the following before
welding:
 Warning Labels
 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
 Welders should also be familiar with the following
information
 ‘Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes’ (ANSI Z49.1)
 Welding Safety
• Understand and follow all warning labels found:
– On welding equipment
– With all consumable packaging
– Within instruction manuals
 Welding Safety
 Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS) are:
 Required by law and
OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration)
 Created by the
manufacturer of a
product per OSHA
guidelines
 Designed to inform
users
 Shipped with every box
of consumable product
 Welding Safety
• MSDS outlines a
product’s:
• Identity and
composition
• Potential hazards
• Safe use
• Handling
information
• Manufacturer
contact information
 Welding Safety
 Protect yourself and
others from potential
hazards including:
 Fumes and Gases
 Electric Shock
 Arc Rays
 Fire and Explosion
Hazards
 Noise
 Hot objects
 Welding Safety
 Fumes and gases can be
hazardous to your health
 Keep your head out of the
fumes
 Use enough ventilation,
exhaust at the arc, or
both, to keep fumes and
gases from your breathing
zone and the general area
 See product labeling and
MSDS for ventilation and
respirator requirements
 Welding Safety
 Electric shock can kill
 Do not touch live
electrical parts
 Primary Voltage –230,
460 volt input power
 Secondary Voltage – 6
to 100 volts for welding
 Insulate yourself from
work and ground
 Follow all warnings on
welding equipment
 Welding Safety
 Welding sparks can cause
fires and explosions
 Sparks and spatter from
the welding arc can spray
up to 35 feet from your
work
 Flammable materials
should be removed from
the welding area or
shielded from sparks and
spatter
 Have a fire extinguisher
ready
 Inspect area for fires 30
minutes after welding
 Welding Safety
Welders must wear
protective clothing for
 Protection from sparks, spatter and
UV radiation
 Insulation from electric shock

 Protective clothing
includes …
 Fire-proof clothing without rolled
sleeves, cuffs or frays
 Work boots
 Welding gloves, jackets, bibs, and
fire-proof pants
 Welding cap, helmet and safety
glasses
 Ear protection – ear plugs and
muffs
 Welding Safety

• It is important for both the welder and those working in the area around a
welding process to be safety conscious
• The welding arc should never be looked at with the naked eye
• AWS publishes many safety and health fact sheets which are available for
download at their web site: www.aws.org 49
 Welding Safety

A welder should wear the proper protective gear including:

• Helmet • Heavy fabric or leather shirt
• Face shield or goggles • Cuffless pants
• Gloves • Leather leggings
• Boots
50
 Welding in Existing Structures

Welding to existing structures during retrofit projects requires careful consideration

of numerous factors:
• Determine weldability – Identify the steel grade to establish a welding procedure
• Select and design the weld – Fillet welds are preferred and avoid over welding
• Surface preparation – Remove contaminants such as paint, oil, and grease
• Loads during retrofit – An engineer should determine the extent to which a
member will be permitted to carry loads while heating, welding, or cutting
• Fire hazards – Follow all governing fire codes, regulations, and safety rules to
avoid fires
• For complete details see the AISC Design Guides: Rehabilitation and Retrofit
Guide and Welded Connections (AISC 2002 and 2006) 51
 Weld Quality
Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld joint
that is strong and absent of defects
• Also concerned with the methods of inspecting
and testing the joint to assure its quality
• Topics:
– Residual stresses and distortion
– Welding defects
– Inspection and testing methods
 Residual Stresses and Distortion
• Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during FW
result in thermal expansion and contraction that cause
residual stresses
• These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
• Situation in welding is complicated because:
– Heating is very localized
– Melting of base metals in these regions
– Location of heating and melting is in motion (at least
in AW)
 Residual Stresses and
Distortion

