An introduction to Tendai

Buddhist Philosophy
Presented by Seishin Clark

SPRING 2019
TENDAI BUDDHISM UK
Shikan Do Temple
 Copyright © Seishin Clark, 2019
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form by an electronic or mechanical means, including information
storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from
the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in
a review.

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CONTENTS

Introduction ............................................................................. 6
Acknowledgments.................................................................. 10
‘Bukkyō’ Buddha Dharma/Buddhism ............................ 12
Buddhism basic overview; Śakyamuni who?? ................... 14
Saṃsāra & Nirvāṇa............................................................. 15
Middle Way ........................................................................ 16
Four Noble Truths .............................................................. 17
Eight Fold Path ................................................................... 21
Three Trainings .................................................................. 29
Emptiness ........................................................................... 30
Karma and Rebirth ............................................................. 36
What is Mahāyāna Buddhism? .......................................... 39
What is Bodhicitta? ............................................................ 40
What is a Bodhisattva? ...................................................... 40
The Six Perfections ............................................................. 41
Skilful Means ...................................................................... 44
Tendai Buddhism ............................................................... 45
Ichijō Bukkyō (一乘佛教) “One Vehicle Buddhism” .......... 48
‘Sōgōbukkyō’ Integrated Buddhism ..................... 52
‘Shishū Sōjō’ Four-fold transmission .................. 56
Meditation ......................................................................... 59
Pureland ............................................................................. 59

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Precepts ............................................................................. 60
Mikkyō................................................................................ 60
‘En’ Perfect/round............................................................. 62
The Gradual Teaching, 漸教 ‘Zengyō’. ............................... 64
The Variable teaching, 不定教 Fujokyō ............................. 64
The Secret teaching 秘密 ‘Himitsukyō’.............................. 65
The Sudden/Perfect teaching 圓教 ‘Engyō’ ....................... 65
‘Tendai no kyōgi’ Tendai Doctrine ................... 66
TIANTAI DOCTRINE 天台の教義 Tendai no Kyōgi ............. 68
Three Truths 三諦 Sandai ................................................. 68
Three Thousand Worlds in a Single Thought Moment
(ichinen sanzen 一念三千) ................................................ 71
Five Periods and Eight Teachings (Goji Hakkyō 五時八教)81
Buddha Nature (tathāgatagarbha) 如來藏 Nyorai zō ....... 85
Enlightenment of plants 草木成仏 sōmoku-jōbutsu ........ 85
Original enlightenment 本覺 Hongaku .............................. 87
Tendai Doctrine.................................................................. 90
‘Zen’ Meditation ............................................................... 92
Moho-chih kuan (‘Maka shikan’) 摩訶止觀 ...................... 95
Shikan 止觀 ........................................................................ 95
‘Jōdo’ Pureland .......................................................... 100
Kai Precepts ................................................................... 110

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 Saichō’s monastic reformations....................................... 112
Endonkai 圓頓戒 – Perfect Sudden Precepts ................. 114
The Five Lay Precepts ....................................................... 115
The Bodhisattva Precepts ................................................ 116
‘Mikkyō’ Esoteric ....................................................... 118
Three Secrets, 三密 San Mitsu......................................... 123
‘Shin’ Kami/spirits ........................................................... 126
Shinbutsu-shūgō 神仏習合 - Syncretism of Kami and
Buddhas ........................................................................... 128
Sannō ichijitsu Shintō 山王一實神道 - One Truth of Sannō
Shintō ............................................................................... 129
What does this mean for Tendai in the West? ................ 130
Ryokai Mandara Two-world Maṇḍala ........... 132
如来 Nyorai ...................................................................... 135
菩薩 Bosatsu .................................................................... 136
明王 Myō-ō ...................................................................... 136
天 Ten............................................................................... 137
権現 Gongen .................................................................... 138
高僧・祖師 Kōsō - Soshi ................................................. 138
Conclusion ............................................................................ 140
References & Further Reading ............................................. 144

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Introduction
This small book has been a few years in the making and has
gone through many different phases. It first started off as
small essays I have written over the years, at first for my own
benefit as I studied Tendai Buddhism with my teachers, but
then in to introductory essays for visitors to my small, humble
temple.

As time went on it became apparent that this, ad hoc drip

feeding of information was fine for regular attendees, but not
fine for new comers, who were looking for a simple
introduction. So I started writing, what was meant to be, a
small essay that covered some of the very basics of Tendai
Buddhism. However, as I wrote, that small essay grew to the
point of being too long winded, and too complicated. It was
also disjointed and didn’t have much continuity.

I hope, here, in this final rewrite of my numerous essays and

introductions, is a somewhat complete and coherent piece
that helps the reader gain an understanding of Tendai
Buddhism. I say complete, but in reality, this work is far from
complete. As an introductory text it is not going to cover
everything, and I always find that short paragraphs on
important concepts are inadequate to fully explain what
needs to be explained. Therefore I must remind the reader
that this book is not the final word. It is short, rudimentary,
and just like its writer, not perfect.

The Japanese School of Tendai Buddhism was founded by

Venerable Saicho 最澄 (Dengyo Daishi 伝教大師 767–822)
after he travelled to China to bring the Lotus teachings of the
Tiantai school back to Japan. Tiantai was said to have been

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founded by Venerable Zhiyi 智顗 (Chih-i 538-597) even
though he is considered the 4th patriarch.

Through his travels in Tang China, Saicho also studied in the

Ox Head school of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, Vinaya, and Esoteric
traditions. Along with the Lotus teachings of Tiantai, he
brought these other schools to Japan to establish a truly
Ekayana school – Tendai Shu 天台宗.

Having returned to Japan in 805CE, Saicho built a temple on

Mt Hiei and spent the rest of his life striving to gain imperial
approval to establish his new school and ordination platform
away from the capital city. Sadly, he did not live to see his
dreams fulfilled as, in 822, just days after his death, the
Enryaku-ji 延暦寺(temple) on Mt Hiei was given official
approval by Emperor Saga as the head of Tendai Buddhism
and ordination platform in Japan. The Tendai Shu became the
first school to ordain people using the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva
Vows instead of the traditional Vinaya.

After Saicho’s death, many Tendai monks continued to add to

the school, notably Ennin 圓仁 (794 – 864) who brought back
from China full esoteric (mikkyō 密教) transmissions and
Enchin 圓珍(814–891) who united the esoteric and exoteric
teachings.

Today, the Tendai Shu is arguably the most influential school

of Buddhism in Japan, having given rise to schools such as
Nichiren, Zen (Dogen), Jodo Shu and Jodo Shin Shu. Even
though it is so influential in Japan it is almost non-existent in
the West with only a small number of groups. Slowly and
steadily, there are now Temples and groups in Hawaii,

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America, Canada, Brazil, India, Denmark, Australia, England,
Wales, Italy and Germany. The Hawaii Betsuin and the Tendai
Institute in America have excellent facilities for westerners
who wish to ordain. With hope, and much hard work, more
ordination platforms will open up in the west, and Tendai Shu
will continue to grow.

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Acknowledgments
There have been numerous people who have helped me with
this book over the years. Most pivotal was my first teacher
and preceptor, Venerable Ganshin Rock Sensei. Without his
teaching, guidance, and friendship, I would never have been
able to write his book. He and his wife, Reiko sama, have
helped shape me and the UK Tendai Sangha to what we are
today. I bow to the ground to them.

I also extend my humble prostrations to my current teacher,

mentor, and friend, Venerable Shoshin Ichishima Sensei. Both
before and after Ganshin passed away, he has both taught
and encouraged me to continue spreading Tendai teachings
in the UK. I would also like to thank him for his help with this
book, for his suggestions, and corrections.

I would also like to thank Rev Jikai Dehn Sensei, ‘Seiki’ Roy,
‘Shinki’ Lynda, and Dr Aaron Proffitt for their assistance in
proof-reading, making numerous suggestions, and correcting
countless typos and grammar mistakes.

And to my family, who have supported me throughout this

endeavour. Not many people realise the difficulties in being a
priest and running a sangha, and how this impacts family life.
My family have put up with me being busy, or being away,
and opening up our home to complete strangers. You have
my deep gratitude and love for all your support.

There have been many others who have supported me over

the years; sangha members, friends, and colleagues. Too
many to mention. You know who you are, and you have my
thanks.

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11 | P a g e
 ‘Bukkyō’
Buddha Dharma/Buddhism

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Buddhism basic overview; Śakyamuni who??
Buddhism is often described as a religion, but it is unlike any
religion we are familiar with in the Western world. For one
thing, there is no god-head. Buddhism was founded by a man
called Sidhārtha Gautama/Gotama (Sid-hArt-ha. Gow-tama).
He was born in Lumbini (present day Nepal) in the Shakya
kingdom, somewhen between 563 BCE – 480 BCE. According
to tradition, he was born as a prince of the Shakya clan.
Shortly after his birth, a Brahmin sage (holy man) prophesised
that Sidhārtha would grow to either become a great king or
great sage[1]. His father, the king Śuddhodana (Shood-ho-
dana), did not want his son to shirk his royal responsibilities,
so he surrounded Sidhārtha with all the luxuries of a royal
life, in the hopes he would be content and not seek a spiritual
life. This backfired, and from a young age, Sidhārtha began to
question the meaning of life, why we are born and die. The
kingdom of the Shakya’s followed the early Vedic (a precursor
to modern Hinduism) and Śramaṇa (ascetic wandering holy
men) religions, which teach that everyone is destined to be
born, grow old, die and then be reborn again, in a continuing
cycle of birth and death, known as Saṃsāra. [2]

A turning point in Sidhārtha’s life was on the few occasions

that he was allowed out of the palace during which, despite
his father’s best efforts, he saw that birth, aging, sickness and
death[3] will affect everyone, even those of royal birth. It is
inescapable. He also saw a holy man, an ascetic who left the
home life, to pursue a spiritual life to answer the very
fundamental questions of why we are here, why we are born,
why we grow old and sick, why we die, and why we are
reborn to do it over and over again. After the birth of his son,

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Rāhula, the Sidhārtha became fearful. His son, his wife and all
those he dearly loved would also, one day, grow old, sick and
die. Not content with this thought, at the tender age of 29, he
made what must be the most difficult of decisions, to leave
his family, his home and the life of luxury, to become an
ascetic holy man[4].

For many years, he practiced the severe austerities of his

time, including starving himself to the point of death, which
was believed to make a person enlightened. However, he
found all these practices wanting, and realised the “middle
path” between the extremes of self-mortification and
indulgence[5]. At the age of 35, determined to reach
“enlightenment”, he sat beneath a tree and meditated
constantly for 49 days. On the last day he attained Nirvāṇa
and became “the Buddha” or “the Awakened One”. From this
moment on he taught the Path he had found to others. He
even went home and taught his family; his son, wife, and
many others from the Shakya clan, joined the order of
monastics he had founded. His son was the youngest to join
the Sangha (ordained community).

The man, Sidhārtha, now became known by many names;

The Buddha (Awakened One), The Tathāgata (Thus gone
one), Śakyamuni (Sage of the Shakya clan) and many others.

Saṃsāra & Nirvāṇa

Saṃsāra, means “to wander on”, and refers to the belief that
we are born, grow old, die and are reborn again and again, in
an endless cycle. In Japanese it is ‘seishi’ 生死, literally
meaning ‘birth and death’. There were many theories during
the time of the Buddha (just as there are now) on how to

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break free of that cycle. Some believed we were put here for
a reason, and until we know what that reason is, we will
continue to be reborn. Others believed it was the will of the
gods, and to break free we must remain in the service of the
gods. The Buddha taught the 8 Fold Path to break free. We
will come to this later.

Breaking free of Saṃsāra is known as Nirvāṇa. Nirvāṇa means

to “extinguish” or “blow out”. In Buddhism this is in reference
to the extinguishing of the “Three Fires” (aka “Three
Poisons”) of greed, aversion and ignorance[6]. These are the
bonds that keep us tied to Saṃsāra. These days people know
Nirvāṇa to mean ‘Enlightenment’, however this isn’t a great
translation and can often lead to misunderstanding of the
Buddhist goal.

Middle Way
As we have seen already, the Buddha founded a path known
as the “Middle Way” (Madhyamāpratipad in Sanskrit). In the
earliest of texts, the Middle Way only referred to the path
between the extremes of self-mortification and over
indulgence. For the monastic community, the ‘middle way’
meant not having a home, begging for food, only owning
three robes (enough to keep one warm in winter), and only
eating one meal a day – all of which may be considered
“extreme” by today’s standards. For the lay person, this
meant eating moderately, sleeping moderately, earning and
spending money moderately etc.

Later, as Buddhism developed, the “middle path” was also

used to explain that the Buddhist path was neither about
permanent existence (i.e., in a heaven or hell, or having a

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soul) nor about an annihilistic existence (i.e., we have one life
only)[7].

What the middle path doesn’t refer to is the widely known

paraphrase of “all things in moderation”. For example, the
Buddha taught us not to lie, kill, and steal. He did not say
these are all ok “in moderation”. Also, ‘moderation’ will differ
from person to person depending on their lifestyle, their
culture, their country of origin etc. So, we can see that what
the Middle Way refers to is something very specific and
should not be taken as a blanket statement on all activities.

Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths, can be described as the Buddha’s core
teachings. All paths of Buddhism come back to the Four
Noble Truths, and according to tradition, was the first thing
the Buddha ever taught.

The Four Noble Truths are;

1. The Truth of Dukkha

2. The Truth of the Cause of Dukkha
3. The Truth of the Cessation of Dukkha
4. The Truth of the Path to the Cessation of Dukkha

As one can see, the Four Noble Truths are based around
‘Dukkha’, but what does it mean? Dukkha can be translated
in several ways; it can mean suffering, anguish, uneasy,
uncomfortable, oppressiveness, and/or unsatisfactory. Let’s
now take a closer look at each truth;

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 1. The truth of Dukkha.

To live means we will inevitable experience dukkha in our

lives. This is why it is called a ‘truth’ in Buddhism. All of us
will, at some point, experience suffering, or distress, or
anguish, or feel uncomfortable or feel unsatisfied. For most,
they accept it as a part of life. For others, it can be a crushing,
debilitating experience. But why should we accept it as a part
of life? If there was a way to end dukkha, why wouldn’t we
try?

The Buddha identified 3 types of dukkha[8];

i. The dukkha of pain, both physical and

mental. This is easy enough to understand.
When we are hurt, we desire to be free from
the pain. Our minds are preoccupied with the
pain and stopping it. We can get distracted
and agitated easily when in pain. Pain can be
mental as well, such as stress and anxiety.

ii. The dukkha of change. This is more subtle

than physical pain, but its effects are just the
same. When we truly examine our lives, we
see that we either don’t want things to
change, or we want things to change. Its
effects are the same as above; stress, anxiety,
agitation, anger, a distracted mind etc.

iii. The dukkha of conditioned experience.

Because, by its very nature, all phenomena
are impermanent, constantly changing, and
our expectations of phenomena are rarely

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 met, it can often leave us feeling unsatisfied
with the way things are. We may not be in
physical pain, or stressed, but at the same
time we want something different all the
same. This change is highlighted by the Four
Characteristics of Conditioned Phenomena
(saṃskṛta-dharma), birth, sickness, old age,
and death.

Some may say that this is pessimistic and that we should have
a positive outlook on life, however, is a doctor pessimistic
when diagnosing an illness? For the correct medicine to be
applied they need to understand the symptoms of the illness
and its cause. But what if we don’t realise we are sick? This is
essentially what happens for most of us; we are completely
oblivious to our own dukkha because we just accept it as a
part of life. But for others, dukkha is all too real. Buddhism
does not deny the beauty of life; in fact, Buddhism has some
of the most beautiful art, architecture and liturgy in the
world. In China, Japan and Korea, there are famous poets and
artists who were Buddhist monastics. But neither does
Buddhism attempt to sugar coat reality, instead, it helps us
face things as they are.

2. The truth of the cause of Dukkha

Whichever way we view dukkha in our lives, the cause of it is

not something external or inherent within external objects.
Our suffering is caused through our own desire, our wanting,
our lust, our craving etc[9]. Throughout our lives, we are faced
with people, situations, objects, food, places (and so on) that
we either desire to have (i.e. want after), or we desire not to

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have (i.e. be rid of). Even if we get what we want, things
change. We may fall in love with someone, only for them, or
us (or realistically, both) change, and we realise we don’t love
them anymore. Or we desire food, only to be left wanting
more, or it didn’t live up to expectations, or we gave in to
desire and have been left sick from eating too much. Or we
believe that owning that pair of Uggs will bring us happiness,
only to be left with no money after buying them, or they
aren’t as comfortable as you think, or they are extremely
comfortable and they become your favourite foot wear, only
to be left distraught after they fall apart after a year of
wearing them, left wanting another pair. And so on.

3. The truth of the cessation of dukkha.

The cessation of dukkha now looks to be an easy answer;

stop craving/wanting/desiring. Easier said than done, of
course. But because we have identified the origins of dukkha,
we are now better equipped to stop dukkha. This leads us on
to the fourth truth. However, this third truth should not be
overlooked. It is vital that we believe our dukkha can be
overcome.

4. The path to the cessation of dukkha.

This is known as the Eight Fold Path which is outlined in the

next section. As you can see, the First Noble Truth is the
diagnosis. The Second Noble Truth is the cause of the illness.
The Third Noble Truth is the prognosis. And the Fourth Noble
Truth is the prescription.

