SOLUTIONS

Most of the materials that we encounter in everyday life are mixtures. Many mixtures are

homogeneous; that is, their components are uniformly intermingled on a molecular level. Homogeneous

mixtures are called solutions. Examples of solutions abound in the world around is. The air we breathe is a

solution of several gases. Brass is solid solution of zinc and copper. The fluids that run through our bodies

are solutions, carrying a great variety of essential nutrients, salts, and other materials.

Solutions are extremely important. throughout the living world, solutions are necessary for

maintenance and survival. In the human body, nutrients are transported in solution, while waste products are

removed as solutions. In plants, all internal organs are constantly bathed in moisture; in photosynthesis, a

wet surface is required on which gases can diffuse materials to the body.

A solution, since it is homogeneous, will have the same properties all throughout No matter where

we take a sample from a solution, we will obtain materials with same composition as that of any sample from

the solution.

SOLUTION - is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

* Homogeneous - only one phase; no part is separated by another by a detectable boundary.

2 components

1. solute - dissolved substance; present in smaller amount

2. solvent - dissolving medium; present in greater amount

Aquation or Hydration - when water is used as a solvent

SOLUBILITY - amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature;

usually expressed as grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent

soluble - substance that dissolves in the solvent

insoluble - substance that does not dissolve in the solvent

solute solubility (grams solute/100 grams solvent) qualitative solubility description

less than 0.1 insoluble

0.10 - 1.0 slightly soluble

1.0 - 10 soluble

greater than 10 very soluble

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I. FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

A. SOLID in LIQUID

1. Shaking or Agitation

2. Powdering or Pulverizing

3. Temperature

4. Nature of Reactants - “like dissolves like”

B. LIQUID in LIQUID

1. Miscible - dissolve in any amount in each other

ex. alcohol + water; oil+ gasoline/CCl4

2. Partially miscible - have limited solubility in each other

ex. tincture of iodine + water

3. Immiscible - do not dissolve in each other and forms two separate layers upon mixing

ex. oil + water

C. GAS in LIQUID

1. Pressure - affects gases only

* Henry’s Law - the weight of a gas dissolved by a given amount of solvent is directly proportional to

the pressure exerted by the as wen in equilibrium with the solution.

2. Temperature

II. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

A. According to state or phase

1. Gaseous Solution

Solute Solvent Example

gas gas air

liquid gas water vapor in air

solid gas dust particle in air

2. Liquid Solution

Solute Solvent Example

gas liquid carbonated drinks

liquid liquid alcohol in water

solid liquid sugar in water

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3. Solid Solution

Solute Solvent Example

gas solid hydrogen in palladium metal

liquid solid amalgam

solid solid alloy

B. According to solubility

1. Unsaturated solution - a solution that can still take more of the solute in addition to what it already

contains; less concentrated than a saturated solution

2. Saturated Solution - contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in the given amount of

solvent; contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute necessary for the existence of an

equilibrium between dissolved and undissolved solute

3. Supersaturated solution - contains more of the solute that it normally contains at an elevated temperature;

more concentrated than a saturated solution

C. According to the amount of dissolved solute

1. Concentrated solution - contains greater amount of solute

2. Dilute solution - contains lesser amount of solute; concentrated solution + water

III. WHY SUBSATANCES DISSOLVE? SOLUTION FORMATION

A. solute - solute attraction - attraction between solute particles

B. solvent - solvent attraction - attraction between solvent particles

* driving force for solution formation

solute - solvent attraction - attraction between solute and solvent particles

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IV. METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

concentration - amount of solute present in a specified amount of solvent or solution

A. PERCENTAGE METHODS

1. Percentage by weight or mass (%w/w)

- most frequently used by chemists

weight of solute
%w/w= ×100
weight of solution
weight of solute
parts per thousand (ppt)= ×103
weight of solution
weight of solute
parts per million (ppm)= ×106
weight of solution
2. Percentage by volume (%v/v)

- used when both solute and solvent are liquids

volume of solute
%v/v= ×100
volume of solution
3. Percentage by weight-volume (%w/v)

- usually encountered in hospitals and industrial settings

- used when working with a solid solute and liquid solvent

weight of solute
%w/v = ×100
volume of solution
B. MOLE FRACTION (yi)
mols of solute
ysolute =
mols of solution
mols of solvent
ysolvent =
mols of solution
C. MOLARITY (M) or FORMALITY (F)