• (a) Butt welding

two plates
• (b) Shrinkage
• (c) Residual
stress patterns
• (d) Likely warping
of weldment
 Techniques to Minimize Warpage
• Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts
• Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
• Tack welding at multiple points along joint to create a
rigid structure prior to seam welding
• Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of filler
metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
• Preheating base parts
• Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly
• Proper design of weldment
 Welding Defects
• Cracks
• Cavities
• Solid inclusions
• Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
• Incomplete fusion
• Miscellaneous defects
 Welding Cracks
Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base metal
adjacent to weld
• Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal
that significantly reduces strength
• Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld and/or
base metal combined with high restraint during
contraction
• In general, this defect must be repaired
 Welding Cracks
• Various forms of welding cracks
 Cavities
Two defect types, similar to defects found in
castings:
1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases
entrapped during solidification
– Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur
in weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during
solidification
 Solid Inclusions
Nonmetallic material entrapped in weld metal
• Most common form is slag inclusions generated
during AW processes that use flux
– Instead of floating to top of weld pool,
globules of slag become encased during
solidification
• Other forms: metallic oxides that form during
welding of certain metals such as aluminum,
which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3
 Incomplete Fusion
A weld bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint
• Several forms of incomplete fusion are shown below
 Weld Profile
(a) Desired profile for single V-groove weld joint,
(b) undercut - portion of base metal melted away,
(c) underfill - depression in weld below adjacent base
metal surface, and
(d) overlap - weld metal spills beyond joint onto part
surface but no fusion occurs
Typical faults in a finished weld.
 Inspection
• Visual inspection
• Nondestructive evaluation
 Visual Inspection
• Most widely used welding inspection
method
• Human inspector visually examines for:
– Conformance to dimensions, Warpage
– Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and other
surface defects
• Limitations:
– Only surface defects are detectable
– Welding inspector must also decide if additional
tests are warranted
 Visual Inspection
• Typical tools for Visual Inspection consist
of Fillet gauges Magnifying glasses,
Flashlights, & Tape measures or calipers.
Visual Inspection (VT)
• Fillet gauges measure
– The “Legs”of the weld
– Convexity
• (weld rounded outward)
– Concavity
• (weld rounded inward)
– Flatness
 Nondestructive Evaluation
(NDE) Tests
• Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves through
specimen to detect cracks and inclusions
• Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation provide
photograph of internal flaws
• Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests - to detect
small cracks and cavities at part surface
• Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled on
surface reveal subsurface defects by distorting magnetic
field in part
 Weld Inspections

Per AISC Specification Chapter N

N5.4 Inspection of Welding

• All provision of AWS D1.1 for
statically loaded structures apply.
• Primary Method is observation of
the welding operation, visual
inspection of in-process and
completed welds.

(AISC Seismic Provision

Chapter J for seismic)
69
 Weld Inspections

• In addition to the erector’s quality control program, tests and inspections are
specified by the Engineer of Record and/or the local building authority
• A local building inspector may request that tests in addition to those specified
by the Engineer of Record be performed
• Some problems that can be found in welds include:
 Lack of fusion  Cracks  Wrong size
 Porosity  Insufficient penetration  Poor workmanship
• There are several weld tests and inspections that are commonly used 70
Weld Inspections

71
 Visual Inspection

• Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection and is the only
inspection required unless the specification calls for a more stringent inspection
method
• Inspection is done by the welder before, during, and after welding
• When independent inspection is required it should also be done before, during,
and after welding
• Minor problems can be identified and corrected before the weld is complete
72
Chapter N5.5 – NDT
of Welded Joints

Testing Performed by QA
• includes UT, MT, PT & RT

Testing Performed Per AWS D1.1

Acceptance Criteria Per AWS D1.1

73
NDT Not Required for:
• Fillet Welds Fillet welds are designed using limited
strengths, similar to PJP groove welds, and
• PJP Groove Welds for shear stresses regardless of load
application.
• CJP groove welds in
materials < 5/16 in. PJP groove welds are designed using
limited design strength when in tension
• CJP groove welds in
and therefore are not subjected to the
shear or compression same high stresses and subsequent crack
• Welds in Risk Category I propagation risk as CJP groove welds.
PJP groove welds in compression or shear
Structures
are similarly at substantially less risk of
crack propagation than CJP groove welds.