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Eight Fold Path
The Eight Fold Path[10] is the frame work on how to end our
dukkha, get off the wheel and Saṃsāra, and attain Nirvāṇa. It
covers a wide range of aspects in practice, philosophy and
ethical behaviour. It can be viewed as a gradual, step by step
process of understanding and practice, however, at the same
it is holistic, with one aspect illuminating all others at the
same time. Therefore, it is important not to favour one of
these over the other, as each part of the Eight Fold Path
needs our full attention.

1. Right View
2. Right Intention
3. Right Speech
4. Right Conduct
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Samādhi

Right View.
“Right view” or “samyak-dṛṣṭi” in Sanskrit (sammā-diṭṭhi in
Pali) is in reference to our thinking, our understanding of the
world around us and also refers to the Buddhist doctrine.
Therefore, it is sometimes translated as “right
understanding”. “Samyak” can mean “rightness, correct
manner, perfection, correct” so we can say that this isn’t just
dogma, but a practice to be put in place and to “perfect”. So,
what encompasses right view?

Right View starts with the Four Noble Truths;

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“And what is right view? Knowledge with regard to dukkha,
knowledge with regard to the origination of dukkha,
knowledge with regard to the cessation of dukkha, knowledge
with regard to the way of practice leading to the cessation of
dukkha: This is called right view.”

Maha-satipatthana Sutta: The Great Frames of Reference

Starting with the Four Noble Truths is very important as it is

the catalyst that drives us to end Dukkha. Most people who
come to Buddhism do so because they have experienced
dukkha in one form or another and are looking to overcome
it; whether that be stress at work, or at home, or the death of
a loved one.

Thus, we can say that ‘right view’ is the starting point for any
Buddhist. From this point of reference, we can better discern
the path ahead.

As stated above, right view also encompasses Buddhist

doctrine.

The practice of Right View leads us to;

Right Intention
As it sounds, “Right intention” (samyak-saṃkalpa in Sanskrit,
sammā sankappa in Pali) is in reference to our intentions, and
in this regard, our intentions towards the path to
enlightenment. Traditionally, the goal of “right intention”
would be to leave the house-hold life, join a monastery,
ordain and dedicate one’s life to the pursuit of
enlightenment. However, for the house-holder who can’t do
this, right intention refers to our attitudes towards ourselves

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and other sentient beings, by doing no harm, refraining from
anger and malice, and generating the mind of compassion.

The practice of Right Intention leads us to;

Right Speech
At first glance, “right speech” (samyag-vāc, Skt, sammā-vācā
Pali) is seemingly obvious;

"And what is right speech? Abstaining from lying, from

divisive speech, from abusive speech, & from idle chatter: This
is called right speech."

Magga-vibhanga Sutta: An Analysis of the Path

However, when we delve in to what this encompasses it can

open up avenues that we might, at first, over look. Abstaining
from lying is easy enough to understand but does this mean
all lies? How about light-hearted humour? Well, in one sutta
the Buddha instructs his disciples to never lie, even in jest
(see MN 61: Ambalatthika-Rahul-Ovada-Sutta: Against Lying)
this would seem that all forms of lying, even so called “white
lies” are to be avoided. However, what if that lie is used as a
means to reduce suffering? Again, when we turn to the
sutta’s we see the Buddha stating that he only speaks when
he knows his words are “factual, true, beneficial, and
endearing & agreeable to others” and at the appropriate
time, preferring silence when any one of these criteria isn’t
met (see MN 58 Abhaya Sutta: To Prince Abhaya). This would
mean that even if we are speaking the truth, if the truth is
going to hurt people, we should keep it to ourselves, or at
least find a more skilful approach.

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Of course, these instructions are towards his monastics and
so may not strictly apply to lay people, however that doesn’t
mean that lay people should ignore this. It’s also worth
remembering that these instructions given by the Buddha are
not “thou shalt not”, they are not commandments from a
God. They are instructions for us to follow that lead us to
become better people.

The other aspects of right speech also deserve a long hard

look at. How often in our lives do we use “divisive speech”?
How often do we swear at others telling them “where they
should go” after cutting is up on the motorway?

The practice of Right Speech leads us to;

Right Conduct
“Right Conduct”, aka “Right Action” (samyak-karmānta /
sammā-kammanta) like right speech, refers to abstaining that
which we can call “unwholesome” and practicing that which
is wholesome. In this case, killing, stealing, and sexual
misconduct are all forms of “unwholesome conduct” and
should be avoided. A hallmark of Buddhism is that our
conduct and philosophy extend to all sentient lifeforms,
including animals and bugs, therefore, when we abstain from
killing we abstain from killing any sentient being, be it human,
animal or insect. Some may question whether plants and
bacteria are included in this, however, there is no evidence in
the Buddhist texts to suggest they are, otherwise, how would
we be able to eat?! Some Buddhists like to extend this
wholesome conduct by becoming vegetarian or vegan, thus
reducing the number of lives being killed so we can eat.
Although there is no such thing as a perfect diet (animals and

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bugs get killed in the farming process), I think being
vegetarian or vegan is good practice in this regard.

Stealing I feel is fairly obvious and doesn’t need much

explanation, however, sexual misconduct seems to confuse
people; what is sexual misconduct? Although the Buddha
didn’t explain in detail, in general lay people are taught to
abstain from sex with “those under the protection of
parents/guardians/siblings” (in ancient India this would
include sex before marriage, as you were under the protection
of your parents until you were married), adultery (under the
protection of a spouse), or someone betrothed (see AN
10.176 Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta). As children are under
the protection of parents, under-age sex is most definitely
wrong according to Buddhism. All of the above applies to
every sexual orientation. There is nothing in the early texts to
suggest that homosexual acts are unwholesome. For this
reason, despite Buddhism spreading to some very
conservative cultures, Buddhism remains one of the most
liberal religions in the world.

The practice of Right Conduct leads us to;

Right Livelihood
Few religions in the world ask us to take a look at our
livelihoods and evaluate how we live in light of the religion’s
ideals. Buddhism does just that. For the monastic “Right
livelihood” (samyag-ājīva / sammā-ājīva) means to leave
one’s home, owning only 3 robes and a bowl, and begging for
food. However, for the lay person, right livelihood means to
live a balanced life, to not trade in; weapons, living beings
(including humans, i.e. slaves), meat, alcohol and drugs

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(unless for medicine) or poisonous substances. Essentially,
right livelihood means to avoid causing suffering to any
sentient being, including oneself. Livelihood also means to
live within ones’ means, earning only what one needs to live,
and only spending what one can afford. All of this forces us to
take a close look at our lifestyles and spending habits
(consumerism).

The practice of Right Livelihood leads us to;

Right Effort
Again, few religions in the world ask us to take a look at and
evaluate the effort we are putting in to our lives. “Right
Effort” (samyag-vyāyāma / sammā-vāyāma) is directly related
to our will, and thus isn’t anything someone else can give us.
Quite often, when we start something new there is a sense of
excitement that drives us to practice and study. However,
after a time we reach a plateau where we lack any drive to
practice and study because it seems that nothing is new
anymore. However, if we have really achieved “right view”
then this drive would not lapse. The Sūtras often tell us to
practice as if our “head is on fire”. We are beings burning in
Saṃsāra, and after death we have no idea where we will be
reborn or even if we will meet the dharma again in the next
life. Surely just this knowledge is enough to drive us?
As well as the above, right effort also means to not be lazy, to
not over sleep (nor under sleep), to not over work so that we
lack time for anything else. To not give in to doubt or ill will,
and to not be distracted by the temptations of our senses
(sight, sound, smell, taste and touch).

The practice of Right Effort leads us to;

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Right Mindfulness
“Mindfulness” has become a buzz word lately, and no doubt
you may have heard it. Mindfulness meditation and
Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) is quickly
becoming main stream and prescribed by hospitals, GPs and
psychologists throughout the western world. To be mindful
means to keep one’s attention focused on the task at hand.
Because of this, you’d be forgiven for thinking that “right
mindfulness” (samyak-smṛti / sammā-sati) is the same,
however, in Buddhism it is more specific;

“And what is right mindfulness? There is the case where a

monk remains focused on the body in & of itself — ardent,
alert, & mindful — putting aside greed & distress with
reference to the world. He remains focused on feelings in & of
themselves... the mind in & of itself... mental qualities in & of
themselves — ardent, alert, & mindful — putting aside greed
& distress with reference to the world. This is called right
mindfulness.”

DN 22 Maha-satipatthana Sutta: The Great Frames of

Reference

“Mindfulness” (smrti) can mean to focus one’s mind on,

recall, or remember. When coupled with meditation we are
focusing our mind on something very specific. The reason we
do this is to calm our minds (śamatha) to be able to attain
“single-pointed concentration” (Samādhi) in which we are
able to gain insight in to ourselves and the Buddhist
teachings, thus attainment enlightenment. This type of
practice is called a bhāvanā, which means to cultivate. The
reason it’s called a cultivation is because it takes a lot of time

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and effort. A LOT of time and effort. Many people will start
meditating and then declare, after a month or two,
“nothing’s happened”. Mindfulness takes a long time to
cultivate as our minds so easily wander on a day to day basis
to the point where we don’t even notice it.

The practice/cultivation of mindfulness is laid out in

Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, aka the “Four Foundations of Mindfulness
Sutta” (MN 10: The Discourse on the Establishing of
Mindfulness and DN 22: The Great Discourse on the
Establishing of Mindfulness). In these texts the Buddha lays
out the practice of mindfulness as;

1. Mindfulness of Body (breathing, posture, body)

2. Mindfulness of Sensation (good/bad,
worldly/spiritual)
3. Mindfulness of Mind (strong emotions, quiet/busy
mind)
4. Mindfulness of Dharma (i.e. Buddhist teachings)

With these meditations one gains insight into their nature

being “impermanent, unsatisfactory and not-self”.

The practice of Right Mindfulness leads us to;

Right Samādhi
Lastly, we come to “right Samādhi” (samyak-samādhi /
sammā-samādhi). As you can see from the above, the
practice of mindfulness is required for Samādhi. The word
“Samādhi” is usually translated as “concentration” (i.e. “Right
Concentration”) however, just like how “mindfulness” is very
specific in Buddhism, so too “concentration” is very specific in
Buddhism and refers to the clarity and alertness that is

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attained through long time meditation practice. It is Samādhi
that allows a Buddhist to gain insight in to the nature of
themselves, in to the nature of others and the nature of
reality. It is Samādhi that allows one to quickly progress
through the various stages (jhana/Dhyāna) of meditation and
attain Nirvāṇa.

As you can see, each element of this path leads to the other,
however this doesn’t mean that we should stay on right view
until we “get it” before moving on. We can develop right view
whilst at the same time developing mindfulness for example,
so long as we are putting every element in to practice to our
full capabilities.

Three Trainings
The practice of the Eight Fold Path can be broken down in to
three areas or ‘trainings’; virtue, mind, wisdom[11].

Virtue
Stemming from Right Speech, Right Action, and Right
Livelihood is the practice of ‘śīlā’ meaning ‘moral’ or ‘virtue’.
We will look at this in more depth a little later, however the
practice of śīlā is characterized by the precepts, or vows one
takes in order to abandon unwholesome activity, and
cultivate wholesome activity.

Mind
Stemming from Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right
Samādhi is the practice Samādhi. We have already looked at
what Samādhi means in the Eight Fold Path, however here it
is referring not only to the whole of the practice of various

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meditations but also dwelling in Dhyāna, or the high levels of
meditation.

Wisdom
Stemming from Right View, and Right Intention, is the
practice of Prajñā, meaning wisdom[12]. Many people confuse
‘wisdom’ with intelligence. This is a mistake. In the Buddhist
sense, one may have wisdom without being intelligent.
Conversely, one may be very intelligent and have no wisdom.
Wisdom, for the Buddhist, refers to a deep, often
indescribable understanding of all the self (or ‘not-self’ – see
below), of impermanence, and of dependant origination.

Emptiness
The word ‘emptiness’ is the English translation of the Sanskrit
word ‘Śūnyatā’[13]. At first, this concept can seem bewildering,
melancholy, even diminishing. However, once properly
understood, it becomes the perfect word for an important
Buddhist concept.

The question on most people’s lips when they see the word
‘empty’ is “empty of what?”. The traditional, but someone
complex answer is “empty of self, intrinsic existence and
nature (svabhāva)”. To help pick this apart, and to help the
reader understand this better, I’d like to take a look at three
core Buddhist concepts, that are at the heart of ‘emptiness’;
‘Not-Self’, ‘Impermanence’, ‘Dependant Origination’.

Not-self
‘Not-self’, or anātman in Sanskrit, is a Buddhist concept that
states that all living beings have no permanent, unchanging,
fixed essence or “self”[14]. This teaching is in opposition to the

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Brahmanist idea that we have a permanent god given
essence, which is akin to the Christian notion of the soul. For
this reason, anātman is often translated as “no-soul”.
However, this misses the mark somewhat, as “not-self” also
extends to our views, our ideas, and our notions of what, and
who, we believe we are. Throughout our lives, we are
constantly changing. Not just physically, but also mentally.
There is nothing about us that is permanent or fixed. There is
the famous thought experiment about the ship Theseus, that
over time has all its elements replaced, one by one. The floor
boards, the masts, the rudder, all elements are slowly
replaced with newer elements. The question then becomes,
is it the same ship? The elements look the same. They are in
the same place. But it can’t be denied they are not the
original elements of the ship, they are all new. Therefore, it
must be a new ship. However, we still recognise it as the
same ship – why? There is no ship essence or soul that was
passed through all the different elements. The Buddha said
the same about living beings. Science now understands that,
over our lifetime, all the cells in our body are completely
replaced by new ones. The physicality of our body changes
over time and is easy to see when we look back at photos of
our lives. Our brains change, we learn new things, and forget
others. It can be said, without doubt, that who we were when
we are born is not who we are now.

There are many more elements to ‘not-self’ that should be

explored, but I hope this serves as a thought-provoking
introduction.

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Impermanence
As we have investigated above, things are constantly
changing. This is impermanence, or anitya[15] in Sanskrit, can
seem fairly obvious at first, and often glanced over. However,
I find it incredible how, despite knowing things don’t last, we
act like they do, and then become angry, disappointed, or
upset when they do. Or we become anxious and fearful that
something will be taken away from us. Because we have not
deeply and profoundly understood and accept
impermanence, our grasping nature causes us to suffer
(dukkha). For this reason, meditative investigation of
impermanence and our grasping nature is an important
aspect of Buddhist practice.

The three aspects of not-self, impermanence and ‘dukkha’

(covered in the Four Noble Truths) are collectively known as
the “Three Marks of Existence”.

Dependant Origination
‘Dependant Origination’, or pratītyasamutpāda[16] in Sanskrit,
in its simplest form means that all phenomena exist due to
other phenomena. To quote the Mahātaṇhāsankhaya Sutta;
“When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this,
that arises.” This is often described as ‘co-dependence’ or
‘interconnection’. It illustrates that nothing comes in to being
of its own accord, or independent of other factors and
conditions. Again, this may seem simplistic and obvious in our
modern scientific age where we are used to thinking in terms
of causes and effects. However, just like impermanence, we
often act and think in a way that assumes things aren’t
interrelated. I find this especially true when we think of our

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relations with others, whether friends, family, or complete
strangers. We can often use harsh words or actions against
others because we are in a bad mood, and then wonder why
the other person is angry with us. Another way in which we
tend to forget the interrelation of things is in our own
emotions. We like to lay blame on something or someone
specific, not realising that there were likely 50, 100, 200 or
even countless other factors that caused us to feel the way
we are, including our own minds.

In a more specific context, the Buddha spoke about the 12

Fold Chain of Dependant Origination, or dvādaśāṅga-
pratītyasamutpāda in Sanskrit. Each point follows on from the
other in a sequential pattern, like the links of a chain, and
illustrates that although one thing may cause another, that
element was also caused by something prior to it. Further to
that, this link is circular, with the last point being the cause of
the first. The Buddha used this to illustrate the how’s and
whys beings are reborn.

1. Ignorance
Ignorance, or Avidyā in Sanskrit means to not know
the truth, to be ignorant of dukkha, ignorant of the
origin of dukkha, ignorant of the cessation of dukkha
and ignorant of the practice that leads to the
cessation of dukkha.
2. Formation
Formations, or Saṃskāra in Sanskrit, are caused by
our ignorance, and refer to the literal make-up of our
bodies, speech and mind. Saṃskāra can be translated
as ‘put together’ and is generally viewed as the
formation of the body after death of the previous life.

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 We continually create these formations, as they are
conditioned through our body, speech and mind,
which is known as karma. Thus, these formations and
our ignorance become the catalyst for rebirth.
3. Consciousness
With the formation of the body, we gain
consciousness, or Vijñāna. In Tendai Buddhism, it is
postulated that there are 9 forms of consciousness,
but the consciousness that we are most concerned
with here are six-fold; eye consciousness, ear
consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue
consciousness, body consciousness and mind
consciousness.
4. Name & Form
With consciousness comes ‘name and form’ or
nāmarūpa, that is the recognition of physical forms
and their mental or psychological elements (i.e., their
designated ‘names’). In Buddhism, these two
elements are not mutually exclusive.
5. Six inner senses
The medium, through which we recognise name &
form is via the six inner senses, Āyatana, or better
known as the 6 sense organs of eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, body, and mind.
6. Contact
With the coming together of the sense organs, the
sense objects and sense consciousness, we gain
‘contact’ or Sparśa in Sanskrit. Specifically, we
recognise visible objects, sounds, smells, tastes,
touch/feeling and mental objects.