- most often used in chemical laboratories

M = number of gram-molecular weight (mol) of solute per liter of solution

F = number of gram-formula weight (mol) of solute per liter of solution

g of solute
mols of solute g of solute
M= = MW of solute =
L of solution L of solution MW of solute×L of solution
D. NORMALITY (N)

- number of gram-equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution

- most often encountered in neutralization reactions

g of solute
gram-equivalent weights of solute equivalent weight of solute
N= =
L of solution L of solution

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 g of solute
MW of solute/f g of solute×f
N= =
L of solution MW of solute×solution
N=M×f
f = factor (equivalent/mol)
+
1. acid: f - number of replaceable or ionizable H

ex. HCl f=1

H2SO4 f=2

H3PO4 f=3

HC2H3O2 f=1

2. base: f - number of replaceable or ionizale OH-

ex. NaOH f=1

Ca(OH)2 f = 2

Al(OH)3 f=3

3. salt: f - total + or - valence

ex. NaCl f=1

CaBr2 f=2

Al2S3 f=6

E. MOLALITY (m)

- used in experimental situations where changes in temperature are concerned

- number of moles of solute per kilogram (kg) of solvent

𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚= = =
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 × 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

V. DILUTION CONCEPT

A common problem encountered when working with solutions in the laboratory is that of diluting a

solution of known concentration (usually called a stock solution) to a lower concentration.

Dilution - a process in which more solvent is added to a solution in order to lower the concentration of the

solution. The amount of solute present is now distributed in a larger amount of solvent.

V1 C1 =V2 C2

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PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the %w/w of solute and solvent in a solution made by dissolving 6.5 grams of sugar in 70 grams

of water

2. How many grams of KCl and water are needed to prepare 85 grams of 12.5% by weight KCl in water

3. A 3.0% w/v H2O2 solution is commonly used as a topical antiseptic to prevent infection. What volume of

this solution will contain 10 grams of H2O2?

4. Twenty five milliliters if ethyl alcohol was mixed with 120 mL of water. Find %v/v of ethyl alcohol.

5. 7.5 mols of methyl alcohol, 9 mols of ethyl alcohol, and 15 mols of water are mixed. What is the mol

fraction each.

6. 58 grams of NaCl was dissolved in 80 grams of water. Calculate the mol fraction of each component.

7. If 38.2 grams of Na2SO4 was dissolved in enough water to make 150 mL of solution, what is the M of the

solution

8. How many grams of KClO3 must be dissolved in enough water to make 200 mL of 2.5 F solution?

9. What is the N of a solution made by dissolving 1.0 gram of NaOH pellets in enough water to make 250

mL of solution?

10. How many grams of H3PO4 are contained in 400 mL of a 3.8 N solution of this acid?

11. A solution contains 52.6 grams of sucrose dissolved in 200 grams of water. Calculate the molality of the

resulting solution.

12. What is the weight in grams of ethylene glycol that must be dissolved in 7500 grams of water to prepare

0.85 molal solution?

13. Calculate the final concentration of each of the following:

a. a mixture of 30 mL of 8.5 M NaCl + 50 mL of water

b. a solution prepared by diluting 65 L of 2.5 N KOH to 100 L

c. 0.125 L of 4.2 F HNO3 solution diluted with 200 mL

14. To dilute 150 mL of 1 F CaCl2 solution to 0.02 F would require how many mL of water?

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ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS

1. Compute the weight (g) of solute needed to make the solutions listed below:

a. 1250 mL of 0.85 M AlCl3

b. 0.500 L of 9.25 N K2SO4

c. 350 g of 13.2 %w/w of Ca(OH)2

2. Calculate the %w/v of a solution made by dissolving 22.0 g CH 3OH (methanol) in C2H5OH (ethanol) to

make 100 mL solution.

3. What is the %v/v of 10.0 mL of CH3OH (methanol) dissolved in water to a volume of 40.0 mL?

4. In the treatment of some illnesses of the human body, a 0.92%w/v NaCl is to be administered

intravenously. How many grams of NaCl are required to prepare 345 mL of this solution?

5. A solution of Cu(NO3)2 contains 150 mg of the salt per mL of solution. Calculate the N.

6. A solution of naphthalene (C10H8) is dissolved in 12.5 g of benzene (C6H6). What is the molality of the

solution?

7. A 0.45 g of unknown solute, X, is dissolved in 16.8 g of hexane and the solution isfound to be 0.31 m.

What is the MW of solute X?

8. A solution is prepared at 25oC by mixing 20 g of K2SO4 with 150 cc of water. The density of water at this

temperature is 1 g/cc. What is the m of K 2SO4?

