WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Introduction of irrigation
Definition of irrigation
The supply of water to land or crops to help growth, typically by means of
channels. Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to
plants at needed intervals.

The process of providing water to crops is known as irrigation. All crops do

not require the same amount of water. For example, rice requires a lot of
water, while wheat requires less, and millets (jowar, bajra, ragi) require
even less. Besides, different crops need water at different times of growth.
Wheat, for example, needs water before ploughing, at the time of flowering
and when the grain develops. Rice, on the other hand, needs water
throughout the season

Necessity of irrigation
Throughout the crop period adequate quantities of water is required near the root
zone of the plants for their growth. At times during the crop period the rainfall may
not be adequate to fulfill the water requirement. The intensity of rainfall is
practically uncertain and beyond the control of human power and it may not be
well distributed throughout the crop season or the culturable area. So, irrigation
becomes absolutely necessary to fulfill the water requirement of crops. The
following are the factors which govern the necessity of irrigation,
(a)Insufficient Rainfall:
When the seasonal rainfall is less than the minimum requirement for the
satisfactory growth of crops, the irrigation system is essential.
(b)Uneven Distribution of Rainfall:
When the rainfall is not evenly distributed during the crop period or throughout
there culture able area the irrigation is extremely necessary.
(c)Improvement of Perennial Crops:
Some crops like sugarcane, cotton, etc. require water throughout the major part of
the year. But the rainfall may fulfill the water requirement in rainy season only. So
for the remaining part of the year, irrigation becomes necessary.

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(d)Development of Agriculture in Desert Area:
In desert area where the rainfall is very scanty, irrigation is required for the
development of agriculture
Advantages & Disadvantages of irrigation
Advantages

1. Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to the
cultivators. Examples of cash crops are; sugarcane, potato, tobacco etc.
2. It improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to seepage adds to
groundwater storage.
3. It improves the yields of crops which mean more income for the farmer people
prosperous.
4. We use it to help the growth of crops during the period of inadequate rainfall.

Disadvantages

1. Excessive seepage and leakage of water create marshes and ponds all along the
channels.  The marshes and the ponds in some time become the colonies of the
mosquito, which gives rise to a disease like malaria.
2. It lowers the temperature and makes the locality damp due to the presence of
irrigation water.
3. Excessive seepage into the ground raises the water, hence causing water
logging of the area.

Sources of irrigation
The main source of irrigation water are:

Surface water:

It is found on the surface of the land. These include spring water, River water, lake
water, etc. This can be supplied to the field by weir (check dam) by gravity or by
using pump. Check dam /wier/ system is used only when the source of water is
from river, or spring water that starts from up stream.

Ground water:

Where these is shortage of surface water ground water is used for irrigation. This is
supplied only by using pumps.

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Gross command area (GCA)

Gross command area (or GCA) is the total area which can be economically
irrigated from irrigation system without considering the limitation on the
quantity of available water.  It includes the both the cultivable and
uncultivable.  For example, ponds and residential areas uncultivable area of
gross command area.  An irrigation canal system lies in a doab (i.e., area
between two drainages), and can economically irrigate the doab.
Cultivable command area (CCA)
Cultivable Command Area is that part of Gross Command Area, which is fit for
cultivating crops. So, cultivable area excludes forest and barren land from the
Gross Command Area. What is left is uncultivable area.
Gross Command Area=Cultivable Command Area + Uncultivable Area
Net command area (NCA)
It is the culturable Command Area obtained after deduction of canal
networks, supply ditches etc. constructed in the field. It is denoted by NCA.

NCA=CCA- the area occupied by canals, canals network and ditches.

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 Chapter 2 water requirement
Crop Seasons:
Taking natural seasons into account together with the number of times
different crops can be grown in a year on the same land.The growing
season is the part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e.
rainfall and temperature) permit normal plant growth. While each plant or
crop has a specific growing season that depends on its genetic adaptation,
growing seasons can generally be grouped into macro-environmental
classes

Crop types

COMPARISON KHARIF CROPS RABI CROPS

Meaning Kharif crops can be Rabi crops are the crops

described as the crops that are sown after the end
which are sown with the of the monsoon, i.e.
beginning of the rainy during the winter season.
season.

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 COMPARISON KHARIF CROPS RABI CROPS

Major Crops Rice, maize, cotton, Wheat, peas, gram,

groundnut, jowar, bajra, oilseeds, barley, etc.
etc.

Requirement It requires huge amount It requires warm climate

of water and hot weather for seed germination and
to grow. cold climate to grow

Flowering Require shorter day Require longer day length

length

Sowing month June - July October – November

Harvesting September - October March – Apri

month

Base period
The time on which crop is watered, the time from first watering to last watering of
crop by which the crop grows. The base period is in days and denoted by B

The base period is less than crop period. Base period is only watering period in
which crop is irrigated

Crop Period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
harvesting is called the crop period. Crop period is whole time on a crop

Note: Base period is different than Crop Period, because crop period is total time
taken by any crop upto harvesting but base period is only watering period.

Duty

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Duty is the area of land irrigated in one cumec of watering. It is calculated in
hectare

Dealt (∆).

Delta is the depth of water required for a crop to fully grow in entire season. Delta
is calculated in centimetre or metre and denoted by (∆).

 Relation Between Duty, Delta and Base period

Relationship clarify that the volume of water supplied to crop in its base period and
volume of water necessary to matures an area of D hectare.

Let

D = Duty in hectare/cumec

B = Base period in days

Δ  = Delta in metre

The volume of water (V) supplied to a crop during base period(B)

V1 = Bx24x60x60

V1 = 86400 B m3

 Suppose that we supply V volume of water, and the one cubic metre of water per
second for a base period matures an area of D hectare.

Volume = matures 1 hectare of depth

V2 = 10000 D sq mtr x Δ

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 So equant the volume of supply and volume of maturity crop

V1 = V2

86400 B = 10000 D x Δ

Duty of water in hectare/cumec is calculated by 8.64 base period divided by depth

of Δ

Factors on which duty depends

 Type of crop
 Climate and season
 Useful rainfall
 Type of soil
 Efficiency of cultivation method
Kor watering
The first watering is done when the crop has grown to about three centimeters.
This watering is known as Kor watering.
Kor Period
The period during which kor watering is done is known as kor Period.
Kor depth
The depth of water applied for the kor watering is called Kor depth

 Example

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A canal was designed to supply irrigation needs of 1200 ha of land growing rice of
140 days base period and having a delta of 134 cm. IF the canal waters are used to
irrigate wheat of base period 120 days and having a delta of 52 cm the area that can
be irrigated is ?

 2651 ha
 543 ha
 3608 ha
 2592 ha
Solution:  use duty, delta and base period formula

Case 1:
Base Period = 140 Days

Delta = 1.34 m

So Duty is equal to = 8.64X140/1.34 ha/cumec

D = 902.68 ha/cumec

We have 1200 ha of land,

Total Land = Total water of canal X Duty

so total water in canal is = 1200/902.68 = 1.33 cumec

 

Case 2:

Base Period = 120 Days

Delta = 0.52 m

So Duty is equal to 8.64×120/0.52

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D = 1993.85 ha/cumec

We have 1.33 cumec of water in canal (by case 1) so the land area is ?