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7. Sensations
Sensations, or Vedanā in Sanskrit, are the
discriminations of ‘pleasant’, ‘unpleasant’, and/or
‘neutral’ that we designate based on our all the
above. It is the very experience of these senses,
organs and our minds.
8. Craving
Because of how we’ve designated and discriminated
our sensations, we begin to crave, or tṛ́ṣṇā in
Sanskrit. For those objects and phenomena that we
have designated as ‘pleasant’, we crave more. For
those objects and phenomena, we’ve designated as
‘unpleasant’, we crave to be rid of. This craving is the
catalyst of our dukkha (see the Four Noble Truths).
9. Clinging
As a result of this, we begin clinging, or Upādāna in
Sanskrit, to that which we crave. We cling to sense
pleasures believing that they will bring us lasting
happiness. We hang on to the belief that things may
last (externalism) or sometimes we can get caught up
in the impermanence of all phenomena, leading
towards the negative view that nothing is worth our
time and effort, that it’s all pointless (nihilism). Or we
may cling to supernatural beliefs and superstitions,
believing these to be the key to our happiness. Above
all, we cling to the idea of a ‘self’.
10. Becoming
This clinging leads to ‘Bhāva’ which refers to the
‘becoming’ in to worldly existence. In the human
realm, it means becoming a foetus in the womb.

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 11. Birth
Birth, or jāti, is the physical act of being born.
12. Aging & death
The last of the 12, Jarāmaraṇa, meaning ‘aging and
death’ is the continuing cycle of saṃsāra. Being born
into this world means we are guaranteed to grow old
and die. There is nothing we can do to stop that.
However, this stage is the most important, because it
is only at this stage that we are able to overcome our
ignorance, and thus, stop the entire chain of events
described above. This is why, in Buddhism, we
believe Human birth to be the most precious, and
should not be wasted or squandered on mindless
pursuits.

All these elements come together as a whole when we

penetrate the truth of emptiness. When we say phenomena
is empty, we are saying that it is causally created, that it is
impermanent, and that it has no inherent essence.

Karma and Rebirth

Karma
As we have seen above, karma and rebirth play an important
role in Buddhist philosophy and cosmology. However, both
these concepts are often widely misunderstood. According to
Buddhism, karma is a natural, and neutral, universal law. Just
like gravity doesn’t judge an object as being heavy or light, so
too, there is no judge or higher power when it comes to
karma. People often assume that karma are the things that
happen to us, but this is not true. ‘Karma’ means ‘action’ or
more specifically volition action[17], and refers to that which

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we do via body, speech and mind, with our minds being the
forerunner. Karmaphala is the fruit, affect, or result of our
karma. When we act (through body, speech and/or mind) in a
way that is good, that is conducive to the happiness and
wellbeing of self and others, we create what is often called
“good karma”. When we act in a way that is not good, that
harms others, this creates “bad karma”[18]. However, it is not
that simple. As average human beings, we rarely act with
100% goodness. As we have seen through dependant
origination, there is a long causal link that goes on long
before we act. We are not so black and white, but rather,
many shades of grey. Our karma is the same. This karma is
stored in our consciousness, like seeds planted in a field. This
karma, these seeds, remain inert, until the conditions are
right for them to bear fruit (karmaphala). When the
conditions are right, karmaphala is born through our body,
speech and mind. This is known as the Three Types of
Karma.[19] The Three Types of Karma are directly related to
the Three Trainings that we covered earlier, as part of the
Eight Fold Path.

So, karma can actually shape what we do, what we say, and
how we think, but not entirely. Karma is not fatalism, as
when we act with volition, we create new karma, and if that
karma is good it can overshadow the bad. Imagine a glass of
water. If you put a drop of poison in that water, the water
itself also becomes poison. However, if you put a drop of
poison in a massive pond, the pond water remains unharmed.
The poison is, essentially, unnoticed. The same can be said for
our karma. Karma also dictates where we are born, and so it
is directly connected with rebirth, and our karma carries on

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from one life to a next. We often hear of a child prodigy, able
to play a musical instrument even though they have had no,
or few lessons. In the Buddhist sense, this is karma shaping,
moulding the mind of the child, from a previous life.

I find it helpful, when thinking about karma, to not view it as

static. Impermanence is, after all, a key Buddhist concept.
Karma is fluid and changing constantly. To try and understand
our karma in a regimented, defined or even a scientific way
would be impossible. At its very basic level, karma is ‘cause
and effect’ and can be observable, even within our own
lifetimes. But it is important to remember that karma is not
fatalism. There are many factors that causes things to happen
in our lives. Karma is simply one of those causes, but an
important one.

Rebirth
‘Birth’, ‘rebirth’, ‘rebecoming’, and ‘becoming’, all describe
the act of coming into existence[20]. As we have already seen
in previous chapters, saṃsāra is the process of continued
birth, death and rebirth, like a carousel we are stuck on, and
the 8 Fold Path is the way to get off that carousel. The 12
Links of Dependant Origination illustrate how and why this
process works. Unlike in other religions, because Buddhism
doesn’t posit the existence of a soul, what is reborn is a
matter of debate[21]. The best way to look at it is a
continuation of a process, or rather, a series of numerous
processes. As we have seen, karma is passed from one life to
another, but karma is fluid and ever changing, just like we are
ever changing throughout our lives. Therefore, when
speaking truly, what is reborn isn’t really “us/me” because
we/I are not a static single entity. The Buddha also spoke

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about different realms in which it is possible to be reborn,
due to karma. I won’t go in depth, but to state briefly, these
realms are;

1. Hell realms.
2. Hungry Ghost realm
3. Animal realm
4. Human realm
5. Asura realm
6. Heavenly realm[22][23][24]

These will be looked at more closely in a later chapter (see

Three Thousand Worlds in a Single Thought/Moment)

Mahāyāna Buddhism includes four additional realms;

Śravakas realm, Pratyekabuddha realm, Bodhisattva Realm,
and Buddha Realm[22]. Truthfully, these four aren’t realms
that one is reborn into, which is why they aren’t always
included in the above six.

What is Mahāyāna Buddhism?

As Buddhism grew and spread, new ideas, practices and texts
began to emerge. Although not one single group, the
Mahāyāna (meaning ‘Great/large Vehicle) movement grew
and spread to become the dominant form of Buddhism.
There are many different ‘schools’ or ‘branches’ of Mahāyāna
Buddhism, however, they all share a common philosophy;
that ALL living beings have Buddha-nature and, therefore, all
beings are capable of achieving enlightenment and out of
compassion, we aspire to help all sentient beings achieve
their potential. This is known as Bodhicitta (achieving

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enlightenment for the sake of all beings), and the Bodhisattva
Path is the best way to achieve this[25].

What is Bodhicitta?
Bodhicitta is unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism[26]. It is
comprised of two words, ‘bodhi’ meaning ‘awakened’ or
‘enlightened’, and ‘citta’ meaning ‘mind’. Therefore
‘Bodhicitta’ is translated as ‘enlightened mind’. However,
despite how this sounds, Bodhcitta doesn’t describe someone
who is already enlightened. Instead, it describes a wish to
attain enlightenment out of compassion for all sentient
beings. This wish to attain enlightenment for the sake of all is
often described as supplanting, or eclipsing the wish to
remove ones own personal dukkha. This is why the
Mahāyāna is described as the ‘Great’ or ‘Large’ vehicle.

What is a Bodhisattva?
Put simply, a Bodhisattva[27] is a person who practices the
Dharma for the sake of all beings. There are many levels of
Bodhisattva, some have already achieved enlightenment but
have made a vow to not enter final Nirvāṇa until all sentient
beings have achieved enlightenment. Avalokitesvara
Bodhisattva is arguably the most famous Bodhisattva. As
Mahāyāna Buddhists we take the Bodhisattva Vows and
emulate these great beings. I will be looking more in to this in
a later chapter. The Bodhisattva path is often highlighted by
the practice of the Perfections (Pāramitā), although it should
be noted that the goal of the Perfections is to become a
Buddha, as often people mistakenly believe that the
Perfections are practiced to become Bodhisattvas.

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The Six Perfections
Different traditions have differing numbers of Perfections,
the list here comes from the Lotus Sutra and so is followed by
the Tendai School of Buddhism.

The word Pāramitā has some slightly ambiguous origins, and

so there are a few translations. The most common translation
is ‘Perfection’. The Pāramitās are called perfections because
they represent the highest form of the practice. In other
words, one practices these in order to perfect them to the
point where they are done without an iota of an ego.

The second translation, less common but just as important, is

‘that which has gone beyond’ or ‘beyond the other shore’. Or
to put it in a more understandable way “that which has
transcended”. In this sense, the practice of the Pāramitā and
its goal is to ‘transcend’ Saṃsāra. This idea is related to many
other aspects of the dharma. Sadly, I feel that if I go deeper
with this explanation the book will become too large.
Therefore, I will leave this train of thought and come back to
the Pāramitās.

1. Dāna Pāramitā. Dāna means generosity, or giving.

Many people often only think of charity, and/or
giving money when they think of ‘generosity’,
however it comes in many different forms. The giving
of oneself is important and should not be overlooked.
Many people feel guilty for not giving money or
materials, but how often do people just need a
friend, or someone to listen to them, or a little help
around the house. We can be incredibly valuable to
people, so it’s important not to underestimate

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 oneself. In the East, giving to Buddhist temples is
most common, and for many, it is the only way for
temples to survive. In these sense, Buddhist temples
in the East have a symbiotic relationship with the lay
people. Lay members offer food, clothing, land and
other such items to temples, and in turn the monks
share the dharma with the laity. The giving of the
Dharma is considered the highest form of giving.
2. Śīla Pāramitā. As we have previously seen, ‘śīla’
means virtue, or morality. The practice of śīla will be
looked at more closely in later chapters.
3. Kṣānti Pāramitā. Kṣānti means patience, or
forbearance. It is essentially a form of acceptance
that there are some things out of our control, but
also that the things that are in our control often need
time and energy to come to fruition. Some people
call this ‘tolerance’ however I am not keen on this
interpretation. ‘Tolerance’ suggests we have a
negative opinion of something, but must remain
silent. This is not what the practice of kṣānti is. It is
not a suppression or denial of thoughts or feelings.
With the practice of kṣānti we are better equipped to
make a change, both with ourselves and with society,
by not being swayed by praise, or blame, by anger,
irritation or acting out of pity, or attachment (pity
and attachment are often confused of as
compassion), and having a clear mind and
understanding.
4. Vīrya Pāramitā. Vīrya can mean energy, vigor, or
effort. It is essentially the same as the old adage of
“You get out what you put it”. As touched on in the

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 previous Pāramitā, we need to put in effort for our
wishes (be it the cessation of dukkha, the fulfilment
of vows, or the practice of the Pāramitās themselves),
we must understanding that these practices take a lot
of time and energy. I have many people come to me
to be taught meditation, often after hearing of its
psychological benefits. However, after a given time (a
week, a month, a year), they are left disheartened
because the massive changes they assumed would
happen, haven’t. We are all different. Our lives, our
upbringing, our environment, and not forgetting our
own minds, have shaped who we are right now.
Because of that, making any real progress on the
Buddhist path will differ greatly from one person to
the next. It can take a lot of time to find what’s right
for each individual, and/or for the benefits of the
practice to be noticed. Therefore, we really do need
both patience and forbearance in our lives.
5. Dhyāna paramita. The practice of Dhyāna (meaning
single-pointed concentration) is often thought of as
synonymous with Buddhism and the Buddhist path.
For this reason it is often the one people focus on,
overlooking all other aspects of practice. Traditionally
speaking, one only enters the practice of Dhyāna
after having at least a basic understanding and
practice of areas such as the precepts. This is because
all the other areas of practice support and shape our
meditation. Dhyāna, as well as meaning
concentration, mediation, and as well as being seen
as mile stones (The Four Dhyānas), also refers to
mental stability. This mental stability doesn’t only

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 come from meditation, but also practice practicing
the other Pāramitās, However, the practice of
Dhyāna helps with the other Pāramitās. Therefore,
the Pāramitās can be viewed as a holistic practice,
rather than a sequential one.
6. Prajñā paramita. Prajñā (as previously stated,
meaning wisdom) is essentially the pinnacle of all the
previously mentioned practices. With Prajñā one is
able to transcend (go beyond) the other practices,
free from attachments, from selfishness,
transforming all forms of body, speech, and mind in
to enlightened wholesome activity.

The first four Perfections are considered ‘skilful means’.

‘Skilful means’ is an incredibly important concept in
Mahāyāna, especially from the view point of the Lotus Sutra.
Lets take a look at what the means in a Mahāyāna Buddhist
context.

Skilful Means
‘Skilful means’ is the most common English translation of the
Sanskrit ‘Upāya-kauśalya’, or often redacted to simply
‘upāya’, can also be translated as ‘skill in means’ or
‘expedient means’. There are two primary ways of
understanding ‘skilful means’. The first is how the Buddha
(skilfully) teaches the dharma that is often inexplicable and
hard to understand, in various ways that are understandable
and relatable. The second understanding of skilful means is as
devices, or teachings the Buddha uses as a bridge to further
teachings. In Tendai we call this ‘opening the provisional to
reveal the real’. Although the provisional teachings are often

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derogatively called “lesser”, it should be noted that without
the provisional teachings, there is no hope of fully
understanding the ‘real’ or the ‘truth’. To help the reader
understand this idea, think of how, according to Buddhism,
concepts such as Nirvāṇa and Prajñā are inexplainable, and
yet we have teachings that point the way to achieving the
seemingly unachievable. The provisional teachings are also
described as that which is found in the Agama Sutras, which
according to Tendai Buddhism, lead on towards the
Mahāyāna. Some schools of Mahāyāna stop at this point,
however in Tendai we believe that the Mahāyāna then leads
one on to the ‘Ekayāna’, or ‘One Vehicle’. This will be looked
at in more depth shortly.

Tendai Buddhism
As you might have guessed by now, Tendai is a Mahāyāna
school of Buddhism and was first founded in China, before
spreading to Japan. The school we follow here in England is
the Japanese Branch of Tendai. I will now begin to explain
some defining characteristics of Tendai Buddhism, with a
focus on its philosophy. If one wishes to start practicing
Tendai Buddhism I recommend finding a knowledgeable
teacher.

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 ‘Hokkeichijō’
The One Vehicle of the Lotus

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47 | P a g e
The founder of Japanese Tendai was Venerable Saichō 最澄.
In 804 CE, he went to China to bring back the Tiantai
teachings, which he believed were the epitome of Buddhist
doctrine available at the time. ‘Tiantai’ 天台 Buddhism was
founded by Venerable Zhiyi 智顗 during the latter period of
the “Northern and Southern dynasties” of China.[28]

Tiantai Buddhism is often called ‘Lotus Buddhism’ as it

upholds the Lotus Sūtra as a central text, however, a bulk of
Tiantai’s practices and philosophy come from a broad
spectrum. Most notably is the influence of Nāgārjuna and his
Madhyamaka philosophy, however, Zhiyi also drew heavily
from the Sanskrit Āgamas (early Sūtras equivalent to the
Theravada Pāli Canon) and an incredibly large range of
Mahāyāna Sūtras. The Lotus Sūtra’s place in all this was a way
of binding all these different elements together.

Ichijō Bukkyō (一乘佛教) “One Vehicle Buddhism”

One of the central tenants of the Lotus Sūtra that Zhiyi drew
upon was the “Ekayāna” or ‘The One Vehicle’ (Yisheng 一乘
), which proposes that the ‘Three Vehicles’ are valid forms of
skilful means (upāya, 方便 Hōben), as they all reach the
same destination eventually (the One Vehicle)[29]. The Three
Vehicles are;

1. Śravaka, or “voice hearers” (shōmon 声聞). Those of

the Śravakayana “hear” the words of the Buddha (ie
read the Sūtras) in order to become ‘Arhat’ or “Noble
One” (Arakan 阿羅漢), an Enlightened being destined
to enter Nirvāṇa at death.

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 2. Pratyekabuddha, or “Lone Buddha” (Engaku 縁覺).
Those of the Pratyekabuddhayana come to the truth
of the Dharma by their own means but lack the
capacity to share it with others. [In contrast, the
Buddha Śakyamuni discovered the Dharma by his own
means and actively taught it to others for the rest of
his natural life.]
3. Bodhisattva, lit; “Enlightened being” (Japanese:
bosatsu, 菩薩). A person who seeks enlightenment
for the sake of others, postponing their final Nirvāṇa.

Other schools of Buddhism view the destinations of these

three vehicles as being separate. However, the Lotus Sūtra
turns all that on its head by saying that all schools converge
and are, in fact, part of one whole school, the “Ekayāna” (lit;
One Vehicle). In creating the Tiantai school, Zhiyi vision was
of a unified Buddhism, in which all the different forms of
Buddhism could be practiced together. Tiantai became a
hugely influential school in China, however Zhiyi’s vision was
never realised, and Chan (Zen) Buddhism became the
dominant form of Buddhism.

When Saichō brought back the Tiantai teachings, he initially

called his school ‘Hokkeichijō’ 法華一乘, meaning ‘The One
Vehicle of the Lotus’, carrying on Zhiyi’s vision of a unified
and syncretic Buddhism.

Unlike many other founders, Saichō didn’t write many texts

himself, as he focused most of his time trying to get approval
and establish Tendai Buddhism on Mt Hiei. The few
important documents that we have include;

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 1. Sange gakushō shiki 山家學生式 – Regulations for
Students of Mt Hiei
2. Kenkairon 顯戒論 - Treatise on the Precepts
3. Shugo kokkai shō 守護國界章 – Treatise on the
Protection of the State
4. Shōgon Jikkyō 照權實鏡 – Saichō’s criticism of
"Bushosho" by Tokuitsu
5. Ehyō Tendaishū 依憑天臺集 – Basics of the Tendai
School
6. Hokke shūku 法華秀句 – Superlative passages of the
Lotus Sūtra

Sadly, few of these have ever been translated in to English.

