E1236 Control Engineering

Course:
1- Introduction (control, plant, system, disturbance, open loop, closed loop,
control system specifications, types of c.s.)
2- Mathematical model (DE, Elect. C.s., Mech. C.s.)
3- State space models
4- Laplace transform & Transfer functions
5- Stability analysis (Pole-Zero Locations & Routh-test)
6- Block diagrams & Errors
7- Responses (complex & time responses, frequency response)
8- Open loop T.F. analysis (Root locus, Polar plot, Bode diagram ,
Nichols )
9- Stability analysis based on open loop T.F. analysis
Ref.: 1-Modern control Engineering, K. Ogata
2- Modern control System, Dorf
3-Advanced Control Engineering, Roland S. Burns
4- Modern control Technology Delmar
Weighting of assessments

Final-term examination =75, Semester work=25, Oral Examination=25, Total =125

38890234100 / ‫ت‬ ----‫ شوقي حـامد عـرفه‬/.‫ م‬.‫د‬

Introduction
1-Open loop control system

2-Closed loop control system

Control: it means:

1-applying the desired value (reference or control input) to the system

2-measuring the value of the output (controlled variable) of the system

3-determining the defference between the input and the output (error)
4-applying the error (manipulated variable) to the controller

5-choose the controller such that the error is correctted or limited

Common Stages of control system technology developments are:

English ‫عربي‬
1-manual control ‫تحكم يدوى‬
2-mechanical control ‫تحكم ميكانيكى‬
3- electrical control ‫تحكم كهربى‬
4- electronical control ‫تحكم الكترونى‬
5-computer control ‫تحكم باستخدام الحاسب‬
-Computer control stage contains :

English ‫عربي‬
1-DDC direct digital control ‫التحكم الرقمى المباشر‬
2-SCADA supervisory control and data aquisition ‫تحكم ميكانيكى‬
3- DCS distributed control system ‫التحكم المنتشر‬
4- PLC programmable logoc controller ‫التحكم المنطقى المبرمج‬
5- DSP digital signal processor controller ‫التحكم باالشارات الرقمية‬
6- intelligence controller(Fuzzy, Neural,….) ‫التحكم الذكي‬

1-plant: it may be a piece of equipment (set of machine parts) functioning together to

perform a particular operation such as spacecraft, chemical reactor, heating furnace,
and mechanical device; i.e. any physical object to be controlled.

2-process: it is a natural, progressively continuing operation or development marked

by a series of gradual changes which lead to a particular result or end.

3-System: it is a combination of components (electronic, mechanical, electrical)

which act together to perform a certain objective. Or it is a collection of components
and circuits connected together to perform a useful function. Each component
converts energy from one form to other as a sensor.

4-Iutput=set point=reference=testing signal=forcing signal=desired value = r(t):

it is a control variable input (signal) to a system and may be:

1-impulse 2-step 3-ramp 4-parabolc 5-exponential 6-sinusoidal

5- Controlled variable=output=response=measured value=actual output =C(t): it

is the ultimate output of the process; the actual parameter of the process that is being
controlled. Or it means the quantity or condition of the output of the system or the
measured value of the system which be controlled
6- The (error) manipulated variable: it means the quantity or condition that is
varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.

7- Disturbance: it is a signal tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a

system. It is may be internal (generated within the system) or external (generated
outside the system)=d(t).

8- Controller: it is the machine intelligence of the control system and has a control
strategy. Which is the set of rules that the controller follows to determine its output to
an actuator. A controller compares controlled values with the desired values and has a
function to correct the deviation produced. The common types of Controllers are:
1-convential: a-on-off controller. b-Proportional controllers (P)
c-Integral controllers (I). d- Derivative controllers (D).
e-Proportional plus integral cont.(PI). f-Proportional plus derivative cont.(PD)
g- Proportional plus integral controllers plus Derivative (PID).
2-intelligent:- a-FUZZY. b-NURRAL. c-SCADA. Types of Controller
(compensation) configurations (arrangements)
1-Series compensation, 2- Parallel or feedback compensation.
3- Feed forward compensation. 4- State feedback control.