Land = total water of canal X Duty

So Land would be irrigated is = 1.33 X 1993.85 = 2651.82 ha

 Water Requirement of Different Crops

Amount of water required by a crop in its whole production period is called water
requirement. The amount of water taken by crops vary considerably. What crops
use more water and which ones less.

Water Requirement Water Requirement

(mm)            Crop (mm)
Rice 900-2500   Chillies 500

Wheat 450-650   Sunflower350-500

Sorghum 450-650   Castor 500

Maize 500-800   Bean 300-500

Sugarcane 1500-2500   Cabbage 380-500

Groundnut500-700   Pea 350-500

Cotton 700-1300   Banana 1200-2200

Soybean 450-700   Citrus 900-1200

Tobacco 400-600   Pineapple 700-1000

Tomato 600-800   Gingelly 350-400

Potato 500-700   Ragi 400-450

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Onion 350-550   Grape 500-1200

Chapter 3 Method of irrigation

Surface irrigation
Surface Irrigation is a kind of irrigation where gravity works its best. In
Surface Irrigation, water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by
the help of gravity. Throughout the world, this is the most commonly used
type of irrigation process. Surface Irrigation is an unchanged process and it
is older than its recognition.
 Uncontrolled Flooding
This method of irrigation consists in turning the water onto natural slopes without
much control or prior preparation.It is usually waste of water, and unless the land
is naturally smooth, the resulting irrigation will be quite uneven.

 Controlled flooding
It may be accomplished from held ditches or by use of borders, checks, or basins.
Flooding from field ditches is often adaptable to lands with topography too
irregular for other flooding methods.It is relatively inexpensive because it requires
minimum of preparation.

 Check flooding
It is accomplished by turning water into relatively level plots, or checks,
surrounded by levees.
If the land is initially level, the plots may be rectangular but with some initial slope
the checks will usually follow the contours.

Check flooding is useful in very permeable soils where excessive percolation

might occur near a supply ditch.

 Zig-zag method
In this method, the agricultural area is sub-divided into small plots by low
bunds in a zig-zag manner. The water is supplied to the plots from the field
channel through the openings. The water flows in a zig-zag way to cover
the entire area. When the desired depth is attained, the opening are closed

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  Basin flooding
The basin flooding method is check flooding adapted to orchards. Basins are
constructed around one or more trees depending on the topography, and the flow is
turned into the basin to stand until it infiltrates.
Portable pipes or large hoses are often used in place or ditches for conveying water
to the basins

 Furrow Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is a method of laying out the water channels in such a way
where gravity plays the role of providing just enough water for suitable
plants to grow. It is usually made by the planned placement of ridges and
furrows. It is a kind of surface irrigation system.
A ridge is the part of the layout of the field that is elevated at different
angles based on the type of soil. This is actually where the plants are
planted. The furrows are the troughs which let the water flow through it.

Subsurface irrigation
A method of providing water to plants by raising the water table to the root
zone of the crop or by carrying moisture to the root zone by perforated
underground pipe. Also known as sub irrigation.

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Water is delivered to the field in ditches spaced 50 to 100 ft apart and is allowed to
seep into the ground to maintain the water table at a height; such that water from
the capillary fringe is available to the crops.

Sprinkler Irrigation.

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar

to natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by
pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks
up into small water drops which fall to the ground. The pump supply
system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a
uniform application of water.

By using a low supply rate, deep percolation or surface runoff and erosion can be
minimized.

What Is Contour Farming?

Contour plowing or contour farming is a farming practice that enables sustainable

agriculture. The practice of tilling sloped land along lines of consistent
elevation in order to conserve rainwater and to reduce soil losses from
surface erosion. These objectives are achieved by means of furrows, crop
rows, and wheel tracks across slopes, all of which act as reservoirs to catch
and retain rainwater, thus permitting increased infiltration and more
uniform distribution of the water

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The practice has been proved to reduce fertilizer loss, power and time
consumption, and wear on machines, as well as to increase crop yields and
reduce erosion. Contour farming can help absorb the impact of heavy rains,
which in straight-line planting often wash away topsoil. Contour farming is
most effective when used in conjunction with such practices as strip
cropping, terracing, and water diversion

Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation system that has the potential to
save water and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of
plants, either from above the soil surface or buried below the surface. The
goal is to place water directly into the root zone and minimize evaporation.
Drip irrigation systems distribute water through a network of valves, pipes,
tubing, and emitters

Chapter 4 Various irrigation structures

Head works: Definition
Head works is a civil engineering term for any structure at the head or
diversion point of a waterway. It is smaller than a barrage and is used to
divert water from a river into a canal or from a large canal into a smaller
canal.

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Function of head works
 A headwork raises the water level in the river
 It regulates the intake of water into the canal
 It also controls the entry of silt into the canal
 A head work can also store water for small periods of time.
 Reduces fluctuations in the level of supply in river
Type of Head works
1. Storage headwork
2. Diversion headwork

1. Storage head works

When dam is constructed across a river to form a storage reservoir, it is known as

storage head work. It stores water during the period of excess supplies in the river
and releases it when demand overtakes the available supplies.

2. Diversion head works

When a weir or barrage is constructed across a river to raise the water level and to
divert the water to the canal, then it is known as diversion head work. The flow in
the canal is controlled by canal head regulator.

Functions

 It raises the water level on upstream side.

 Other uses of this is to  regulates the supply of water into canals.
 It controls the entry of silt into canals.
 It provides some pondage creating small pond.
 It helps in controlling the vagaries of river.

Canal head regulator

Structure at the head of canal taking off from a reservoir may consist of number of
spans separated by piers and operated by gates. Regulators are normally aligned at
90° to the weir. Up to 10" are considered preferable for smooth entry into canal.

The functions of canal head regulator are:

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 1. To admit water into the off taking canal.
2. To regulate the supplies into the canal.
3. To indicate the discharge passed into the canal from design discharge
formula and observed head of water on the crest.

Cross regulator
A cross regulator is a structure constructed across a canal to regulate the water
level in the canal upstream of itself and the discharge passing downstream of it for
one or more of the following purposes:

1. To feed off taking canals located upstream of the cross regulator.

2. To help water escape from canals in conjunction with escapes.
3. To control discharge at an outfall of a canal into another canal or lake.

Canal fall
Canal fall is a solid masonry structure which is constructed on the
canal if the natural ground slope is steeper than the designed channel
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bed slope. If the difference in slope is smaller, a single fall can be
constructed. If it is of higher then falls are constructed at regular
suitable intervals.
Types of Canal Falls and their Importance
The important types of falls which were used in olden days and those which are
being used in modern days are described below

 Ogee falls
 Rapids
 Stepped falls
 Trapezoidal notch falls
 Well type falls
 Simple vertical drop falls
 Straight glacis falls

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 Typical Layout of Diversion Headworks
Weir or barrage
Weir
A weir is a raised concrete ( or masonary) crest wall constructed across the river
width. It may be provided with a small shutter on its top. Most of the raising water
(ponding) is done by solid wall and very little by shutters
Barrage
If ponding of water is achieved by shutters or gates then it is called barrage. It has
low crest wall with high gates.
Under sluices
 The weir proper I constructed in the middle portion of diversion head works. At
the ends under sluices are provided adjacent to the anal head regulators. A
comparatively less turbulent pocket of water is created near the canal head
regulator by constructing under sluice portion of the weir.
The undersluices are the openings provided in the weir wall with their crest at low
level. These openings are controlled by gates.
Functions of under sluices

 To accertain well maintained river channel near canal head regulator.