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51 | P a g e
 ‘Sōgōbukkyō’
Integrated Buddhism

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53 | P a g e
Whilst in China, and expanding on Zhiyi’s vision of a syncretic
Buddhism, Saichō received training and transmission in
different forms of Chinese Buddhism; Chan (Zen) from the
Ox-head school 牛頭禪 from Xiuran 脩然, Esoteric initiations
from Shunxiao 順暁, Bodhisattva Precepts and Tiantai
teachings from Tiantai Patriarch Daosui 道邃. This became
known as ‘En-Mitsu-Zen-Kai’ 圓密禪戒 meaning “Perfect-
Secret-Meditation-Precepts”, with each character
representing an aspect of Japanese Tendai Buddhism. These
will be looked at in more detail shortly.

Although Pureland Buddhism was always a part of Tiantai,

Ennin was to bring back further Pureland practices adding
‘Jōdo’ 浄土 to the list. He also brought back the full esoteric
transmissions, as Saichō had only received initiation and
lacked full transmission.

The Japanese Tendai school was also to embrace Shinto, the

indigenous religious belief of Japan.

Now let us take a brief look at each of these aspects;

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55 | P a g e
 ‘Shishū Sōjō’
Four-fold transmission

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57 | P a g e
As we have seen, Japanese Tendai is a syncretic school (総合
佛教 ‘Sōgōbukkyō’ Integrated Buddhism) that brings
numerous different practices and elements, under the
umbrella of the Lotus Sūtra. For this reason, Tendai often
classes itself as ‘Blending the Four Schools Together’, though
the ‘schools’ referenced here are more to do with the
differing practices. In Tendai Buddhism, these practices are
not mutually exclusive, but are all part of the Ekayāna – the
One Vehicle. The reason for the differences has more to do
with the student and their capabilities, than it has to do with
a so-called “ultimate practice”. For this reason, Tendai
accepts these practices as equally valid means to
enlightenment.

The practices are;

1. Meditation (禪 Zen)
2. Pureland (浄土 Jōdo)
3. Precepts (戒 Kai)
4. Esoteric (密教 Mikkyō)

Tendai priests must go through training in all four practices of

these practices, however a lay student may choose to focus
on one aspect. Although, it should be noted that the
esoteric/mikkyō road is only available to ordained priests,
due to the training involved.

Once training in these practices have been completed, a

student may then choose one of these to be their life-long
practice, to try and master.

Tendai Buddhism upholds the “two wings” of study and

practice. This means that studying the Sūtras, commentaries

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and texts must be given equal weight to practicing the
meditations, the rituals and other elements of the path.

Below is a list of the most important texts for each of these

systems. Whilst they are not the only texts one should study
(Buddhist texts number 10s of thousands), they are arguably
the most important for each system (not in any order and
some may be missing);

Meditation
1. The Perfection of Wisdom Sūtras including the Heart
Sūtra
2. Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra
3. Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra
4. Lotus Sūtra
5. Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra
6. Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra (Flower Ornament Sūtra)
7. Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sūtra (Āgama),
8. Mindfulness of Breath Sūtras (Āgamas)
9. Concentration of Sitting Meditation Sūtra
10. Great Calming and Seeing by Zhiyi
11. Small Calming and Seeing by Zhiyi
12. The Six Gates to the Sublime by Zhiyi
13. Explanation of the Perfection of Dhyāna by Zhiyi

Pureland
1. The Larger Sūtra on Amitāyus
2. The Sūtra on Contemplation of Amitāyus
3. The Small Sūtra on Amitābha
4. The Ōjōyōshū by Genshin
5. Kanshin ryaku yōshū by Genshin
6. Amidakyō-ryakki by Genshin

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 7. Amida Shinjūgi by Zenyu
8. 10 Doubts on the Pureland by Zhiyi
9. Treatise on the Pure Land by Vasubandhu
10. Great Calming and Seeing by Zhiyi

Precepts
1. Brahmajāla Sūtra
2. Great Calming and Seeing by Zhiyi
3. Treatise on the Precepts by Saichō
4. Regulations for Students of Mt Hiei by Saichō
5. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya texts

Mikkyō
1. Mahavairocana Sūtra
2. Vajrasekhara Sūtra
3. Susiddhikāra Sūtra
4. Sūtra of Fudo Myo-O
5. Interpretation of the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (Gishaku
義釋)

Other noteworthy texts include numerous Āgama Sūtras that

help one understand the core of Dharma, as well as texts by
Nāgārjuna, such as “The Summary of the Mahāyāna” that
have helped shape Mahāyāna philosophy.

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61 | P a g e
 ‘En’
Perfect/round

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63 | P a g e
圓‘En’, or ‘Engyo’ 圓教 refers to the Tiantai teachings, as
established by Zhiyi. The title ‘Engyō’ comes from Zhiyi’s own
classification of Buddhist teachings in to Four Methods of
Teaching (四教義 ‘Shi Kyō Gi’), depending on the type of
teaching and the capacity and capabilities of the student.
They are;

1. The Gradual teaching, 漸教 ‘Zengyō’.

2. The Variable teaching, 不定教 ‘Fujokyō
3. The Secret teaching, 秘密 ‘Himitsukyō’
4. The Sudden/Perfect teaching. ‘Engyō’[30]

The Gradual Teaching, 漸教 ‘Zengyō’.

Zhiyi referred to the Sanskrit Āgamas as containing a ‘gradual
teaching’. What this means is, the teachings and methods
found in these texts takes the practitioner on a gradual,
evolving process. These teachings have a beginning, a middle,
and an end, and one is able to judge where they are on this
ladder. The goals are clearly defined. This can also be
described as the Śramaṇa teaching.

The Variable teaching, 不定教 Fujokyō

The variable teaching contains a mixture of Gradual
teachings, Secret teachings, and Perfect/Sudden teachings.
Covering the whole spectrum of the Sanskrit Āgamas and the
Mahāyāna Sūtras, the student may at one point be utilizing
the gradual teaching, and then utilize the perfect teaching, or
they may simultaneously utilize both; this is when the
Buddha gives a single teaching, but the teaching is
understood differently by the audience, depending on their

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own level. One student may find it mundane, whereas
another student may find it profound.

The Secret teaching 秘密 ‘Himitsukyō’

Despite how it sounds, the ‘secret’ teaching doesn’t refer to
“secrets”, i.e. it doesn’t refer to information held back from
people, or to teachings only given to a select few. Neither
does it refer to esoteric teachings, instead, Zhiyi was referring
here to teachings given without the student realizing they
were receiving teachings. In this case, the Buddha may be
giving a gradual teaching, but a person is able to understand
in on the ‘Sudden/perfect’ level.

The Sudden/Perfect teaching 圓教 ‘Engyō’

The Sudden teaching is called ‘sudden’, because
enlightenment happens instantaneously, without a form of
‘progression’. It is a direct teaching from the Buddha’s own
enlightened experience. Although there are words, no words
are necessary as, due to the capacity and capability of the
student, they are able to directly penetrate the teaching and
attain perfect realisation. The teachings of the
Sudden/Perfect are not necessarily different to the other
forms but encompass them. The difference is in the capacity
of the student.

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‘Tendai no kyōgi’
Tendai Doctrine

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67 | P a g e
TIANTAI DOCTRINE 天台の教義 Tendai no Kyōgi
In Japanese Tendai, the Chinese Tiantai doctrine is also called
Engyō as the philosophies and practices therein help in
realising the truth in the here and now. The following is a
summary of some of its’ teachings;

Three Truths 三諦 Sandai

Arguably one of Zhiyi’s most influential teachings is his theory
of the Three Truths. Based on Nāgārjuna’s ‘Two Truth’ theory;
The Truth of Emptiness of all phenomena (kū 空), and the
Truth of Relative Existence of all phenomena (ke 假), with
added addition of a third truth; the Truth of the Middle (chū
中) – that both first and second truths are simultaneously
true. [31]

Emptiness - kū 空
The first truth – ‘All phenomena are empty’ – as I have
illustrated in previous chapters, ‘emptiness’ is a well-known
Mahāyāna teaching, also known as Śūnyatā. To recap, and to
put it in basic terms, it illustrates that all phenomena
(including us) are a compound of many different elements,
causes and conditions. We are not a static permanent entity
that exists outside of anything. We are very much
interdependent with all other phenomena and we are forever
changing, therefore we cannot say there is a permanent “I”
or say that “this” is who we are, because “it” is always
changing. When we look out what makes us who we are, we
find that our personalities (our “ego”) shifts like changing
tides, seemingly out of our control. We are influenced by all
that is around us, whether that is personal (our friends and
relations), our hereditary (biological factors), our

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environment (including the weather, pollution, climate,
working conditions, diet, etc), our own cognitive abilities, and
our karma. Everything is dependently originated.

The depth and nuances of emptiness can be difficult to

describe. The only true way to understand it is through deep
meditation – ‘emptiness’ is something to experience, rather
than intellectually understand. An incorrect, rudimentary or
shallow understanding of emptiness can often lead to
nihilistic tendencies, and to assume that “we don’t exist”,
which is not what ‘emptiness’ teaches. Although some
Buddhist Sūtras and teachers may say “nothing exists”, these
are skilful-means employed by some teachers to try to rid us
of self-grasping. However, in the wrong context, these
teachings can be harmful. For this reason, an emphasis on the
second of the Three Truths is advised.

Existence - ke 假
The second truth is not often heard in a Buddhist context, but
slightly easier to understand – that there is a relative
existence. We can see a chair, or a car or ourselves in the
mirror and recognize it and know what it is. This “existence”
does not negate ‘emptiness’ as phenomena are still
temporary and relies on causes, however we cannot deny its
relative existence. This truth can be important for those with
nihilistic tendencies or those with depression. It helps put
interdependent origination in the bigger picture, illustrating
that there are people out there (including ourselves) who
suffer greatly and are dire need of compassion and kindness.
This is the driving force of a Bodhisattva.

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The Middle - chū 中
The third truth, known as the ‘Truth of the Middle’ is that
both truths co-exist at the same time. It is not a progression,
nor a hierarchy of existence. Phenomena are both empty and
exists at the same time, so in fact the Three Truths are One
Truth, as the one contains the three and the three contains
the one (ichi-san, san-ichi 一三、三一).

This concept is integral to Tendai Philosophy and is practiced

as contemplative meditation in order to overcome wrong
view.

The first contemplation on emptiness is to overcome the

wrong view of permanence and to understand our
relationship with all phenomena.

The second contemplation on the relative is to overcome the

wrong view of nihilism – the idea that because all is empty
then nothing matters.

The third contemplation is to keep the mind and one’s views

balanced, to understand one in three-three in one and realize
our true nature. According to Zhiyi, to realise the middle truth
is to realise enlightenment. Beginners may start off by
contemplating the first truth, then the second, and then the
third, in a progression (gradual & sequential). However, an
adept person may contemplate the middle without the need
for progression (sudden/perfect).

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Three Thousand Worlds in a Single Thought Moment
(ichinen sanzen 一念三千)
Zhiyi’s philosophy of ‘3000 worlds in a single thought’ can be
found in his magnum opus ‘Maka Shikan’ 摩訶止觀 (Mohe
Zhiguan) in which he coined the term “yinian sanqian”
(Japanese; ichinen sanzen), which means that the “three
thousand worlds can be found in a single moment of the
mind”.[32] To understand this, we first need to define the
‘3000 worlds’ and define ‘a single thought’.

3000 WORLDS
The basis of the 3000 worlds stems mainly from the Lotus
Sūtra, but also from the general corpus of Buddhist Material,
and Mahāyāna texts, especially Nāgārjuna’s
‘MahaPrajñāpāramitā-shastra’. To start with, let us look at
the 10 Worlds;

10 WORLDS
The ‘10 worlds’, also known as the ’10 Spiritual Realms’ (十界
jikkai) is a philosophy of Buddhist cosmology in which one
experiences 10 different conditions of life in any given
moment. They are also classified as categories of beings and
physical locations.

They are;
(Lower Realms, the first three are “unfortunate” and the latter
three are “fortunate”)
1. Hell / Hell beings
2. Hunger / Hungry Ghosts
3. Animality / Animals
4. Anger/arrogance / Asuras

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 5. Humanity / Human beings
6. Heaven / Devas

(Higher Realms)
7. Learning / Śravakas
8. Absorption / Pratyekabuddha
9. Bodhisattvahood / Bodhisattvas
10. Buddhahood / Buddhas

These are given mention in the Lotus Sūtra in various

chapters, however, to give a quick explanation;

HELL REALM
The Hell Realm is a place in which one suffers incessantly. It is
a condition of total misery devoid of joy and happiness with
seemingly no end or respite.

HUNGER REALM
The Hunger Realm is a place in which one is forever hungry
(i.e. desiring) but is never satisfied. Beings of this realm are
called ‘Hungry Ghosts’, and have an endless desire for food,
drink, please etc, but can never find satisfaction.

ANIMAL REALM
The Animal Realm is a place in which one is conditioned by
‘animal instinct’, devoid of wisdom, morality and reason.
Those of the animal realm prey on the weak and both fear
and despise those stronger than them.

ASURA REALM
The Asura Realm is a place of anger and arrogance. In Indian
cosmology, an Asura can be likened to a belligerent spirit,
similar to the western understanding of ‘demons’, they stand
in contrast to the Devas (gods/demi-gods). Beings of this

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realm are conditioned by persistent hostility, anger, and
arrogance.

HUMAN REALM
The Human Realm (our realm) is a place between the lower
and higher realms (although still considered a lower realm) in
which, although still driven by the fetters of the lower realms,
we also have aspirations and most importantly, the capacity
to attain the higher realms.

HEAVENLY REALM
The Heavenly Realm is a place of joy and happiness,
seemingly untouched by suffering. However, this realm, like
the previous, is impermanent and conditioned, therefore, it
can be easily taken away. Those in this realm still have the
capacity to reach the higher realms but often do not feel any
need for it. This arrogance soon comes around as the causes
and conditions that put them in the heavenly realm come to
an end and they fall in to one of the lowers realms. In Indian
cosmology, this is the realm of the Devas, which are often
likened to the Western notion of gods and demi-gods.

THE LEARNING REALM

Also known as the ‘Voice-hearer Realm’, is a place where one
gets to hear a Buddha preach the Dharma. In Sanskrit it is
‘Śravaka’ (lit: voice hearer). Those in this realm are in a
condition in which they have realised śunyata (emptiness)
and have dedicated their lives to realising Nirvāṇa.

THE ABSORPTION REALM

Also known as the ‘Self-awakened Realm’, this is a place
where people realise the path of their own accord, without

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the help of teachers or ever having received a teaching. In
Sanskrit this is known as ‘Pratyekabuddha’.

THE BODHISATTVA REALM

The Bodhisattva Realm is a place in which one has reached a
high level of realisation and compassion. So, moved by their
compassion of all sentient beings that they have dedicated
their lives to aiding sentient beings on their path to
enlightenment. These beings are known as ‘Bodhisattva’s.

THE BUDDHA REALM

The Buddha Realm is a place of complete and perfect
realisation. Absolute freedom from the chains of the
Saṃsāra, realised to every aspect of all phenomena.

For a sceptic, it’s hard to imagine these realms as physical

places in which one is born in to, however it is fairly easy to
see how these apply psychologically to our moment to
moment experiences. We have all felt, even if only for a
moment, that feeling of complete low, when our suffering is
simply too overwhelming and seems like it will never end.
Conversely, we have felt so high that we think life could not
get any better. We feel untouchable. We have also
experienced a variety of these conditions within a single day.
This is what Zhiyi means when he says that each of the 10
Worlds contain the 10 Worlds. In our “Human Realm” we are
able to experience all the other realms. Therefore, Zhiyi
concludes that the Hell Realm also contains all 10 Realms,
and the Heaven Realm also contains all 10 Realms and so on.
This is known as ‘Jikkai-gogu 十界互具’

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10 WORLDS WITHIN THE 10 WORLDS
‘Jikkai-gogu 十界互具’ or ‘mutual possession of the Ten
Worlds’. In Tendai Buddhism, these worlds are not exclusive,
each has the potential for the other worlds to manifest at any
given moment, even if those worlds are latent. The important
significance of this teaching can be summed up two-fold;

1) Right here, right now, we have not only the potential for
Buddhahood, but we also contain Buddhahood, like a gene
we carry that remains dormant until we switch it on. This
stands in opposition to the idea that Buddhahood is
something we gain, slowly, over hundreds of life-times.

2) The Buddhas and other enlightened beings are not

separate from ordinary people.

30 REALMS
The 30 Realms is comprised of the ’10 Factors of Life’ within
the ‘3 Realms of Existence’;

10 Factors of Life (Ju-nyoze 十如是)

The ‘10 Factors of Life’ are also known as the ’10 Suchnesses’
is a doctrine unique to Tiantai Buddhism (but found in Tendai
and Nichiren) and is derived from the Lotus Sūtra (Chapter 2)
in which the “true aspect of all phenomena” consists of:-

1. Such a Form/phenomenon (相)

‘That which is discernible’ such as physical form, colour,
behaviour etc.

2. Such a Nature/character (性)

‘That which is not discernible’ which is the inherent quality.
What this means is that every phenomenon has an inherent

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nature that cannot be changed. Fire has the nature of fire. If
it had the nature of water, then it would cease to be fire.

