Chapter 16

Highway Drainage
16-1
What are the two sources of water a highway engineer is primarily concerned with?
Briefly describe each.

The highway engineer is concerned primarily with two sources of water.

The first source, surface water, is precipitation that occurs as rain or snow. Some
of this is absorbed into the soil, and the remainder remains on the surface of the
ground and should be removed from the highway pavement as surface drainage.
The second source, ground water, is that which flows in underground streams;
this is referred to as subsurface drainage. This may become important in
highway cuts or at locations where a high water table exists near the pavement
structure.

16-2
Briefly describe the main differences between surface drainage and subsurface
drainage.

Surface drainage is the system that drains surface water away from the
surface of the pavement. This surface water consists of the precipitation in the
form of rain, ice and snow, less that which is absorbed into the soil. Surface
drainage system features are incorporated into the overall design of the highway
with the objective of ultimately directing all surface runoff to natural waterways,
including:
• Transverse slopes to facilitate the removal of water from the pavement
surface in the shortest possible time.
• Longitudinal slopes to facilitate the provision of adequate slopes in the
longitudinal channels.
• Longitudinal channels or ditches to collect the surface water that runs off
from pavement surfaces, subsurface drains, and other areas of the highway
right-of-way.
• Curbs and gutters.
• Drainage structures such as bridges and culverts.

Subsurface drainage is the system that drains groundwater from the

highway pavement structure. The groundwater may be in one or more of the
following forms: (1) surface water that has permeated through cracks and joints in
the pavement to the underlying strata, (2) water moving upward through the
underlying strata due to capillary action, and (3) water existing in the natural

289 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

ground below the water table, usually referred to as groundwater. A subsurface

drainage system usually consists of:
• Longitudinal drains usually consisting of pipes laid in trenches within the
pavement structure and parallel to the center line.
• Transverse drains placed below the pavement and in a direction
perpendicular to the center line.
• Horizontal drains in cuts and embankments to relieve pore pressure.
• A drainage blanket, which is a layer of material with a high coefficient of
permeability beneath or within the pavement structure placed beneath or
within the pavement structure to facilitate the flow of subsurface water
away from the pavement.

16-3
What are the two main disadvantages of using turf cover on unpaved shoulders?

The two main disadvantages of using turf cover on unpaved shoulders are that turf
cover cannot resist continued traffic and that it loses firmness under conditions of
heavy rain.

16-4
Briefly describe the three properties of rainfall that primarily concern highway
engineers.

Highway engineers are primarily concerned with three properties of

rainfall: intensity, duration, and frequency. The rate of fall (typically expressed in
inches per hour) is known as intensity. The length of time for a given intensity is
known as duration. The probable number of years that will elapse before a given
combination of intensity and duration will be repeated is known as frequency.

16-5
What is meant by a: (a) 10 year storm, (b) 50 year storm, (c) 100 year storm, and (d)
500 year storm?

(a) A 10-year storm is a storm of given intensity and duration for which the
probability that it will occur in a one year period is 1 in 10.
(b) A 50-year storm is a storm of given intensity and duration for which the
probability that it will occur in a one year period is 1 in 50.
(c) A 100-year storm is a storm of given intensity and duration for which the
probability that it will occur in a one year period is 1 in 100.
(d) A 500-year storm is a storm of given intensity and duration for which the
probability that it will occur in a one year period is 1 in 500.

(c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 290

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

16-6
Define the following: (a) drainage area, (b) run-off coefficient (C), (c) travel time (ti),
and (d) time of concentration (tc).

(a) Drainage area is that area of land that contributes to the runoff at the point
where the channel capacity is to be determined. This area is normally determined
from a topographic map.
(b) Runoff coefficient (C) is the ratio of runoff to rainfall for the drainage area.
The runoff coefficient depends on the type of ground cover, the slope of the
drainage area, storm duration, prior wetting, and the slope of the ground. For
small drainage areas, typically only type of ground cover and slope of the
drainage area are considered in determination of runoff coefficients.
(c) Travel time (ti) is the ratio of flow length to average flow velocity for a
specific watershed.
(d) Time of concentration (tc) is the time required for runoff to flow from the most
distant point, along hydraulic channels, to the point of interest in the watershed
and is therefore the sum of travel times for the various elements within the
watershed.