 To scour away silt deposited in front of heat regulator;
 To pass   a portion of flood (10 to 20%) of design flood during rainy season.
 Help in impounding fair amount of flood to secure full storage.

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 They are used for quick lowering the u/s high flood evel.

Silt excluder

Silt excluder is a  structure constructed in the bed of river, u/s of head regulator to
attack the river bed water, and divert the same into the d/s of the river. Its main
function is to prevent te entry of silt into the canal. A typical silt excluder is shown
in the figure

Cross drainage works

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Cross drainage works is a structure constructed when there is a crossing of canal
and natural drain, to prevent the drain water from mixing into canal water. This
type of structure is costlier one and needs to be avoided as much as possible.
 Diverting one stream into another.
 Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of
two streams.

Types of Cross Drainage works:

There are three types of cross drainage works structures:

Type – 1: Cross drainage work carrying canal over the drain

The structures falling under this type are

 Aqueduct
 Syphon Aqueduct
Type – 2: Cross Drainage work carrying Drainage over the canal
The structures falling under this type are

 Super passage
 Canal Syphon
Type –3: Cross drainage works admitting canal water into the canal
The structures falling under this type are

 Level Crossing
 Canal inlets

Type – 1: Canal over drainage [HFL < FSL]

Aqueduct:
In an aqueduct, the canal bed level is above the drainage bed level so canal is to be
constructed above drainage. A canal trough is to be constructed in which canal
water flows from upstream to downstream. This canal trough is to be rested on
number of piers. The drained water flows through these piers upstream to
downstream. The canal water level is referred as full supply level (FSL) and
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drainage water level is referred as high flood level (HFL). The HFL is below the
canal bed level.

Syphon Aqueduct:
In a syphon aqueduct, canal water is carrier above the drainage but the high flood
level (HFL) of drainage is above the canal trough. The drainage water flows under
syphonic action and there is no presence of atmospheric pressure in the natural
drain.

The construction of the syphon aqueduct structure is such that, the flooring of drain
is depressed downwards by constructing a vertical drop weir to discharge high
flow drain water through the depressed concrete floor. Syphonic aqueducts are
more often constructed and better preferred than simple Aqueduct, though costlier.

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Type – 2: Drainage over canal (HFL > FSL)
Super Passage:
Super passage structure carries drainage above canal as the canal bed level is
below drainage bed level. The drainage trough is to be constructed at road level
and drainage water flows through this from upstream to downstream and the canal
water flows through the piers which are constructed below this drainage trough as
supports.

The full supply level of canal is below the drainage trough in this structure. The
water in canal flows under gravity and possess the atmospheric pressure. This is
simply a reverse of Aqueduct structure.

Figure- Super passage

Canal syphon

In a canal syphon, drainage is carried over canal similar to a super passage but the
full supply level of canal is above than the drainage trough.so the canal water flows
under syphonic action and there is no presence of atmospheric pressure in canal.

When compared, super passage is more often preferred than canal Syphon because
in a canal Syphon, big disadvantage is that the canal water is under drainage trough
so any defective minerals or sediment deposited cannot be removed with ease like
in the case of a Syphon Aqueduct.

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 Figure- canal syphon
Type –3: Drainage admitted into canal (HFL = FSL)

Level Crossing:
When the bed level of canal is equal to the drainage bed level, then level crossing
is to be constructed. This consists of following steps:

1. Construction of weir to stop drainage water behind it

2. Construction of canal regulator across a canal
3. Construction of head regulator across a Drainage

Canal inlets:

In a canal inlet structure, the drainage water to be admitted into canal is very
less. The drainage is taken through the banks of a canal at inlet. And then this
drainage mixed with canal travels certain length of the canal, after which an
outlet is provided to create suction pressure and suck all the drainage solids,
disposing it to the watershed area nearby.

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 Figure (e) Level crossing

Figure - Level crossing

Figure- Canal inlets & outlets

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 Chapter 5 Canal
Classification of canal and their alignment
Canal

Canals are waterways channels, or artificial waterways, for water conveyance, or

to service water transport vehicles. They may also help with irrigation. It can be
thought of as an artificial version of a river.

We use the canal for irrigation, land drainage, urban water supply, hydroelectric
power generation, transportation of cargo and people, power generation, the
canal is also used to connect industrial centers with ports to speed movement of
raw materials.

Types of Canals
We can identify different types of canals based on usage, discharge, branches,
provider, alignment, etc.
Based on usage there are two types of canals:

1. Aqueducts
2. Waterways

Based on discharge there are five types of canals:

1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary
4. Minor distributary
5. Watercourse or field channel

Based on provider canals can be classified into two types

1. Unlined canals
2. Lined canal

Based on alignment there are three canal types:

1. Contour canal

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 2. Watershed canal
3. Side slope canal

Canal Types Based on Usage

Waterways:

Canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and
people. Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and
oceans. Those connected in a city network:

Aqueducts

Water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of
potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, hydro power canals
and agriculture irrigation.

Canal Types Based on Discharge

Main Canal

Canals having discharge greater than 10 cumecs are called as main canals.

1. A main canal carries discharge directly from river.

2. It carries large amount of water and cannot be used for direct irrigation.
3. Main canal supplies water to the branch canals.

Branch canal

Canals having discharge in the range of 5-10 cumecs are called as branch canals.

1. These are the branches of main canal in either direction at regular intervals.
2. Branch canals also do not carry out direct irrigation but sometimes direct
outlets are provided.
3. Branch canals are actually the feeders for major and minor distributories.

Distributary canal

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Canals having discharge 0.25-3 cumecs are called Distributary canal. They are
further divided into two types:

1. Major Distributary.
2. Minor Distributary.
1. Major distributary

These take off water from branch canals. Sometimes they may get supply from
main canal but their discharge is less than branch canal. These are irrigation
channels because they supply water to the field directly through outlets.

2. Minor distributary

Canals in which discharge varies from 0.25-3 cumecs are called as minor
distributaries.

1. These take off from major distributary or sometimes may get supply from
branch canal.
2. They also provided water to the courses through outlets provided along with
them.
3. The discharge in major distributary is less than in the major distributaries.

Field channels ( water courses )

These are the small channels which ultimately feed water to the irrigation fields.

1. The discharge in water courses is less than 0.25 cumecs.

2. Depending upon the extent of irrigation, a field channel may take off from a
major distributary or minor.
3. Sometimes, it may even take off water from the branch canal for the field
situated very near to the branch canal.

Canal Types Based on the Provider

Unlined Canals
Unlined canals consist of bed and banks made of natural soil. They are not
provided with a lining of impervious materials. It produces the growth of aquatic
weed retards the flow which leads to massive maintenance cost. Unlined canals
can tolerate velocities no more than 0.7 m/s because of erosion..

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Lined Canal
Lined canals are provided with a lining of impervious materials on its bed and
banks to prevent the seepage of water. The most commonly used types of
padding are concrete, shotcrete, brick or burnt clay tile, boulder, concrete blocks,
stone masonry, sand-cement, plastic, and compacted clay. Possible benefits of
lining a canal include water conservation; no seepage of water into adjacent land
or roads; reduced canal dimensions; and reduced maintenance.