3. Such an Entity/embodiment (體)

‘That which integrates and embodies form and nature’.

4. Such a Potency/ability (力)

Life’s potential energy. We have the potential for
Buddhahood, but we also have the potential to become
hungry ghosts.

5. Such a Function/activity (作)

‘That which is produced by life’s energy’.

6. Such a Primary cause/direct cause (因)

The potential cause that produces an effect of the same
quality.

7. Such a Relation/secondary cause (縁)

Indirect causes/secondary causes that work with the primary
cause to produce an effect.

8. Such a Latent Effect/result (果)

A dormant effect that has not had the conditions necessary
to arise.

9. Such a Manifest Effect/recompense (報)

The observable effect, the reward or retribution.

10. Such a Consistency from beginning to end/the whole (本末

究竟等)
‘That which unifies all the above’, which are all interrelated
working together moment to moment.

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These ‘factors’ are common to all forms of life and
phenomena, without exception, meaning there is no
fundamental difference between a Buddha and an ordinary
person. This is why they are also called ‘suchnesses’, meaning
that ‘it is such’ or ‘such as it is’. They reveal the way things
are, just as it is, and all phenomena are part of this process.
They also point to how phenomena (and us) relate, effect and
influence all other phenomena.

3 Realms of Existence (San-seken 三世間)

The 3 Realms of Existence comes from ‘The Treatise on the
Great Perfection of Wisdom’ (Skt: MahaPrajñāpāramitā-
shastra, Jpn: 大智度論 Daichido-ron) by Nāgārjuna, and are
categorised as:-

1. The Five Skandhas (components) (五陰世間 Go-on

Seken)
2. The Realm of living beings (衆生世間 Shujō Seken)
3. The Realm of the environment (國土世間 Kokudo
Seken)

The reason Zhiyi connected the 3 Realms to the 10 Factors is

because the latter does not operate in living beings alone, but
also in the material world. The material world, in turn, is not
separate from the mind of living beings. The ‘Five
components’ (form, perception, conception, volition and
consciousness), which are perceived by living beings through
the ‘Five Sense Organs’ (eyes, ears nose, tongue, body and
mind), are what is used to perceive and judge. These
components, when used, cause us to form a conception of
our surroundings, and those in one of the ‘Ten Worlds’ will
see the same thing in a completely differing way. The realm

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of living beings refer to the manifestation of sentient life, all
of which have the ‘Five components’ who, in turn, interact
with their environment. Our perception of our environment
changes depending on our own minds, meaning we can live in
the hell realm or the bodhisattva realm simultaneously.
Therefore, these three realms are not separate, but very
much an integrated whole that manifests within each of the
‘Ten Worlds’.

To simplify the above, there are ’10 Worlds’ within the 10

Worlds (10×10 = 100). Within each of these there are the ‘10
Factors of life’ that are experienced within the ‘3 Realms of
Existence’ (10×3 = 30). Now multiply 100×30 = 3000 worlds.
What I get asked quite often, is why did Zhiyi use these
particular realms and not others, or why 3000 and not
300,000 etc? Worrying over the exact number or components
misses the point of this teaching. The importance of this is
that all of these various realms are not separate but
interconnected and interrelated within any given moment.

SINGLE THOUGHT/MOMENT
When we speak about a single thought, we are speaking
about a single moment which is why ‘ichinen’ can also be
translated as ‘single moment’. Life is made up of
immeasurable moments - “a moment” itself cannot be
measured or quantified. Still, it can’t be denied that our lives
are made up of a multitude of moments. We qualify these
moments through our cognition which is an interpretation
based on our senses (see above). Within each moment, then,
we are inextricably connected with the 3000 worlds. Each
moment contains the 3000 worlds. We are not separate from
that which we cannot see or conceptualise. With a single

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thought, we are able to penetrate the entire cosmos, just as
the cosmos penetrates all phenomena.

The teaching of Ichinen Sanzen says that in any given

moment we have the potential of “being” in any of the given
worlds, experienced through the realms. In other words, in
our current state (human), we are able to experience the life
of hell, or the life of a Bodhisattva. When in that state, those
“worlds” are very real. Our suffering is very real, as is our
rapture. This also connects very closely with the Tiantai
teaching of the “Three Truths”. The world in which we
experience is very real to us – this is the ‘truth of the relative’
(ke 假). However, both this world and through that which we
experience this world is empty and impermanent – this is the
‘truth of emptiness’ (kū 空). Both these aspects are true both
at the same time, our “world” and our experiences are both
real and empty at the same time – this is the ‘truth of the
middle’ (chū 中). In realising the truth of the middle we will
be able to penetrate the concept of Ichinen Sanzen and
realise that we have potential to awaken to our Buddha
nature in this very moment. One state does not proceed or
lead to the other, rather, each state is available to us in any
given moment. In fact, these two aspects of ‘3000 worlds’
and ‘one moment’ are not two distinct elements but are non-
dual. When there is even a single moment of life then the
3000 worlds are present. One does not contain the other as
they are not separate. This is what the Lotus Sūtra teaches
and what I believe influenced Zhiyi in forming ‘Ichinen
Sanzen’. The Lotus Sūtra first teaches the 10 Factors of Life,
then teaches that all beings have the potential for
Buddhahood, illustrating ‘Jikkai-gogu 十界互具’ or ‘mutual

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possession of the Ten Worlds’. It then illustrates the true
aspect as inseparable of all phenomena instead of
phenomena being a product of mind (“True Aspect of all
Phenomena” shohō-jissō 諸法實相). This teaching greatly
influenced Zhiyi’s philosophy, that every aspect of reality, just
as it is, is no different to the true aspect, to the Middle Way,
to Buddha.

In this way, ‘Ichinen Sanzen’ not only points to our relation

with everything, but also points to the very real possibility of
Buddhahood in this lifetime, in any given moment. The
provisional paths illustrate cause and effect, that one state
proceeds another. The “True Aspect” of the Lotus Sūtra, and
Zhiyi’s ‘Ichinen Sanzen’ shows that they are not separate and
are open to us right here, right now.

“What we call Perfect Sudden is to relate our mind to reality

from the very beginning and visualize the object of mind. Such
is in fact identical with the Middle Way. This is not different
from the conceptual truth. When our mind relates to the
Dharma Realm even our visual forms and fragrance do not
differ from the Middle Way. Our World, the Buddha World,
the world of sentient beings, or the five aggregates are all in
fact the expressions of Middle Way. You cannot avoid
sufferings. Ignorance and delusions themselves are the object
of Enlightenment. There is not any cause of suffering to be cut
off. All of Fundamental Ignorance and distorted mind are
involved in the Middle Way. There isn’t any special path to be
practiced. Our Life and Death are the manifestation of
Nirvāṇa. There is not any cessation or sufferings to be
realized. There is no pain nor accumulation of pain. Therefore,
there is not any ordinal world, path, nor cessation of

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 sufferings. Accordingly, there is not any saint world. Pure
Reality does not exist. There is no other dharma except
reality. Tranquility of Dharma Nature is called Calmness
(Calming Mind). The Tranquility of Dharma always shines
brightly. That is named Discernment (Discerning Real).
Though we use the words beginning and end, there is no
duality, nor any difference between them. This is named
Perfect Sudden.

We should know our body and the land we are in. Three
Thousand Realities are in a single moment of our
consciousness. Therefore, when we realize our way of life, we
will aware of the basic nature of reality. Our mind and
mindfulness prevail in the World of Reality.” Translation
provided by Venerable Shoshin Ichishima – ‘Perfect Sudden’
Maka Shikan

Five Periods and Eight Teachings (Goji Hakkyō 五時八

教)
Zhiyi, using examples found in the Lotus and Nirvāṇa Sūtras,
put the Sūtras into Five Periods, or Flavours. The flavours
start with pure milk and move through a process of cream,
curds, butter and ghee, illustrating his understanding that the
Five Periods are like stages for practitioners to go through.
Another way of looking at the Periods is that of degrees or
‘richness’ of understanding and practice.

He also then broke down the Sūtras into Eight Teachings, four
of which are methods of teaching, and four of which are the
doctrine itself. These different parts (methods, doctrine,
periods) are like a cooking recipe, which different ingredients
are used to bring sentient beings to enlightenment. Everyone

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passes through these stages, but those with higher capacities
can penetrate the Dharmadhatu in any stage, there is no
need to wait.

The Five Periods (Flavours)

1. The Period of the Flower Ornament Sūtra
(Avataṃsaka)
2. The Period of the Deer Park (Āgama/Pali cannon)
3. The Period of the expanded teachings
4. The Period of Wisdom (Prajñā)
5. The Period of the Lotus and Nirvāṇa Sūtras

The Eight Teachings

1. The Sudden
2. The Gradual 1-4 = Methods of Teaching
3. The Secret
4. The Variable
5. The Tripiṭaka
6. The Shared 5-8 = Type of Doctrine
7. The Distinctive
8. The Complete

The First Period – The Sudden Method, The Distinctive Doctrine

The First Period corresponds to the Flower Ornament Sūtra.
Zhiyi put the Flower Ornament Sūtra as the first period as he
believed it was the first Sūtra the Buddha taught, therefore it
is called the ‘Sudden Teaching’. This Sūtra was for
Bodhisattvas with superior abilities, a complete doctrine only
for those with complete capacities, therefore, it is considered
combined with expediency. Because of all this, it is
considered a Distinctive Doctrine.

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The Second Period – The Gradual, The Secret, The Variable
Method, The Tripiṭaka Doctrine
The Second Period, known as the Deer Park Period,
corresponds to the Tripiṭaka Doctrine, which is a gradual
method of teaching. According to Zhiyi, the Buddha taught
this method for those who do not yet have superior
capacities. The Tripiṭaka Doctrine is for one who strives to
become Arhats – those who escape the Saha world of life and
death, never to return. This teaching emphasises the non-self
of the Five Aggregates, Non-attachment, and to over-come
suffering, by means of (and not limited to) the Four Noble
truths, the Eight fold Path, the Twelve Links of Dependant
Origination and so on.

The Third Period – The Gradual, The Secret, The Variable

Method, The Shared Doctrine
The Third Period still utilises the Gradual Method but further
expands on the concepts contained in the Tripiṭaka. These
Sūtras typically praise Mahāyāna and criticize Hīnayāna and
are called ‘contrasting’ because they contrast the ‘full’ words
of the Mahāyāna vs the ‘half’ words of the Hinayana. In other
words, they contrast the Tripiṭaka, the shared, the distinctive
and the complete doctrines.

The Fourth Period – The Gradual, The Secret, The Variable

Method, The Shared Doctrine
This Period corresponds to the Wisdom (Prajñā) Sūtras, which
is said to wash away all delusions. This is seen by many as the
start of Bodhisattva ideal teaching – the desire to save all
sentient beings. This period expands on the teaching of
sunyata and illustrates how every phenomenon including
Dharma are empty. The realisation of these teachings is not

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through cognitive analysis but through insight, which gives
way to Prajñā. Because of sunyata the Bodhisattvas know
ultimately there is no sentient being. This may raise the
question of “If there is no real being, what is the point – what
is there to save?”

Contained in the First, Second, Third and Fourth Periods we

also have the Secret Method and the Variable Methods. It is
called ‘secret’ because it was only given to those who will
understand it. Should those who don’t understand it, hear it
they will lose faith and abandon the path. The Variable
Method was taught through expedient means depending on
the capacities of the listeners who will understand it
differently.

The Fifth Period – The Complete Doctrine

This Period corresponds with the Lotus and Nirvāṇa Sūtras, in
which the Buddha gives his final teaching – that all the
previous teachings are in fact one whole teaching. Although
seemingly contradictory, the differences are merely an
expedient means in order for beings to see the truth, which is
revealed in the Lotus Sūtra and repeated in the Nirvāṇa Sūtra.
Zhiyi further expanded this in his teaching of the Three Fold
Truth – The truth of emptiness, the truth of a relative
existence and the truth that both are real at the same time.
What this illustrates is that although the various doctrines are
expedient, they are not false. This is the pure, complete
doctrine that is contained in the Lotus Sūtra, known as the
Ekayāna or the ‘One vehicle’.

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Buddha Nature (tathāgatagarbha) 如來藏 Nyorai zō
The Mahāyāna doctrine of Buddha Nature posits that all
sentient beings contain the nature of a Buddha, or to put it
differently, we all equally have the possibility to attain
enlightenment. This is mostly referred to in Sūtras as
tathāgatagarbha or buddhadhātu. Tathāgatagarbha is
comprised of two words which mean “Womb of the
Tathāgata”, (Tathāgata being another name for the Buddha). I
find this term most fitting for understanding Buddha Nature.
If we look at the example of a womb, it points to the
possibility of giving birth to a child. However, in order to do
that, there are numerous conditions that first need to put in
place. Simply having a womb is not a guarantee of child birth,
either. So, if we can imagine, ‘Buddha nature’ teaches us that
we have a “womb” capable of “birthing” a Buddha, but this
also needs numerous conditions to be put in place, otherwise
we may never be able to achieve enlightenment. Therefore,
we can surmise that Buddha nature doctrine points to the
potential for enlightenment, but not a certainty.

Enlightenment of plants 草木成仏 sōmoku-jōbutsu

As Buddhism spread to China, a great debate occurred in
which masters argued over whether insentient life (ie plants)
has Buddha nature. Zhiyi was one such monk in favour of the
idea that insentient life has Buddha nature. This topic can be
quite perplexing, so please bear with me.

The idea of insentient life having Buddha nature can be seen

to derive from our understanding of the world around us and
its link, or lack of, to Nirvāṇa. When the Buddha attained
Nirvāṇa he didn’t go anywhere. He remained in Saṃsāra but

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his views of Saṃsāra were greatly altered. As unenlightened
beings we project on to reality with our own minds. We
project our likes, dislikes, we formulate ideas of what things
are, what they can do, what they can’t do. We categorise
things, placing them in a hierarchy. According to Buddhist
doctrine, an enlightened being doesn’t do this. Their world
becomes a manifestation of the Buddha mind, and turns in to
a ‘Pure Land’. For many masters, they feel that being ‘of’ this
world and taking part in it only cements our mental
projections on reality, meaning we may never reach
enlightenment. Thus, they feel we must hide ourselves away.
However, in Tendai doctrine the two worlds (Saṃsāra and
Pure Land) are not mutually exclusive.

This also links closely with the Tendai doctrine of ‘3000

realms in a single thought moment’. As we have seen
previously, the numerous realms are not only available, but
also dwell simultaneously, in this very moment. Thus, plants
and even rocks and soil, have Buddha nature.

Closely related to this also is a reversal of views between

insentient life and sentient life, between the subjective
observer and the objective phenomenon; traditionally
speaking it is not the world that changes, but our minds and
how we relate to the world that changes. For this reason, it is
possible for anything within Saṃsāra to be the cause for our
enlightenment. As previously stated, Buddha nature is a
teaching on the possibility of enlightenment, thus inanimate
objects may be the cause of our enlightenment.

Perhaps a more perplexing understanding of this has to do

with how Mahāyāna Buddhists view the Dharmakāya and the

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universe. Accordingly, the teaching states that the
Dharmakāya isn’t a person, it is the essence universe, and so
everything in the universe can be understood as an
expression of the Dharmakāya. The Dharmakāya, as we have
seen, is the absolute basis of reality, and when we attain
Buddhahood, we understand this reality, not by going
somewhere different like heaven, but by being right here
where we are now. This is why we can say that everything in
the universe, including insentient life, has Buddha nature.

This last understanding should not be confused with an idea

of god or creation. However, this doctrine of the Dharmakāya
and the universe leads in to the teaching of ‘Hongaku’.

Original enlightenment 本覺 Hongaku

Original Enlightenment, although related to Buddha Nature,
is a different teaching. Original Enlightenment (also innate
enlightenment) is the view that Enlightenment is not
something to be gained, but rather we are already
enlightened, we just need to realise it. The reason we can’t
see this is because there is a veil that blinds us. Therefore, the
practices are not for us to gain enlightenment but for us to
realise our true nature. This stands in opposition to the
widely accepted view that enlightenment is something we
gain gradually, over many lifetimes (acquired enlightenment
– shigaku 始覺) .

The teaching of ‘3000 realms in a single thought moment’,

and emptiness can be used to illustrate Hongaku. Because all
phenomena, dharmas, people, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas etc.
are equally empty, there is no difference between them. This
emphasises the essential world (真如門 shinnyomon).

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However, this does not negate the relative world as all things
are seen as expression of the Dharmakāya. Tendai Hongaku
goes further to say even insentient beings are already
enlightened in their current form, that everything is equally
an expression of the Buddha, in fact the whole world is the
primordial Tathāgata, thus emphasising the phenomenal
world (生滅門 shometsumon). This dual aspect of the
essential world (shinnyomon) and the phenomenal world
(shometsumon) is what differs Hongaku to Tathāgata-garbha,
which is only concerned with essential world.

The meaning and significance of this teaching was not widely

accepted, even within the Tendai Shu. The Eshin branch
emphasised Hongaku, but the Danna branch emphasized
Shigaku. Over time, the Eshin branch became the dominant
school and Hongaku flourished throughout the Medieval
Tendai period. However, there were still critics of the
teaching, most notably by Hochibo Shoshin (late 12th, early
13th cent.) The criticisms include the idea that Hongaku
ignores cause and effect and is an excuse for inactivity – “if
we are already enlightened, then why practice”, however I
believe this is a misunderstanding. Hongaku teaches us that
enlightenment is not something outside us to be gained, but
something already in us that has been covered with our
delusions, our ego and our kleshas. Sadly, though, there
seems to be have been a number of monks in the medieval
period who used Hongaku as an excuse for their lack of
practice.

