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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
PREPARED BY: DBA

INDUSTRIAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
IN AN INDUSTRY, THERE IS ALWAYS A NEED TO MEASURE AND MONITOR

TEMPERATURE OF A PARTICULAR SPOT, FIELD OR LOCALITY. THE INDUSTRIAL
NAMES GIVEN TO SUCH TEMPERATURE SENSORS ARE TEMPERATURE INDICATORS
(TI) OR TEMPERATURE GAUGES (TG).
TEMPERATURE IS A PHYSICAL QUANTITY EXPRESSING HOT AND COLD. IT IS

MEASURED WITH A THERMOMETER CALIBRATED IN ONE OR MORE TEMPERATURE
SCALES.
WHY TEMPERATURE IS IMPORTANT?
• MANY PHYSICAL PROCESSES ARE AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE

• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS INCLUDING THE PHASE, DENSITY,
SOLUBILITY, VAPOR PRESSURE, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
• RATE AND EXTENT TO WHICH CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCUR
• THE AMOUNT AND PROPERTIES OF THERMAL RADIATION EMITTED FROM THE
SURFACE OF AN OBJECT
• SPEED OF SOUND IS A FUNCTION OF THE SQUARE ROOT OF THE ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE
TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER
A. BIMETALLIC TEMPERATURE SENSOR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Am3lqOGCuA&t=190s
B. FILLED-SYSTEM TEMPERATURE SENSOR

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WID5xEHNSWg
C. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeOeh1d-U3w
D. THERMOCOUPLE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3U2EA7U0NI8
E. THERMISTOR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDdlzDFnFu8
F. PYROMETER
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yetXIqoEsn0&t=2s
Note: All video links are optional, you may choose to access it or not, but I
believe the videos may help you to best appreciate the lesson.
A. BIMETALLIC TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• It uses the bimetallic strip which converts the temperature into the mechanical
displacement.
• This mechanical action from the bimetallic strip can be used to activate a switching
mechanism for getting electronic output. Also it can be attached to the pointer of
a measuring instrument or a position indicator.
Working Principle
• All metals change in dimension, that is expand or contract when there
is a change in temperature.
• The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on
the temperature co-efficient of expansion of the metal and this
temperature coefficient of expansion is different for different metals.
Hence the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce
deflections which is proportional to temperature changes.
Types:
1. HELICAL TYPE (HELIX TYPE)
2. SPIRAL TYPE
3. CANTILEVER TYPE
1. Helical Type
The helix type bimetallic strip is mostly used for industrial applications. In this
thermometer, the helix shape strip is used for measuring the temperature. The free
end of the strip is connected to the pointer. The deflection of the strip shows the
variation of temperature.
1. Helical Type
2. Spiral Type
In bimetallic strip thermometer, the spiral-shaped strip is used. This type of
thermometer is used for measuring the ambient temperature. Because of the thermal
expansion property of metal the deformation occurs in the spring with the variation
of temperature. The pointer and dials attached to the spring, which indicates the
variation of temperature.
2. Spiral Type
3. Cantilever Type
The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam. An increase in temperature
will result in the deflection of the free end of the strip and this deflection is linear
and can be related to temperature changes.
3. Cantilever Type
Important properties a material should have to be selected for
bimetallic thermometers:
1. Coefficient of expansion.
2. Modulus of elasticity.
3. Elastic limit after cold rolling.
4. Electrical conductivity.
5. Ductility.
6. Metallurgical ability.
Commonly used metal in Bimetallic thermometers:
High expansion
1. Brass
2. Nickel-iron alloy with chromium and manganese.
Low Expansion
1. Invar (alloy of nickel and iron).
2. Iron
Application of Bimetallic Strips and Thermometers:
• The bimetallic thermometer is used in household devices likes oven, air
conditioner, and in industrial apparatus like refineries, hot wires,
heater, tempering tanks etc. for measuring the temperature.
• By far the most common application of the bimetallic strip is as a
thermostat switch used for temperature and energy control.
Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers:
1. They are simple, robust and inexpensive.
2. Their accuracy is between + or - 2% to 5% of the scale.
3. They can with stand 50% over range in temperatures.
4. They can be used wherever a mercury–in-glass thermometer is used.
Limitations of Bimetallic Thermometer:
1. They are not recommended for temperature above 400°C.
2. When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently deform, which in
turn will introduce errors.
3. Their sensitivity and accuracy is less at low temperature.
B. FILLED-SYSTEM TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• A thermometer which has a bourdon tube connected by a capillary tube to a
hollow bulb.
• The standard classifies filled-system thermometers by the type of fill fluid used, it
is either liquid, vapor or gas.
• Bulb Design
The bulb volume varies over a range of 100 to 1 depending on the fill fluid, the
temperature span, and the capilliary length.
Different bulb materials are available but when used in Thermowell, standard
materials can be used. Some of this materials are copper, bronze or stainless steel. In case
of atmospheric corrosion, stainless steel is preferred.
• Capillary Tubing and Armoring
Capillary tubing is a small diameter tubing, usually made of stainless steel. Armor
should always be specified mot only because of mechanical strength but also to distinguish
with other tubing. Armor material shall be also a stainless steel material. Some case where
in corrosive atmosphere, the armor should be plastic coated.
Working principle:
• Filled-system thermometers use the phenomenon of thermal
expansion of matter to measure temperature change.
• Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to
measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed
system and then heated, the molecules in that fluid will exert
a greater pressure on the walls of the enclosing vessel.
• There are different types of filled-system thermometer that are identified by
“Class Numbers”
CLASS I: LIQUID FILLED
• Liquid actuated, solid filled with a high volumetric
expansion organic liquid (not mercury) The elastic
element responds to volumetric expansion of liquid in
the bulb.
• Common fill liquids are hydrocarbons and silicone
fluids Bulb size is dependent on temperature span
and fill medium Liquid filled systems are sensitive to
ambient temperature changes on the elastic element
and capillary unless some means of compensation is
employed
CLASS II: VAPOR FILLED
• It uses a volatile liquid/vapor combination to
generate a temperature-dependent fluid expansion.
• Vapour pressure systems are quite accurate and
reliable. This form of measurement is based on the
vapour-pressure curves of the fluid and measurement
occurs at the transition between the liquid and vapour
phase.
• Methyl Chloride, Ethane and Ethyl Chloride are some
of the fluid used in this class.
CLASS III: GAS FILLED
• This type of measurement is quite simple and low cost.
• Nitrogen is quite commonly used with gas filled
systems because it does not react easily and is
inexpensive. At low temperature, helium should be
considered.
• Gas filled systems do provide a faster response than
the other filled devices because it converts
temperature directly into pressure that is particularly
useful in pneumatic systems.
CLASS IV: GAS WITH ADSORBENT
• Gas actuated thermometer with an adsorbent (such as
activated carbon) in the bulb The adsorbent amplifies the
pressure temperature relationship providing a pressure change
greater than that of an equivalent range Class 3 thermometer
This permits the use of smaller bulbs and narrower
temperature spans Lower operating pressures minimize
ambient temperature errors
CLASS V: MERCURY FILLED
• Mercury expansion systems are
different from other liquid filled
systems because of the properties of
the metal. Mercury is toxic and can
affect some industrial processes that's
why it is used less in filled system.
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
• Ambient temperature effect - The capillary tube and bourdon tube are exposed to surroundings and subjected
to a variable temperature widely different from that of the bulb, which results as an error in temperature
measurement.
• Head or elevation effect - If the long capillary tube is used and thermometer bulb is placed at a different
height with respect to the bourdon tube, then due to elevation difference between bulb and bourdon tube
deflecting end, pressure head is created which results as an error in temperature measurement.
• Radiation effect - This error occurs due to temperature difference between the bulb and other solid bodies
around it.
• Immersion effect - If the bulb is not properly immersed or head of bulb is not properly insulated, then heat
from the bulb may be lost due to conduction from bulb and hence temperature at the bulb may be reduced, so
that, it indicates lower temperature than the actual.
• Barometric effect - The tip travel of a bourdon tube is due to pressure difference between atmosphere and
filled system pressure. So if any variation in atmospheric pressure from designed pressure, the bourdon tube
tip travels and can cause an error in temperature measurement.
Advantages:
- Simplicity in use - Low cost
- Portable device - Power source not require
- Checking physical damage is easy
Disadvantages:
- Can't use for automatic reading
- Time lag in measurement
- Fragile construction
- Some fluid used is toxic like mercury
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a
device which used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature with high
accuracy, RTD is the only one solution in industries.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
• A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) functions on the resistance and
temperature relationship in metals. It works on the principle of measurement
which states that “The resistance of a material changes with temperature”.
• When the metal’s temperature increases, the resistance to the electron’s flow
also increases. Similarly, as and when the temperature of element used in the
Resistance Temperature Detector increases, the resistance increases too.
• RTD’s resistance and the temperature can be determined by applying a
constant current and evaluating the occurrence of voltage drop through the
resistor.
• The figure shows the resistance-
temperature characteristics curve of
the three different metals. For
Platinum, its resistance changes by
approximately 0.4 ohms per degree
Celsius of temperature.
• Copper, Nickel and Platinum are
widely used metals.
• These three metals are having
different resistance variations with
respective to the temperature
variations.
Cu
∎ Why platinum? PRT Types
❑ Stable element
❑ Resists corrosion
❑ Easily workable
❑ High melting point
❑ Easily purified
PLATINUM TEMPERATURE
THERMOMETERS (PRT) are the most
common type of RTD
What are PT100 and PT1000 in RTD?
• In PT100 the ‘PT’ defines that the metal is Platinum and the ‘100’ is
the resistance in ohms at ice point (or 0°C). These are generally wire
wound and are quite common in industrial uses.
• PT1000 exhibits 1000Ω resistance at 0°C Celsius
temperature. These are generally thin film devices and are more
expensive.
• 200 and 500 ohm Platinum RTD’s are available but are more
expensive and less common.
• PT100 (Platinum) Resistance table.
• Note: for PT 100, when the input
measurement is 0 deg C, the output
resistance is 100 ohms
Why is wire compensation needed in RTD?
• As RTD is a resistor, the ohm meter or the resistance measuring devices
are connected parallel to the lead wires of the RTD. The lead wire
resistance adds to the RTD resistance as the wires got resistance and this
combined resistance will be shown as the RTD resistance incorrectly. So
that lead compensation techniques are used in RTD connections.
• There are three connection circuits for RTD wire circuit:
• Two-wire circuit
• Three-wire circuit
• Four-wire circuit
RTD LEAD WIRE CONFIGURATION:
• Two Wire Configuration -It is the most simple one and has the
chances of errors. In this configuration, RTD is connected to a
Wheatstone bridge circuit using two wires. The voltage output
is monitored to get the the desired output.
• Three Wire Configuration - They are the most common ype of
RTD assembly. Typically, they are connected to standard
bridge circuit, which allows lead wire resistance to be
compensated. They are more accurate than two wire RTDs and
are used in most industrial applications.
• Four Wire Configuration - Four wire Resistance Temperature
Detectors are even more accurate than Three wire RTDs as
they are able to completely compensate for the resistance of
the wires without having to pay attention to the length of each
of the wires. This provides significantly increased accuracy at
low cost of increased copper extension wire.
ADVANTAGES:
• Linearity over wide operating range
• Wide temperature operating range
• High temperature operating range
• Interchangeability over wide range
• Good stability at high temperature
DISADVANTAGES:
• Low sensitivity
• Higher cost than thermocouples
• No point sensing
• Affected by shock and vibration
• Requires three or four-wire operation
APPLICATIONS
 In Automotive  In Industrial
Industry – As audio Electronics – For gas
amplifiers and engine flow indicators and
oil temperature Plastic laminating
sensors. equipment.
 In Medical Electronics
 In Communication – For blood dialysis
and Instrumentation – equipment and Infant
As temperature sensors incubators.
and amplifiers.
 In Consumer
Electronics – For small
appliance controls and
Fire Detectors. NOTE: RTDs should be used when:
1. Stability and accuracy are a requirement
of the customer’s specification.
2. Accuracy extends over a wide temperature
range.
D. THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature.
Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from different metals. The wires legs
are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where the
temperature is measured. When the junction experiences a change in temperature,
a voltage is created. The voltage can then be interpreted using
thermocouple reference tables to calculate the temperature.
The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects namely Seebeck,
Peltier and Thompson.
See beck-effect - This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat
offers to any one of the metal wire, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal
wire to cold metal wire. Therefore, direct current stimulates in the circuit.
Peltier-effect - This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states that
the difference of the temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar conductors
by applying the potential variation among them.
Thompson-effect - This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they
form two joints then the voltage induces the total conductor’s length due to the gradient
of temperature. This is a physical word that demonstrates the change in rate and
direction of temperature at an exact position.
Types of Thermocouple:
Type K (Nickel-Chromium / Nickel-Alumel): The type K is the most common type of
thermocouple. It’s inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and has a wide temperature range
Type J (Iron/Constantan): The type J is also very common. It has a smaller temperature
range and a shorter lifespan at higher temperatures than the Type K. It is equivalent to
the Type K in terms of expense and reliability
Type T (Copper/Constantan): The Type T is a very stable thermocouple and is often used
in extremely low temperature applications such as cryogenics or ultra low freezers
Type E (Nickel-Chromium/Constantan): The Type E has a stronger signal & higher
accuracy than the Type K or Type J at moderate temperature ranges of 1,000F and
lower. See temperature chart (linked) for details.
Types of Thermocouple:
Type N (Nicrosil / Nisil): The Type N shares the same accuracy and temperature limits as the Type K.
The type N is slightly more expensive.
Type S (Platinum Rhodium - 10% / Platinum): The Type S is used in very high temperature
applications. It is commonly found in the BioTech and Pharmaceutical industries. It is sometimes used in
lower temperature applications because of its high accuracy and stability
Type R (Platinum Rhodium -13% / Platinum): The Type R is used in very high temperature
applications. It has a higher percentage of Rhodium than the Type S, which makes it more expensive.
The Type R is very similar to the Type S in terms of performance. It is sometimes used in lower
temperature applications because of its high accuracy and stability
Type B (Platinum Rhodium – 30% / Platinum Rhodium – 6%): The Type B thermocouple is used in
extremely high temperature applications. It has the highest temperature limit of all of the
thermocouples listed above. It maintains a high level of accuracy and stability at very high
temperatures
Applications:
• These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes,
offices & businesses.
• These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron,
aluminum, and metal.
• These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature
applications. Thermocouples are used as a heat pump for performing
thermoelectric cooling.
• These are used to test temperature in the chemical plants, petroleum plants.
• These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.
ADVANTAGES:
• Accuracy is high
• It is Robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high
vibration.
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Wide operating temperature range
• Cost is low and extremely consistent
DISADVANTAGES:
• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard
E. THERMISTOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR
• A Thermistor is a type of resistor used to
measure temperature changes, relying on
the change in its resistance with changing
temperature.
• Thermistor is a combination of the words
thermal and resistor
Working Principle:
A Thermistor does not actually “read”
anything, instead the resistance of a
thermistor changes with temperature. How
much the resistance changes depends on the
type of material used in the thermistor.
Unlike other sensors, thermistors are
non-linear, meaning the points on a graph
representing the relationship between the
resistance and temperature will not form a
straight line. The location of the line and how
much it changes is determined by the
construction of the thermistor.
Types of Thermistor:
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
• With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is
commonly used as a temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an
inrush current limiter.
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
• With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC
thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to
protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
Note: NTC Types are used for Temperature measurement
Advantages:
• Small size and light in weight
• Inexpensive
• Very high sensitivity (Select range)
• Fast response
• Standard two wire connection system
• Made to be waterproof and bomb proof
Disadvantages:
• Not easily interchangeable
• Non linear
• It is not suitable for large temperature range
• Susceptible to self-heating errors
Applications:
• Microwave
For those who have used a microwave, you have used a thermistor. They are used in these
machines to determine and maintain internal temperature. Without the resistor in the
microwave, there is a possibility of overheating in the unit. This could lead to potential fires.
• Circuit Protector
If you have a power supply or surge protector in your home or office then you are also using a
thermistor. Without a thermistor in this product, surges of energy would be uncontrolled. This
could lead to overheating or too much electricity being pushed to whatever is plugged in. This
could lead to some of your electronics shorting out.
• Automotive
Cars, trucks, and buses all use thermistors. They are used to determine the temperature of oil and
coolants. This is how you are able to know if your car is overheating or not. The thermistors are
connected to indicators on the dashboard of the vehicle. Thermistors in cars do not prevent or
regulate. Instead, they are used to gather information. This allows a driver to fix their car or truck
before something serious happens.
Applications:
• Digital Thermometers
Have you ever wondered how digital thermometers are able to accurately gauge someone’s
temperature? This is possible because of thermistors. Just like with cars, these devices used to
gather information rather than helping to maintain temperature.
• Rechargeable Batteries
The ability to recharge a battery is only possible because of the help it gets. When you start
charging batteries, there is a tendency for things to get hot. The low resistance of the thermistor
allows it to stop the charging if things are getting too hot.
E. PYROMETER
Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or
Radiation thermometer or non-contact thermometer used to detect
the temperature of an object’s surface temperature, which depends
on the radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the object.
Pyrometers act as photo detector because of the property of
absorbing energy and measuring of EM wave intensity at any
wavelength.
E. PYROMETER
Types of Pyrometer:
1. Optical Pyrometers
Used to detect thermal radiation of
the visible spectrum. The temperature of the
hot objects measured will depend on the
visible light they emit.
Optical pyrometers are capable of
providing a visual comparison between a
calibrated light source and the targeted
object’s surface.
E. PYROMETER
Types of Pyrometer:
1. Optical Pyrometers
E. PYROMETER
Types of Pyrometer:
2. Infrared Pyrometers
Designed to detect thermal radiation
in the infrared region, which is usually at a
distance of 2-14um. It measures the
temperature of a targeted object from the
emitted radiation.
This radiation can be directed to a
thermocouple to convert into electrical
signals. Because the thermocouple is
capable of generating higher current equal
to the heat emitted.
E. PYROMETER
Applications:
• Suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any
surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched
Application in the areas of:
• Glass Production
• Cement Production
• Metal Production
• Food Production
• Products that are not stationary
E. PYROMETER
Main Components of Pyrometer:
• The Absorption Screen is used to pull in as much radiation energy as possible
into the system. This not only increases the amount of radiations entering inside
but also extends the measuring range of the instrument. The radiations from the
absorption screen are concentrated on a filament lamp.
• The filament lamp or detector is connected to a circuit, which measures the
intensity of radiations. The filament works similar to a thermocouple, providing
the exact temperature using an ammeter calibrated in units of temperature.
• The monochromatic filter is used to dissect the light into a single color, usually
red, to simplify the filament radiation calibrating process. Thus, the radiations
from the lamp and the heat source are almost the same, and the calibrated
current through the lamp is the measure of temperature of the heat radiating
source.
E. PYROMETER
Main Components of Pyrometer:
E. PYROMETER
Advantages:
• It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the object.
• It has a fast response time
• Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
• It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Human errors
• Not useful for measuring temperature of clear glass
• At high temperature filament erodes frequently
END
INDUSTRIAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
▫ The Measurement and Control of Pressure is very important in
almost all chemical and Petrochemical Industries, Power Plants
and other Industries. Many of the Processes in these Industries
use liquids, gases, steam, etc. which requires highly accurate
measurement and control of pressure for Trouble Free and
Safety Operation.
▫ Pressure is defined as Force Applied Per Unit Area.