16-7
A 170 acre rural drainage area consists of four different watershed areas as follows:
Steep grass covered area = 40%
Cultivated area = 25%
Forested area = 30%
Turf meadows = 5%
Using the rational formula, determine the runoff rate for a storm of 100-year
frequency. Use Table 16.2 for runoff coefficients. Assume that the rainfall intensity
curves in Figure 16.2 are applicable to this drainage area and the following land
characteristics apply. Use Figure 16.4 to calculate average velocity using "fallow or
minimum tillage cultivation" ground cover. Overland flow length = 0.5 miles.
Average slope of overland area = 3%

Determine the runoff rate for a 100-year storm.

Determine the runoff coefficients for each of the four groundcover-type areas
from Table 16.2.

Type of Cover % Area Coefficient

Steep grass covered 40 0.60
Cultivated area 25 0.30
Forested area 30 0.20
Turf meadow 5 0.25

291 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

Calculate the weighted run-off coefficient using Equation 16.1.

n

∑C A i i
Cw = i =1
n

∑A
i =1
i

Cw = 170 [(0.40)(0.60) + (0.25)(0.30) + (0.30)(0.20) + (0.05)(0.25)] / 170

Cw = 0.3875

Estimate the average velocity using Figure 16.4. This area can be considered as
Fallow or minimum tillage cultivation.
v = 0.8 ft/sec
Determine travel time using Equation 16.2,
Ti = L / 3600 V
Ti = (0.5)(5280) / (3600)(0.8)
Ti = 0.917 h
Since only one segment is being investigated, Ti = Tc.
Determine the rainfall intensity, using Figure 16.2.
I = 3.0 in/h
Determine the runoff flow rate using the rational formula (Equation 16.4).
Q = CIA
Q = (0.3875)(3.0)(170)
Q = 197.63 ft3/sec
Therefore, the runoff flow rate for this watershed will be 198 ft3/sec.

16-8
Compute rate of runoff using the rational formula for a 225 acre rural drainage
area consisting of two different watershed areas as follows:
Steep grass area = 45%
Cultivated fields = 55%

If the time of concentration for this area is 2.4 hours, determine the runoff rate for a
storm of 50-year frequency. Use the rainfall intensity curves in Figure
16.2. Use Table 16.2 for runoff coefficients.

Determine the runoff coefficients for each of the two groundcover-type areas
from Table 16.2.

Type of Cover % Area Coefficient

Steep grass covered 45 0.60
Cultivated fields 55 0.30

(c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 292

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

Calculate the weighted run-off coefficient using Equation 16.1,

n

∑C A i i
Cw = i =1
n

∑A
i =1
i

Cw = 225 [(0.45)(0.60) + (0.55)(0.30)] / 225

Cw = 0.435

Determine the rainfall intensity, using Figure 16.2.

I = 1.45 in/h
Determine the runoff flow rate using the rational formula (Equation 16.4).
Q = CIA
Q = (0.435)(1.45)(225)
Q = 141.9 ft3/sec
Therefore, the runoff flow rate for this watershed will be 142 ft3/sec.

16-9
Using the TR-55 method, determine the depth of runoff for a 24-hour, 100-year
precipitation event of 9 inches if the soil can be classified as group B and the
watershed is contoured pasture with good hydrologic condition and an antecedent
soil condition III.

Determine depth of runoff for a 24-hour, 100-year, precipitation of 9 inches.

First determine CNII value from Table 16.3 for contoured pasture with good
hydrologic condition and soil group B.
CNII = 35

Since the antecedent moisture condition of the soil is condition III, now find the
CNIII value for this soil condition from Table 16.5.
CNIII = 55

Determine the potential maximum retention after runoff begins, using Equation
16.7.
S = (1000 / CN) – 10 = (1000 / 55) – 10
S = 8.18 in

Determine depth of runoff using Equation 16.5.

( P − 0.2 S ) 2 ((9) − (0.2)(8.18)) 2
h= =
P + 0.8S 9 + (0.8)(8.18)
h = 3.49 in

Therefore, the depth of runoff will be 3.5 inches.

293 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

16-10
Determine the depth of runoff by the TR-55 method for a 24-hour, 100-year
precipitation of 9 inches for an antecedent moisture condition III, if the following
land uses and soil conditions exist.