It is believed that the first mentioning of this teaching is

found in “Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna” where it
speaks of the true suchness innate in all beings;

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“The essence of Mind is free from thoughts. The characteristic
of that which is free from thoughts is analogous to that of the
sphere of empty space that pervades everywhere. The one
[without any second, i.e., the absolute] aspect of the world of
reality (dharmadhatu) is none other than the undifferentiated
Dharmakāya, the “essence body” of the Tathataga. [Since the
essence of Mind is] grounded on the Dharmakāya, it is to be
called the original enlightenment. Why? Because “original
enlightenment” indicates [the essence of Mind (a priori)] in
contradistinction to [the essence of Mind in) the process of
actualization of enlightenment; the process of actualization of
enlightenment is none other than [the process of integrating]
the identity with the original enlightenment.” (The Awakening
of Faith, BDK English Tripiṭaka Series 63-IV)

It can also be found, or implied, in a number of other

Mahāyāna Sūtras such as the Lotus Sūtra, the
Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the Tathāgata-garbha Sūtra, and the
Ratnagotravibhāga. The Lotus Sūtra tells the story of the
beggar with a jewel sown in his clothes. Although in the story
the jewel was put there by a friend, the teaching is that we
also carry that same jewel, but like the beggar, we are
unaware of its existence. I also find this passage from the Pali
Canon also hints at Hongaku; “Luminous, monks, is the mind.
And it is defiled by incoming defilements” (Pabhassara Sutta
as translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu) although there seems to
be some disagreement on what the Buddha meant by
“Luminous mind”.

Personally, I see this, as well as the Mahāyāna texts, pointing

to something innate in all beings that has become clouded
with delusions. In order to see it, we have to remove these

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defilements with arduous practice and commitment, which
can take many lifetimes.

“The Buddha-nature is apprehended [by sentient beings] at

the fulfilment of various conditions….Since [sentient beings]
attain the Buddha-nature dependent on various conditions,
they do not have any [definite] nature; and since [sentient
beings] do not have any [definite] nature, they can attain the
most perfect enlightenment” (Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
translated by Ming-Wood Liu)

The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra tells the story of an old woman

unaware that she has been carrying around gold. I find it
interesting that both gold and diamonds take a lot of hard
work to find, and even after they are found, they need
refining. I feel this is what Hongaku and Tathāgata-garbha
teaches – that even after we have found our true nature, we
still need to put in the work to refine it, to become Buddhas
ourselves.

Tendai Doctrine
This is, of course, by no means the entirety of Tendai
Doctrine, however these are arguably some of the most
important aspects.

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 ‘Zen’
Meditation

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In the West, the word ‘Zen’ has become synonymous with the
Zen School of Buddhism, however, not many people realise
that the word ‘zen’ in Japanese is simply another word for
‘meditation’. It is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese
word ‘Chan’, which is the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit
word ‘Dhyāna’. The word ‘Dhyāna’ actually means to focus
one’s mind and refers to states of mind achieved through
deep meditation. For this reason, all schools of Japanese
Buddhism may use the word ‘Zen’ to describe their
meditation practices. It is not a word owned by any school.

In Tendai, we have a large body of meditation practices that

the student may utilize. The most common, and what is
usually referred to when speaking about Tendai meditation,
is a practice called ‘Shikan’, the practices of which are derived
from the Zhiyi’s meditation manuals. These meditations are
all based on their Indian predecessors, thus Tendai
meditation is still very much based on the early meditation
practices of India.

All Tendai priests, at some point in their training, must study

and practice these meditation texts, the main four being;
1. ‘Mo-ho-chih-kuan’ (摩訶止觀 Jp. ‘Makashikan’)
meaning ‘Great Calming and Seeing’.
2. ‘Xiǎo zhǐ guān’ (小止觀 Jp. ‘Sho shikan’) ‘Small
Calming and Seeing’
3. ‘Liù miào mén’ (六妙門 Jp. ‘Roku myōmon’) ‘The Six
Gates to the Sublime’
4. ‘Cìdì chánmén’ (次第禪門 Jp. ‘Shidai homon)
‘Sequential gateway of dhyāna’)

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Moho-chih kuan (‘Maka shikan’) 摩訶止觀
The Moho Chih-kuan 摩訶止觀 (also rendered as Mohe
zhiguan) is Venerable Zhiyi’s ‘magnum opus’, a literary master
piece, and not just merely a meditation manual. It was the
very first ‘originally Chinese’ meditation text, and possibly the
first truly Chinese Buddhist text. It became influential, not
only in Chinese T’ian t’ai, but in other Chinese schools, as well
as gaining popularity in Korea, Japan and further afield.

The text itself has seven chapters in ten fascicles, the main
object of which, is the practice of Śamatha (止 shi in
Japanese) and Vipaśyanā (觀 kan).
These are then placed into three catagories;

1. Perfect and Sudden Contemplation

(圓頓止觀 Endon Shikan, sometimes 圓頓止觀),
2. Gradual and Sequential Contemplation
(漸次止觀 Zenji Shikan), and
3. Indeterminate (variable) Contemplation
(不定止觀 Fujō Shikan).

Shikan 止觀
Whether Sudden or Gradual, meditation in Tendai Buddhism
is usually referred to as ‘Shikan’, the etymology and reason
will be described a little later. To confuse things, ‘shikan’ is
sometimes referred to as ‘zazen’ 座禪, which means ‘seated
meditation’, as sitting is the most common form of
meditation. It should be noted that traditionally, Tendai
categorises 4 types of Samādhi known as the ‘shishu-zanmai’
四種三昧(Four Samādhi), these are;

1. Constantly Sitting (Jōzazanmai 常坐三昧)

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 2. Constantly Walking (Jogyo Zanmai 常行三昧)
3. Walking and Sitting (Hangyō hanza zanmai 半行半坐
三昧)
4. Neither Walking nor Sitting (Hikō hiza zanmai 非行非
坐三昧)

Walking meditation, also known as ‘kinhin’ 経行, is often not

known in the west but is an important part of Tendai
Buddhism, just as they all are. Walking meditation can be
done slow and steady, with the breath or with a mantra. Or it
can be fast paced and long, like the Tendai ‘Marathon Monks’
of fame (or infamy). This practice is called Kaihōgyō (回峰行
Circling the mountain).

Walking and sitting is done in seamless ‘periods’ of first

sitting meditation and then walking meditation without a
break in between. In Tendai temples, the Hokke Senbo 法華
懺法 (Lotus Repentance Ritual) is a form of walking/sitting
with periods of sitting and walking around the Hondo
chanting the Lotus Sūtra and other important texts.

Neither walking nor sitting is the ultimate – meditation in

every moment.

SHI
‘Shi’ 止 is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word
‘chih’, which can mean ’to calm’ or ‘to stop’ and is used as a
translation of the Sanskrit word ‘Śamatha’ which can mean
‘to rest’, ‘to calm’ or ‘to pacify’. Śamatha is a form of
‘cultivation’ (bhāvanā) for calming the mind (citta) and its
'formations' (saṅkhārā), which is done by focusing the mind
on a specific task or phenomena, often described as ‘single

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pointed concentration’. The most common form of Śamatha
is ānāpānasmṛti (Skt. Pali; Ānāpānasati/Jpn; 安那般那念
An'na pan'na nen) which means ‘Mindfulness of the breath’,
and is the main form of Śamatha in Tendai Buddhism,
features prominently in Zhiyi’s meditation texts with his ‘Six
Gates to the Sublime’ being all about breathing.

To begin mindfulness of breath it is advised for the beginner

to count the breath (susokukan 数息觀). This can be done a
number of ways; the more traditional approach is to count
each out or in breath up to 10 and then repeat this process.
More on that later.

KAN
‘Kan’ 觀 is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word
‘Kuan’, which can mean ‘to see’ and is the Chinese translation
of the Sanskrit word Vipaśyanā, which can mean ‘insight’ or
‘clearly seeing’. By practicing Vipaśyanā one gains ‘insight’
into the true nature of reality, that is impermanent, that is
dukkha (unsatisfactory) and that is not-self. In Tendai
Śamatha is considered the prerequisite practice conducive for
Vipaśyanā, as with a calm mind we are better able to
penetrate the truth. This is why Tendai meditation is called
‘Shikan’ as our meditation is both Śamatha and Vipaśyanā in
one single practice, rather than two separate practices. This is
called ‘ichigyō zanmai’ 一行三昧 meaning ‘One round
Samādhi’, or ‘Samādhi of One Practice’ (Ekavyūha Samādhi).

There are many methods for Vipaśyanā in which we utilise

various contemplations and visualisations in order to bring
about insight. A traditional form of Vipaśyanā is a meditation
on the true nature of the Five Aggregates.

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These two meditations, although one practice, are done in
two sections. For a beginner it is suggested to spend some
time getting used to mindfulness of breath before attempting
insight meditation. Then, when you are ready, split your
meditation in to two equal parts – for example; 20 minutes
on Śamatha and then 20 minutes on Vipaśyanā. It is also best
to practice these with a teacher, as these meditations have
the tendency to bring about unusual feelings, sensations and
formations, some which may be pleasant and some not so. In
order that they not become a distraction or destructive it is
advised to have a teacher with whom you can speak to about
these things and who can guide you.

As well as reading these texts, those focusing on this aspect

of practice should also deeply study the Prajñāpāramitā
Sūtras, including the Heart Sūtra, the ‘Four Foundations of
Mindfulness Sūtra’ (Āgama), the ‘Mindfulness of Breath’
Sūtras (Āgamas), the ‘Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra’, the
‘Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra’, and the ‘Concentration of Sitting
Meditation Sūtra’, amongst others.

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 ‘Jōdo’
Pureland

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Pure Land Buddhism plays a large role in Tendai and there are
numerous temples in Japan dedicated to Amitābha Buddha,
who is the Buddha of the Pure Land, Sukhāvatī.[33]

Most people only know of Pure Land Buddhism through the

Japanese Pure Land sects, Jōdo Shu and Jōdo Shinshu,
however, Pure Land Buddhism has always been an integral
part of Mahāyāna Buddhist practice. In this case, Pure Land
practices are not just to attain rebirth in Sukhāvatī, but also,
to realise the Pure Land in the here and now. This seeming
paradox has existed in Mahāyāna Buddhism, long before the
Pureland sects came in to existence.

Amida, as he is known in Japan, has two Sanskrit names;

Amitābha – meaning Infinite light, and Amitāyus – meaning
Infinite life. People often assume that ‘infinite’ is against
Buddhist teachings, but this comes from the lack of a decent
translation for ‘amita’, which can mean “without limit” or
“without bounds”. ‘Abha’ can also mean ‘splendor’. His
name, then, can be better translated as ‘His splendor has no
bounds’ meaning, there is no place that his ‘splendor/light’
can’t reach. The same is true for his other name Amitāyus –
Infinite life. So now, instead of an immortal figure, we get the
impression of an extremely compassionate person who will
go to any length (no bounds) to help people. I think this
encapsulates who, or what Amida is, and how we can
connect with him through practice.

The practice most synonymous with Amida, is that of

nembutsu 念仏 (Namo Amida Butsu) in which one intones his
mantra/refuge in order to reborn in the Pure Land after life.
The question on most peoples’ lips is “is this a literal belief or

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rhetoric?” Looking at it from a Tendai perspective, I have
seen evidence for both interpretations existing
simultaneously. Zhiyi’s Amida practice (Jōgyō zanmai), in
which one keeps in mind the image of Amida Buddha
(Butsuryū – Buddha imaging) whilst chanting the nembutsu
and constantly walking for 90 days, was not seen as a means
to attain rebirth in the Pure Land. Instead, it was a way of
realising the Pure Land in the mind. This is not to say that
Zhiyi didn’t believe in the Pure Land, as on his death bed the
Pure Land texts were read and, as he was dying, he said he
could see Kannon coming to escort him to the Pure Land. –
[Sand and Pebbles: The Tales of Muju Ichien, A Voice for
Pluralism in Kamakura Buddhism, by Mujū Ichien, Robert E.
Morrell.]

Zhiyi understood Amida to be a Saṃbhogakāya. In order to

understand this, much more explanation needs to be made
about the Trikāya (三身 Sanjin, three bodies), however, put
briefly;

The Trikāya are aspects of the Buddha, distinct and yet

unified.

Nirmānakāya (ōjin 応身) is the manifested body (physical

body), that we can see and interact with i.e. seen by anyone.
In this sense – Śakyamuni is a (supreme) Nirmāṇakāya. This is
a provisional appearance.

Saṃbhogakāya (hōjin 報身) is the bliss body (aka reward

body) which can only be known by those with the right
karmic conditions. It can also be known as “subtle body of
limitless form” and both celestial Buddhas (such as

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Bhaiṣajyaguru) and high-level Bodhisattvas (such as
Avalokiteśvara) can appear as Saṃbhogakāya. These Buddhas
and Bodhisattvas manifest themselves in their corresponding
Pure Lands. This is also a provisional appearance.

Dharmakāya (hosshin 法身) is the body of reality itself (truth

body), without limit or limited to form (unmanifested) and
inconceivable to those unenlightened (manifestations of
Dharmakāya are known as Nirmāṇakāya). It is the Absolute –
nature as it is and is synonymous with śūnyatā (emptiness).
Mahāvairocana is a Dharmakāya.

The name of Amida can also be understood in terms of the

Three Truths. In Japanese (and Chinese, I believe) Amida is
also be known as 無量寿仏 Muryoju-butsu, meaning “Infinite
Life Buddha”. The characters of both these names relate back
to the Three Truths; 無 Mu is equivalent to 阿 A and relates
to the Truth of Emptiness (kū). 量 Ryo is equivalent to 弥 Mi
and relates to the Truth of the Conditioned (ke). 寿 Ju is
equivalent to 陀 Da and relates to the Truth of the Middle
(chū). Therefore, meditation on the Nembutsu can also be a
meditation on the Three Truths, and to realise the Three
Truths is to realise Amida. I also find a correlation between
the three truths and the three bodies (Trikāya). Many people
ask “Is Amida real?”, but when we understand the Three
Truths and the Three Bodies, the answer tends to be “define
real!”

This dual aspect of understanding the practice of Amida, for

both realizing the Pure Land in the mind AND to attain rebirth
in the Pure Land after death, continues in the disciples of
Zhiyi and then continues through to Japan.

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Zhiyi, in his Moho Chihkuan (Maka Shikan) text distinguishes
3 different methods of nembutsu; the first is to contemplate
the Major and Minor Marks/Qualities of a Buddha. The
second is to contemplate the Buddhas abstract qualities, such
as the Buddha’s Four Unique Qualities. The third (and final
stage) is to contemplate the Buddha’s essential nature/the
true characteristic of all phenomena. “So where does
chanting “Namu Amida Butsu” come in?”, I hear you ask!
Zhiyi states, that whilst one practices these contemplations,
one should continuously intone “Namu Amida Butsu”, so that
one’s mind is wholly directed toward Amitābha Buddha. This
is the practice of Jogyo Zanmai (Constantly walking Samādhi)
which Zhiyi based on the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra. On
“Namu Amida Butsu”, Zhiyi states, “Invoking Amitābha’s
[name] is equivalent to invoking [the names of] all the
Buddhas…. So, in this case we simply focus on Amitābha as
the essential gate of access to Dharma.” (Traditions of
Meditation in Chinese Buddhism)

It’s difficult to say what Saichō’s thoughts were on the

Nembutsu and Amida as there aren’t many works in English,
however his disciple, Ennin (Jikaku Daishi) continued the
practice of Jōgyō zanmai, even constructing the Jōgyōdo 常行
堂 on Mt Hiei. Ennin also brought back the Inzei Nembutsu 引
聲念佛, that is, repetition of the Nembutsu with a tone (early
form of shomyo). This practice of singing the nembutsu
continued to grow and develop, even influencing Japanese
music to this very day. The Pure Land sects have their own
version of these singing nembutsu. However, it should be
stressed that, like his predecessors, it seems Ennin did not
propagate this practice in order to be reborn in the Pure

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Land. At the time, the practices for gaining rebirth in the Pure
Land were death bed practices, that is, either you or your
attendants would chant Pure Land texts and the nembutsu as
you lay dying.

I think this view began to shift with Ryōgen 良源 (Jie Daishi)

and his disciples Genshin 源信 and Kakuun 覚運. During the
time of Ryōgen, Japan was in a time of strife. There were
many waring lords and waring temples all looking for
dominance. Ryōgen even hired the now infamous (and so-
called) Sohei 僧兵 warrior monks for protection, as there
were even factions developing on Mt Hiei.

Going back to Genshin and Kakuun – many monks in their

time saw this strife and bloodshed as an indication that we
were heading into Mappo 末法 – the dharma ending age.
According to tradition, during this time it would be difficult,
close to impossible, for people to attain enlightenment by
their own efforts (jiriki 自力– self power). Sentient beings
needed help (tariki 他力 – other power). For Genshin and
Kakuun, thanks to the influence of their teacher Ryōgen,
Amida filled this need.