Canal Types Based on the Alignment

Contour Canal
These canals are aligned nearly parallel to the contour. They can irrigate
only on one side. Ground level on one side is higher, so no need to
construct bank. There can be single and or double bank canal CDW are
required for these canals. In case of hilly area, it can be aligned along
watershed.

Watershed Canal
A Watershed is a secure area whose runoff drains into any water
substance. The watershed canal aligns with any natural watershed
(ridgeline). That's why it is also known as ridge canal. Aligning a canal
(central canal or branch canal or distributary) on the ridge ensures gravity
irrigation on both sides of the canal. Water runs downhill. Watershed
boundary is the divide which distinct one drainage area from another.

Side slope Canal

Side slope canals are personalized at the right gradient reaching the
contours. It is not on watershed or valley. It does not expropriate drainage
channels

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Canal Alignment:
 Such that it commands entire area under irrigation with shortest
length and least cost of construction
   Shorter length- reduces frictional head loss, evaporation & seepage
losses
   Additional irrigation can be achieved by reduced losses

What is Canal Lining?

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 The principle of conservation requires that full use of available water be made by
minimizing the water loss due to seepage during conveyance in the canals.

Objectives of Canal Lining

Following are the objectives of canal lining:-

 To minimize the losses due to seepage

 To protect the area prone to water logging due to rise in water table
 To increase the discharge capacity of the canal
 Improvement of command and larger working head for power generation
Advantages of Canal Lining
Following are the advantages of canal lining:

 Reduction in seepage losses

 Low maintenance cost

 Minimizes the possibility of breaching of canals

 Prevents weed growth

 Improved hydraulic efficiency of canals

 Reduces cross sectional dimensions of canal

 Improvement in command

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 Disadvantages of Canal Lining
 Higher initial investment

 Repair is costly

 Shifting of outlet is costly because it involve dismantling and relaying of

lining.

 Longer construction period

 Sophisticated construction equipment and labor is needed.

Types of Canal Lining
Following are the common types of Canal lining.

1. Reinforced Concrete Lining

2. Plain Cement Concrete Lining
3. Shotcrete Lining
4. Brick or Tile Lining
5. Asphalt Concrete Lining

Canal losses
When water flows continuously through a canal, losses take place due to seepage,
deep percolation and evaporation. These losses are sometimes known as
transmission losses. These should be properly accounted for; otherwise lesser
quantity of water will be available for cultivation at the tail end. Water losses in
canals can be broadly classified under three heads:
1. Evaporation losses:
The loss due to evaporation is generally a small percentage of the total loss
in unlined canal. It hardly exceeds 1 to 2 percent of the total water entering
into the canal. The evaporation losses depend upon:
(i) Climatic factors such as temperature, humidity and wind velocity and
(ii) Canal factors such as water surface area, water depth and velocity of
flow.

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 Maximum loss is there in summer months when temperature are high and
wind velocities are also high. Similarly, losses are maximum in unlined
canals due to wider water surface area, shallow water depth and low
velocity. The average evaporation loss per day may vary between 4mm to
10mm.
2. Transpiration losses:
The transpiration loss takes place through lot of vegetation and weeds
growth along the bank of canal. However, this forms a extremely small part
of loss
3. Seepage losses:
Seepage losses constitute major portion of loss in an unlined canal. The
seepage losses are due to:
(i) absorption of water in the upper layer of soil below the canal bed and
due to
(ii) percolation of water into the water table, thus raising the water table.
If however water table is much lower, seepage losses are only due to
absorption. Percolation losses are always much more than the absorption
losses.

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 Chapter 6 Water logging and drainage

6.1. Definition of water logging

Waterlogging presents the situation whereby the underground water comes
on the surface of land and in certain cases, it gathers on the bottom level of
lands it’s going to assume the form of streams. In simple words, we can
say that waterlogging is saturation of Soils with water.
Waterlogging can lead to:

 Production loss
 Poor trafficability
 Loss of nutrients
 Soil structure decline

6.2. Causes of water logging

i. Inadequate drainage of over-land run-off increases the rate of percolation
and in turn helps in raising the water table.

ii. The water from rivers may infiltrate into the soil.

iii. Seepage of water from earthen canals also adds significant quantity of
water to the underground reservoir continuously.

iv. Sometimes subsoil does not permit free flow of subsoil water which may
accentuate the process of raising the water table.

v. Irrigation water is used to flood the fields. If it is used in excess it may

help appreciably in raising the water table. Good drainage facility is very
essential.

Effects of water logging

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1. Creation of Anaerobic Condition in the Crop Root-Zone

2. Growth of Water Loving Wild Plants

3. Impossibility of Tillage Operations

4. Accumulation of Harmful Salts

5. Lowering of Soil Temperature

6.3. Remedial measures

Suitable options depend on the severity, position in the landscape and land use (a
type of crops)

 Do nothing, simply avoid wet areas once seeding, spraying,
and harvesting. this can be
solely suggested for tiny areas.
 Use additional tolerant crops or pastures, sow early and increase seed rate
 Alter chemical element management to suit the wet scenario
 Use shallow surface drain on soggy or inundated areas
 By using surface water management upslope to forestall waterlogging
occurring or reducing the amount of waterlogging
 Use raised beds on high condition flats, with shallow surface avoidance.
 Efforts ought to be placed in to construct cement concrete beds. And walls
of the irrigation canals to save lots of the conterminous lands from
waterlogging.
 Any on the banks of rivers long nonmoving trees ought to be planted and
banana. A lining of channels (main canal, branches, and field channels).
 Provision of surface drains for the avoidance of fresh water.
 Implementation of well comes each in depth and native

6.4. Causes of canal damages, maintenance tasks

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Small maintenance operations: Removal of aquatic weeds, both from the bottom
and the slopes.
Large maintenance operations : Maintenance and repair of the canal profile,
which includes removal of silt & vegetation , repair of collapsed slopes and
maintenance of culverts and weirs. These activities are carried out once in 5 to 25
years, depending on the soil type and the nature of the area.

6.5. Hill irrigation practice in Nepal

Chapter 7 Hydrology and flood estimation

Definition of hydrology
"Hydro" comes from the Greek word for... water. Hydrology is the study of water
and hydrologists are scientists who study water.
Hydrology in Civil Engineering
Engineering hydrology may be understood as the branch of engineering that deals
with the study of water resources. It is also commonly referred to as water
resources engineering. Precisely, engineering hydrology may be defined as the
multidisciplinary specialization of civil engineering that deals with the occurrence,
circulation and distribution of water on Earth. Engineering hydrology is a very
important branch of civil engineering as it is necessary for the construction of
various types of water resource-related infrastructures. Mostly, engineering

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hydrology is focused on the scientific study of the water cycle, water resources
and water resource sustainability. It mainly focuses on the planning, design,
analysis, and operation of water-related projects and constructions by the
utilization and efficient management of the water resources.
The hydrologic cycle
The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the
Earth-Atmosphere system. At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the
water from the ground to the atmosphere and back again. Of the many
processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most important are...
 evaporation
 transpiration
 condensation
 precipitation
 runoff

The main components of the hydrological cycle can be listed as follows:

1. Precipitation: It refers to the forms of water that fall from the atmosphere to
the surface of the earth such as rain, drizzle, snow etc
2. Evaporation: It refers to the physical process in which water from the land and
water on the surface of the earth is converted to vapour form.