• Mathematically, pressure is expressed as; P = F/A
• Where P – Pressure, F – Force, A – Area
TYPES OF PRESSURE
1. Gauge Pressure - Pressure above atmospheric pressure. Hence, the
zero of the Gauge Pressure scale depends on the Atmospheric Pressure
at that location.
2. Absolute Pressure – Pressure above the absolute Zero.
3. Atmospheric Pressure or Barometric Pressure
4. Vacuum - Pressure less than atmospheric Pressure.
5. Differential Pressure
UNITS OF PRESSURE
A unit often used for expressing high pressures is
atmospheres, abbreviated atm. A micron, abbreviated, is 0.001
mm of Hg column absolute pressure at 32°F. A pound per
square inch, abbreviated psig for gauge pressures and psia for
absolute pressures, is the common. Common units of pressure
Pascal (N/m2), Bar, kgf/cm2, psi (lb.f/in2), Torr (mm Hg) and
mm H20
MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURES

Pressures, which are less than 1 psi, are normally considered
as low pressure and low pressures are usually calibrated in
inches of water.(1 Psi = 27.7 inches of H20).
PRESSURE CONVERSION TABLE
A pressure conversion table is used for conversion of pressure from one
unit to other.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRESSURE PRINCIPLES
Pressure is simply the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings. If it is a gas, then
the pressure of the gas is the force per unit area that the gas exerts on the walls of the container
that holds it. If the fluid is a liquid, then the pressure is the force per unit area that the liquid exerts
on the container in which it is contained. Obviously, the pressure of a gas will be uniform on all the
walls that must enclose the gas completely. In a liquid, the pressure will vary, being greatest on the
bottom of the vessel and zero on the top surface, which need not be enclosed.
Static Pressure
The statements made in the previous paragraph are explicitly true for a fluid that is not moving in
space, that is not being pumped through pipes or flowing through a channel. The pressure in case
where no motion is occurring is referred to as static pressure.
Dynamic Pressure
If a fluid is in motion, the pressure that it exerts on its surrounding depends on the motion. Thus, if
we measure the pressure of water in a hose with the nozzle closed, we may find a pressure of, say,
40 1b per square inch (note : force per unit area). If the nozzle is opened, the pressure in the hose
will drop to a different value, say, 30 1b per square inch. For this reason, a thorough description of
pressure must note the circumstances under which it is measured. Pressure can depend on flow,
compressibility of the fluid, external forces, and numerous other factors.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRESSURE PRINCIPLES
Gauge Pressure
In many cases, the absolute pressure is not the quantity of major interest in describing the pressure. The atmosphere of gas that
surrounds the earth exerts a pressure, because of its weight, at the surface of the earth of approximately 14.7 psi, which defines
the “atmosphere” unit. If a closed vessel at the earth’s surface contained a gas at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi, then there
would be no net pressure on the walls of the container because the atmospheric gas exerts the same pressure from the outside. In
cases like this, it is more appropriate to describe pressure in a relative sense-that is, compared to atmospheric pressure. This is
called gauge pressure and is given by:
Pg = Pabs – Patm
Where: Pg = gauge pressure
Pabs = absolute pressure
Patm = atmospheric pressure
In the English system of units, the abbreviation psig is used to represent the gauge pressure.
Head Pressure
For liquids, the expression head pressure, or pressure head, is often used to describe by the weight of the liquid above the point at
which the pressure is being described. This pressure depends only on the height of the liquid above that point and the liquid density
(mass per unit volume). In terms of an equation, if a liquid is contained in a tank, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is given by
P = ρ gh
where: P = pressure in Pa
ρ = density in Kg/m³
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
h = depth in liquid in m
METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
1. By Means Of Mechanical Pressure Sensors
2. By Means Of Electrical/ Electronic/ Pressure
Sensors/Elements/ Transducers
TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSOR TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER
A. Bellow type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwwYd1wt3ho
B. Diaphragm type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0INptOyCmE
C. Bourdon Tube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBdTxTp_qLI
D. Piezoresistive Strain Guage - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBAHlWfBopw
(also video link of diaphragm type 2:05-3:13)
E. Capacitive type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CceTpFLc1FM
F. Piezoelectric type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OF7S0-zFBY8
G. Potentiometric – (Unlike a mechanical pressure guage in which the sensor is
connected to a dial, the sensor is instead connected to a potentiometer. So the
result of change in pressure will have an output of change in resistance)
H. Pressure Instrument Accessories
Note: All video links are optional, you may choose to access it or not, but I
believe the videos may help you to best appreciate the lesson.
MECHANICAL
SENSOR
Working Principle
▫ System or line pressure is applied to the internal
volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure to the
instrument varies, the bellows will expand or
contract. The moving end of the bellows
is connected to a mechanical linkage assembly.
▫ As the bellows and linkage assembly moves,

either an electrical signal is generated or a direct
pressure indication is provided.
▫ The bellows must always be opposed by a spring,

and the deflection characteristics will be the
resulting force of the spring and bellows.
Working Principle
▫ The bellows are used in two forms.

1. Pressure is applied to one side of the
bellows and the resulting deflection is
counter balanced by a spring.
2. The differential pressure is also
indicated.
▫ One pressure is applied to the

inside of one sealed bellow while
the other pressure is applied to the
inside of another sealed bellow.
Relative pressure sensors
▫ The bellows will usually

be used in expansion. The
process pressure is then
introduced to the inside of
the bellows and causes
the bellows to extend.
Absolute pressure sensors
The first one is the reference bellows,
which is provided with a perfect vacuum on
the inside. The second one is the measuring
bellows, which is subjected to the process
pressure.
Absolute pressure sensors are
generally used to measure low pressures, the
bellows are not equipped with calibrated
springs and they are used in expansion. The
bellows will stretch with increasing process
pressure.
Basic construction/ MATERIALS
The bellows are made up of an alloy with high strength and ductility. It should
have very little hysteresis effect. Commonly brass or phosphor bronze is used for
making bellows. For selecting a specific material for bellows, the parameters to
be checked are:
(i) Range of pressure
(ii) Hysteresis
(iii) Fatigue on dynamic operation
(iv) Corrosion
(v) Fabrication ease
(vi) Sensitivity to fluctuating pressures
ADVANTAGES
▫ Its cost is moderate.
▫ It is able to deliver high force.
▫ It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressures.
▫ It is good to low-to moderate range.
▫ It is used to measure absolute & differential pressure.
▫ It is used to measure low or medium pressure rang.
DISADVANTAGES
▫ It needs ambient temperature compensation.
▫ It is unsuitable for high pressures.
▫ The availability of construction metals is limited
▫ It is not useful to measure high value pressure (applications usually less than 30 psi)
▫ Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
▫ No in place maintenance or repair can be performed – they must be replaced if
damaged.
19
20
The Diaphragm Pressure

▫ Diaphragms are well developed and
Sensor
proven. Modern designs have negligible
uses the elastic deformation of a
hysteresis, friction and calibration
diaphragm (i.e. membrane)
instead of a liquid level to problems when used with smart
measure the difference between instrumentation.
an unknown pressure and a
reference pressure.
21
A typical Diaphragm pressure gauge

contains a capsule divided by a diaphragm,
as shown in the schematic.
One side of the diaphragm is open to the

external targeted pressure, PExt,
and the other side is connected to a known
pressure, PRef,.
The pressure difference, PExt – PRef,

mechanically deflects the diaphragm.
22
There are two main types of construction and operation of diaphragm

sensors.
▫ Motion Balanced
Motion balanced designs are used to control local, direct reading
indicators. They are however more prone to hysteresis and friction errors.
▫ Force Balanced
Force balanced designs are used as transmitters for relaying information
with a high accuracy, however they do not have direct indication capability.
23
▫ They are used extensively on air conditioning plants and for ON/OFF switching applications.
▫ Sanitary processes
(food, pharmaceuticals, etc.) where
allowing process fluid to accumulate in
the pressure port of the sensor would
compromise the purity of the fluid
(such as milk getting into the pressure
port of a pressure gauge and spoiling)
24
▫ Very pure process fluids, where

▫ Pneumatic systems where
the metal surface of the pressure
small changes in pressures
sensor might contaminate the
must be eliminated, such as
fluid (such as copper ions from
those controlling air
brass leaching into ultra pure
bearings.
water.)
25
Provide isolation
from process fluid Wide range
Used to measure gauge,