Kakuun is now not well known but is the founder of the

Danna school of Tendai. His approach to Amida was more
esoteric – that is, Amida was to be realised through practice
and effort (shikaku 始覺– acquired enlightenment). For
Genshin, and his now famous Ōjōyōshū (往生要集 Essentials
for rebirth in the Pure Land)[34], faith in Amida and chanting
the nembutsu was enough for rebirth in the Pure Land and
enlightenment. This is not to say he disregarded practice. On
the contrary, the practice was complementary to faith. But

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Genshin’s Eshin line of the Tendai school emphasised
inherent enlightenment (aka original enlightenment –
Hongaku 本覺), the idea that we are already enlightened, it
just needs to be realised through practice. So, we can see,
both the literal rebirth understanding and the mind-only
understanding of Amida and nembutsu is still present in
Tendai, but the emphasis has started to shift towards rebirth
in the Pure Land. This shift continues into the Kamakura
period (鎌倉時代 Kamakura jidai, 1185–1333). As we move
into the Kamakura period, the turmoil that has been affecting
Japan and the various Buddhist schools have really begun to
take its toll. For those living it, it really was the age of mappo.
This is the period when the so-called “single practice” schools
emerge, such as Zen (Soto and Rinzai), Pure Land (Jōdo Shu)
and Nichiren. Each school having its own focus on a particular
practice, rather than the eclectic approach of Tendai.
Interestingly, each of the founders were Tendai monks
themselves.

As these schools arose, the Tendai Shu had its own answer to
the single practice. Instead of the Nembutsu, its answer to
the single practice was the Shinnyokan 真如觀. Shinnyokan is
a meditation on “Suchness”, synonymous with the “middle
truth”, of truth just as it is – of reality – stemming from the
idea that we are already enlightened, and we just need to
realise it (Hongaku). This meditation, whilst not something
new, was given new attention and became a practice for lay
people.

This is not to say that the nembutsu was ignored. The

practice continued to be developed, taking influence from

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the nembutsu schools (there were many that sprang up) as
well as Shingon with its own esoteric understanding of Amida
in which Amida is synonymous with Dainichi Nyorai and the
Dharmakāya. As far as I’m aware, the Tendai Shu still sees
Amida as Saṃbhogakāya, but there may be lineages that take
a different view.

In esoteric Tendai (taimitsu), Amida is one of the 5 Dhyāni

Buddas 五方佛 also known as the 5 Wisdom Tathāgatas 五智
如来. In the Kongōkai Maṇḍala he is shown as Amitābha
(Infinite light), taking a seat on the west side of Dainichi
Nyorai. In the Taizōkai Maṇḍala he is shown as Muryōju
(Infinite life), again sat to the west of Dainichi Nyorai. In
Taimitsu he is a member of the Lotus Family, with the
element of water, the colour red and has the Bīja Hrīḥ (Kiriku
in Japanese). Our head temple in Japan, Senzoji, has the
practice of Gojusoden, in which one progresses through a
series of mantras and meditations on Amida and his qualities.

Looking through all of this, I feel it’s clear that, in Tendai at

least, that the practice and fruit of the practice of Amida, is
both for the benefit of our minds right here and now, as well
as for the future (or future lives). In the spirit of ichinen
sanzen (一念三千 – three thousand worlds in a single
thought), when we chant the nembutsu and meditate on
Amida we are connecting our minds with Amida’s qualities.
We become unified with Amida, as Amida is unified with us,
awaking our own Buddhanature. So, the nembutsu is not just
a practice for rebirth, but it’s a practice for enlightenment.

Of course, these are all my own thoughts based on what I

have been taught.

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 Kai
Precepts

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It is not an understatement to say that the precepts play a
major role in Tendai Buddhism. This is why it is considered on
equal footing with meditation, Pure Land practice, and
esoteric practice.

Saichō’s monastic reformations

As part of Saichō’s reformations, he decided to abandon the
traditional Vinaya precepts for monastics, in favour of the
Mahāyāna Bodhisattva precepts (Bosatsukai 菩薩戒)[35] for
ordinations. His ‘official’ reason for doing so was to instate
purely Mahāyāna monastics, however many scholars can’t
help but look at his political motives. Buddhism at the time
was a state sponsored religion, with its own office of monks
who oversaw the running of Buddhism in the country. Saichō,
and many others, often criticised these monks for being
corrupt, favouring their positions in office over their monastic
roles, for giving the most support to their own temples and
lineages over all others etc. All ordinations had to have the
approval of this office, and there were only allowed so many
ordinations each year. These corrupt monastic officials would
allot most of the ordinations to their own schools/lineages,
leaving other lineages with only a handful of ordinations,
which ensured their particular temple was in power. Saichō’s
proposals for a Mahāyāna ordination, also included monks
being ordained away from the capital, away from the
corruption of the monks in office, and also meant he was in
control of who he ordained. Abandoning the Vinaya may have
been the only way to have this move approved by the
emperor. After all, Saichō stated that monks would be able to
take the Vinaya vows after they have completed their 12
years of training and had reached a high state of realisation.

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The 12 years of training was also a way of ensuring that
monks were only released back in to the public after reaching
a high level of training and realisation. I think this proves that
Saichō was not against the Vinaya as such, but against
corruption. Removing the Vinaya from the equation was a
way for him to improve on the corrupt Buddhism of his time.

Sadly, he didn’t live to see his vision come to life, as the

emperor only granted permission after Saichō died. Saichō’s
requirements for 12 years on Mt Hiei for training was also
short lived. Fewer and fewer people were willing to train for
12 years, and so this time, and the training itself, was
reformed by numerous Ozazu’s (head abbots) after Saichō.

Although Tendai was the first to ordain monastics with the

Bodhisattva precepts, it wasn’t the last as almost all of
Japanese schools later followed suite. Now, the Bodhisattva
precepts are the standard form of ordination in Japanese
Buddhism. There were attempts by numerous monks,
including some in Tendai, to reinstate the use of Vinaya for
monastics, however this never caught on. Instead, and for the
most part, it was only used as a guide for monastic discipline.

Despite the use of the Bodhisattva precepts over the Vinaya

vows, Japanese monasticism didn’t look that much different
to Buddhist schools around the world, until the Meiji
restoration of 1868, in which Buddhism was actively
persecuted by the new empire. Shinto was made the state
religion and slogans such as Haibutsu kishaku (廃仏毀釈)
(literally "abolish Buddhism and destroy Shākyamuni") were
abound, temples and Buddhist images were destroyed, and
Buddhist monastics were forced to live as lay people. In order

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to survive the persecutions Buddhism in Japan needed to
adapt.

Now, those ordained in Japanese schools of Buddhism are

not required to live in temples or remain celibate. In fact,
most people who are ordained live with one foot in secular
life, and one foot in the temple life. They have jobs, homes,
marriages, children etc, but also carry out their duties at the
temple and to the sangha. Tendai Buddhism is no different.

Endonkai 圓頓戒 – Perfect Sudden Precepts

These days, the different schools of Japanese Buddhism have
their own version of the Bodhisattva precepts, taken from
different Sūtras. Tendai Buddhism takes its ‘Bosatsukai’ 菩薩
戒 – Bodhisattva Precepts, from the Brahmajāla Sūtra (Net of
Brahma), which contains 10 major and 48 minor precepts.
Saichō called these precepts ‘Perfect Sudden Precepts’. The
reason for this title can be understood in different ways;

1. As shown previously, Tiantai Lotus teachings are

known as a ‘perfect/round’ doctrine, thus these vows
are linked with the Tiantai doctrine.
2. ‘Endon’ or ‘Perfect Sudden’ refers to Zhiyi’s teaching
of the ‘perfect sudden meditation’ (endon shikan).
This is the practice of meditation in which
enlightenment happens spontaneously, rather than
progressively. These vows are integral to that goal,
and thus, to follow these vows is to follow the
‘Perfect Sudden’ path.
3. It also offers the perfect juxtaposition between the
Vinaya, which is a gradual/sequential path in Tendai

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 Buddhist classifications, and the Mahāyāna Tiantai
Lotus doctrine, which is ‘perfect/sudden’.

In Tendai, to receive the precepts is also a form of

purification, allowing one to receive the qualities of the
dharmakāya. Thus, to receive and correctly follow the
precepts is a direct path to enlightenment.

The precepts are not only for ordinations, as lay people are
able to take vows too.

The Five Lay Precepts

There is a story in which the Buddha was staying in a place
called Pava, ancient India. There he spoke with a lay person, a
silver smith by the name of Cunda in which he advises Cunda
on how to purify body, speech and mind; that of skilful
action, skilful speech, skilful mind. This story is known as the
Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta. In another story, the Buddha
speaks of great gifts that one can give oneself and to others,
that generate great happiness and merit. This story is known
as the Abhisanda Sutta. In both of these Suttas (Sūtras) the
Five Lay Precepts are laid out and explained. In Sanskrit they
are known as pañca-sikkhāpada (Five Precepts) or pañca-
śīlāni (Five Virtues). The vows are rendered thus;
I take the precept to abstain from destroying living beings.
I take the precept to abstain from taking things not given.
I take the precept to abstain from sexual misconduct.
I take the precept to abstain from false speech.
I take the precept to abstain from taking anything that causes
intoxication or heedlessness.

Many people see these vows as rules, or commandments.

They may even feel that they are limiting and not allowing

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them to “express themselves” how they wish. Some people
see them as easy to do and not something to worry over. For
some still, they are merely a formality. I can say without a
doubt that all of these people have completely missed what
these precepts are and how important they are. They are not
merely rules; they are the very cause of your enlightenment
and the very foundation of the Eight-Fold Path. So, we can
see, it is very important. But why are they so important?

We have seen these precepts referred to as ‘Śīlāni’ in

Sanskrit, meaning ‘moral or ethical conduct’. This comes from
the word ‘śīlā’ meaning ‘moral’ or ‘virtue’ which plays a huge
rule in Buddhism. We are taught that without good morals,
and if our conduct (i.e. actions of body, speech and mind) are
not virtuous then we will never be able to progress. Our
minds will forever be caught up in our ego, as the precepts
forces us to look outside of ourselves and to put others first.
Through practicing the precepts, we can begin to understand
the law of cause and effect and see how our actions can be
the cause of not only our happiness or sadness, but also it can
be the cause of others happiness or sadness.

In Japanese, the precepts are called ‘Kai’ (戒) which means to

stop or give up, as these precepts are all about giving up
unwholesome and unskilful activity. This dichotomy of
unskilful vs skilful is incredibly important when understanding
and putting the precepts in to practice.

The Bodhisattva Precepts

In the Tendai School of Buddhism we take the Four
Bodhisattva Precepts 四弘誓願 (Shigu seigan – Four Great
Vows);
Sentient beings are numberless; I vow to save them all.

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Afflictions are inexhaustible; I vow to end them all.
Schools and traditions are manifold; I vow to study them all.
The Buddha way is supreme; I vow to complete it.

These are said to have been composed by Venerable Zhiyi

(Zhiyi) who was the founder of Chinese Tendai (Tiantai). They
embody the Bodhisattva path (enlightenment for all beings),
as well as embodying the Four Limitless Virtues (四無量心 Shi
muryō shin);
1. Maitrī – Loving kindness. The act of good will to all
others
2. Karuṇā – Compassion. The act of identifying oneself
with the suffering of others
3. Muditā – Joy. More specifically, taking joy in the joy
of others. Also known as empathetic joy.
4. Upekṣā – Equanimity. The treating of everything and
everyone impartially with complete serenity.

In taking the Bodhisattva vows, we are generating Bodhicitta

(bodaishin 菩提心) that is, raising the mind of Enlightenment
for the sake of all others. This is the embodiment of the
Bodhisattva Path. In this way Bodhicitta is synonymous with
compassion.

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‘Mikkyō’
Esoteric

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‘Mikkyō’ 密教 literally means “secret teachings” or “secret
doctrine”, and mostly refers to the practices of Japanese
Esoteric Buddhism within the Tendai, Shingon, Shugendo and
Kegon schools. The word (or words) ‘mikkyō’ come from the
Chinese ‘Mìjiào’ of the same meaning, the schools of which
were referred to as Mìzōng (密宗) meaning “secret sects”. In
Chinese these were also known as Tángmì (唐密) or
Hànchuán Mìzōng (漢傳密宗) which referred to the Tang
Chinese and Han Chinese traditions of Esoteric Buddhism
respectively. These teachings were an early form of Vajrayana
Buddhism older than Tibetan Tantra that made its way into
Tang China via the Silk Road. The three great masters of the
time were Śubhakarasiṃha 637–735 (Zenmui 善無畏),
Vajrabodhi 671–741 (Kongōchi 金剛智) and Amoghavajra
705–774 (Fukū 不空). The practices of Chinese Vajrayana was
transmitted to Japan by Kukai (founder of Shingon) and
Saichō (founder of Tendai), although Saichō did not attain
complete transmission, so his disciple Ennin (圓仁) returned
to China after Saichō’s death to bring back the full Esoteric
Lineage, now known as Taimitsu (台密), ‘Tai’ coming from the
name of the school Tiantai (天台), although it should be
noted that the Esoteric practices were not part of Chinese
Tiantai.

The four main esoteric rituals of Tendai Buddhism are

Juhachido 十八道, Taizokai 胎藏界, Kongokai 金剛界, and
Goma 護摩. In Taimitsu the Juhachido is tied to the
Soshitsuji-kyō 蘇悉地経(Susiddhikara Sūtra), the Taizokai is
tied to the Dainichikyō (Dainichikyo) Sūtra 大日経 (Skt. =
Vairocanabhisambodhi Sūtra, and the Kongokai is tied to the

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Kongōchōkyō 金剛頂経 (Diamond Peak Sūtra; Skt. =
Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha). The Goma is an extension of
these rituals & Sūtras, therefore, one must study and
complete all these to be able to perform the Goma. In order
to study these rituals, one must first gain kanjō 灌頂
(abhiṣeka) from an Ajari 阿闍梨 (ācārya/teacher). In the
Japanese traditions, this is only done after tokudo 得度
(ordination) as a priest, and only after completing the
necessary preparatory practices and study. Completing the
Shido Kegyo 四度加行 (Four Stages Training of the
aforementioned esoteric rituals) does not make one an Ajari
nor allowed to teach the rituals, rather, it is the ‘entrance’ to
these rituals and allows one to study these further under an
Ajari.

These rituals are considered “secret” (mikkyō) in Japanese

Buddhism, but what is meant by that? The word ‘secret’
means “not known or seen or not meant to be known or seen
by others”, so in this case ‘secret’ is not the right word to
describe Japanese exoteric Buddhism. Mikkyō is ‘Kuden 口伝’
meaning ‘oral tradition’ or ‘oral instruction’, meaning the
teachings are passed done orally from teacher to student.
That doesn’t mean there aren’t texts (of which there are
literally hundreds, if not, more), but rather that the finer
points, the nuances of the practice, require the presence of a
teacher. It is for this (and other) reason that Japanese
esoteric Buddhism is considered “secret”.

There are many in the world who still do not like the idea of
not being “free” to pick up a book on mikkyō and start
practicing it, so let us look at a few examples of why a

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teacher, and oral instruction, is important;
Driving. There are many books and videos on driving that give
driving instruction etc. However, as soon as the novice gets
behind the wheel it soon becomes apparent that all the
books and videos in the world doesn’t prepare them for the
actual practical application of driving. So, a teacher is
required, and the better the teacher, the better the learner
will become and in a shorter space of time than if they went
“solo”. You also need a learner’s license before you are able
to start learning and in the UK you must first sit a written
exam before you are able to take your final driving test.
Surgeon. To become a surgeon requires a lot more than
learning to drive. There are many books and videos on
surgery, but these do not give you the necessary training
required. First you need qualifications just to be allowed to
study at university. There you will be guided by many
teachers in both the practices and theory of the chosen field
of study for years, before qualifying.

Tendai mikkyō is no different. The preparatory practices are

more than just formalities, but they prepare you
philosophically, mentally and karmically for what is ahead.
There are many books on mikkyō, but a teacher will be able
to explain a lot more and will be able to show you where you
are going wrong, amongst other things. In order to practice
this, like going to university to become a doctor, one must
first ‘enter the temple’ by becoming a priest. There, you will
be taught what you need to know. So, you can see, mikkyō
isn’t “secret” in the strictest definition of the word, but rather
in order to practice them one must first go through a number
of steps first. You can’t run before you can walk and you can’t

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be expected to run a marathon without some training first.
Those who believe these preparatory practices are not
necessary only show their ignorance and disrespect for these
practices.

What is often perplexing is the lack of scholarly interest in

Taimitsu. It is often assumed that Taimitsu is borrowed from
Shingon, or is a lesser form of Shingon, a sort of ‘mikkyō-lite’.
However, nothing could be further from the truth. Ennin and
Enchin brought back an incredibly large body of esoteric
Sūtras and commentaries, including the important
“Interpretation of the Mahāvairocana Sūtra” (Gishaku 義釋).
Both Ennin & Enchin contributed massively to Japanese
mikkyō, and this was further added to by Tendai monks such
as Annen and Ryōgen to name a couple, making Tendai
Taimitsu on par with Shingon Tomitsu.

For some people, the secretive nature of mikkyō makes it

seem exotic and appealing. However, for others, the idea of
rituals, hand gestures and chanting mantras, seem all to
religious, or even mythical. To fully understand the role of
mikkyō in Buddhist practice, one ideally needs to practice it.
That being said, let us take a look at one of the fundamental
aspects underpinning mikkyō practice.