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3. Transpiration: It refers to the process in which water from the soil is absorbed
by the plants (roots) and discharged back to the atmosphere through the leaves
(through little pores present in the leaves which are known as stomata).
4. Evapotranspiration: It is the combined process of evaporation and
transpiration and involves the transfer of water to the atmosphere both from the
water sources and vegetation.
5. Infiltration: It refers to the movement of water from the ground surface to the
underlying soil layers.
6. Percolation: It refers to the movement of the subsurface water to the water
table.
7. Overland Flow: It refers to the runoff that flows through the surface of the
ground to a stream or river channel.
8. Surface Runoff: It refers to all the overland flow as well as the precipitation
that flows to a stream or river channel.

Evaporation and transpiration

Transpiration
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants through stomata. Stomata
are small openings found on the underside of leaves that are connected to
vascular plant tissues. In most plants, transpiration is a passive process largely
controlled by the humidity of the atmosphere and the moisture content of the
soil. Of the transpired water passing through a plant only 1% is used in the growth
process of the plant. The remaining 99% is passed into the atmosphere
Evaporation
Evaporation is the change of state in a substance from a liquid to a gas. In
meteorology, the substance we are concerned about the most is water. For
evaporation to take place, energy is required. The energy can come from any
source: the sun, the atmosphere, the earth, or objects on the earth such as
humans.

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Summary
• Evaporation and transpiration are two distinct mechanisms for loss of water into
the atmosphere.
• Evaporation takes place from the surface of water bodies when water gets
transformed into its gaseous state called water vapor. On the other hand
transpiration is the process of loss of water from plants from small opening on the
underside of leaves called stomata.
• The total loss of water through both evaporation and transpiration has been
given a new term called Evapotranspiration.

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Condensation
Condensation is the process whereby water vapor in the atmosphere is changed
into a liquid state. In the atmosphere condensation may appear as clouds or dew.
Condensation is the process whereby water appears on the side of an uninsulated
cold drink can or bottle.
Runoff
Runoff occurs when there is excessive precipitation and the ground is saturated
(cannot absorb any more water). Rivers and lakes are results of runoff. There is
some evaporation from runoff into the atmosphere but for the most part water in
rivers and lakes returns to the oceans
Infiltration
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It
is commonly used in both hydrology and soil sciences. The infiltration capacity is
defined as the maximum rate of infiltration. It is most often measured in meters
per day but can also be measured in other units of distance over time if
necessary. The infiltration capacity decreases as the soil moisture content of soils

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surface layers increases. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate,
runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier.

Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

The rain gauge is a meteorological instrument for measuring the amount of
precipitation (especially rainfall amounts) fallen during a given time interval at a
certain location. In short – the rain gauge are used to measure rainfall. It is
commonly used in personal or automatic weather stations. There are different
types gauges, some use direct measurement technique or others are completely
automatic.
You probably wonder what type of measurement units are used, and the answer
is – usually inches (millimeters) or liters per square meter.
The rain gauge consists of two important parts:

 A collector funnel;
 Mechanism to receive and measure the collected water.

The interior of the rain gauge funnel has special coating to reduce the wetting of
the surface. The cone of the funnel should be deep enough, which allows the
water to flow without any risk of splash. Mesh filter are used to prevent debris
like leaves of bird droppings from clogging the gauge.

Place the rain collecting device at a sufficient height (usually 3 feet from the
ground), and at a distance of several feet from other objects ensures that there
will be no water rebound from floor or objects around.

There are four types of gauges:

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 graduated cylinder (called standard or direct reading gauge);
 tipping bucket;
 weighing gauges;
 and optical;

Factors Affecting runoff

1. Rainfall: Higher rainfall; higher runoff

2. Area of w-shed: Greater area; greater runoff

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 3. The shape of w-shed: More circular/ square (as compared to other shapes);
more runoff
4. The aspect of w-shed: On Northern Aspect more runoff.
5. Vegetation: More vegetation; less runoff
6. Land moisture: More moisture; more runoff
7. Slope: More slopes; more runoff

7.8. Estimation of flood by rational method

The Rational Method

The Rational Method is a widely used technique in engineering hydrology,
although it is known to produce results that have large uncertainty (see
McKerchar and Macky, 2001). Other similar models, such as the Modified Rational
Method, can also be used as screening models.
The formula for the Rational Method can be written as:
Q = C i A /3.6
Where:
 Q is the estimate of the peak design discharge in cubic metres per second
 C is the run-off coefficient
 i is rainfall intensity in millimetres per hour, for a duration equal to the time
of concentration of the catchment
 A is the catchment area in square kilometres

Empirical Formulae:
The flood discharge can be evaluated by using various empirical formulae
involving area of the catchment and some coefficient depending upon the
location of the catchment.
i) Dicken’s Formula
This formula is given by
(a) Dickens Formula (1865)

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 Qp= CD.A3/4
Where,
Qp = Flood peak discharge in m3/sec
A = Catchment area in km2
CD = Dickens constant, 6 ≤CD ≤ 30.
(b) Ryve's formula (1884)
Qp = CH · A2/3
Where,
CH = Ryve's constant
= 8.8 for the constant area within 80 km
from the cost
(c) Inglis' Formulae
These formulae used in the state of Maharashtra are given by :
 For small areas only
Q = 125√ A
 For area between 160 to 1000 sq.km.
Q = 125√ A - 2.60 (A - 260) (6
 For all types of catchment
Q = 125A /√ ( A+10)

The Float Method

This works well in canals or channels. It can also be used in rivers and streams
although with less accuracy. Two pieces of information are needed to calculate
the flow by this method. The first is the cross-sectional area of the water flowing
in the stream or channel. The second is the speed that the water is flowing. This is

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measured using a float and timing its travel between two points a known distance
apart. A plastic bottle with the cap replaced makes an ideal float.
STEP 1: Find the cross-sectional area (CSA)
To estimate the area at a particular point, measure the width and then take depth
measurements at regular intervals across the flow
A (Area) = Width of Channel (feet) x Depth of Water (feet)
STEP 2: Measure the speed of the flow (surface velocity)
A length (L) of 10 metres between the marking points should be sufficient. Put the
float in the water several meters upstream of the first marking point. Begin to
time the float when it passes the first marker and stop as soon as it passes the
second. Repeat at least three times for consistent results. For the test, choose the
straightest section of stream with the most even cross-sectional area.
V (Velocity) = Distance Traveled / Time to travel (feet traveled divided by seconds)
STEP 3: Calculate the flow in litres per second
The flow is the product of the average stream area and the average velocity of the
flow: Since the water moves more quickly on the surface than in other parts of
the stream, an additional factor must be introduced which takes this difference
into account.
The equation to calculate the flow is: Q = Aave x Vsurface x Correction Factor
where Q= Flow rate (m3/s) Aave= Average cross-sectional area (m2) Vsurface=
Surface velocity (m/s)

Example Calculation: Finding the Flowrate using the Float Method

What is the flow in a small channel where the following information has been
obtained?
1) The water in the channel is 25 cm deep, the sides of the channel are
approximately square and the width is 40 cm. The side are quite smooth.