Good for low atmospheric and
pressure differential pressure
26
Seismic, impact Lower measurement

resistance is not good pressure.
Difficulty in
maintenance
The Bourdon tube is the namesake of Eugéne
Bourdon, a French watchmaker and engineer who
invented the Bourdon gauge in 1849. C-Type
Bourdon Tube works on a simple principle that a bent
tube will change its shape when exposed to
variations of internal and external pressure. It is
known for its very high range of differential pressure
measurement in the range of almost 100,000 psi (700
MPa). It is an elastic type pressure transducer.
Parts and working principle
▫ The pressure input is given to a
socket which is soldered to the tube
at the base.
▫ Tip is connected to a segmental lever
through an adjustable length link. The
lever length may also be adjustable.
▫ A hair spring is used to fasten the
spindle of the frame of the instrument
to provide necessary tension for
proper meshing of the gear teeth.
As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it
tries to be reformed and because of a free tip available,
this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the
tube unwinds. The simultaneous actions of bending and
tension due to the internal pressure make a non-linear
movement of the free tip. This travel is suitable guided
and amplified for the measurement of the internal
pressure.
This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon
tube is proportional to the applied pressure. As the free
end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link – section –
pinion arrangement, the displacement is amplified and
converted to a rotary motion of the pinion. As the pinion
rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new posistion
on a pressure calibrated scale to indicate the appilied
pressure directly. As the pressure in the case containing
the bourdon tube is usually atmospheric, the pointer
indicates gauge pressure.
▫ A lot of compound stresses originate in the tube
as soon as the pressure is applied. This makes
the travel of the tip to be non-linear in nature. The
small linear tip movement is matched with a
rotational pointer movement. It can be adjusted by
adjusting the length of the lever. For the same
amount of tip travel, a shorter lever gives larger
rotation.
Application
▫ C-type tubes are available for measuring pressures up to

6000 bar. A typical C-type tube of 25 mm radius has a maximum
displacement travel of 4 mm, giving a moderate level
of measurement resolution. Measurement inaccuracy is typically
quoted at ±1% of full-scale deflection.
▫ These devices should be used in air if calibrated for air, and in
liquid if calibrated for liquid. Special care is required for liquid
applications in bleeding air from the liquid lines.
▫ This type of pressure measurement is limited in applications
where there is input shock (a sudden surge of pressure), and in
fast moving processes.
ADVANTAGES
▫ Inexpensive • Can be modified to give electrical

▫ Wide operating range outputs.
▫ Simple in construction • Safe even for high pressure
▫ Fast response measurement.
▫ Good sensitivity
• Accuracy is high especially at
▫ Direct pressure high pressures.
measurement
DISADVANTAGES
▫ Primarily intended for • They respond slowly to changes in pressure
indication only
▫ Hysteresis on cycling • They are subjected to hysteresis.
▫ Sensitive to • They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
temperature variations
▫ Limited life when • Amplification is a must as the displacement
subject to shock and of the free end of the bourdon tube is low.
vibration
• It cannot be used for precision
measurement.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
▫ The spiral Bourdon tube makes a few windings in one plane around the
fixed shaft of the pointer.
▫ When the tube is being uncoiled by the process pressure, the free end
will have a larger displacement compared to the C-shaped tube. The
more windings, the larger the displacement will be.
▫ A transmission mechanism is therefore no longer necessary. When the
number of windings is correctly determined for a selected measuring
range, a fixed connection between the free end of the Bourdon tube
and the pointer is sufficient for a full deflection on the scale.
▫ Using a fixed link avoids transmission losses due to friction or backlash
in the transmission mechanism. This increases the accuracy and
sensitivity of the pressure gauge. Also, recalibration is no longer
necessary.
▫ Backlash is mainly caused by wear on the teeth of the gears. Vibrations and
pulsations are making it even worse. A pressure gauge with backlash on the gears
will always indicate a pressure which is too low or too high. Subjected to pulsations,
the backlash will cause the pointer to rotate further to the left and right than would
normally be the case without backlash. Having a fixed link is making the spiral
Bourdon tube pressure gauge very resistant to extreme vibration or pulsation.
▫ For low pressure ranges, the spiral is made of a flat oval tube, while round tube is
being used for the high pressure ranges.
▫ The same low pressures can be measured with the spiral Bourdon tube as with the
C-shaped Bourdon tube but the cost for a spiral pressure gauge is higher.
▫ The use of spiral Bourdon tubes is consequently more likely in the high-pressure
ranges which cannot be measured with the C-shaped tube because the wall
thickness of the tube would be too large so that the tip movement is too small to
have sufficient accuracy.
CONSTRUCTION OF SPIRAL TYPE
▫ Spiral Bourdon Tube is made by winding a partially flattened metal tube into a
spiral having several turns instead of a single C-bend arc.
▫ The tip movement of the spiral equals the sum of the tip movements of all its
individual C-bend arcs.
ADVANTAGES
▫ A spiral-type bourdon tube provides more tip movement.
▫ The spiral-type tube works under the same observed
principles as the C-type, but as the applied pressure
increases, the spiral uncoils. Because of the increased tip
movement, mechanical amplification is not normally needed.
This results in an increase in sensitivity and accuracy
because there is no lost motion from loose or sticking links,
levers, or gears.
▫ Increased accuracy and sensitivity
▫ Higher over range protection
Disadvantages
▫ Very expensive
APPLICATION OF SPIRAL TYPE
▫ It is mainly used in low- pressure application.
Working Principle:
▫ Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It allows the tip
movement to be converted to a circular motion.
▫ By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its axis and
connecting it to the tip, the tip movement become a circular motion of
the shaft.
ADVANTAGES
▫ Helical tubes are more sensitive than the C-Type tube. This
means that for a given applied pressure a spiral or helical
tube will show more movement than an equivalent C-Type
tube, thus avoiding the need for a magnifying linkage.
▫ Helical tubes can be manufactured in very much smaller
sizes than the equivalent C-Type tubes. Hence, they can be
fitted into smaller spaces, such as inside recorders or
controller cases where a C-Type would be unsuitable
because of the size.
DISADVANTAGES
▫ They respond slowly to changs in pressure
▫ They are subjected to hysterisis.
▫ They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
▫ Ampilification is a must as the displacement of the free end of
the bourdon tube is low.
▫ It cannot be used for precision measurement
TRANSDUCER
Symbol
Principles of Operation
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauges are among the most common types
of pressure sensors. They use the change in electrical
resistance of a material when stretched to measure the
pressure.
▫ These are suitable for a variety of applications because of their
simplicity and robustness. They can be used for absolute,
gauge, relative and differential pressure measurement, in both
high- and low-pressure applications.
▫ The basic principle of the piezoresistive strain gauge is to use a
strain gauge made from a conductive material that changes its
electrical resistance when it is stretched. The strain gauge can
be attached to a diaphragm that recognizes a change in
resistance when the sensor element is deformed. The change in
resistance is converted to an output signal
Change in Resistance of Conductor
▫ The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length so stretching
increases the resistance
▫ As the conductor is stretched, its cross-sectional area is reduced, which
also increases the resistance
▫ The inherent resistivity of some materials increases when it is stretched
Functionality
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are made
using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Basic Construction/Materials
▫ One or more strain gauge sensors made from a length of wire can be
attached to the surface of a diaphragm.
Basic Construction/Materials
▫ Semiconducting materials, most commonly silicon, can also be used
to make piezoelectric strain gauge. The characteristics of the sensing
element, particularly the size of the piezoresistive effect, can be
adjusted by doping; in other words by adding carefully controlled
amounts of impurities (dopants) to the semiconductor.
▫ More lightly doped silicon results in a higher resistivity and a higher
gauge factor. However, this also increases the thermal sensitivity of
both the resistance and gauge factor.
Applications
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauges are applied in measuring

acceleration, force, torque, pressure, and vibration
▫ Silicon strain gauges provide a much larger output signal, making
them well-suited to low-pressure applications, down to around 2
kPa.
▫ Can be used as a knock sensor in automotive engine
management systems for noticing knock of the engine.
▫ The load of the engine can be determined by calculating diverse
absolute pressure, that can be done by using these transducers
as the MAP sensor in fuel injection systems.
Advantages
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauge pressure sensors have the advantage of
being robust. Their performance and calibration is also stable over
time.
▫ Metal film sensing elements have the advantage of simple construction
and durability. They also have a higher maximum operating
temperature (up to about 200°C) than silicon strain gauges, which are
limited to below 100°C.
▫ Can be made much smaller than metal wire sensors and can be
integrated with electronics for signal processing, which can control for
non-linearity and temperature dependence.
Disadvantages
▫ Temperature Variation – This can be one of the major causes of error
in a strain gauge. It can easily change the gauge resistance and cause
differential expansion between the gauge and the test piece, causing
variation in the measurable strain.
▫ Humidity – Humidity can affect the accuracy by the breakdown of
insulation between the gauge and the ground point. It also causes
electro-chemical corrosion of gauge wire due to electrolysis.
▫ Small errors could be caused due to thermoelectric effect.
What is the Capacitive Pressure Transducer?
▫ It is a pressure measurement device, which converts

applied pressure into a current signal, like 4-20mA.
Capacitive type pressure transmitter is differential pressure
type sensor.
▫ Capacitive pressure transmitter works under the principle of
differential capacitance. Capacitive pressure measurement involves
sensing the change in capacitance that results from the movement of
a diaphragm.
▫ A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical position
of the moving element, may be used to provide an electrical indication
of the element’s position. Generaly the capacitance is defined by the
equation:
C = Aε/d
C – Capacitance between two conductors
A – Area of overlapping between those conductors
d – Distance separating the conductors
ε – Dielectric permittivity of the insulating medium
▫ The permittivity of the medium and the area of overlapping will be
constant in this case, the only varying parameter, in this case, is the
distance between the conductors which varies when the pressure
varies, which changes the capacitance. So the pressure variation
results in the capacitance variation.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
▫ Inaccuracy 0.01 to 0.2% ▫ Temperature sensitivity
▫ Linearity ▫ Stray capacitance problem
▫ Fast response ▫ Vibration
▫ Range of 80Pa to 35MPa ▫ Limited overpressure
capability
▫ Cost
What are Piezoelectric Transducers?
Piezoelectric transducers are a type of
electroacoustic transducer that convert the electrical
charges produced by some forms of solid materials into
energy. The word "piezoelectric" literally means electricity
caused by pressure.
Piezoelectric Transducer Working
Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity.
The faces of piezoelectric material, usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of
conducting material such as silver. When stress has applied the ions in the
material move towards one of the conducting surface while moving away from
the other. This results in the generation of charge. This charge is used for
calibration of stress. The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the
direction of the applied stress. Stress can be applied in two forms as
Compressive stress and Tensile stress as shown below.
Piezoelectric Transducer Formula
The orientation of the crystal also effects the amount of
voltage generated. Crystal in a transducer can be arranged
in longitudinal position or transverse position
 In the longitudinal effect, the charge generated is given by
Q=F*d
Where F is the applied forced is the piezoelectric coefficient of the crystal.
Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10-12 C/N.
 In the transverse effect, the charge generated is given by

Q = F * d * (b/a)
When the ratio b/a is greater than 1 the charge produced by transverse
arrangement will be greater than the amount generated by longitudinal
arrangement.
Types of Piezoelectric Materials
Some of the types of piezoelectric materials are:
 Naturally Available Ones: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline-

group minerals, and some organic substances as silk, wood, enamel,
bone, hair, rubber, dentin.
 Artificially manufactures piezoelectric material are Polyvinylidene

difluoride, PVDF or PVF2, Barium titanate, Lead titanate, Lead zirconate
titanate (PZT), Potassium niobate, Lithium niobate, Lithium tantalate, and
other lead-free piezoelectric ceramics.
Not all piezoelectric materials can be used in piezoelectric transducers. There
are certain requirements to be met by the piezoelectric materials to be used as transducers.
▫ frequency stability
▫ high output values
▫ insensitive to the extreme temperature and humidity conditions and which can be
available in various shapes
▫ should be flexible to be manufactured into various shapes without disturbing their
properties.
Unfortunately, there is no piezoelectric material which has all these