Area Fraction Land/Use Condition Soil Group

0.30 Wooded/fair condition D
0.25 Small grain/straight row/good condition D
0.20 Pasture/contoured/fair condition D
0.15 Meadow/good condition D
0.10 Farmstead D

Since different land uses are present, a weighted CN value must be calculated.
The CNII values can be found in Table 16.3, and the corresponding CNIII values in
Table 16.5, as shown below.

Land-use Type % Area CNII CNIII

Wooded/fair 0.30 79 93.4
Small grain/straight/good 0.25 87 97.4
Pasture/contoured/fair 0.20 83 95.8
Meadow/good 0.15 78 92.8
Farmstead 0.10 86 97.2

Weighted CNIII =
0.30)(93.4)+(0.25)(97.4)+(0.20)(95.8)+(0.15)(92.8)+(0.10)(97.2)
Weighted CNIII = 95.17

Determine the potential maximum retention after runoff begins, using Equation
16.7.
S = (1000 / CN) – 10
S = (1000 / 95.16) – 10
S = 0.51 in

Determine depth of runoff using Equation 16.5.

( P − 0.2 S ) 2 ((9) − (0.2)(0.51)) 2
h= =
P + 0.8S 9 + (0.8)(0.51)
h = 8.42 in
Therefore, the depth of runoff will be 8.42 inches.

(c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 294

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

16-11
Determine the peak discharge that will occur for the conditions indicated in
Problem 16-10 if the drainage area is 0.5 mi2, and the time of concentration is 1.6
hours.

From Problem 16-10, the depth was found to be h = 8.42 inches.

From Figure 16.5, for a time concentration of 1.6 hours:

q'p = 240 ft3/sec/mi2/in

Determine the peak discharge using Equation 16.6.

qp = q'p (A)(h)
qp = (240)(0.5)(8.42)
qp = 1010 ft3/sec
Therefore, the peak discharge that will occur will be approximately 1010 ft3/sec.

16-12
What is the difference between supercritical and subcritical flow? Under what
conditions will either of these occur?

Flows in channels can be tranquil or rapid. Flow is considered to be

critical when the depth of flow is the critical depth (i.e. the depth at which the
flow in a channel changes from tranquil to rapid). At this depth the specific
energy is minimized. When the flow depth is less than the critical depth, the flow
is known as supercritical. This type of rapid, turbulent flow is prevalent in steep
flumes and mountain streams. When the flow depth exceeds the critical depth,
the flow is subcritical, characterized by slower velocity and tranquil flow.
Subcritical flow is typically found in shallow broad channel of nearly flat slopes.

16-13
A trapezoidal channel of 2:1 side slope and 5 ft bottom width, discharges a flow of
275 ft3/sec. If the channel slope is 2.5% and the Manning coefficient is 0.03,
determine (a) flow velocity, (b) flow depth, and (c) type of flow.

Using the graphical solution of Manning’s equation for a trapezoidal channel with
a side slope of 2:1 and bottom width of 5 ft, provided in Figure 16.6,

(a) Flow velocity = 11 ft/sec

(b) Flow depth = 2.6 ft
(c) Type of flow: The intersection of the discharge flow and the 2.5% slope lies
above the critical curve, thus, the flow is supercritical.

295 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

16-14
A 6 ft wide rectangular channel lined with rubble masonry is required to carry a
flow of 300 ft3/sec. If the slope of the channel is 2% and n = 0.015, determine (a)
flow depth, (b) flow velocity, and (c) type of flow.

Using the graphical solution of Manning’s equation for a rectangular channel of a

width 6 ft and n = 0.015, provided in Figure 16.7,

(a) Flow depth = 2.8 ft

(b) Flow velocity = 18 ft/sec
(c) Type of flow: The intersection of the discharge flow line and the 2% slope
line lies above the critical curve, thus, the flow is supercritical.

16-15
For the conditions given in Problem 16-14, determine the critical depth and the
maximum channel slope at which subcritical flow can occur.

Using Figure 16.7, the critical flow curve intersects the vertical line for a
flow of 300 ft3/sec at a depth of approximately 4.25 ft. The associated channel
slope is approximately 0.007 (0.7%), which is the maximum slope at which
subcritical flow will occur.

16-16
Determine a suitable rectangular flexible lined channel to resist erosion for a
maximum flow of 20 ft3/sec if the channel slope is 2%. Use channel dimensions
given in Problem 16-14.

Using Figure 16.7, the normal depth of flow = 0.45 ft and the flow velocity =
7 ft/sec.