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2) When a plastic bottle was floated down a 20m section of the channel it took a)
36 b) 40 and c) 44 seconds
Answer: (i) Cross sectional area of the water in the channel = 0.25 x 0.4 = 0.1 m2
(ii) Average time taken = (36+40+44)/3 = 40 seconds Average surface velocity =
20metres/40seconds = 0.5 m/s (iii) Correction Factor for a smooth channel =
0.85 (iv) Flow = Area x velocity x correction factor = 0.1 x 0.5 x 0.85 = 0.0425
m3/s The flow in litres per second = 0.0425 x 1000 = 42.5 litres per second.

Type of stream Velocity correction factor Accuracy

A rectangular channel 0.85 Good
with smooth sides and
bed
A deep, slow moving 0.75 Reasonable
stream
A small stream with a 0.65 Poor
smooth bed
A quick, turbulent 0.45 Very poor
stream
A very shallow, rocky 0.25 Very poor
stream

Current meter
The velocity of flow at any point in the open channel can be most accurately
and conveniently determined by means of a mechanical device named
current-meter. Current-meter of common use may be classified in two
categories according to the type of revolving part used.

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STREAM GAUGING: THE VELOCITY AREA METHOD
The velocity area method is another way to find flow rate (m3/sec). This method
is often used in parts of a river where the flow is relatively laminar and the flow
rate is not too high (< 5 m3/s)
This method is based on the flow rate equation: Q = v · A
Where : Q = discharge (m3/s)
v = flow velocity (m/s)
A = flow area (m2)

Most streams do not have a nice flow area (like in a pipe), but have an irregular
shape with an uneven distribution of flow velocity.

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 However, if we “cut” the stream into “sections”, these sections are more
homogenous and in each of them we can now approximate the flow rate.

Discharge = (Area of water in cross section) x (Water velocity)

Total Discharge = ((Area 1 x Velocity 1) + (Area 2 x Velocity 2)+ ….. (Area n x
Velocity n))
Method:
 Stretch 2 wires across the stream, circa 2.0 meters apart.
 Divide the stream along 1 wire into sections of 2 meters. Use the yellow
ribbon to mark it.
 At the middle of each section, find the water depth with a probe (yellow
PVC pipe).
 At each section, record the flow velocity with the help of a float (earbuds)
and a stopwatch
 Release the float upstream, and measure the time it takes to pass between
the 2 wires.
 Repeat each time measurement 3 times for each section

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Ground water hydrology
 A major component of precipitation that falls on the earth surface
eventually enters into the ground by the process of infiltration. The
infiltrated water is stored in the pores of the underground soil strata. The
water which is stored in the pores of the soil strata is known as
groundwater. Therefore, the groundwater may be defined as all the water
present below the earth surface and the groundwater hydrology is defined
as the science of occurrence, distribution and movement of water below
the earth surface.

7.12. Types of aquifers

Aquifer
An aquifer is an underground geological formation which contains water and
sufficient amount of water can be extracted economically using water wells.
Aquifers comprise generally layers of sand and gravel and fracture bedrock.
 Unconfined aquifer
When water table serves as the upper boundary of the aquifer, the aquifer is
known as unconfined aquifer. It is normally exposed to the atmosphere and its
upper portion is partly saturated with water. The upper surface of saturation is
called water table which is under atmospheric pressure therefore this aquifer is
also called phreatic aquifer.

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 a)Unconfined aquifer (b) Leaky Unconfined aquifer
 Confined aquifer
An aquifer which is bounded by two impervious layers at top and bottom of the
aquifer is called confined aquifer. It is also called artesian aquifer.
In case of confined aquifer, if we insert a piezometer into the aquifer, the water
level will rise above the top impervious layer as the pressure in the aquifer is
more than the atmospheric pressure. As such, the confined aquifer is also known
as pressure aquifer. Top and bottom layer of a confined aquifer is generally
impervious. However, sometimes these layers may be semi pervious in nature. In
such a situation, the water may gain or lose through these semi pervious layers.
The aquifer is then called leaky confined aquifer

(a)Confined aquifer (b) Leaky Confined aquifer

 Perched Aquifer
It is a special case of an unconfined aquifer. This type of aquifer occurs when an
impervious or relatively impervious layer of limited area in the form of a lens is
located in the water bearing unconfined aquifer. As shown in Fig. 16.3 the water
storage created above the lens is perched aquifer and its top layer is called
perched water table.

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  Leaky Aquifer
In nature, truly confined aquifers are rare because the confining layers are not
hundred per cent impervious. An aquifer which is overlain or underlain by a semi-
pervious layer (aquitard) through which vertical leakage takes place due to head
difference is called leaky aquifer or semi-confined aquifer.
7.13. Ground water movement-Darcy’s Law
Importance of Groundwater
 Groundwater occurs in the pores of soil and sediment and in narrow
fractures in bedrock;
 0.6 % of water on the Earth is groundwater;
 Excluding ice, 94% of freshwater is groundwater;
 Groundwater is the largest reservoir of fresh water readily available to
humans As an erosional agent, by dissolving limestone, groundwater
produces: Sinkholes;
 Caverns Groundwater serves as an equalizer of stream flow

Conceptual model of groundwater flow

 The flow of water through a porous medium

 Water flows tortuous paths
 Geometry of channels is very complex
 Frictionless flow is totally meaningless!
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 Conceptual model of flow through a porous medium is flow through a bundle
of very small (capillary) tubes of different diameters

Term
 Zone of soil moisture = water held by molecular attraction on soil particles
in near-surface zone
 Zone of saturation = Phreatic zone; Water not held as soil moisture
percolates downward, reaches zone where open spaces in sediment and
rock are completely filled with water
 Groundwater = water within pores in zone of saturation
 Water table = upper limit of zone of saturation
 Capillary fringe – Extends upward from the water table;
 Groundwater is held by surface tension in tiny passages between grains of
soil or sedimen

What is Darcy’s Law?

Darcy’s law states the principle which governs the movement of fluid in the given
substance. Darcy’s law equation that describes the capability of the liquid to flow

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via any porous media like a rock. The law is based on the fact according to which,
the flow between two points is directly proportional to the pressure differences
between the points, the distance and the connectivity of flow within rocks
between the points. Measuring the interconnectivity is known as permeability.
Darcy’s Law Equation
To understand the mathematical aspect behind liquid flow in the substance,
Darcy’s law can be described as:
Darcy’s law describes the relationship among the instantaneous rate of discharge
through porous medium and pressure drop at a distance.
Using the specific sign convention, Darcy’s law is expressed as:
Q = -KA dh/dl =
Wherein:
Q is the rate of water flow
K is the hydraulic conductivity
A is the column cross section area
dh/dl indicates hydraulic gradient.
Darcy’s Law diagram is as shown below:

Darcy’s refers to many unit systems. A medium that has a permeability of 1 Darcy
allows a flow of 1 cm3/s of a liquid with viscosity 1 cP under 1 atm/cm pressure
gradient acting across an area of 1 cm2.