properties. Quartz is a highly stable crystal which is naturally available but it has small
output levels. Slowly varying parameters can be measured with quartz. Rochelle salt gives
the highest output values but it is sensitive to environmental conditions and cannot be
operated above 1150F.
Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers
Advantages:
▫ Self-generating
▫ Accessible
▫ High-frequency response
▫ Flexibility
Limitations:
▫ Small electric charge
▫ Affected by various environments and conditions
▫ Naturally low output
Principle of Operation
▫ The principle of the potentiometric pressure measurement
is based on the change in resistance of a potentiometer.
▫ The wiper of the potentiometer is mechanically connected
to a pressure-sensitive element, such as a Bourdon tube, a
bellows, a capsule or a diaphragm. The deflection of the
pressure-sensitive element determines the position of the
wiper on the potentiometer.
▫ As a result, the resistance value changes between the
wiper and one end of the potentiometer. This resistance
value is a measure of the pressure applied to the sensing
element.
Basic Construction/ Materials
▫ It started with a Bourdon tube attached to
a potentiometer, creating the first
potentiometric pressure transducer. A few
years later followed by the unbonded and
bonded strain gauges. The change in
electrical resistance that is due to
pressure changes, was always the basic
principle.
▫ A potentiometer mainly consists of a
resistance element having a connection
terminal at each end, a sliding track that is
connected to the third terminal, a wiper,
and the housing.
Application
▫ Potentiometric pressure transducers can be used to measure
absolute, relative or differential pressure depending on how the
pressure sensor is built.
▫ They are used for industrial and military purposes as oil
pressure gauges for display on the dashboard, flow
measurement of air supply to combustion engines, or pressure
measurements for ground support equipment at airports.
▫ In addition to pressure measurement applications, the
potentiometric transducer is also used for many other
applications such as positioning, displacement, level, flow rate
measurement, etc.
Advantage
▫ Simple technology or simple instrumentation , have
high electrical efficiency and are inexpensive
▫ Easily customizable to application
▫ High output signal
▫ High range and have high ruggedness
Disadvantage
▫ Sensitive to vibration
▫ Short lifespan
▫ Low accuracy
▫ Poor frequency to response and have tendency to
develop noise
ACCESSORIES
PRESSURE SNUBBER
▫ A pressure snubber is a device used to suppress excessive
pressure or rapid movement in mechanical systems.
▫ The pressure snubber are designed to dampen the effect of
pressure pulses and spikes to ensure longer life and readability of
pressure gauges in difficult applications.
▫ It is offered in a selection of porous, piston or regulating designs;
.
TYPES OF PRESSURE SNUBBER
1. Porous disk snubber:
• At the low cost end of the damping spectrum is
the type of porous disk (also known as the “filter
type”).
• The fixed disc creates a semipermeable barrier
between the incoming pressure and the
manometer hole.
• The pressure is with that disk and has its force
distributed through the metal mesh, decreasing
it so that it does not damage the meter.
• The pressure increases gradually, so that the
meter does not jump a gear or explode a
bourdon tube.
2. Piston type snubber:
• A piston-type damper has a slightly more
advanced design that is often self-cleaning.
• Often designed in two pieces, the piston inside
the shock absorber moves freely, acting as a
barrier to the rapid increase in pressure.
• When the pressure increases too quickly, the
piston is forced against the hole that leads to
the manometer, stopping the flow for
milliseconds.
• The diameter of the piston and its free space
inside the snubber determine the speed of
“damping” that occurs.
3. Adjustable snubber:
• Adjustable snubber takes that fine
adjustment to another level.
• Many use a combination of a control ball to
block surges and a kind of throttle valve to
soften the flow of material in the meter.
• The control of the ball acts much like the
piston-type damper, since it is a passive
element until a rapid change of pressure
puts it into action.
A small orifice in an
adapter fitting dampens
shock and fluctuating
pressure effects by limiting
the rate at which flow
enters. The smaller the
orifice, the greater is the
dampening effect.
ADVANTAGES
• Cost effective solution to protect expensive sensors and
gauges used in pressurized application.
• Improves gauges readability smoothing out pressure spikes,
surges, and pulsation.
DISADVANTAGE
• Some type of pressure snubber can become clogged,
depending on the process being measured.
OIL-FILLED
▫ In a liquid-filled pressure gauge, usually the case is filled with a non-
aqueous fluid that effectively dampens vibration, pulsation and
pressure spikes.
Types of Liquid-Filled Gauges:
• Glycerin. Glycerin-filled gauges are a good value and provide good
vibration dampening for applications at room temperature. These
gauges work well in temperatures between -4°F and +140°F (-20°C and
+60°C).
• Silicone. Have lower viscosities even at very low temperatures; better
for applications with extreme temperature variations, especially in colder
climates and when icing may be expected. Their working temperature
range extends from -40°F to +140°F (-40°C to +60°C).
• Halocarbon. Better suited to applications that involve oxidizing agents
such as chlorine, oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. They work within the
same temperature range as glycerin-filled gauges, that is from -4°F to
+140°F (-20°C and +60°C).
ADVANTAGES
• the liquid absorbs vibration and pressure spikes
• the dampening action of the liquid enables the operator to take
readings during conditions of rapid dynamic loading and vibration
• the liquid lubricates all moving elements, dramatically reducing
wear in the movement
• because most liquid-filled gauges are filled with non-aqueous
liquid and hermetically sealed, they perform in corrosive
environments and are immune to moisture penetration and icing,
and shock effects are lessened
• Liquid-filled gauges enhance the reliability and integrity of the
measuring system for long periods under extreme operating
conditions.
DISADVANTAGES
• Discoloration (darkening or yellowing) of glycerin over time
due to exposure of UV rays or extreme temperature
changes
• Standard Glycerin is really only good down to 20 degrees
Fahrenheit. It is not recommended for cold environments
• Risk of leakage
• Pressure can build up in the case due to expansion and
contraction of fluid from temperature changes (usually
small, 1 PSI or so) affecting the accuracy of the reading as
well as bring the needle off of zero
WATER TRAPS/PIGTAILS/SIPHONS
▫ Many industrial processes utilize high-pressure steam for direct heating,
performing mechanical work, combustion control, and as a chemical reactant.
Measuring the pressure of steam is important both for its end-point use and its
generation (in a boiler).
▫ One problem with doing this is the relatively high temperature of steam at
the pressures common in industry, which can cause damage to the sensing
element of a pressure instrument if directly connected.
▫ A simple yet effective solution to this problem is to intentionally create a “low” spot
in the impulse line where condensed steam (water) will accumulate and act as a
liquid barrier to prevent hot steam from reaching the pressure instrument.
▫ The principle is much the same as a plumber’s trap used underneath sinks,
creating a liquid seal to prevent noxious gases from entering a home from the
sewer system. A loop of tube or pipe called a pigtail siphon achieves the same
purpose.
Pressure Gauge Syphons
▫ Pressure gauge siphons are used to protect
the pressure gauge from the effect of hot
pressure media such as steam and also to
reduce the effect of rapid pressure surges.
The pressure medium forms a condensate
and is collected inside the coil or pigtail
portion of the siphon.
▫ The condensate prevents the hot media from
coming in direct contact with the pressure
instrument. When the siphon is first installed,
it should be filled with water or any other
suitable separating liquid.
Pressure Gauge Syphons
▫ Coil Siphon - used primarily for horizontal installations
▫ Pigtail Siphon - used primarily for vertical installations
95
Applications:
▫ Used to protect the pressure gauge from the effect of hot

pressure media, temperature above 65°C
▫ Used to reduce rapid pressure rise, which can affect the
gauge.
▫ Used at the inlet and outlet steam flow measurement of
boiler
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
PREPARED BY: DBA
Note: Video links are provided in some topic on this presentation. All video
links are optional, you may choose to access it or not, but I believe the videos
may help you to best appreciate the lesson.
INDUSTRIAL LEVEL MEASUREMENT
The Vast amount of water used by industry, let alone all the
solvents, chemicals, and other liquids that are necessary for material
processing, make the measurement of liquid level essential to modern
manufacturing.
There are two ways of measuring level: directly by using the
varying level of the liquid as a means of obtaining the measurement;
and indirectly, by using a variable, which change with the liquid level,
to actuate the measuring mechanism.
+++…
DIRECT METHOD LEVEL MEASUREMENT
BOB AND TAPE

The simplest of the direct devices for liquid level
measurement is the bob and tape. All you need is
a bob (or weight) suspended from a tape marked
in feet and inches. The bob is lowered to the
bottom of the vessel containing the liquid, and the
level is determined by noting the point on the
tape reached by the liquid. The actual reading is
made after the tape is removed from the vessel.
Obviously this method isn’t suited to continuous
measurement.
SIGHT GLASS
Another direct means of liquid level
measurement is the sight glass. This
consists of a graduated glass Tube
mounted on the side of the vessel. As the
level of the liquid in the vessel changes,
so does the level of the liquid in the
glass tube.
Measurement is a simple matter of
reading the position of liquid level on
the scale of the sight glass tube.
FLOATS
There are many kinds of float-
operated mechanisms for
continuous direct liquid level
measurement. The Primary
device is a float that by reason
of its buoyancy will follow the
changing level of the liquid, and
a mechanism that will transfer
the float action to a pointer
DISPLACER
The displacer is similar in action to the buoyant float
described above, with the exception that its movement is
more restricted. With changes in liquid level, more or less of
the displacer is covered by the liquid. The more the
displacer is submerged, the greater is the force created by
the displacer because of its buoyancy. This force
transferred through a twisting or bending shaft to a
pneumatic or Electronic system. For every new liquid level
position, there is a new force on the shaft, causing it to
assume a new position. The pneumatic or Electronic system is
so arranged that for each new shaft position there is a new
signal or indication. The displacer float has the advantage
of being more sensitive to small level changes than the
buoyant float and less subject to mechanical friction.
INDIRECT METHOD LEVEL MEASUREMENT
ELECTRICAL LEVEL MEASUREMENT

A. Capacitance
B. Conductivity
C. Ultrasonic
D. Radar
E. Radiation
F. Tuning Fork
G. Rotating Paddle
INDIRECT METHOD LEVEL MEASUREMENT - ELECTRICAL
A. CAPACITANCE TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
When functioning as level sensors, capacitors work by processing capacitance with
reference to the dielectric constant of the material being measured and the voltage being
used to complete the circuit. These measurements are used to determine vessel levels. Higher
levels of dielectric material result in greater capacitance, meaning the former can be easily
gauged with the latter.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change of capacitance. An insulated electrode acts
as one plate of capacitor and the tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic vessel) acts as the other
plate. The capacitance depends on the fluid level. An empty tank has a lower capacitance while a filled tank
has a higher capacitance.
A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by a small thickness of an insulator such as solid,
liquid, gas, or vacuum. This insulator is also called as dielectric. Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of
the plate and also distance between the plates.
APPLICATIONS
• Liquid level measurement
• Power and granular solids
• Very high temperature liquid metals
• Liquefied gases at very low temperature
• Corrosive material
• Very high pressure industrial processes
ADVANTAGES
• Inexpensive
• Reliable and rugged
• Versatile
• Minimal Maintenance
• Simple to use
• Easy to clean
• Good range of measurement
DISADVANTAGES
• Not suitable for low dielectric material
• The measurement of capacitance is hard compare to measurement of
resistance
• Sensitive to changes in environmental conditions
• Capacitive proximity sensor are not so accurate compare to inductive sensor
type.
B. CONDUCTIVITY TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• Conductivity level switches are sensors with an electrical contact output at a specific
liquid level.
• It make use of conductivity sensing technology or conductance method for liquid level
detection.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Simply put, two metallic probes of different lengths

(one long, one short) insert into a tank. The long probe
transmits a low voltage, the second shorter probe is cut
so the tip is at the switching point. When the probes
are in liquid, the current flows across both probes to
activate the switch. One of the benefits to these
devices is that they are safe due to their low voltages
and currents. They are also easy to use and install but
regular maintenance checks must be carried out to
ensure there is no build up on the probe otherwise it
will not perform properly.
ADVANTAGES:
• These switches provide an extremely cost-effective solution for liquid level
measurement.
• They are very simple to install and safe to use.
• They usually give maintenance free service.
• They generally have a rugged construction.
• They are available in different models.
• These liquid level sensors are designed in such a way that they can work with
almost all conductive mediums
DISADVANTAGES:
• Invasive
• liquids need to be conductive
• probe erosion
C. ULTRASONIC LEVEL MEASUREMENT
What is ULTRASONIC?
• Sonic is the sound we can hear.
• Ultrasonic is the sound above human
hearing range.
• Infrasonic is the sound below human
range.
• Humans can hear for about 20 Hz up to
20 KHz. Ultrasonic frequencies are
above 20 KHz.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
• An ultrasonic level transmitter is mounted at the top of the tank and
transmits an ultrasonic pulse down into the tank. This pulse, travelling
at the speed of sound, is reflected back to the transmitter from the
liquid surface. The transmitter measures the time delay between the
transmitted and received echo signal and on the board
microprocessor calculates the distance to the liquid surface.
• The distance can be calculated with the following formula:
L= ½ x T xC
Where L is the distance, T is the time between the emission and
reception, and C is the sonic speed.
APPLICATION
• Wetted, non-contacting switch and transmitter for liquid

level or interface and solid level measurement; suitable for
various liquids and bulk products; not suitable for too much
surface foam, extremely high pressures and temperatures;
not applicable in vacuum service applications.
ADVANTAGES:
• Give reliable performance, even on difficult slurry or sludge-type
services
• Absence of moving parts and the ability to measure the level
without making physical contact with the process material
• Reliability of the reading is unaffected by changes in the
composition, density, moisture content, electrical conductivity, and
dielectric constant of the process fluid.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Ultrasonic level transmitter is just as good as the echo it receives. The echo can be
weak as a result of dispersion (which reduces sound intensity by the square of
distance) and absorption (which, in dry air, reduces its energy level by 1 to 3
dB/m).
• The energy content of the echo will be further reduced if the bin is tall, if the vapor
space is dusty, or if it contains foam or other sound absorbing materials such as
water vapors or mists.
• In addition to the problem of weak echo, another potential problem is the reflective
properties and density of the process surface. If that surface is sound-absorbing
(fluffy solids), sloping (angle of repose), or irregular, causing a diffused reflection
of the ultrasonic pulse, the result can be an error, as the round-trip time of travel
might not correspond to the vertical distance between transmitter and level.
D. RADAR TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Radar has its origins in the first half of
the 20th century. However, radar level
measurement did not come on the scene
in use as a continuous level measurement
technology until the later part of the
20th century. Radar detect an object in
the same way as Ultrasonic waves does.
Ultrasonic uses the sound waves, and
Radar uses radio waves (microwave).
Working Principle:
The operation of all radar level detectors involves sending microwave beams
emitted by a sensor to the surface of liquid in a tank. The electromagnetic waves
after hitting the fluids surface returns back to the sensor which is mounted at the
top of the tank or vessel. The time taken by the signal to return back i.e. time of
flight (TOF) is then determined to measure the level of fluid in the tank.
APPLICATIONS
• Microwave sensors are ideal for use in moist, vaporous, and dusty
environments as well as in applications in which temperatures and pressures
vary.
• Microwaves (also frequently described as RADAR), will penetrate
temperature and vapor layers that may cause problems for other techniques,
such as ultrasonic.
• Microwaves are electromagnetic energy and therefore do not require air
molecules to transmit the energy making them useful in vacuums.
ADVANTAGES
• No media contact for vertically mounted type, so flexibility for
use on different corrosive media, thick fluids, slurries,
wastewater
• High temperature fluid compatibility for vertically mounted
types, since no sensitive components make contact with the fluid
• High accuracy due to high frequency pulse wave and precise
transit time measurement
• Sealed pressurized vessel will not affect performance
• Longer range than ultrasonic
DISADVANTAGES
• Foaming, splashing, vapour and humidity can affect
measurement performance
• High cost compared to other technologies
• Top mounting only
• Minimal blocking distance limits operation when in proximity
to liquid level
• Longer blocking distance than ultrasonic
• Radar passes through low dielectric constant fluids
E. RADIATION TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• The radiation or nuclear level measurement technique
is used to measure the level of fluid or solid in a
closed tank using Gamma rays. Gamma radiation
sources are chosen for use in level detecting
equipment because gamma rays have great
penetrating power and cannot be deflected.
• Level measurement with radiation works on the
principle of passing gamma radiation through the
material to be measured. As the radiation passes
through this material, the level can be determined by
the amount of attenuation. The wave attenuates when
it passes through materials.
Working Principle
• The Gamma-ray is emitted from a source to the
tank and propagates through the tank.
• There is a continuous strip detector that detects
all the Gamma rays pass across the tank.
• If the continuous strip detects rays equal to the
length and it is in maximum absorption, the tank
is empty.
• As the level rises the absorption level decreases.
ADVANTAGES:
• Radiation level measurement is suitable for measurement in liquid and solid.
• It gives continuous level measurement.
• It does not require contact with processed material.
• It is simple in design and construction.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Must always be mounted on the side of the vessel
• Special safety measures are required for the use of gamma radiation
• May also involve licensing requirements
• It is relatively expensive
F. TUNING FORK
A vibrating tuning fork liquid level switch is an instrument for monitoring the height of a
liquid and tripping a relay contact switch or transmitting a solid state relay switch output
when a maximum, minimum or intermediate level has been reached. The liquid level
switch output can then be utilized by other instrumentation to open a valve, illuminate a
warning lamp, activate an audible alarm, or switch on a pump.
F. TUNING FORK
APPLICATIONS:
For Solid Level Detection