Based upon AWS D1.1 limits of UT

procedures for groove welds and
thicknesses of 5/16 in. to 8 in.
74
 Ultrasonic Inspection

• Ultrasonic inspection can be used to detect flaws inside welds

• High frequency sound waves are directed into the metal with a probe held at a
specific angle
• The flaws reflect some energy back to the probe
• Flaws show up as indications on a screen (above) and are subject to
interpretation by an inspector
75
 UT Is Required when:

All of the following are met,

1. CJP groove weld, and

2. Subject to transverse tension loading, and
3. In Butt, T or Corner Joint, and
4. Material Thickness ≥ 5/16 in.

NOTE: Complete-joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds loaded in tension applied

transversely to their axis are assumed to develop the capacity of the smaller steel
element being joined, and therefore have the highest demand for quality. The
designer should provide the information necessary to determine the type of load
applied.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection

• Magnetic particle inspection uses powdered magnetic particles to indicate

defects in magnetic materials
• A magnetic field is induced in the part
• The magnetic powder is attracted to and outlines cracks within the material
77
 Dye Penetrant Test

• Dye penetrant testing locates minute surface cracks and porosity

• Dye types that may be used include:
 Color contrast dye - which shows up under ordinary light
 Fluorescent dye – which shows up under black light
• The dye is normally applied by spraying it directly on the weld
78
 Radiographic Inspection

• Radiographic inspection, or X-ray, can also be used to detect flaws inside welds
• Invisible rays penetrate the metal and reveal flaws on an x-ray film or
fluorescent screen (above)
• This is the most costly of the inspection methods
79
 Destructive Testing
Tests in which weld is destroyed either
during testing or to prepare test specimen
• Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to
conventional testing methods such as
tensile tests, shear tests, etc
• Metallurgical tests - preparation of
metallurgical specimens (e.g.,
photomicrographs) of weldment to
examine metallic structure, defects, extent
andInc. M Pcondition
©2010 John Wiley &
Sons, Groover, of heat affected zone, and
 Mechanical Tests in Welding
(a)Tension-shear test
(b)Fillet break test
(c) Tension-shear of spot weld, and
(d)Peel test for spot weld
 Transverse-weld Tensiles
• Generally, two per
WPS qualification
• Full size tube
• All-Weldmetal Tensile
 ling an Extensometer on
-Weldmetal Tensile
ple
Defects in Weld Revealed by the Tensile Test
 Bends test
• Generally, four per
WPS qualification
• 2-root + 2-face, or 4-
side depends on
material thickness
 Charpy V-Notch Impact test
• Weld
• HAZ
• Fusion Line
• Fusion Line +1mm
• Fusion Line +5mm
 CHARPY test
• CHARPY’s -Sets of three – most Codes
• Set of five, take middle three – AWS D1.5
 Hardness test
Hardness surveys are
required by some
welding codes, and by VICKERS INDENTATIONS
pipeline and corrosion-
prone applications.
Surveys are generally
made within 2 mm of the
surface of the base
metal and sample the
Base Metals, Heat
Affected Zones, and
Weld
n
Mixed filler metal deposits discovered in a weld cross section
 Welding Cost Considerations

• Fillet weld is less expensive than groove weld

 No special preparation
 No backing required
 Less volume of weld
• Partial penetration groove weld is less expensive than full
penetration groove weld
• Labor represents the majority of the cost associated with welding
93
 Bolting and Welding
Scheduling Considerations

• Bolting is generally a faster operation than welding

• Bolting does not have the temperature and weather condition requirements that
are associated with welding
• Unexpected weather changes may delay welding operations

94
Structural Steel: The Material of Choice

95
THANK YOU

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