Three Secrets, 三密 San Mitsu

The Three Secrets are essentially that of body, speech and
mind. According to mikkyō teachings, the whole universe may
be understood as forms of body, speech, and mind. It is how
we interact with the world around us, and as we have seen in
previous chapters, it is how the Buddha teaches the dharma
to us. In mikkyō, we give the whole universe a name,

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“Mahāvairocana”. Mahāvairocana is the universe in the form
of a Buddha, and so you’ll see many Temples in Japan with
statues of Mahāvairocana Buddha. As all Buddha’s
communicate the dharma to us through body, speech, and
mind, and the universe is Mahāvairocana Buddha, therefore
all natural phenomena has the possibility to communicate the
dharma to us. As all natural phenomena includes us, we are
also Mahāvairocana Buddha. The only problem is, because of
our defilements, we can’t understand or see this. We act, not
as Buddhas, but as unenlightened beings. We see the
mountains, the lakes, the forest, not as forms of a Buddha,
but as mountains, lakes, and forests. Therefore, we need to
practice the dharma in order to understand the universe, to
understand that we are Buddhas.

Forming mudras, reciting mantras, and visualising maṇḍalas,

are all acts of body, speech, and mind, respectively,
connecting us to the universe around us, and thus connect us
to Mahāvairocana. They are, at a very basic level, highly
symbolic acts of Mahāvairocana Buddha and if done
correctly, the unification of body, speech, and mind, allows
one to attain enlightenment in this body. However, it should
be noted that these practices do not supplant other practices,
such as our vows. As we have seen in the previous chapters,
we have Three Types of Karma, created by acts of body,
speech, and mind. The Three Trainings of virtue, mind, and
wisdom are the antithesis of our negative actions. Mudra,
mantra and maṇḍala (visualisation) support and help us
achieve these practices.

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 ‘Shin’
Kami/spirits

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Another element that was included in to Japanese Tendai,
was the local indigenous religion of Japan; Shintō. Although
not unique to Tendai Buddhism, as most Japanese sects have
done the same, the Tendai school formed its own Shinto sect
called Sannō ichijitsu Shintō 山王一實神道 (One Truth of
Sannō Shintō). Before we go in to that, I want to first explain
how its’ possible for two different religions to blend and live
side-by-side, something many westerns feel is impossible.

Shinbutsu-shūgō 神仏習合 - Syncretism of Kami and

Buddhas
There has been much debate of the prevalence and nature of
Shintō and the worship of Kami (Spirits/gods) in pre-Buddhist
Japan. It is generally agreed that Shintō was not an organised
religion and did not have many religious texts. The worship of
kami was very localised, meaning it was not comparable with
European paganism. However, it seems that Shintō was very
much in the heart of the Japanese when Buddhism reached
its shores. Therefore, it was necessary to explain the
similarities, differences and how Buddhism sits with Shintō.
At first it was generally agreed that Kami were Samsaric
beings, similar to the Indian Deva’s who, although had power
to affect nature, they were still governed by Saṃsāra, and so
would be born, live, grown old, and eventually die. Thus, it
was possible to accept the existence, and even pay respects
to the Kami whilst still being Buddhist. Essentially, accepting a
foreign religion (Buddhism) whilst still being Japanese in
one’s heart. This reconciliation meant that Buddhism and
Shintoism existed side by side in Japan, never going to war
with each other. Buddhist temples would house Shintō
shrines and vice versa, a practice that still goes on to this day.

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Shintō was also greatly influenced by Buddhism, as can been
seen by its shrines, priests, rituals and organisation.

It was Kūkai (founder of Japanese Shingon) who first

proposed that the Kami should be looked at as emanations of
Buddhist beings such as Tathāgatas, Bodhisattvas and Vajra
Kings (Myōō). This became known as ‘Honji suijaku’ 本地垂迹
. Although there were some monks who were opposed to this
teaching, it became the accepted interpretation of the Kami
until the Meiji restoration when Buddhism and Shinto were
separated.

Sannō ichijitsu Shintō 山王一實神道 - One Truth of

Sannō Shintō
Sannō was the Kami who resided on Mt Hiei. His name means
‘Mountain King’ and, according to legend, this Kami helped
Saichō understand the true meaning of the Lotus Sūtra. It is
taught in Tendai that Sannō is an emanation (gongen 権現) of
Śakyamuni Buddha. From the beginning of Tendai, Sannō has
been paid respects as a guardian deity of Mt Hiei and all
Tendai Buddhists. But despite its early origins, Sannō ichijitsu
Shintō wasn’t properly formulated until the Edo period.

‘Skilful means’ (upāya) is the driving force behind the idea

that a local spirit could be the manifestation of a Buddha.
According to Mahāyāna Sūtras and doctrine, Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas use any means necessary to help sentient
beings on the Dharma path. This may include appearing in
varying forms, such as people, gods, spirits, animals and even
inanimate objects. This also fits in with the ‘Trikāya’ doctrine,
which states that unenlightened beings are unable to see the

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dharmakāya, so the Buddha appears as a nirmānakāya
(manifestation body), so that we may be able to know the
dharma.

Although based on Tendai Buddhist doctrine, Sannō ichijitsu

Shintō is very much a Shintō religion that lives alongside
Tendai Buddhism and on Mt Hiei. It also relies heavily on
Mikkyō practices and philosophies. Sannō Gongen is the main
deity (Honzon) and all other Kami are considered
manifestations of Sannō Gongen.

What does this mean for Tendai in the West?

There are differing opinions on this. In all my years as a
Buddhist in the Tendai school I can honestly say that Shintō
hasn’t played any role in my Buddhist practice. Although
Tendai and Shintō are closely linked in Japan, it is hard to see
it (Shintō) having a huge role in the west as the Japanese
Kami are local to the Japanese Islands. And despite this close
relationship and the view that Kami are manifestations of
Buddhas, the Buddhas in their true forms are more
important, making the Kami secondary to the Buddhas.

However, what I personally take from this, is that Buddhism

as a religion is capable of existing side by side with a
completely different religion. It does not need to suppress,
supplant, or generally undermine others in order for it to
succeed. And I hope I’ve also shown that living side by side
does not mean changing Buddhist doctrines. Tendai doctrine
remains unchanged by Shintō.

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 Ryokai Mandara
Two-world Maṇḍala

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A prominent feature of Japanese Tendai Buddhism is known
as the ‘Two-world Maṇḍala’, which is comprised of two
‘Maṇḍalas’, abstract graphical representations of the
universe. The ‘Diamond Realm Maṇḍala’ (金剛界 Kongōkai in
Japanese, Vajradhātu in Sanskrit) represents the principle of
the Buddha and comes from a sutra called the Vajrasekhara
Sutra. The ‘Womb Realm Maṇḍala’ (胎蔵界 taizōkai in
Japanese, Garbhakoṣadhātu in Sanskrit) represents the
physical manifestation of the Buddha and comes from a sutra
called the Mahavairocana Tantra. These two Maṇḍalas are
hung either side of the main altar in Tendai temples, and
form both backbone of Japanese Esoteric practices, and
details Buddhist cosmology. After receiving the necessary
ordination and empowerments, the adept is taught to
meditate on these Maṇḍalas, utilizing mudras, mantras, and
visualisations on the numerous deities depicted, that take
them on a journey through the Maṇḍalas. If performed
correctly, it is hoped the practitioner will emerge from this
deep meditative practice enlightened.

This cosmology can seem at odds to how we understand

Buddhism in the west, as we are accustomed to it being
presented as a scientific, psychological philosophy, and not as
a religion. However, throughout its long history, and written
in to the Buddhist texts, is a rich tapestry of deities, that have
shaped the various different Buddhist schools to a larger or
lesser degree, and which are largely ignored by many in the
West, in the hopes of making Buddhism more appealing to
the “sceptical western mind”. Although these deities are
included in Buddhism (and especially in the esoteric schools),
the difference between Buddhism and other religions is the

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influence these beings have over the natural law of the
universe. In which case, gods (devas) in Buddhism cannot
change our karma, or even their own. They also can’t make us
enlightened. Only we can do this ourselves. (However, this
does not mean these beings can be of no help.)

Some people will view these beings as archetypal, or

representational of various aspects of the enlightened mind,
just like the Maṇḍalas that colourfully and beautifully depict
these beings, are representations of the universe. The various
practices are therefore, to awaken those particular aspects
that these beings represent, in our own minds, whether that
be compassion and kindness, or strength and resolve. For
many others, and especially for those in Japan, these beings
are alive and real, and many people will go to temples to pray
to these beings for their assistance.

Whether one believes in their actual existence or not, the

practices and the goal of enlightenment remain the same.
Below is a short guide to the various groups of beings, and
their hierarchical structure in Japanese Tendai Buddhism;

如来 Nyorai
This first tier is often called the ‘Buddha Class’. The word
Nyorai is a translation of the Sanskrit word Tathāgata, a word
the Buddha used to describe fully enlightened beings,
including himself, which is a title of sorts, rather than a name.
Meaning ‘Thus gone one’ or equally ‘Thus come one’, it is a
title for those who have discovered the Dharma and taught it
to others, becoming the torch bearer, or in Buddhist terms,
‘One who turns the wheel of the Dharma’. In Mahāyāna, a
Buddha is more than a person, the true nature of which is

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impossible to understand. This class of beings represents the
pinnacle of achievement on the Buddhist path, and one that
Buddhists aspire to.

Contrary to popular belief, there isn’t just one Buddha. Even

the very earliest of Buddhist texts names 7 Buddhas, with
Śakyamuni being only the most recent Buddha. Over the
centuries, further Buddhas have been added to that list, and
many the Mahāyāna schools speculate that there are an
incalculable number of Buddhas, that we simply don’t know
of.

菩薩 Bosatsu
The second tier belongs to the Bodhisattvas, or Bosatsu in
Japanese. As previously stated, the Bodhisattvas are beings
who aspire to become Tathāgatas, and work for the benefit
for all sentient beings, out of compassion. Being a
Bodhisattva is often mistaken as the goal of Mahāyāna
Buddhists, however this isn’t true. Mahāyāna Buddhists
aspire to become Buddhas, however, we believe that the only
way to do this is by first becoming a Bodhisattva. Thus,
Bodhisattvas are often given similar respects as Buddhas. In
the pantheon of Buddhist deities, Bodhisattvas are often
assistants to Buddhas.

明王 Myō-ō
The third tier belongs to the ‘Wisdom Kings’, or Myō-ō in
Japanese. These scary looking deities are considered wrathful
emanations of the Buddhas, as well as their guardians. Being
the guardians of the Buddhas also means they are guardians
of the Dharma. Many in the west struggle with the physical
representations of these beings, as they characteristically

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look like what we would associate with demons, and as we
often view Buddhism as a religion of compassion, we are left
confused by these odd-looking creatures. However, just like
the gargoyles in Christian Churches, Wisdom Kings look scary
in order to fight off negative forces. These forces may be our
own demons of the mind, which need strength and resolve of
character in order to overcome them, as well as external
forces. The old adage of ‘appearances can be deceiving’
applies to these incredibly compassionate and hard-working
beings. There is also an important teaching here, of facing our
demons, rather than attempting to bury them in the sand.

天 Ten
The fourth tier belongs to the Heavenly deities. This section is
probably easier to understand, however as said previously,
often leaves people wondering why it is included in Buddhism
at all! When we read the Buddhist sutras, even the most
earliest we read mention of gods, or rather ‘devas’ visiting
the Buddha, asking questions, requesting teachings, coming
to the Buddha’s aid or even causing a little havoc! These
devas are not too dissimilar to the deities of the Greco-
Roman pantheon, or the gods of Norse mythology, with a
dizzying number of devas who have exceptionally long lives,
but are not immortal, are also not able to influence nature,
and can neither control nor create life. These devas are also
subject to the same karmic laws as us humans, and so are not
enlightened, and can neither make us enlightened, nor
remove our bad karma. Therefore, they can’t really compare
with the Judeo-Christian god.

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権現 Gongen
The fifth tier is probably unique to Japanese Buddhism, and
this is the Gongen, or ‘Circumstantial Appearances’. This
refers to the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas appearing as
Kami, the spirits of the Japanese indigenous Shinto religion.
The belief here is that, out of their compassion, Buddhas,
Bodhisattvas, and Wisdom Kings appear to beings in forms
they are familiar with and will understand, in order to help
sentient beings. These beings do not appear in the Two
World Maṇḍalas.

高僧・祖師 Kōsō - Soshi

The sixth and last tier belongs to the ‘Religious masters’. In
this sense, they are a lot like the saints of Christianity, in that
masters are recognised for their contribution to the Dharma
and/or Sangha and given posthumous titles and prestige.
Many of these masters weren’t given the same treatment in
their lifetime. These masters do not appear in the Two World
Maṇḍalas.

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Conclusion

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It is not an understatement to say that Buddhism is vast, and
often perplexing. Add in the fact that Buddhism has changed
and adapted over the centuries and has been influenced by
the numerous cultures it has spread through, it can often
seem a daunting task to try and gain even a basic
understanding of Buddhism. My advice would be to start at
the beginning. Start with the 4 Noble Truths, the 8 Fold Path,
and start meditating. Let all other aspects of Buddhism unfold
naturally on your journey, like a lotus blossom that slowly
reaches the top of the pond, and gently unfurls its petals into
full bloom.

Although many Tendai Buddhist doctrines have been covered

in this book, it isn’t by far all of them. I’m not sure it would be
possible to keep this book short and cover them all. I also fear
that, by keeping things short, I have not adequately explained
these key doctrines, so I urge you, the reader, to not take my
word as final, and to research these aspects for yourself.
Hopefully, this introduction will be the catalyst for you to
deepen your knowledge and practice of Buddhism.

Japanese Buddhism has a lot of cultural elements that may

seem too foreign for the average westerner, however I feel
these differences are only skin deep. The practice, the
philosophy, as well as the historical examples of the
numerous masters of the past are just as relevant today, as
they were in the past. I also feel that the inclusiveness and
the multiplicity of practices under the umbrella of ‘Tendai
Buddhism’ can appeal to numerous different people, without
having to make major changes. Rather than forcing people to
follow one specific ‘way’, like hammering a square peg in to a
round hole, we recognise that we are all different, that we all

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understand things in different ways, and that there is no one
right way, but a way that is right for our individual
circumstances.

My hope for the future is that Buddhism will continue to find

its place in the west, whatever that may be, and continue to
grow.

I am not a perfect being, and there may be numerous errors,

typos, and things overlooked in this book. It should also be
understood as my own understanding of what I have been
taught, read, and studied over the years. I encourage you to
read, study, and find a suitable teacher to help you further
understand the various topics raised.

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References & Further Reading
1. Nalaka Sutta, SN 3.11
2. Assu Sutta, SN 15.3
3. Lalitavistara Sūtra
4. Maha-Saccaka Sutta, MN 36
5. Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta SN 56.11
6. Nidana Sutta AN 3.33
7. Kaccāyanagotta Sutta, SN 12.15
8. Dukkhata Sutta, SN 45.165
9. Maha-hatthipadopama Sutta, MN 28
10. Magga-vibhanga Sutta, SN 45.8
11. Sikkha Sutta, AN 3.88
12. Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
13. Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya Sūtra (aka Heart Sutra)
14. Anatta-lakkhana Sutta, SN 22.59
15. Anicca Sutta, SN 36.9
16. Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta, SN 12.2
17. Kamma Sutta, SN 35.145
18. Maha Kammavibhanga Sutta, MN 136
19. Abhidhammattha Sangaha, By Narada Maha Thera
20. Phagguna Sutta, SN 12.12
21. Sabbasava Sutta, MN 2
22. Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra (aka Lotus Sutra)
23. Janussonin Sutta, AN 10.177
24. Devaduta Sutta, MN 130
25. Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra (Guide to a Bodhisattva’s Way
of Life, by Śāntideva)

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26. Avataṃsaka Sūtra (aka Flower Ornament Sutra)
27. Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra (aka The inquiry of Ugra Sutra)
28. Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai
School, by Paul Groner
29. Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa, composed by
Vasubandhu. English translation found in ‘BDK -
Tiantai Lotus Texts’, translated by Tsugunari Kubo and
Joseph M. Logan; Terry Abbott; and Masao Ichishima
and David Chappell
30. Outline of the Four Teachings composed by Chegwan.
English translation found in ‘BDK - Tiantai Lotus Texts’,
translated by Tsugunari Kubo and Joseph M. Logan;
Terry Abbott; and Masao Ichishima and David
Chappell
31. Foundations of T'ien-T'ai Philosophy, by Paul L
Swanson
32. Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight: T’ien-t’ai Chih-i’s Mo-ho
chih-kuan, translation by Paul L Swanson
33. BDK - The Three Pure Land Sutras, translated by Hisao
Inagaki, with Harold Stewart
34. Genshin's Ojoyoshu and the Construction of Pure Land
Discourse in Heian Japan, by Robert F. Rhodes and
Richard K. Payne
35. Brahmajāla Sūtra (aka Brahma’s Net Sutra)

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About the author
Seishin began his journey into
Buddhism whilst at college, where
he gained an interest into world
religions. Having read into various
religions and spiritualties’, he
became interested in Buddhist
meditation whilst practicing martial
arts at university. Joining various
Buddhist groups whilst at Uni and
after graduating, he found none really satisfied him. In the
summer of 2008, he got in contact with Rev Ganshin who
welcomed him to the group. Having found a home with
Tendai and with Ganshin, Seishin decided to ordain. After
much preparation, Seishin received Shukke Tokudo (formal
ordination) from Ganshin, with the blessings of Rev Prof
Ichishima, on the 31st July 2013. Sadly, Ganshin passed away
on 1st September 2014, aged 88. As requested and now
under the tutelage of Rev Prof Ichishima, Seishin leads the UK
services and meditations.

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 一隅を照らす、
此れすなわち国宝なり

‘Ichigu wo terasu,
kore sunawachi kokuho nari’

“Light one corner of the world,

in this way you will be a national treasure.”
Saichō

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