R + E C
R + E Contr
M
Proc
C _ _M Process
_
oller ess
Control

Fig. 1-Series or (cascade) compensation. Fig. 2- Feedback compensation.

Contro R + E C
_ Proces
s
R + E M Proce C
_
Controll
er
Fig. 3- Feed forward compensation. Fig.4- State feedback controller.
9-Control system: it is a combination of components (electronic, mechanical,
electrical) which act together to perform a certain objective and includes some type of
machine intelligence (controller) to control a physical process.

10-Most important features of a good control system: are

1-simple in construction and operation 2-fast response (speed) 3-less cost

4- more accuracy (less error) 5-stable(BIBO)

13-open loop control system: it is a control system in which the output or portion of
the output does not feed back to the input of the system. It needs recalibration. It is
one in which the control action is independent of the output. It is often used when:

1-precise output control is not required 2-disturbances are not significant

3-the input-output relationship is known and invariant

Open loop control system

Advantages of open loop disadvantages of open loop

1-simple construction 1-disturbances cause errors
2- ease of maintenance 2-changes in calibration cause errors
3-less expensive 3-recalibration is necessary
4-no stability problem
5-convenient when output is hard to
measured or economically not feasible
14-Feedback: it means that the output or portion of the output feeds back to the
system with the reference input. It may be 1-positve or 2-negative

15-Closed loop control system (Feedback control system): it is a control system in

which the output or portion of the output feeds back to the input of the system. It may
be called closed loop. It is one in which the control action is somehow dependent of
the output.

Closed loop control system

Disadvantages of closed loop advantages of closed loop

1-complex construction 1-disturbances do not cause errors
2- stability may be a problem 2- has less errors
3-more expensive 3-recalibration is not necessary
4-the ability to adjust the response
16-Types of control systems:

A-depend on control loop are: 1-open loop 2-closed loop

B-depend on the control algorithm are:

1-Regulator system it automatically maintains a parameters at (or near) a specified

value such as home heating system.

2-Follow-up system it causes an output to follow a set path that has been specified in
advance such as industrial robot moving parts from place to place.

3-Event control system it controls a sequential series of event such as a washing

machine cycling through a series of programmed steps.

C-depend on DE are: 1-linear 2-nonlinear

linear system: it is a system in which the response to several inputs can be calculated
by treating one input at a time and adding the results i.e. can be apply the
superposition theorem (the response produced by the simultaneous application of two
different forcing functions is the sum of the two individaul resposes). Its advantages
are: 1-can solve analytically, 2-once solved the solution is valid,

3-superposition can applied, 4-response characteristics are consistent

D-depend on the independent variables of the DE are:

1-time-varient 2-time-invarient

Time invariant system: it is a system which model has differential equations in

which the coefficients and the independent variables are constants.

E-depend on the order of the characteristic equation are:

1-first order 2 second order 3- higher order

F-depend on the free integrators in the open loop TF are:

1- type zero 2- type one 3- type two 4- and so on

G-depend on the number of inputs &outputs:

1- Single input single output SISO 2-Single input multi output SIMO

3- Multi input single output MISO 4-Multi input multi output MIMO
 Linear time-invariant lumped system (LTIL)

It is a system has a LTIL differential equation (no product of independent variables

and all variables has power one). The advantages are 1-superposition (additivity)
property and 2- homogeneity property.

If ai and bi are real constants and n ≥ m

Additivity property means that the response of the input [u1(t)+u2(t)] equals to the
sum of response of u1(t) and the response of u2(t).

homogeneity property means that the response of the input [αu1(t)] equals α times
the response of the input [u1(t)].

Lumped property if the effect of any past input u(t), for t ≤to , on future output y(t),
for t≥t0 , can be summarized by a finite number of initial conditions at t=to.

Stable system if every bounded input excites a bounded output.

Mathematical model: it is a set of differential equations represents the dynamic of

the system accurately or at least fairly well and is not unique. It may be obtained by
using physical laws as Newton laws for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff laws for
electrical systems. It is possible to improve the accuracy of a model by increasing its
complexity.