• Powders: tobacco, powdered cellulose, powdered clay, polystyrene powder, dry soot,
soda ash, coal ash
• Granular & Plastics: gravel, glass fine power, granular plastics, foundry sand, cements,
plastic pellets
For Liquid Level Detection

• paints, alcohols, inks drinks & beverages petroleums, oils, creams water based solutions
corrosive liquids, acids general purpose solvents
F. TUNING FORK
ADVANTAGES:
• Not affected by any surface disturbances such turbulence, foaming, vibration
• High temperature fluid compatibility since no sensitive components make contact with
the fluid
• Small compact size
• Sealed pressurized or evacuated vessels will not affect performance
DISADVANTAGES:
• Thick or sticky media will leave a coating on the probe which will affect vibration
frequency
• Fouling can interfere with resonant frequency causing false switch activation
• Tuning fork protruding into liquid causing obstruction, attracting fouling and hygienic
cleanliness issues
• High cost
G. ROTATING PADDLE
• The paddle type level switch is used for
the detection of dust level or litter material
in silo, etc. The rotating vane is continuously
rotated by a motor. When this pallet comes
into contact with the material, more force
than the rotating torque will be applied to
the pallet and rotation will stop. The level
switch detects rotation, stops and sends the
contact.
• Rotary paddle level sensors can be side or
top mounted on bins and silos. Top mounted
units can include shaft extensions to place
the rotating paddle at the point where a
high level detection is needed.
G. ROTATING PADDLE
ADVANTAGES:
• Relatively low cost
• Easy to install
• Wide range of power supplies and accessories
• Most universal in bulk solids application
• Rugged construction
• Easy to handle and operates stable for a period of time.
G. ROTATING PADDLE
DISADVANTAGES:
• Drive motor failure is most common maintenance issue. Some brands more
prone than others
• Electromechanical, moving parts - Fine particles or dust must be
prevented from penetrating the shaft bearings and motor by proper
placement of the paddle in the hopper or bin and using appropriate
seals.
• Build up may occur in the paddle -If the process material becomes tacky
because of high moisture levels or high ambient humidity in the hopper.
INDIRECT METHOD LEVEL MEASUREMENT
HEAD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

A. Guage Pressure
B. Bubbler
C. Differential Pressure
INDIRECT METHOD LEVEL MEASUREMENT – HEAD PRESSURE
A. GUAGE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
There are several types of indirect

level measuring devices that are
operated by Pressure. Any rise in the
level causes an increase of pressure,
which can be measure by the gauge.
The gauge scale is marked in units of
level measurement (feet or inches).
B. BUBBLER SYSTEM
The Air – bubbler system is a system of indirect level
measurement especially suitable for liquids that are corrosive,
viscous, or contain suspended solids.
The pressure caused by the liquid column is used in the bubbler
method of level measurement. A pipe is installed vertically in
the vessel with its open end at the zero level. The other end of
the pipe is connected to a regulated air supply and to a
pressure gauge. To make a level measurement the air supply is
adjusted so that the pressure is slightly higher than the pressure
due to the height of the liquid. This is accomplished by
regulating the air pressure until bubbles can be seen slowly
leaving the open end of the pipe. The gauge then measures the
air pressure needed to overcome the pressure of the liquid. The
gauge is calibrated in feet or inches of level.
B. BUBBLER SYSTEM
APPLICATIONS:
• The level bubbler can be used to monitor in-take screens for debris and initiate an airburst
backwash. This is done by placing a dip tube on each side of the screen and when the
pressure differential between the two reaches a certain point, a backwash can be initiated to
clean the screens. This system is a called a Differential Level Bubbler.
• The level bubbler can be used to measure the level of the wet well to control the intake
pumps.
• The level bubbler can be used to measure levels in all types of liquids such as sanitary waste
stations.
• The level bubbler can be a retrofit replacement for ultrasonic level transmitters.
B. BUBBLER SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES:
• Immune to surface foam, pH, conductivity, temperature, turbulence, and solids content.
• Reliability is better than other level measurement methods because the dip tube is the
only part of the system in contact with the liquid being measured.
• The sensor is not in direct contact with liquid, offering long life and greater calibration
stability.
• The instrument panel can be located up to several hundred feet from what is being
measured.
• Suitable for applications with corrosive, acidic, hazardous, volatile, molten, cryogenic,
or radioactive liquids.
• The purge gas (compressed air) provides complete isolation from the measured liquid.
• Minimal Maintenance when an Auto Blow Down system for the dip tube is purchased
and integrated with the Level Bubbler.
B. BUBBLER SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES:
• Applicable to pressurized tanks, but only up to the pressure of the available air
supply
• Accuracy depends on the readability of the pressure indicator and a constant,
repeatable air supply
• Fluid density changes create level measurement errors
Installation cost (labor) is high
• May not work well in viscous or sticky process fluids that tend to clog the dip tube
• Regular preventative maintenance is required
If air supply fails, the process material can enter the dip tube and damage
instrumentation
• Exhausted air can pick up volatile materials from the process fluid that should not be
released into the environment
INDIRECT METHOD LEVEL MEASUREMENT –
HEAD PRESSURE
C. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER FOR

LEVEL MEASUREMENT
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
LEVEL MEASUREMENT BY D.P. TRANSMITTERS
To determine the level of a liquid in an open tank, connect the high side
of the Transmitter to a tap at the bottom of the tank. Vent the low side
of the transmitter to the atmosphere. The pressure represents the height
of the liquid in the tank multiplied by the specific gravity of the liquid;
therefore, the output of the transmitter will be proportional to the liquid
level above the transmitter. If the tank is located above the transmitter,
the zero must be readjusted to elevate the range.
To determine the liquid level in a closed tank, steps must be taken to

compensate for tank pressure generated above the top of the liquid
and the top of the tank. This is accomplished by placing a tap at the
top of the tank and connecting it to the low side of the transmitter.
When this has been done, the differential pressure measured by the
Transmitter is proportional to the height of the liquid in the tank
multiplied by the specific gravity of the liquid. If the liquid has a vapor
that could condense in the piping connected to the top of the tank, the
piping should be filled with he measured liquid. This will exert a head
pressure on the low side of the transmitter and must be zeroed out.
Definition
A d/p transmitter is an instrument
that senses the difference in
pressure between two ports and
produce an output signal with
reference to a calibrated pressure
range.
High Pressure Port Low Pressure Port

Since level measurement depends on hydrostatic pressure alone, a d/p
transmitter is used to remove any bias caused by other pressure
variables. The Level and Pressure relationship is shown below:
Where:
PL = Hydrostatic Pressure
h = Liquid Level/Height
ρ = Density
g = acceleration due to
h PL gravity
Using Pressure Gauge:
Where:
VP = Vapor Pressure
PL = Hydrostatic Pressure (Liquid Pressure)
PM= Measured Pressure
Vp
PM = PL + VP must be
removed
PM The measured pressure should be equal to the

hydrostatic pressure to get the accurate height of
PL the liquid. In this case, the vapor pressure adds to
the hydrostatic pressure causing a bias in the level
measurement.
Using Differential Pressure Tx:
Where:
VP = Vapor Pressure
PL = Hydrostatic Pressure (Liquid Pressure)
Vp PM = Measured Pressure
Vp HP = High Pressure Side
LP = Low Pressure Side
PM = HP - LP
= (VP + PL) - VP
PM
PM = PL
PL Since the measured pressure is equal to the
HP LP hydrostatic pressure, the level can now be
calculated accurately.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER CONFIGURATION
D/P TRANSMITTER CONFIGURATION
Dry Leg Configuration
The dry leg configuration is

comprised of the Differential Vp
Pressure Transmitter, where the Reference Leg
high pressure side is connected to

the point of measurement and the
low pressure side is connected to a Point of Measurement
reference leg. The reference leg is

used to compensate for the vapor PL
pressure. HP LP
Dry Leg Configuration
The disadvantage of the dry leg

configuration however is that
condensate tends to build up at the Vp Condensate
w/ unknown
reference leg causing errors in level Reference Leg height and
measurement. pressure
PM = HP - LP
= (VP + PL1) - (VP + PL1 PL2
PL2)
must be HP LP
PM = PL1 - PL2 removed
Wet Leg Configuration
The wet leg configuration is then used to

prevent the error caused by the condensate
if dry leg configurations were to be used.
This is done by introducing a seal pot filled
with fluid with known height and density, thus Vp Seal Pot
Seal Fluid
w/ known
its pressure can be calculated. The excess height and
pressure can be corrected through pressure
calibration
PM = HP - LP
= (VP + PL) - (VP + PL PSF
PSF)
PM = PL1 - PSF HP LP
may be removed
through calibration
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER INSTALLATION
D/P TRANSMITTER INSTALLATION
Zero Elevation
-is a type of installation where the
instrument is placed above the
point of measurement.
Datum Line (0%)

Implemented because:
* it protects the instrument from
hydrostatic pressure due to high
level measurements.
*it causes the instrument to stay
clear of obstructions.
Point of measurement Obstruction
D/P TRANSMITTER INSTALLATION
Zero Suppression
- is a type of installation where the
instrument is placed below the point
of measurement.
Implemented because:
* it provides ease of access.
*protects the instrument from abrasive Seal Fluid
fluids by filling the high pressure side
with a sealing fluid.
Point of measurement
Datum Line (0%)
LEVEL CALCULATION FOR DP TRANSMITTER
END
FLOW MEASUREMENT
PART 1
PREPARED BY: DBA
WHY MEASURE FLOW?
Measuring a flow is critical, especially in industrial plants, where it can
define the profit or loss of company. A flow meter is a device used to measure
flow rate (volumetric or mass) or the quantity of fluids passing through a pipe.
1. PROCESS CONTROL
to allow the process to be controlled and so ensure that the end product is of the required quality
2. COST ALLOCATION
flow metering allows energy costs to be allocated to a particular product, department or other user
this usually resulting in a significant reduction in total energy costs
What is the Purpose of a Flow Meter?
A flow meter is used in different types of applications to
measure the volumetric flowrate or mass flowrate. The
specific application defines the type and capacity of the flow
m e t e r. F l u i d s , g a s e s a n d l i q u i d s , a r e m e a s u r e d i n t e r m s o f
volumetric flowrate and mass flowrate. Both are related to
material's density with volumetric flowrate denoted by Q and
mass flowrate by ṁ in the equation ṁ=Q x ρ.

What are the Different Kinds of Flow Meters?
There are numerous types of flow meters depending upon the
application, the specific fluid and the construction, including
m a t e r i a l s , o f t h e f l o w m e t e r. T h e 5 b a s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f
flow meters include:
1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters
2. Positive Displacement Flow Meters
3. Open Channel Flow Meters
4 . Va r i a b l e A r e a F l o w M e t e r
5 . Ve l o c i t y F l o w M e t e r s
6. Mass Flow Meters

1. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS
• Differential pressure flow meters measure the differential pressure across an orifice where
flow is directly related to the square root of the differential pressure produced. There are
also primary and secondary elements in differential flow meters. The primary element
produces change in kinetic energy using either flow nozzle, pitot tube, orifice plate, or
venturi flow meters. The secondary element measures the differential pressure and
provides the signal.
• Differential pressure meters represent around 1/5 of all flow meters around the world.
They are commonly used in the oil & gas industry, along with HVAC, beverage, water,
pharma, mining, paper and chemical applications.
How does differential pressure be used to measure Flow? 𝑄 = 𝑘 ∆𝑃

where: Q – Flow, k –constant, ∆P – Differential Pressure
INSTRUMENT TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS TOPIC ARE:

A. Orifice Plate HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=OUD4WXJOHKY
B. Flow Nozzle
C. Venturi Meter
D. Pitot Tube
HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=D6SBZKYQ3_C&T=119S
E. Segmental Wedge
F. V-cone HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=DMWBSL8UIGW
G. Pipe Elbow
A. Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting flow (in the latter
two cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a volumetric or mass flow rate may be determined, depending
on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's
principle which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid.
When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe. When a fluid (whether
liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up slightly upstream of the orifice but as the fluid is
forced to converge to pass through the hole, the velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases.
Types of Orifice Plate
- Concentric orifice plate is used for ideal liquid as well as gases and steam
service. This orifice plate beta ratio fall between of 0.15 to 0.75 for liquids
and 0.20 to 0.70 for gases, and steam. Best results occur between 0.4 and
0.6. Beta ratio means ratio of orifice bore to the internal pipe diameters.
- Eccentric orifice - plate is useful for measuring containing solids, oil
containing water and wet steam. Eccentric plates can use either flange or
vena contracta taps, but tap must be at 180º or 90º to the eccentric opening.
It has bore offset from the center to minimize problems in service of solids-
containing materials.
- Segmental orifice plate has a hole in the form of segment of a circle. This is
used for colloidal and slurry flow measurement. The best accuracy, the tap
location should be 180º from the center of tangency. It provides another
version of plates useful for solids containing materials.
A. Orifice Plate
ADVANTAGES:
• The Orifice is small plates and easy to install/remove.
• Offer very little pressure drop from which 60% to 65% is recovered.
• The orifice meter can be easily maintained.
• Measures a wide range of flows.
• They have a simple construction.
• They have easily fitted between the flanges.
• They are the most suitable for most gases and liquids.
• They are cheap, The price does not increase dramatically with size
A. Orifice Plate
DISADVANTAGES:
• Requires homogeneous fluid.
• Requires single phase liquid
• It requires the flow of axial velocity vectors.
• It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.
• Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid.
• The range of measurement of viscosity limits of fluids.
• It requires straight conduits to ensure accuracy is maintained.
• The pipe must be totally special for the measurement of the flow of liquids.
• They have low range capacity.
B. Flow Nozzle
A device used to measure the flow rate of fluids in a pipe or conduit. A flow nozzle consists of a cone-shaped
passage that creates a partial blockage of the conduit, and flow rate is determined by measuring the fluid pressure
before and after the flow nozzle. Flow nozzles are used to gather data used for process improvement in
manufacturing environments.
When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the flow nozzle
causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure
sensor and when calibrated this pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.
B. Flow Nozzle
Applications:
• 1. It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the
atmosphere.
• 2. It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the
property of settling.
• 3. Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
B. Flow Nozzle
ADVANTAGES:
• Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter
• It is very compact
• Has high coefficient of discharge.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Pressure recovery is low
• Maintenance is high
• Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.
C. Venturi
A venturi creates a constriction within a pipe (classically an hourglass shape) that varies the flow characteristics of a
fluid (either liquid or gas) travelling through the tube. As the fluid velocity in the throat is increased there is a
consequential drop in pressure. Italian scientist Giovanni B Venturi (1746-1822) was the first to observe this
phenomenon.
The fact that a pressure drop accompanies an increased flow velocity is fundamental to the laws of fluid
dynamics. Swiss mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli, derived the interrelationship between pressure, velocity and other
physical properties of fluid in 1738. Classically, his theorem is used in the design of aircraft wings to create lift from
the flow of air over the wing profile.
C. Venturi
HOW DOES VENTURI EFFECT WORK?
The Venturi effect is similar to a jet effect, which is similar to the feeling one gets
when the thumb is placed at the end of a garden hose with the water turned on.
The water’s velocity increases when the thumb is placed over the water. The
pressure increases over the smaller surface area, however, the narrow flow then
creates a vacuum in the water. The fluid’s kinetic energy increase results in a
pressure decrease, which the physics laws governing fluid dynamics explain. When
the fluid reaches a choked flow point, the mass flow decreases, resulting in a
decrease in downstream pressure. Bernoulli’s equation can be used to calculate the
theoretical pressure drop in a system that experiences the Venturi effect.
C. Venturi
APPLICATIONS:
• Venturi meters are used where pressure recovery is important and where
accuracy is desired in the measurement of high viscous fluids.
• It can be used for slurries and dirty liquids, if the pressure taps are protected
from plugging.
• Plumbing
• Carburetors
C. Venturi
ADVANTAGES:
• It has low head loss which is about 10% of differential pressure head.
• It can be used to measure higher flow rates in pipes having few meters of
diameters. This is due to high coefficient of discharge owing to lower loss.
• It can be used in any position e.g. horizontal, vertical or inclined.
• Higher sensitivities can be achieved due to smaller size throat leads which leads
to higher pressure differential.
DISADVANTAGES:
• It can not be used in limited space applications due to larger size.
• Due to large size, the cost of venturimeter is higher.
• Due to large size, the cost of installation is higher.
• Very small diameter of throat results into cavitation of fluid in the throat.
D. Pitot Tube
A pitot (/ˈpiːtoʊ/ PEE-toh) tube, also known as pitot probe, is a flow measurement device used
to measure fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in
the early 18th century and was modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by French
scientist Henry Darcy. It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of
a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas flow velocities in certain industrial applications.
D. Pitot Tube
D. Pitot Tube
D. Pitot Tube
ADVANTAGES:
• It is easy and economical to install and remove.
• It has no moving parts which helps in minimizing frictional losses.
• It is small in size.
• It is low in cost.
• It causes very less pressure loss.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Any foreign material in flow, can change the accurate reading.
• Its accuracy is not that good.
• It has low rangeability.
• It has low sensitivity.
• It works better in high velocity flow.
E. Segmental Wedge
The segmental wedge flow meter element has a V-shaped restriction cast or welded into a
flanged meter body that creates a differential pressure.
The segmental wedge element is a proprietary device for slurry, corrosion, erosion, viscous or
high-temperature applications. It is relatively expensive and is mostly used in hard fluids, where
dramatic maintenance savings can justify the initial cost. The unique flow limitation is designed to
last the installation of life withoutdeterioration
E. Segmental Wedge
ADVANTAGES:
• Pressure drop is about half of conventional orifice
• Ability to measure flows at low Reynolds numbers
• Useful for measuring highly viscous fluids, slurries, and dirty fluids
• Some models can be used in bi-directional flows
DISADVANTAGES:
• More costly than other instruments like orifice plates
E. V-Cone
The V-Cone Flow Meter is an advanced differential pressure instrument designed for use with
liquid, steam or gas media in rugged conditions where accuracy, low maintenance and cost are
important.
The V-Cone flow meter relies on differential pressure (DP) technology. Unlike traditional DP
instruments, such as orifice plates and Venturi tubes, the V-Cone flow meter’s flow conditioning
function is built into the basic instrument. The V-Cone conditions fluid flow to provide a stable
flow profile that increases accuracy.
E. V-Cone
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
• When a cross sectional area of a closed conduit (or pipe) is reduced by a
diametric change or by the use of a differential producer element, the velocity
of fluids passing through the conduit are increased across the boundary change
area (continuity equation). Pressure decreases (Bernoulli equation) and a
differential pressure is generated across the reduction or producer.
• While this principle is used by other differential pressure flow meters, The V-
Cone flowmeter generates a differential pressure by creating an area of
reduction using a cone-shaped flow element located on the center line of a pipe
section as opposed to a reduced diameter pipe wall or orifice.
E. V-Cone
E. V-Cone
APPLICATIONS:
• Having no moving parts and their unique design enables the meter to
work perfectly even when the measuring media has particulates such
as Sand and dust.
• The patented cone design gives the V cone the ability to work with
short lengths of pipes in front and after meter.
• designed for most challenging oil / gas production, chemical, food &
beverage, plastics, pharmaceuticals, district HVAC, textile, power and
water & wastewater applications
E. V-Cone
ADVANTAGES:
• Lower sensitivity than orifice plates and Venturi tubes to installation effects
• Shorter installation lengths
• Less pressure loss than orifice plates
• Effective for wet gas flow measurement applications
• High accuracy and repeatability
• Low maintenance and long-life with low total cost of ownership
• No-moving parts sensor design rarely (if ever) requires recalibration
• Space-saver design reduces straight pipe runs by up to 70%
• Measures liquid in challenging flow conditions, such as swirl
• Self-cleaning design allows measurement of dirty fluids
• Measures steam reliably under high-pressure conditions
E. V-Cone
DISADVANTAGES:
• Lack of standards
• Pressure loss higher than Venturi tubes
• it lacks of standards governing this type of meter, as they have been a
proprietary device
• there has been a lack of independent data available to provide
confidence in claimed performance.
G. Pipe Elbow / Elbow Tap
Elbow is converted into a flow meter by
attaching pressure connections from the
inside and outside curves of the elbow to
a differential gage.
The difference between the pressures at
the inside and outside curves of the
elbow, caused by the dynamic action of
the flowing water, can be measured by
means of the differential gage.
G. Pipe Elbow
WORKING PRICIPLE:
• Elbow pipe flowmeter operates on the principle that when a fluid moves around a
curved path, the acceleration of the fluid creates centrifugal force
• In operation, the centrifugal force results in a higher pressure on the outside of the
elbow than on the inside.
• A pipe elbow can be used as a primary device. Elbow taps have an advantage in
that most piping systems have elbows that can be used.
• Elbow meter does not introduce any additional losses in the system, since it simply
replaces an existing elbow or pipe bending that is being used to change the
direction of flow
G. Pipe Elbow
ADVANTAGES:
• Simplified installation
• Inexpensive
• Low pressure loss
• Saving of extra pumping cost
• No additional resistance to flow due to the elbow being converted into a meter.
DISADVANTAGES:
• should be considered for flow measurement only as a last resort.
• Their inaccuracies tend to be extreme, owing to the non-precise construction of
most pipe elbows and the relatively weak differential pressures generated
• Each meter must be calibrated on site
• Not suitable for the small bending of pipe installation
2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS
• Positive displacement (PD) flow meters measure the volume filled with fluid, deliver it
ahead and fill it again, which calculates the amount of fluid transferred. It measures
actual flow of any fluid while all other types of flow meters measure some other
parameter and convert the values into flowrate. In PD flow meters, output is directly
related to the volume passing through the flow meter. PD flow meters include piston
meters, oval-gear meters, nutating disk meters, rotary vane type meters, etc.
• Positive displacement flow meters are known for their accuracy. They are commonly used
in the transfer of oils and fluids, like gasoline, hydraulic fluids as well as in-home use for
water and gas applications.
A. Oval Gear
B. Nutating Disk
C. Lobed Impeller
A. Oval Gear
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Two rotating oval gears with synchronized teeth
“squeeze” a finite amount of fluid through the
meter for each revolution.
With oval gear flow meters, two oval gears or
rotors are mounted inside a cylinder. As the fluid
flows through the cylinder, the pressure of the
fluid causes the rotors to rotate. As flow rate
increases, so does the rotational speed of the
rotors.
A. Oval Gear
APPLICATION:
The oval gear flow meter is designed primarily for use with higher-viscosity
fluids, which has led to applications such as the flow metering of oils, syrups
and fuels.
A. Oval Gear
ADVANTAGES:
• Traditional proven flow technology
• Simple to install
• No straight pipe runs required so flow meters can be installed in restricted areas
DISADVANTAGES:
• Not suitable for steam or multi-phase fluids
• Fluid slippage adversely affects accuracy; this varies with flow rate, differential
pressure, temperature, viscosity and clearance
• Not recommended for low-viscosity fluids, including water or water-like fluids
(because of an increase in fluid slippage)
• Accuracy adversely affected by bubbles present in fluids
B. Nutating Disk
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The disc divides the chamber into two equal volume. The
water enters at the left side of the eccentrically mounted
disc. The liquid pressure sets the disc in motion, results in the
quantity of liquid that enters left side of the chamber will
be rolled out through the outlet.
When the disc and ball wobble it generate a cone with
apex at geometric center, this motion is getting translated
into a rotary motion of shaft by the pin fastened to the ball.
The movement of the disc is then transmitted by the cam and
gear train to the totalizer or pulse transmitter. Each
complete cycle of nutation of the disc will be counted by the
counter mechanism which can be directly calibrated in terms
of volume of liquid received and discharged.
Each disc nutation represents a fixed quantity of fluid, so
the total flow is calculated by the total number of nutations.
B. Nutating Disk
ADVANTAGES:
• Relatively low cost
• The nutating disc is durable, minimum maintenance
• High accuracy, repeatability (Accuracy is about ±1%)
• Low-pressure drop
• Eliminates the requirement of straight upstream and downstream piping
• Less affected by the velocity profile in downstream and upstream
• Number of materials are available for construction
DISADVANTAGES:
• Performance may be affected by suspended solid particle (The strain of suitable mesh size is used
to avoid this problem)
• It is limited to pipe size and capacity
• Only clean fluids can be measured
• Accuracy is affected by the viscosity of fluid flow through them
C. Lobed Impeller
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The incoming fluid is trapped between the rotors and is conveyed to outlet as a result of the
rotor rotations.
➨ For every rotation of each rotor, the swept volume corresponding to twice the area A is
passes through meter.
➨ Number of revolutions of the rotor gives and indication of volumetric flow.
➨ Rotation of lobes impellers can be monitored by magnetic or photo-electric pick up.
C. Lobed Impeller
ADVANTAGES:
• High Operating pressures, up to 8 MPa
• High Temperatures, up to 200⁰ C
• It provides excellent accuracy during gas measurement. Accuracy ±0.1 % to ±0.5 %
• It does not require external power supply.
• Inlet and outlet sections are not required.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Poor accuracy at low flow rates
• Bulky and heavy
• Expensive
• It has moving parts which get wore down.
• The flow gets blocked at zero flow due to solid impurities.
• The measurements are affected due to quick changes at high differential pressure.
• Monitoring is difficult task.
• It has poor accuracy at low flow rates.
3. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW METERS
• Measurement of liquid in open channels include v-notch, weirs and flumes. These dam-like
structures, or overflows, allow for a limited or concentrated free-flow of liquids based on
the unique shape and size of the structure. This type of flow meter allows for a reading of
the flowrate to be calculated.
• Common applications of open channel meters include free flowing liquids like streams,
rivers, irrigation channels and sewer/wastewater systems.
Note: This presentation will not discuss further about the Open Channel Flow Meters. The Students may wish to
visit the link provided bellow if he seeks further information about this topic
HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=KREUYJU7I-U
4 . VA R I A B L E A R E A F L O W M E T E R S
ROTAMETER
A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a
closed tube. It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which
measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels
through to vary, causing a measurable effect.
ROTAMETER
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Fluid enters from the bottom of the tapered tube, then some of the fluid
strikes directly into the float bottom and others pass aside the float. Now
the float experience two forces in opposite direction, drag force upward
and gravitational force downward.
Fluid flow moves the float upward against gravity. At some point,
the flowing area reaches a point where the pressure-induced force on the
floating body exactly matches the weight of the float. The float will find
equilibrium when the area around float generates enough drag equal to
weight - buoyancy.
ROTAMETER
ADVANTAGES
• The cost of rotameter is low.
• It provides linear scale.
• It has good accuracy for low and medium flow rates.
• The pressure loss is nearly constant and small.
• Usability for corrosive fluid.
DISADVANTAGES
• When opaque fluid is used, float may not be visible.
• It has not well in pulsating services.
• Glass tube types subjected to breakage.
• It must be installed in vertical position only.
END OF PART 1
FLOW MEASUREMENT
PART 2
PREPARED BY: DBA
5. VELOCITY FLOW METERS
• Velocity meters measure velocity of the stream to calculate the volumetric flowrate. These
are less sensitive when the Reynolds number of fluid is higher than 10000. Velocity flow
meters include turbine, paddlewheel, vortex shedding, electromagnetic and
sonic/ultrasonic flow meters.
A. Turbine Flowmeter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_2Ha0j9W0A&t=62s
B. Paddle Wheel Flowmeter
C. Magnetic Flowmeter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f949gpKdCI4&t=7s
D. Vortex Flowmeter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmTmDM7jHzA
E. Ultrasonic Flowmeter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx2RnrfLkQg
A. Turbine Flowmeter
Turbine Flow Meter is a volumetric measuring turbine type. The flowing fluid engages the rotor
causing it to rotate at an angular velocity proportional to the fluid flow rate. The angular velocity of the rotor
results in the generation of an electrical signal (AC sine wave type) in the pickup. The summation of the pulsing
electrical signal is related directly to total flow. The frequency of the signal relates directly to flow rate. The
vaned rotor is the only moving part of the flow meter.
ADVANTAGES:
• Wide flow rangeability including low flow rates
• Good level of accuracy at an economic price
• Simple, durable construction
• Easy to install and maintain
• Flexible connection to flow instruments for flow control
• Wide variety of process connections
• Turbine meters can operate over a wide range of temperatures and pressures
• Low pressure drop across the turbine
• Provides a convenient signal output
DISADVANTAGES:
• Requires constant backpressure to prevent cavitation
• Accuracy adversely affected by bubbles in liquids
• Turbine meters can be used with clean liquids and gases only (may need to install a strainer
upstream to prevent damage from particulates)
• Not applicable for measuring corrosive fluids
• Requires a turbulent flow profile (consistent fluid velocity across the pipe diameter) for
accuracy
• Sensitive to changes in fluid viscosity
• Require a straight run of pipe before and after the turbine meter to allow swirl patterns in
the flow stream to dissipate
• May not function properly with high viscosity fluids where the flow profile is laminar
B. Paddle wheel Flowmeter
Paddle wheel flow meters
(also known as Pelton wheel
sensors) offer a relatively low cost,
high accuracy option for many flow
system applications, typically with
water or water like fluids.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
As the magnets in the blades spin past the sensor, the paddle wheel meter generates a
frequency and voltage signal which is proportional to the flow rate. The faster the flow the
higher the frequency and the voltage output
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low cost solution with high flow • Paddle wheel meters work best with clean fluids
system accuracy • Not suitable for gases
• Easy to install and operate, resulting • Requires a turbulent flow profile for accuracy
in a low cost of ownership
• Requires a straight run of pipe before and
• No pressure drop making it ideal for after the flow meter
gravity flows
• Paddlewheel meters may not function properly
• Insertion flow meter design lowers with high viscosity
installation and maintenance costs
• The pipe must be full; any air in the line may
lead to inaccuracies
C. Magnetic Flowmeter
A magnetic flow meter (mag meter, electromagnetic flow meter) is a transducer that
measures fluid flow by the voltage induced across the liquid by its flow through a magnetic
field. A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference
proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical principle at work
is electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, for
example, water that contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface, for example, a
rubber-lined steel tube.
Working Principle
Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. According to this
principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is
proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field and the length of the
conductor.
In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the meter body to
generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a
voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity.
Working Principle
This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow meter body and sent to a transmitter
which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe dimensions.
It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured using the magnetic flow meter must be electrically
conductive. The Faraday’s Law indicates that the signal voltage (E) is dependent on the average liquid velocity
(V), the length of the conductor (D) and the magnetic field strength (B). The magnetic field will thus be established
in the cross-section of the tube.
Working Principle
Electromagnetic flow meters, or mag meters are
comprised of a transmitter and sensor that together
measure flow. The magnetic flow meter’s sensor is
placed inline and measures an induced voltage
generated by the fluid as it flows through a pipe. The
transmitter takes the voltage generated by the
sensor, converts the voltage into a flow measurement
and transmits that flow measurement to a control
system.
APPLICATIONS
• This electromagnetic flow meter being non intrusive type, can be used in general for any
fluid which is having a reasonable electrical conductivity above 10 microsiemens/cm.
• Fluids like sand water slurry, coal powder, slurry, sewage, wood pulp, chemicals, water
other than distilled water in large pipe lines, hot fluids, high viscous fluids specially in
food processing industries, cryogenic fluids can be metered by the electromagnetic flow
meter.
• The construction of the magnetic flow meter is such that the only wet parts are the liner
and electrodes, both of which can be made from materials that can withstand
corrosion. Therefore, these flow meters can be applied when liquid contamination is an
issue, such as in sanitary applications.
ADVANTAGES:
• It can handle slurries and greasy materials.
• It can handle corrosive fluids.
• It has very low pressure drop.
• It is totally obstruction less.
• It is available in large pipe sizes and capacity as well as in several construction
materials.
• It is capable of handling low flows (with minimum size less than 3.175 mm
inside diameter) and very high volume flow rate (with sizes as large as 3.04 m).
• It can be used as bidirectional meter.
DISADVANTAGES:
• It is relatively expensive.
• It works only with fluids which are adequate electrical
conductors.
• It is relatively heavy, especially in larger sizes.
• It must be full at all times.
• It must be explosion proof when installed in hazardous
electrical areas
D. Vortex Flowmeter
The vortex flow meter is used for measuring the flow velocity of
gases and liquids in pipelines flowing full. Vortex flow meters detect
and convert pressure changes into electrical signals.
D. Vortex Flowmeter
WORKING PRINCIPLE
When flow stream passes a stationary object or a bluff body and causes the formation of
swirls, called vortices, downstream from the body. Each vortex will form, then detach from the
object and continue to move with the flowing gas or liquid, one side at a time in alternating
fashion. Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed and shed. This pressure
variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to the vortex
shedding.
D. Vortex Flowmeter
APPLICATION:
The vortex flowmeter is a broad-spectrum flow meter which can be used for
metering, measurement and control of most steam, gas and liquid flow for a
very unique medium versatility, high stability and high reliability with no moving
parts, simple structure and low failure rate.
D. Vortex Flowmeter
ADVANTAGES:
• There are no moving parts that are vulnerable to wear
• Maintenance is not required on a regular basis
• Liquid, gas and stream all can be measured using the vortex flow meter
• Reliability
• Long term accuracy
• Cost of installation is also less for the vortex flow meter
• The flow meter is available in many temperature ranges
• Available in wide variety of pipe sizes
D. Vortex Flowmeter
DISADVANTAGES:
• There are few things to watch when using the vortex flow meter as it cannot be used
for the fluid with low velocity as at this rate it is not possible to measure accurately.
• Secondly it is important to ten pipe diameter is recommended as the minimum length
of straight pipe which is required upstream and downstream so, that the
measurements are taken accurately.
NOTE: The advantages always outweigh the disadvantages and the vortex flow meter
occupied a special place in today’s life.
E. Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeter operates on the principle that the velocity
of the sound in fluid in a motion is the resultant of the velocity of the
sound in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity of fluid.
TYPES OF ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER
1.TRANSIT TIME ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER
2. DOPPLER FLOWMETER
1. TRANSIT TIME ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER
Transit time ultrasonic flow meters measure the difference in time from when an ultrasonic
signal is transmitted from the first transducer until it crosses the pipe and is received by the second
transducer. A comparison is made of upstream and downstream measurements. If there is no flow,
the travel time will be the same in both directions. When flow is present, sound moves faster if
traveling in the same direction and slower if moving against it. Since the ultrasonic signal must
traverse the pipe to be received by the sensor, the liquid cannot be comprised of a significant
amount of solids or bubbles, or the high frequency sound will be abated and too weak to travel
across the pipe.
1. TRANSIT TIME ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER
ADVANTAGES
• Obstruction less flow
• Pressure drop equal to an equivalent length of straight pipe
• Unaffected by changes in temperature, density or viscosity
• Bi-directional flow capability
• Low flow cutoff
• Corrosion-resistant
• Accuracy about 1% of flow rate
• Relative low power consumption
DISADVANTAGES
• The operating principle for the Transit Time flow meter requires reliability high frequency sound
transmitted across the pipe. Liquid slurries with excess solids or with entrained gases may block
the ultrasonic pulses.
• Transit Time flow meters are not recommended for primary sludge, mixed liquor, aerobically
digested sludge, dissolved air flotation thickened sludge and its liquid phase, septic sludge and
activated carbon sludge.
• Liquids with entrained gases cannot be measured reliably.
2. DOPPLER ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER
The Doppler ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle of the Doppler Effect, which
was documented by Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler in 1842. He
stated that the frequencies of the sound waves received by an observer are dependent upon the
motion of the source or observer in relation to the source of the sound. A Doppler ultrasonic flow
meter uses a transducer to emit an ultrasonic beam into the stream flowing through the pipe. For
the flow meter to operate, there must be solid particles or air bubbles in the stream to reflect the
ultrasonic beam. The motion of particles shifts the frequency of the beam, which is received by a
second transducer.
5 . V
E L O C I T Y F L O W M E T E R S
2. DOPPLER ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER
ADVANTAGES
Doppler meters may be used where other meters don't work. This might be liquid slurries, aerated liquids
or liquids with some small or large amount on suspended solids. The advantages can be summarized to:
• Obstruct less flow
• Can be installed outside the pipes
• The pressure drop is equal to the equivalent length of a straight pipe1)
• Low flow cut off
• Corrosion resistant
• Relative low power consumption
DISADVANTAGES
• The Doppler flow meters performance are highly dependent on physical properties of the fluid, such
as the sonic conductivity, particle density, and flow profile.
• Non uniformity of particle distribution in the pipe cross section may result in a incorrectly computed
mean velocity. The flow meter accuracy is sensitive to velocity profile variations and to the distribution
of acoustic reflectors in the measurement section.
• Unlike other acoustic flow meters, Doppler meters are affected by changes in the liquid's sonic velocity.
As a result, the meter is also sensitive to changes in density and temperature. These problems make
Doppler flow meters unsuitable for highly accurate measurement applications.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
• Mass flow meters are more effective in mass related processes as they measure the force
that results from the acceleration of mass. More specifically, the force is measured as the
mass moving per unit of time, instead of the volume per unit of time. Mass flow meters
include Coriolis mass meters and thermal dispersion meters.
• Typical applications for mass flow meters are tied to chemical processes. In addition to the
chemical and gas industries, typical industries using mass meters include pharma, power,
mining and wastewater.
A. Coriolis Mass Flowmeter HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=G6L9GKU6LC4
B. Thermal Mass Flowmeter HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=YFQSF2NBGQC
6. MASS FLOW METERS
• Mass flow meters are more effective in mass related processes as they measure the force
that results from the acceleration of mass. More specifically, the force is measured as the
mass moving per unit of time, instead of the volume per unit of time. Mass flow meters
include Coriolis mass meters and thermal dispersion meters.
• Typical applications for mass flow meters are tied to chemical processes. In addition to the
chemical and gas industries, typical industries using mass meters include pharma, power,
mining and wastewater.
• The relationship between mass flow and volumetric flow:
Mass Flow Rate = Density x Volume Flow Rate
A. Coriolis Mass Flowmeter HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=G6L9GKU6LC4
B. Thermal Mass Flowmeter HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=YFQSF2NBGQC
6. MASS FLOW METERS
A. Coriolis Mass Flowmeter
• A Coriolis mass flow meter measures mass through
inertia. Liquid or a dense gas flows through a tube
which is vibrated by a small actuator. This
acceleration produces a measurable twisting force on
the tube proportional to the mass. More sophisticated
Coriolis meters employ dual curved tubes for higher
sensitivity and lower pressure drop.
• A Coriolis flow meter contains a tube which is
energized by a fixed vibration. When a fluid (gas or
liquid) passes through this tube the mass flow
momentum will cause a change in the tube vibration,
the tube will twist resulting in a phase shift. This phase
shift can be measured and a linear output derived
proportional to flow.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure the force resulting
from the acceleration caused by mass moving toward
(or away from) a center of rotation. This effect can
be experienced when riding a merry-go-round,
where moving toward the center will cause a person
to have to “lean into” the rotation so as to maintain
balance. As related to flowmeters, the effect can be
demonstrated by flowing water in a loop of flexible
hose that is “swung” back and forth in front of the
body with both hands. Because the water is flowing
toward and away from the hands, opposite forces
are generated and cause the hose to twist.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
APPLICATIONS:
Coriolis mass flow meters are used predominately in scientific applications where they measure
both corrosive and clean gases and liquids. They are also used in:
• Pulp and paper processing
• Petroleum and oil
• Chemical processing
• Wastewater handling
Coriolis flow meters with a straight tube design are more easily cleaned so are preferred for
food and beverage applications as well as pharmaceuticals. They can also handle the slurries
typically found in mining operations.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
ADVANTAGES:
• It can direct take measurement of mass flow with high measurement accuracy.
• It has a wide range of measurable fluids, including high viscosity fluids, liquid-solid two-phase fluids,
liquid-gas two-phase fluids containing trace gases, and medium and high pressure gases of sufficient
density.
• The vortex flow and non-uniform flow velocity distribution caused by the upstream and downstream
pipelines have no influence on the performance of the flow sensor. Generally, it is not required straight
pipe lines when installing the sensor.
• The change in fluid viscosity has no significant effect on the measured value.
• The change in fluid density has little effect on the measured value.
• There are multiple outputs, which can simultaneously output instantaneous mass flow or volume flow, fluid
density, fluid temperature and other signals. It also has several digital input and output ports, and some
models can realize batch control functions.
• Bidirectional flow measurement
• It can take measurement of high viscosity fluids, such as crude oil, heavy oil, residual oil and other liquids
with higher viscosity. Previously, volumetric flowmeters, target flowmeters, etc. were used to measure flow.
Now, Coriolis mass flowmeters are used, with good reliability and accurate measurement result.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
DISADVANTAGES:
• Poor zero stability which affects the flow meter accuracy.
• It cannot be used to measure fluids with lower density, such as low pressure or
low density gas.
• Slightly higher gas content in the liquid may cause a significant increase in
measurement error.
• It is sensitive to external vibration interference.
• It cannot be used for larger diameters. Currently max size we can make is 8
inch Coriolis flow meter.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
B. Thermal Mass Flowmeter
When fluid comes into contact with a heated object, the fluid takes heat away
from the object, increasing the temperature of the fluid. A thermal flow meter
uses this principle to measure flow.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Thermal flow meters measure gas mass flow directly without the need for additional need
pressure, temperature and/or density monitoring. They operate either by introducing a known
amount of heat into the flowing stream and measuring an associated temperature change, or by
maintaining a probe at a constant temperature and measuring the energy required to do so.
As flow increases, more heat is lost. The amount of heat lost is sensed using temperature
measurement(s) in the sensor.
The transmitter uses the heat input and temperature measurements to determine fluid flow.
The amount of heat lost from the sensor is dependent upon the sensor design and the thermal
properties of the fluid.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
APPLICATIONS
• Thermal flowmeters are most commonly used to measure the
mass flow of clean gases.
• Thermal flowmeters can be applied to clean, sanitary, and
corrosive gases where the thermal properties of the fluid are
known.
6. MASS FLOW METERS
ADVANTAGES
• Able to detect gases
• There is basically no pressure loss
• Can measure mass flow
• Well suited for stack flow measurement and emissions monitoring uses
DISADVANTAGES
• Errors occur when the temperature of the fluid changes
• It is difficult to set-up specifications that match the type and
composition of the fluid.
• Errors occur when there are deposits/buildup on the temperature
sensors or heating element.
END
Controller Actions
Types Controller Actions
1. Direct Acting Controllers
2. Reverse Acting Controllers
Types of Controller Actions
Direct Acting Controllers
Controller action where an increase in the input (PV) results in
an increase in output (e.g. Valve opening)
Example:
Temperature Valve Percent Percent
A temperature control (°C) Opening (Input) (Output)
loop whose transmitter(Input) (cm)
has a range 0-100 °C and a 0 0 0% 0%
control valve (Output) that has
25 0.5 25% 25%
an opening that ranges from 0-2
cm. Assuming a gain of 1. 50 1 50% 50%
75 1.5 75% 75%
100 2 100% 100%