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.
Limitations of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s law can be applied to many situations but do not correspond to these
assumptions.
 Unsaturated and Saturated flow.
 Flow in fractured rocks and granular media.
 Transient flow and steady-state flow.
 Flow in aquitards and aquifers.
 Flow in Homogeneous and heterogeneous systems.
#A confined aquifer has a source of recharge. K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and
n is 0.2. The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m
respectively, from a common datum. The average thickness of the aquifer is 30
m, and the average width is 5 km.
(a) the rate of flow through the aquifer (b) the time of travel from the head of
the aquifer to a point 4 km downstream

The solution: Cross-Sectional area (A) = 30(5)(1000) = 15 x 104 m2

Hydraulic gradient (i) = (55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3
a) Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day Q = (50 m/day) (75 x 101 m2) = 37,500 m3/day
Darcy Velocity: V = Q/A = (37,500m3/day) / (15 x 104 m2) = 0.25m/day
Q = KiA

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And…
• Seepage Velocity: Vs = V/n = (0.25) / (0.2) = 1.25 m/day (about 4.1 ft/day)
• Time to travel 4 km downstream: T = 4(1000m) / (1.25m/day) = 3200 days or
8.77 years

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 Chapter 8 Waterpower engineering

Introduction
A branch of civil engineering that deals with the construction of works to develop
waterpower. Hydropower or water power (from Greek: "water") is power
derived from the energy of falling or fast-running water, which may be harnessed
for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds of
watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation and the
operation of various mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills,
trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills.
Hydropower development in Nepal
Claims of Nepal as "second richest country" in the world after Brazil in
hydropower potential has never been validated Students and general public have
been inundated with the 83,000 MW potential rhetoric-based on a 1966 PhD of
Dr. Hari Man Shrestha . However, another more scientific study lead by Prof.
Narendra Man Shakya has shown that Nepal has a total potential to generate
53,000 megawatts of hydropower Another study revels 43,000 MW of
economically and technically feasible hydroelectricity (NPC, 1985) Despite these
discrepancies, the general consensus is that hydropower has the potential for
uplifting the lives of the Nepalese people.
 First hydropower generation, Pharping hydropower financed by British
government, completed in 1960 B.S. 2 units of 250 KW each, Total 500 KW
 Second hydropower generation, 1991 B.S, 640 KW to supply electricity to
Kathmandu valley Biggest hydropower generation, Kaligandaki 'A' 144 MW,
2002 B.S.
 Marsyangdi, 69 MW, 1989 B.S.
 Kulekhani 1, 2 units of 30 MW each, total 60 MW, 1982 B.S. Kulakhani 2,32
MW, 1986 B.S.
 Devighat hydropower station, 14.1 MW, 1984 B.S.
 Trisuli, 21 MW, India assistance, 2044 B.S. Hydropower Potential of Nepal.
Major hydropower project

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Flow-Duration Curves
A flow-duration curve shows the frequency of occurrence of various rates of flow.
It is a cumulative frequency curve prepared by arranging all discharges of record
in order of magnitude and subdividing them according to the percentages of time
during which specific flows are equaled or exceeded; all chronologic order or
sequence is lost . Flow-duration curves may be plotted on either probability or
semilog paper.
A graphical representation of runoff is called a flow duration curve. It is denoted
by FDC. It relates flow rate with duration.

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At first, data like discharge and time are calculated. Then the Flow Duration Curve
is plotted which is used to learn or study floods, evaluating many dependable
stream data, designing of drainage works, etc. In the FDC:
1. Discharge is plotted on the y-axis (ordinate).
2. Percentage of time duration is plotted on the x-axis (abscissa).
Steps for drawing Flow Duration Curve
1. Calculate the total number of data, say N.
2. Give rank to the data for the data 1 ,2 3,..., N; say n.
3. Compute frequency (f) f= Total numbers of data (N) / Rank (n)
4. Compute the probability of exceedance (p) p= 1/f p= n/N
5. Now place the discharge in descending order.
6. Draw the probability of exceedence or % of the time versus discharge. This
curve is the FDC

Primary Power (Firm power)

The net amount of power which is continuously available from a plant to
consumer at any time is known as primary or firm power. It is always available
from the stream even at a time of lowest flow i.e., 100% of time. Firm power be
increased by providing storage.
Secondary power

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The excess power available over the firm power is called secondary power .It is
not available at any time.
Peak load ( Maximum load )
The maximum power that consumed by the load during A specific given time and
it is equal to the maximum actual power that generate by the plant . When
neglecting the Transmission line losses.
Power Generation = power load + losses of lines
Average Load
It is the average power that consumed by the load during a certain period of time
and it is equal to the actual power that generated by the plant during the same
period of time when neglecting Transmission line losses.
Load Factor
It is the ratio of the average load to the maximum load for a certain period of time
.The period of time a day, the load factor is a daily load factor and if the period of
time is month the load factor is monthly load factor and similarly for the yearly
load factor.
Load Factor = Average load. /Maximum load during a given period
Load Factor = ( energy (kWh per month) ) / ( peak demand (kW) x hours/month )
Load Curve
Show the characteristics of the load over a certain period of time (day, month,
year ) . The curve is plotted by placing the ordinate (kw) with their proper time
sequin as shown in the fig.(1) This can be obtained by plotting variation of load
with time periods as a day, week, month, year etc. Power generation companies
use this curve to plan how much power they will need to generate at any given
time.

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Plant capacity
It is the total power generating capacity of plant with respect to availabı discharge
head and efficiency.
Installed Capacity
It is the economically feasible capacity of the plant. It is the maximum power that
can be generate by all generators at normal head and full flow. We have,
Power (P) = nϒQH(Watt=9810 nQH/1000 (kW) = 9.81 nQH(KW).
where, ϒ = 9810 N/m3
Q is design discharge H is net head n is overall efficiency
Plant Capacity Factor
=Actual energy produced in KW / Maximum possible energy that could be
produced ( based on installed capacity)
= Average load KW / Installed Capacity KW
Plant use factor
= Actual energy produced ( kwh )/ ( plant capacity)* (no.of hours that the plant
has been in operation)
= Average load* time (24 hours if the time is a day) /( Installed Capacity (kw) )*
( hours in operation(h))
Utilization Factor
The utilization factor for a plant depend on the use to which the plant is put. A
low utilization factor means that the plant is either a stand by plant or has been
installed to take into account the future increase in the load.

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Utilization factor = Maximum load utilization factor / Installed capacity
Utilization Factor = The time that a equipment is in use./ The total time that it
could be in use
Diversity factor
The effect of the diversity factor is to reduce the simultaneous maximum demand
on the station (which means reduce the capital cost of the station) for the same
individual demand and consequently a lower overall rate for a generation station
electric.
Diversity factor = Sum of consumer max. demand in KW Diversity factor /Max .
load on the station KW
Demand factor
 Demand Factor = Maximum demand of a system / Total connected load on
the system
 Demand factor is always less than one.
 Example: if a residence having 6000W equipment connected has a
maximum demand of 300W,Than demand factor = 6000W / 3300W = 55%.
 The lower the demand factor, the less system capacity required to serve
the connected load.
Power duration curve
It is a plot of power vs. percentage of time, we have,
Power (P) = nϒQHnet
Where , ϒ= 9810N/m
n overall efficiency
Q is discharge at turbine
H n et is net head = Hgross – h t (head loss)
Friction head loss (he) =fly2/2gd
where, f is friction factor

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 I is length of pipe
v is velocity of water
d is diameter of pipe
Considering net head remains constant, P= Constant x Q
Power System Load
The total electric power consumed by all users connected to the distribution
network of a system, and also the power used to compensate for losses in all
parts of the network (transformers, converters, and transmission lines).
The change in the power system load over time—that is, the change in the power
consumed or the current in the network as a function of time—is called the load
curve. A distinction is made between individual and group load curves (for
individual users and groups of users, respectively). Loads determined by the rated
power of the users are random quantities that may assume various values with a
certain probability. Consumers usually do not operate simultaneously and are not
all at their full rated power; therefore, the actual power system loads are always
less than the sum of the rated powers of all individual users. The ratio of the
maximum consumed power to the connected power is called the coincidence
factor, and the ratio of the maximum load of a given group of consumers to their
rated power is called the demand factor.