Newton laws for mechanical systems:

-linear motion ∑

Where: m=mass in Kg, a=acceleration in m/sec2, F=force in Newton

-rotational motion ∑

Where: J=moment of inertia, Өr.. = rotational acceleration, T=torque

Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems:

1- The algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node in an electrical
circuit at any given instant is zero
2- The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed loop in an electrical circuit
at any given instant is zero

∑ ∑

∫
∑

̈ ̇ ̇ ∑ ̈ ̇
∑

̈ ̇ ̇ ∑ ̈ ̇
∑

Laplace transform F(S):

S=σ+jω=ηωn+jω=attenuation+jfrequency=complex variable

[ ] ∫ [ ] ] ∫
2-Final value (steady state):

3- Initial value (transient state):

4- Inverse Laplace:

It can be obtained by using: 1-partial fraction for distinct poles and multiple poles or

2-Convolution theorem

State space
Transfer function: It is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response)
with zero initial conditions to the Laplace transform of the input (driving) with zero
initial conditions for a linear time-invariant control system. It is a very easy way to
transform from the time domain (t-domain) to the complex domain (S-plane).

Pole-Zero locations in S-plane:

1-Zeros of the TF are the values of S as the nominator tends to zero

2- Poles of the TF are the values of S as the denominator tends to zero

Block diagram: It is a pictorial representation of the transfer functions performed by
representing each component and the flow of signals. It depicts the relationships that
exist among the various components. It indicates more realistically the signal flow of
the actual system. It starts at left by inputs and ends at right by outputs. It must be not
contain any open undefined individual loops. It contains five symbols are:

1-block of T.F. 2-summing point 3-branch (take off) point 4-lines of connection
5-arrows of flow directions.

G(S)=forward TF, H(S)=feedback TF, C/R=control ratio=closed loop TF=TF,

E/R=error ratio, B/R=feedback ratio, B/E=open loop TF=G(s)H(s)

General block diagram

 ,

system is stable if every bounded input excites a bounded output. Its output C(t) is
bounded to every bounded input r(t) means BIBO & C(t)=Ct(t)+ Css(t). Its closed
loop poles (roots of the characteristic equation) are in the left half of the S-plane.

1-Stable system has all closed loop poles in the left half of the S-plane

i.e. Ct(t) =0 & C(t)= Css(t)

2-Critical stable system has all closed loop poles in the left half of the S-
plane but at least one is on the jw- axis

3-unstable system has at least one of the closed loop poles is in the right
half of the S-plane C(t)= ∞ & Ct(t) =∞.
, , ,
Responses analysis

1- Typical testing signal: it is the forcing or input signals to a control system. It used
to compare the performance of all systems on the same basis. It may be

1-impulse function 2- step function 3- ramp function

4-acceleration function 5-sinusoidal function

2-The response: It is the output of the control system to a specific input signal. It
consists of two parts the transient and the steady state. It obtained by the product of
the input and the closed loop TF. It is named as input-output as step response means
input =step. The time response is obtained from complex response C(s) by two
methods the inverse laplace transforms or the convolution integral

Step response of a second order system

,
Transient Response Table

System Step-response
Values
of η
0> η System is unstable undefined
η =0 System is critically Oscillatory
stable C(t)=1-cosωnt
0< η <1 System is stable Under-damped

0< η =1 System is stable Critically damped

C(t)=1-e-ω (1+ωnt)
nt

0<η >1 System is stable Over damped

Name Equation Definition

C (s) K
1 1st order system  It’s the system that can be described with a 1st order differential
R( s) 1  Ts equation, where K is a static gain, and T is the time constant

t
Unit step response 
2
of 1st order system c(t )  K (1  e T ) where K is a static gain, and T is the time constant

Time Constant It is the time required for the 1st order system to reach 63.2% of its
3
(Tau) final output.

4
Settling time for
1st order system
ts  4T Time required for the output to reach 98% (or sometimes 95%) of
its final value.