To allow a free board of 1 ft, the revised channel dimension is:

1.45 ft x 6 ft
Determine if a channel lined with jute mesh is suitable to prevent erosion.
Using Figure 16.9, determine dmax
dmax = 0.62 ft
Determine the hydraulic radius, R
R = a /p
R = (0.62)(6.0) / [(2)(0.62) + (6.0)]
R = 0.51 ft
Determine the flow velocity, V, using Figure 16.13.
V = 61.53 R1.028 S00.431
V = 61.53(0.51)1.028(0.02)0.431
V = 5.75 ft / sec

(c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 296

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

Determine the flow.

Q = VA
Q = (5.75)((0.62)(6.0))
Q = 21.4 ft3 / sec

Since the allowable flow rate for this material is slightly greater than the flow
required, the channel design using jute mesh is adequate.

16-17
A trapezoidal channel of 2:1 side slope and 5 ft bottom width is to be used to
discharge a flow of 200 ft3/sec. If the channel slope is 2% and the Manning
coefficient is 0.015, determine the minimum depth required for the channel. Is the
flow supercritical or subcritical?

Using the graphical solution of Manning’s equation for a trapezoidal channel with
a side slope of 2:1 and bottom width of 5 ft, provided in Figure 16.6,
Qn = flow * manning coefficient
Qn = (200)(0.015)
Qn = 3.0

From Figure 16.6, depth of flow = 1.6 ft.

The intersection of the discharge flow line and the 2% slope line lies above the
critical curve, thus, the flow is supercritical.

Allowing a free board of 1 ft, the minimum depth required for the channel is 2.6
ft.

16-18
Determine whether a 5 ft x 5 ft reinforced concrete box culvert with 45o flared
wingwalls and beveled edge at top of inlet carrying a 50-year flow rate of 200 ft3/sec
will operate under inlet or outlet control for the following conditions. Assume ke =
0.5.

Design headwater elevation (ELhd) = 105 ft

Elevation of stream bed at face of invert = 99.55 ft
Tailwater depth = 4.75 ft
Approximate length of culvert = 200 ft
Slope of stream = 1.5%
n = 0.012

297 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

Determine the required conditions for inlet control.

Calculate the flow rate per ft of width.

Q / NB = 200/5 = 40.0 ft3/sec/ft
Using Figure 16.16, draw a line connecting 5 ft to 40 ft to obtain the headwater
depth at culvert face (HW / D).
HW / D = 1.19 ft/ft
Calculate the required headwater, HW.
HW = (HW / D) * depth of culvert
HW = 1.19 * 5
HW = 5.95 ft
Neglect the approach velocity head in this problem. Therefore;
HWi = 5.95 ft
Calculate the required depression. Use Equation 16.13 to determine the design
headwater depth, HWd.
HWd = ELhd - ELsf
HWd = 105 - 99.55
HWd = 5.45 ft
Determine the fall using Equation 16.14.
Fall = HWi - HWd
Fall = 5.95 - 5.45
Fall = 0.50 ft
Calculate the culvert invert elevation
invert elevation = 99.55 - 0.50 = 99.05 ft

Determine the required conditions for outlet control.

Determine the critical depth with Q / B = 200 / 5 = 40.0, from Figure 16.23.
dc = 3.7 ft
Calculate depth from outlet invert to hydraulic grade line and determine if TW is
greater.
(dc + D) / 2 = (3.7 + 5) / 2 = 4.35 ft
Since TW is not greater, use ho = 4.75 ft
Determine the total head loss (H) from Figure 16.21
H = 2.2 ft
Calculate the required outlet headwater elevation using Equation 16.23.
ELho = Elo + H + ho
ELho = (99.05 - (0.015)( 200)) + 2.2 + 4.75
ELho = 103.00 ft
The required outlet headwater elevation (103 ft) is less than the design headwater
elevation (105 ft); therefore the 5 ft x 5 ft culvert is acceptable and inlet control
governs.

(c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 298

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

16-19
Repeat Problem 16-18 using a 6.5 ft diameter circular pipe culvert with ke = 0.5.

Determine the required conditions for inlet control.