9. Express the formality (F) the concentration of each of the following solutions:

a. 28.4% NH3 by weight, having a density of 0.808 g/mL

b. 69.5% HNO3 by weigt, aving a density of 1.42 g/mL

10. An aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid is 12.5 molal with respect to HF and has a density of 1.070

g/mL at 25oC. Calculate

a. mole fraction of HF

b. %w/w of HF

c. molarity

d. molality

11. Calculate the volume of concentrated reagent required to prepare the diluted solutions indicated:

a. 15 M NH3 to prepare 50 mL of 6.0 M NH3

b. 18 M H2SO4 to prepare 250 mL of 10.0 M H2SO4

12. Calculate the molarity of the solutions by mixing 250 mL of 0.75 M H 2SO4 with

a. 150 mL of H2O

b. 250 mL of 0.70 M H2SO4

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SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the molarity of each aqueous solution:

a. 42.3 g of table sugar (C12H22O11) in 100 mL solution

b. 5.50 g LiNO3 in 505 mL of solution

c. 0.82 g ethanol (C2H5OH) in 10.5 mL of solution

d. 1.22 g of gaseous NH3 in 33.5 mL of solution

e. 75.0 mL of 0.250 M NaOH diluted to 0.250 L with water

f. 35.5 mL of 1.3 M HNO3 diluted to 0.500 L with water

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g. 8.55 mL of 2.00 x 10 M KI diluted to 10.0 mL with water

2. How would you prepare the following aqueous soltions?

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a. 355 mL of 8.74 x 10 M KH2PO4 from solid KH2PO4

b. 425 mL of 0.315 M NaOH from 1.25 M NaOH

c. 3.5 L of 0.55 M NaCl from solid NaCl

d. 17.5 L of 0.3 M urea [(NH2)2C=O] from 2.2 M urea

e. 1.50 L of 0.257 M KBr from solid KBr

f. 355 mL of 0.0956 M LiNO3 from 0.244 M LiNO3

-3
g. 67.5 mL of 1.33 x 10 M Cr(NO3)3 from solid Cr(NO3)3

3. Calculate the molality of the following:

a. A solution containing 88.4 g of glycine (NH2CH2COOH) dissolved in 1.250 kg of H2O

b. A solution containing 8.89 g of glycerol (C3H8O3) in 75.0 g of ethanol (C2H6O)

4. What is the molality of a solution consisting of 34.0 mL of benzene (C 6H6; ρ = 0.877 g/mL) in 187 mL of hexane

(C6H14; ρ = 0.660 g/mL)?

5. What is the molality of a solution consisting of 2.77 mL of carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4; ρ = 1.59 g/mL) in 79.5 mL

of methylene chloride (CH2Cl2; ρ = 1.33 g/mL)?

6. How would you prepare the following aqueous solutions?

a. 3.00 x 102 g of 0.115 m ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) from ethylene glycol and water

b. 1.00 kg of 2.00 mass % HNO3 from 62.0 mass % HNO3

c. 1.00 kg of 0.0555 m ethanol (C2H5OH) from ethanol and water

d. 475 g of 15.0 mass % HCl from 37.1 mass % HCl

7. A solution is made by dissolving 0.30 mol of isopropyl alcohol (C 3H7OH) in 0.80 mol of water.

a. What is the mole fraction of isopropyl alcohol?

b. What is the mass percent of isopropyl alcohol?

c. What is the molality of isopropyl alcohol?

8. A solution is made by dissolving 0.100 mol of NaCl in 8.60 mol of water.

a. What is the mol fraction of NaCl?

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 b. What is the mass percent of NaCl

c. What is the molality of NaCl?

9. What mass of cesium chloride must be added to 0.500 L of water (ρ = 1.00 g/mL) to produce a 0.400 m

solution? What are the mole fraction and the mass percent of CsCl?

10. What are the mole fraction and the mass percent of a solution made by dissolving 0.30 g of KBr in 0.400 L of

water (ρ = 1.00 g/mL)?

11. Calculate the molality, molarity, and mole fraction of NH3 in an 8.00 mass % aqueous solution (ρ = 0.9651 g/mL).

12. Calculate the molality, molarity, and mole fraction of FeCl3 in a 28.8 mass % aqueous solution (ρ = 1.280 g/mL).

13. An automobile antifreeze mixture is made by mixing equal volumes of ethylene glycol (SG = 1.114; MW =
o
62.07) and water at 20 C. The density of the mixture is 1.070 g/mL. Express the concentration of ethylene glycol

as

a. volume percent

b. mass percent

c. molarity

d. molality

e. mole fraction