General layout plan of hydropower project

Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to
ensure sufficient water storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir behind
it. The height of water level (called as water head) in the reservoir determines
how much of potential energy is stored in it.
Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to
the turbine. The amount of water which is to be released in the penstock can be
controlled by a control gate. When the control gate is fully opened, maximum
amount of water is released through the penstock.

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Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir
to the turbine. Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it
flows down through the penstock due to gravity.

Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The
turbine is mechanically coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the
water drives the turbine and consequently the generator gets driven. There are
two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine.
Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines are used for low
and medium heads.
Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically
coupled to the turbine shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the
generator and electricity is generated which is then stepped up with the help of a
transformer for the transmission purpose

Figure-typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic components

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Surge Tank: Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It
serves the purpose of reducing water hammering in pipes which can cause
damage to pipes. The sudden surges of water in penstock is taken by the surge
tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the collected water
thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.
Power station: Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator .
8.8. Run of River (ROR) and Picking type of hydropower plant
Types of Hydro-power plants
Conventional plants:
Conventional plants use potential energy from dammed water. The energy
extracted depends on the volume and head of the water. The difference between
height of water level in the reservoir and the water outflow level is called as water
head.
Pumped storage plant:
In pumped storage plant, a second reservoir is constructed near the water
outflow from the turbine. When the demand of electricity is low, the water from
lower reservoir is pumped into the upper (main) reservoir. This is to ensure
sufficient amount of water available in the main reservoir to fulfil the peak loads.
Run-of-river plant & Peaking run of river plant
 Run-of-the-river (ROR) is a hydropower system that uses river flow to
generate electricity. The system may include a small dam with storage for
water, but many do not.
 Run-of-the-river power plants are classified as with or without pondage.
 A plant without pondage has no storage and is therefore subject to
seasonal river flows. This type of ROR system produces electrical power
only when the river flow permits it.
 A system that has pondage can regulate water flow to some extent and can
serve either as a base-load source or can be used as a peaking power plant,
which means it produces power when the demand is highest.
 Run-of-the-river hydropower systems are typically selected for streams and
rivers that do not have large swings in the volume of water during the year.
 Rivers with the consistent flow can use a ROR system for base-load power.
If the flow is not consistent, the power level from the system is forced to
drop, and the system is used only to supplement power from other sources.

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  Up to 95% of the mainstream of water in the river can be diverted to flow
through the dam and then returned to the river, and this diversion has little
effect on the main river flow.

Advantages of a hydroelectric power plant

 No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity
generation
 Neat and clean source of energy
 Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
 Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
 Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation
Disadvantages
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 Very high capital cost due to construction of dam
 High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which
are quite away from the consumers

Introducti on To Hydraulic Turbine and Classifi cati on Of hydraulic

turbine
Hydraulic turbines Power system and load
The hydraulic turbine is a prime mover that uses the energy of flowing water and
converts  is  into  the  mechanical  energy  in  the  form  of  rotation  of  the
runner.  (A prime mover is a machine which uses the raw energy of a substance
and converts it into the mechanical energy.) Since the fluid medium is water,
these turbines are also known   as   the   ‘ water   turbines’ .   Hydraulic   turbines  
coupled   with   hydro    — generators form the so  —called ‘ hydrounits’ which
are widely used now a days for generating electrical power.

Classification of Hydraulic turbines

1) Based on type of energy at inlet to the turbine:

 Impulse Turbine : The energy is in the form of kinetic form. e.g: Pelton
wheel, Turbo wheel.
 Reaction Turbine : The energy is in both Kinetic and Pressure form.
e.g: Tubular, Bulb, Propellar, Francis turbine.
2) Based on directi on of flow of water through the runner:
 Tangential flow: water flows in a direction tangential to path of
rotational, i.e. Perpendicular to both axial and radial directions.
 Radial outward flow e.g : Forneyron turbine.
 Axial flow : Water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine. e.g: Girard,
Jonval, Kalpan turbine.

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  Mixed flow : Water enters radially at outer periphery and leaves
axially. e.g : Modern Francis turbine.
3) Based on the head under which turbine works:
 High head, impulse turbine. e.g : Pelton turbine.
 Medium head,reaction turbine. e.g : Francis turbine.
 Low head, reaction turbine. e.g : Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine.
4) Based on the specifi c speed of the turbine:
 Low specific speed, impulse turbine. e.g : Pelton wheel.
 Medium specific speed, reaction turbine. e.g : Francis wheel.
 High specific speed, reaction turbine. e.g : Kaplan and Propeller
turbine.

5) Based on the name of the originator:

 Impulse turbine – Pelton wheel, Girard, Banki turbine.
 Reaction turbine – Forneyron, Jonval, Francis, Dubs, Deriaze,
Thomson kalpan, Barker, Moody, Nagler, Bell.
Note
Net Head -The effective head available to the turbine unit for power production is
called the net head..
Effective head (Net Head) - The effective head is the net head available to the
turbine unit for power production. This head is the static gross head, the
difference between the level of water in the Forebay/impoundment and the
tailrace water level at the outlet, less the hydraulic losses of the water passage as
shown in Figure 3. 1.
Gross Head (Hg) – is the difference in elevation between the water levels of the
forebay and the tailrace.
Maximum Head (Hmax.) – is the gross head difference in elevation between the
maximum forebay (head water) level without surcharge and the tailrace level
without spillway discharge, and with one unit operating at speed no-load (turbine

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discharge of approximately 5% of rated flow). Under this condition, hydraulic
losses are negligible and may be disregarded.
Minimum Head (Hmin.) – is the net head resulting from the difference in
elevation between the minimum forebay (head water) level and the tailrace level.
Weighted Average Head - is the net head determined from reservoir operation
calculations which will produce the same amount of energy in kilowatt-hours
between that head and maximum head as is developed between that same head
and minimum head.
Design Head (hd) – is the net head at which peak efficiency is desired. This head
should preferably approximate the weighted average head, but must be so
selected that the maximum and minimum heads are not beyond the permissible
operating range of the turbine. This is the head which determines the basic
dimensions of the turbine and therefore of the power plant.
Rated head (hr) – is the net head at which the full-gate output of the turbine
produce the generator rated output in kilowatts. The turbine nameplate rating
usually is given at this head. Selection of this head requires foresight and
deliberation.

Example 3.1 The long term mean monthly flow of a stream is show in table
below;
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1.59 1.35 1.27 1.51 2.28 7.53 23.7 23.8 14.56 6.86 3.72 2.23
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 6 0

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