Types of Controller Actions
Reverse Acting Controllers
Controller action where an increase in the input (PV) results in
a decrease in output (e.g. Valve opening)
Example:
Temperature Valve Percent Percent
A temperature control (°C) Opening (Input) (Output)
loop whose transmitter(Input) (cm)
has a range 0-100 °C and a 0 2 0% 100%
control valve (Output) that has
25 1.5 25% 75%
an opening that ranges from 0-2
cm. Assuming a gain of 1. 50 1 50% 50%
75 0.5 75% 25%
100 0 100% 0%
Dynamic Response
Dynamic Reponse
The dynamic response of a process can usually be characterized by
three parameters:
• Process Gain
• Response Dead Time
• Process Lag/ Time Constant
Process Gain
• It is the ratio of the change in the output (once it has settled to a
new steady state) to the change in input.
• This is the ratio of the change in the process variable to the change
in the manipulated variable.
• It is also referred to as the process sensitivity as it describes the
degree to which a process responds to an input.
Process Gain
Fast Process vs Slow Process
• A fast process is one where it takes the process variable a short
amount of time to make significant change to the process. It means
that the measured PV changes frequently(e.g. Flow). A low gain
controller (low output/high input) is used since a large change in the
input would only cause a small change in the output preventing any
damage to the FCE due to frequent change in valve position.
• A slow process is one where it takes the process variable a long time
to make a significant change to the process. It means that the
measured PV changes slowly and steadily(e.g. Temperature). A high
gain controller (high output/low input) is used since a small change
in the input would cause a significant change in the output allowing
the process to react quickly since the process variable is hard to
control due to its low rate of change.
Process Gain
Here is an example. Table 1 has a gain of 0.5 (1 output : 2 input) and the
Table 2 has a gain of 2 (2 output : 1 input).
Table 1 Table 2
Temperature Valve Percent Percent Temperature Valve Percent Percent
(°C) Opening (Input) (Output) (°C) Opening (Input) (Output)
(cm) (cm)
0 0 0% 0% 0 0 0% 0%
25 0.25 25% 12.5% 25 0.5 25% 50%
50 0.5 50% 25% 50 2 50% 100%
75 0.75 75% 37.5% 75 2 75% 100%
100 1 100% 50% 100 2 100% 100%