It’s the system that can be described with a 2nd order differential
C ( s) n2
 2 equation, where  is the damping ratio, and n is the natural
5 2nd order system
R( s) s  2n s  n2 nd
frequency in rad/sec. 2 order system may be overdamped,
critically damped or underdamped.

c(t )  1  e  a1t  e  a2t , Overdamped (  1), a1 & a2 are system poles

Unit step response c(t )  1  e nt (1  nt ), Critically damped (  1)
6 of 2nd order
system ent  1  2 
c(t )  1  sin  d t  tan 1 , Underdamped (1    0)
1  2   
 
 
Peak Time ( t p ) tp   It is the time required for the system output to reach its
d n 1   2
7
maximum value.
  C (t p )  C ()
8
Max. Over Shoot
Mp e 1 2 Mp 
(Mp)
C ( )
  1  2 It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
9 Rise Time ( t r ) tr  ,   tan 1
d  90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value.

4 It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within
1 Settling time for tp   98% or  95% of the final value.
0 2nd order system n
 , ,

Example 2

2-2 Frequency Response: it means the steady state part of the output
of a 1-linear 2-time-invariant 3- stable control system for a sinusoidal
input and it is also sinusoidal with magnitude ratio and phase shift
positive or negative and does not depend on the initial conditions.

Main Steps to find the frequency Response:

1- Find the closed loop transfer function =T(s)=C(S)/R(S) = Y(S)/X(S)

2- Find the closed loop frequency transfer function =

T (jω)=C(jω)/R(jω) = Y(jω)/X((jω)=M∟Φ=Real+jimagin
3- Let the input =r(t)=X sin ωt
4- then the frequency response = Css(t)=MX sin (ωt+ Φ)
 1- Frequency Response specifications are:
1-Phase shift Φ: it is the angle between the output sinusoid signal
and the input sinusoid signal. It may be positive for lead circuits
and negative for lag circuits

2-Magnitude ratio M: it is the ratio of the magnitude of the

output sinusoid signal to the magnitude of the input sinusoid signal.
It is obtained from the closed loop transfer function as S=jw.

3-Natural frequency ωn rad/sec: it is the natural frequency

depends on the natural of the system parameters.
4-Maximum resonant magnitude Mr: it is the peak value of the
output frequency response for a second order system

5-Resonant frequency ωr rad/sec: it is the frequency at which the peak

value of the output frequency response for a second order is occured.

6-Cut off frequency ωB rad/sec: it is the frequency at which the

magnitude of the output frequency response is equal to (
√

Error: it is the difference between the input and the output for a unity
feedback control systems only. Or it is the difference between the input
and the feedback signal for a non-unity feedback control systems. It has
two types static and dynamic.

1-static error depends on two; the input and system parameters (T.F.)

2-dynamic error depends on three; the input and derivatives of the input
and system parameters (T.F.).
Case 1 static error with unity feedback (error=input-output)
Case 2 non-unity feedback (error = input-feedback signal)

It must convert non-unity feedback to unity feedback to find the equivalent inner loop
T.F.= Ge (s)=

-Open loop T.F. analysis

1-Root locus
 ∑[ ]

‖ ‖
∑
‖ ‖

1-the root locus is symmetrical about the real axis in the S-plane

2-the open loop TF=G(s) H(s) in factors form or

3-the root locus starts at the pole and ends at the zero or infinity

4-number of root loci= n=number of poles of the open loop TF at the

denominator of the open loop TF= den [G(s) H(s)]=0

5-number of zeros= m at the nominator of the open loop TF= num [G(s)
H(s)]=0

6-number of asymptotes = n-m

8-center of gravity =point of intersection of asymptotes with real axis=

9-angles of asymptotes are =

10- points of crossing the imaginary axis as

11- break points (break away or break in) at

12-break angles at [±180(2K+1)/r] where r=number of branches(poles

for break away or zeros for break in) K=0,1,-----

13-angle of departure (complex poles) as

14-angle of arrival (complex zeros) as

15-sketch the root loci as

16- the damping factor or coefficient ζ is straight line with slope Ө= arc
cosine (ζ) with respect to the negative real axis in the S-plane

17- the natural frequency ωn is a circle with radius = ωn and center at the
origin in the S-plane

18-closed loop poles

 ∑ ∑

19- To find analytically closed loop poles and K as

(S2+2 ζ ωn S+ ωn2)(S+a)=characteristic equa. for a third order syst.