Using Figure 16.16, draw a line connecting 78 in to 200 ft3/sec to obtain the
headwater depth at culvert face (HW / D).
HW / D = 0.88 ft/ft
Calculate the required headwater, HW.
HW = (HW / D) * depth of culvert
HW = (0.88)(6.5 ft)
HW = 5.72 ft
Neglect the approach velocity head in this problem. Therefore;
HWi = 5.72 ft
Calculate the required depression. Use Equation 16.13 to determine the design
headwater depth, HWd.
HWd = ELhd - ELsf
HWd = 105 - 99.55
HWd = 5.45 ft
Determine the fall using Equation 16.14.
Fall = HWi - HWd
Fall = 5.72 - 5.45
Fall = 0.27 ft
Calculate the culvert invert elevation
invert elevation = 99.55 – 0.27 = 99.28 ft

Determine the required conditions for outlet control.

Determine the critical depth with Q / B = 200 / 6.5 = 30.8, from Figure 16.24.
dc = 3.75 ft
Calculate depth from outlet invert to hydraulic grade line and determine if TW is
greater.
(dc + D) / 2 = (3.75 + 6.5) / 2 = 5.13 ft
Since TW is greater, use ho = 5.13 ft
Determine the total head loss (H) from Figure 16.22
H = 1.05 ft
Calculate the required outlet headwater elevation using Equation 16.23.
ELho = Elo + H + ho
ELho = (99.28 - (0.015)( 200)) + 1.05 + 5.13
ELho = 102.46 ft
The required outlet headwater elevation (102.46 ft) is less than the design
headwater elevation (105 ft); therefore the 6.5 ft diameter circular culvert is
acceptable and inlet control governs.

299 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

16-20
Determine the ground water infiltration rate for a new two-lane pavement with the
following characteristics:
Lane width = 12 ft
Shoulder width = 10 ft
Length of contributing transverse cracks (Wc) = 20 ft
Rate of infiltration (Kp) = 0.05 ft3/day/ft2
Spacing of transverse cracks = 30 ft

Determine the width of granular base.

W = (number of lanes) * (lane width) + (shoulder width) * 2
W = (2 * 12) + (10 * 2)
W = 44 ft
Since this is a new pavement,
Nc = N + 1
Nc = 3
Use Equation 16.24 to determine infiltration rate (assume Ic = 2.4):
Nc W
qi = I c ( + c ) +K p
W WC s
qi = (2.4) [(3 / 44) + (20 / (44)(30))] + 0.05
qi = 0.25 ft3 / day / ft2
Therefore, the ground water infiltration rate will be 0.25 ft3/day/ft2 for this new
pavement section.

16-21
In addition to the infiltration determined in Problem 16-20, ground water seepage
due to gravity also occurs. Determine the thickness of a suitable drainage layer
required to transmit the net inflow to a suitable outlet.

Thickness of subgrade below drainage pipe = 12 feet

Coefficient of permeability of native soil = 0.35 ft/day
Height of water table above impervious layer = 21 feet
Slope of drainage layer = 2%
Permeability of drainage area = 2,000 ft/day
Length of flow path = 44 ft
Calculate the amount of drawdown.
H - Ho = 21 - 12 = 9 ft of drawdown
Determine the radius of influence.
Li = 3.8 (H - Ho)
Li = (3.8) (9) = 34.2 ft
Compute the average inflow rate due to gravity drainage:
((Li + 0.5W) / Ho ) = (34.2 + ((0.5) * (44))) / 12
((Li + 0.5W) / Ho ) = 56.20 / 12
((Li + 0.5W) / Ho ) = 4.68
W/Ho = 44/12 = 3.67

(c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 300

 Chapter 16: Highway Drainage

From Figure 16.34, determine:

k * (H - Ho ) / 2q2 = 1.7
q2 = k * (H - Ho ) / (2 * (1.7))
q2 = (0.35 * 9) / 3.4
q2 = 0.93
qg = q2 / 0.5W
qg = 0.93 / (0.5 * 44)
qg = 0.042 ft3/day/ft2

Calculate the net inflow.

From Problem 16-20, qi = 0.25 ft3 / day / ft2
qn = qi + qg
qn = 0.25 + 0.042
qn = 0.292
p = qn / kd
p = 0.292 / 2,000
p = 1.46 x 10-4

From Figure 16.38:

L / Hm = 200
Hm = L / 200
Hm = 44 / 200
Hm = 0.22 ft = 2.64 in; use 3.0 inches

Therefore, the suitable drainage layer thickness should be 3.0 inches.

301 (c) 2009 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.