Response Dead Time
• It is the delay between the manipulated variable (MV) changing and
a noticeable change in the measured process variable (PV).
• Dead Time exists in most processes because most real world events
are not instantaneous.
• An example of this is a hot water system. When the hot tap is
switched on there will be a certain time delay as hot water from the
heater moves along the pipes to the tap. This is dead time.
Process Lag/Time Constant
• Process lag is caused by the system's inertia and affects the rate at
which the process variable responds to a change in the manipulated
variable.
• Systems inertia may be due to the capacity of the tank or the
friction in the pipes which may be translated to electronics as
Capacitance and Resistance.
• The time where the measured process variable transitions from
dead time to 63.2 % of span is called the Time Constant.
Process Control Modes
Process Control Modes
1. Two-Position Control Mode
2. Continuous/Throttling Control Mode
Two-Position Control Modes
1. Two-Position Control Modes
In this type of Control Mode, the Final Controlling Element (FCE) is
positioned only in either On/Off or Close/Open.
Types of Two-Position Control:

1.1 On-Off Control (Binary Control)
1.2 Differential Gap Control
1.3 Time Cycle Control
1.1 On-Off Control
On-Off Control is the most common type of two-position control. As
soon as the measured Process Variable (PV) differs from the desired Set
Point (SP), the Final Control Element (FCE) is driven to one extreme or
the other.
1.1 On-Off Control
As an example, take a look at this level control loop. The control valve
opens and closes whenever it crosses the set point. If the measured PV
is greater than the SP, the valve closes. And if the measured PV is less
than the SP, the valve opens.
It is similar to on-off control except that a band or gap exists around the
set point. It introduces upper and lower boundaries in the control such
that any process variable whose measurement is greater than or less
than the set point must cross these thresholds to induce any changes
to the control valve position.
In this example, the valve opens and closes only when the measured
variable crosses either boundaries. If the measured PV is greater than
the UB, the valve closes and if it is less than the LB, the valve opens.
1.3 Time-Cycle Control:
In this type of control, a time base (for example 60 sec.) is established.
During this time period, the valve changes its position whenever the
measured PV reaches the set point. However, after the set time period
has elasped, the valve changes its position opposite to what it was until
it reaches the set point.
1.3 Time-Cycle Control:
The example below shows a time cycle control with 60s per cycle. The
valve position changes every 60s and each time the process variable
reaches the setpoint.
Notes about the Two Position Controllers
• On/Off controllers may cause hammering due to the frequent
change in valve position(Open/Close) that is caused by the process
variable oscillating at the set point.
• Differential Gap controllers eliminates hammering since the Upper
and Lower boundaries give the process variable space to oscillate at
the set point.
Throttling/Continuous Control
2. Throttling/Continuous Control:
Continuous Control positions the Final Controlling Element (FCE) in
more than two positions. This means that the Final Controlling Element
(FCE) can be positioned at any point within its throttling range, not just
On or Off.
Types of Continuous Control
2.1 Proportional Control (P-Only Mode)
2.2 Proportional + Integral (PI Mode)
2.3 Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID Mode)
2.1 Proportional Control (P-Control)
• Also known as single-mode control.
• It is a control action in which there is a linear relation between the
input and the output as long as both are within their operating
limits.
• Often used in process systems where the value of the controlled
variable is constantly changing in response to upsets.
• Proportional Controllers are designed to maintain a continuous
relationship between controlled variable (process measurement)
and the postion of the final control element (valve)
Proportional Control Action
General Formula for Proportional Control:
mP  Kc (e)  b
Where:
mP = Controller Output (Proportional)
Kc = Proportional Gain
e = Control Error
b = Bias
Proportional Control Action
The advantage of proportional
control is that whenever there
is an upset in the process (e.g.
change in set point) it can bring
it back to a stable condition.
However the error is not
eliminated. The condition
where an error persists in a
stable condition is called
Steady State Error.
Steady State Error may also be
defined as the difference of
input and output of a system in
the limit as time goes to
infinity.
2.2 Proportional+Integral Control (PI-Control)
• Also known as two-mode control.
• It is a control action in which the controller output is proportional to
a linear combination of the input and the time integral of the
input(or the amount of time the error is present).
m  m P  mI
Integral Control Action
General Formula for Integral Control:
Kc
mI 
Ti  e (t ) d (t )
Where:
mI = Controller Output (Integral)
e(t) = Control Error w/ respect to time
Ti = Integral Time
2.2 Proportional+Integral Control (PI-Control)
The advantage of the integral action is that it eliminates offsets
caused by errors by integrating the error and adding the value to the
proportional output. The time when the integration is done is determined
by the Integral Time (Ti).
2.3 Proportional+Integral+Derivative Control
(PID-Control)
• Also known as three-mode control.
• It is a control action in which the output is proportional to a linear
combination of the input, the time integral of the input, and the
time rate-of-change of the input. Some manufacturer use term rate
or pre-act instead of derivative.
• Derivative action responds to how rapidly a process is deviating
from the set point.
• Derivative takes action to inhibit more rapid changes of the
m m  m  m
measurement and is often used to avoid overshoot.
P I D
Derivative Control Action
General Formula for Derivative Control:
mD  KcTd 
de(t )
dt
Where:
mD = Controller Output (Derivative)
e(t) = Control Error w/ respect to time
Td = Derivative Time
2.3 Proportional+Integral+Derivative Control
(PID-Control)
The advantage of derivative
control is that it prevents
overshoots by controlling the
rate of change of the process
variable.
Overshooting usually happens
in slow processes (e.g.
Temperature) since the value of
the process variable involved is
not easily changed.
Derivative action is more
preventive than reactive unlike
proportional and integral
actions.
Summary
Kc de(t )
m  [ Kc(e)  b]  [  ed (t )]  [ Kc(Td )( )]
Ti dt
Proportional Action Integral Action Derivative Action
Where:
m = Controller Output
e = Control Error
b = Bias
Ti = Integral Time
Td = Derivative Time
Control Strategies
Control Strategies
Common control strategies implemented in control loops:
• Feed Forward Control
• Feedback Control
• Ratio Control
• Cascade Control
Feed Forward Control
• Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load
disturbances and controls them before they can impact the
controlled process variable.
• The advantage of feed forward control compared to feed back
control is that it has a faster response since the adjustment done to
the Manipulated Variable happens even before the Load Variable
has significant effect on the Controlled Variable.
• The disadvantage of feed forward control, however, is that any error
generated outside the feed forward loop is not controlled since the
output is not monitored.
• Prevents errors rather than correct them
Feed Forward Control
In this example any change
in temperature of the cold Load Variable: Temperature
water would immediately

result in the adjustment of
the control valve.
However, any disturbance
introduced in the tank is
not monitored and may not Controlled Variable: Temperature
be corrected resulting in an
incorrect temperature of
the hot water. Manipulated Variable: Flow
Feedback Control
• Feedback control is a control system that is used to correct errors,
caused by process disturbances, that are detected within a closed
loop control system.
• The disadvantage of feedback control over feed forward control is
that it has a slower response to disturbance since any effect it has in
the process is not detected until the output has been measured.
Feed Back Control
In this example, the
temperature of the Hot Water is
monitored and is controlled by Load Variable:
Temperature
varying the flow of the burner
fuel.
Any disturbance within the tank
is detected by the temperature
sensor and thus providing
accurate correction.
Controlled Variable: Temperature

Manipulated Variable: Flow
Ratio Control
• is used to maintain the flow rate of one stream in a process at a
defined or specified proportion relative to that of another.
Ratio Control
Here is an example of a ratio
control loop. Liquid #1 and
Liquid #2 must maintain a
certain ratio to produce a
“Product”.
Both flows are monitored and
are ratio'ed in the controller.
One flow is controlled and
another freely flowing. The
controlled flow adjusts to the
wild flow to maintain the ratio.
Cascade Control
• is a control system in which a secondary (slave) control loop is set up
to control a variable that is a major source of load disturbance for
another primary (master) control loop.
• The primary (master) controller determines the setpoint of the
secondary (slave) controller.
• The disadvantage of cascade control is that it is expensive.
Cascade Control
To better understand the need
for cascade control, let's take a
look at this feed back control. Load Variable:
Temperature
Now if an error is detected
within this loop, the controller
will send a correction to the
valve.However because of
Process Lags and Dead Time,
the correction is delayed. During
that delay if another error
occurs, a new correction signal
will be sent. This will result in an
erratic response due to the
input chasing after the output. Controlled Variable: Temperature
Manipulated Variable: Flow
Cascade Control
To remedy this, a cascade
control may be implemented.
The outer loop is comprised of
the master loop which monitors
the controlled variable and gives
the setpoint to the slave
controller.
The inner loop comprised of the
slave controller and focuses on
correction.
Since it is set up this way, the
inner loop can focus on
correction thus maintaining a
more stable response.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

PREPARED BY: DBA

IN AN INDUSTRY, THERE IS ALWAYS A NEED TO MEASURE AND MONITOR

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high pressure side is connected to

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Datum Line (0%)

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1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters

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