Open loop frequency Response main specifications:

1-Corner frequency ωc rad/sec: it is the frequency at which the magnitude of the

output frequency response is changed sharply. It may be (0, 1, 1/T, ωn)

2-Gain crossover frequency ωg rad/sec.: it is the frequency at which the magnitude

of the output frequency response is equal to one or zero decibel.

| | or | |

3-Phase crossover frequency ωp rad/sec.: it is the frequency at which the phase of

the output frequency response is equal to (-180) degrees.

Imag. [ G(j ωp)H(j ωp)]=0 or

4-Gain margin Gm: it is reciprocal of the magnitude of the output frequency response
at the Phase crossover frequency ωp

Gm=1/[Real of G(j ωp)H(j ωp)]= 1/| | Kc/K, GM=20log Gm db

5-Phase margin γm: it is the angle of the output frequency response at the gain
crossover frequency plus 180 degrees.

( ) ( )

6- Stability analysis: 1- system is stable

2- system is critical stable

 3- system is unstable

7- Critical gain Kc : it is obtained analytically by four methods:

1 -Routh arrary , 2-| | 3- Real of [G(j ωp)H(j ωp)]= -1

4- Gm=20log[Kc/K] db

Graphical representations of the open loop freq. response

There are three methods are: 1-polar plot 2-Bode diagram 3-Nichols plot

The main steps are: 1-Find the open loop TF= G(S)H(S) 2-Find the freq.open loop
TF= G(jω)H(jω)=

1- Calculate this table

ω 0 ωc 1 10 100 1000 ∞
Φ
M
20 log M(db)
Real
imag
Bode diagram it consists of two parts on semi-log paper. The upper part is the plot of
M magnitude in db against ω (log scale) and the lower part is the plot of the phase Φ
in degrees against ω (log-scale).

polar plot (Nyquist): is the plot of the locus of the vector in the Real-
imaginary plane in degrees as a straight line and determine M on this line
as ω changes from zero to infinity

Nichols Plot: is the Plot of M in db on the vertical axis against in degrees on

the horizontal axis in the X-Y plane
The gain and the phase margins from the plot
MATLAB programs

%Laplace syms s t
x1=laplace(dirac(t))%impulse function
x2=laplace(5*t^0)%step function
x3=laplace(5*t)%ramp function
x5=laplace(sin(5*t))%sin function
x7=laplace(exp(-5*t))%exp function
x10=ilaplace(x1)%impulse function
%partial fraction
n=[1 2 3];d=[1 3 3 1];n1=[1 2];d1=[1 3 3 5];
g=tf(n,d), [r1,p1,k1]=residue(n,d), [n3,d3]=residue(r1,p1,k1)
%Stability five methods
1- [z,p,k]=tf2zp(n,d) , [n4,d4]=zp2tf(z,p,k); m=[-1 -2 -3];
2- r=roots(n), roots(d) %roots of n,d
3- pole(g), zero(g)%poles & zeros
4- rlocus(n,d) 5-zpmap(g)
%block diagrams
G3=series(g,g1), G4=parallel(g,g1)
G6=feedback(g,g1,-1)
t=0:0.1:8; r=t;%responces
y1=impulse(g); % 1-impulse response
y2=step(g); %OR-step(n,d)- 2-step response
y3=lsim(n,d,r,t); % 3-response to arbitrary input
subplot(421),plot(y1), subplot(422),plot(y2),
subplot(423),plot(y3)%figure for every one
%open loop analysis
subplot(424),rlocus(n,d) %- 1-Root locus
subplot(425),nyquist(n,d) %- 2-polar plot
subplot(426),nichols(n,d) %- 3-Nichols plot
subplot(427),bode(n,d) %- 4-Bode plot
subplot(428),margin(n,d) %- 5-margin plot