Microstructural Development and Pressure Requirements

in

6063 Aluminium alloy tube Extrusion

BY

EKASIT NISARATANAPORN

A Thesis submittedfor the Degreeof Doctor

of Philosopby of the University of London

JohnPercyGroup
Departmentof Material
ImperialCollegeof
Science,Technology
andMedicine
London SW7 2BP
June 1995

SL
C
To my pwsmtz
 3

Albalmica

The relationships between the micros tructures process parameters and

.
mechanical properties of tube extrusions of Al-Mg-Si Alloy (AA6063), produced by
using an extrusion process with a bridge die and mandrel (at extrusion ratios of 20: 1-
70: 1, temperatures of 350-500 OC and constant ram speed of 3 mm/sec) have been
investigated. For comparison purposes,rod extrudatesutilising the bridge die without

a mandrel and normal rod extrudatesat the sametemperatureand extrusion ratio were
produced. By using the bridge die without a mandrel, seamwelds, similar to those in
the tube extrudates,formed by recombination of the metal streamsin the chamber were
produced for comparison studies.
The microstructural characterisation of as cast and homogenised billets was
carried out. Ile extrudate longitudinal sectionswere investigated from the surface to
the centre in order to study the effect of extrusion temperature and ratio on
microstructure. For the rod extrusions a dynamically recovered substructure was
formed in extrusions performed below 450 OCand a statically recrystallised structure

was formed in the centre of extrudate at 550 OC. Statically recrystallised grains are

normally found in the as-extruded tube due to the high strains promoting
recrystallisation. Grain growth following the T6 heat treatment was found to occur.
The mechanical properties of extrudates depend on the microstructures. The

weld strength was measured using tensile specimensof the rod extrudates produced
using a bridge die (no mandrel). However, the weld strength of tube extrudates was
difficult to determine directly by the conventional drift test due to the large wall
thickness.
The pressure requirements for tube extrusion at various combinations of

extrusion temperaturesand ratios have been investigated. A satisfactory estimate of

the pressurewas predicted by using a shapefactor to calculate the modified extrusion
ratio.
An additional study of the effect of homogenising temperature on the

microstructure of alloy AA6082 was carried out. It was found that reducing the
homogenisingtemperatureproduced a higher density of fine AI-Mn-Si pariticles which
inhibited mcrystallisation.
 4

AckmowlealeenamIm

Firstly, the author wishes to expresshis sincere thanks to Dr. Henry McShane
for his initiation of this project and his supervision, guidance and encouragement
throughout this work.

The author also wishes to thank to all those who made this work possible, in
pardcular.

Professor Terry Sheppard for his helpful advice and guidance in the author's
first year study.

Ile Thai government for funding the research.

Alcan International, Banbury for providing the material usedin the project

Dr. Michael Clode at King college and Dr. Richard Dashwood for his helPful
advice.

The Technical staff within the John Percy Group, namely, Melvyn Andrews,
for his constant and invaluable help with the multitude of extrusions performed over
the duration of this researchprogramme.

Members of the John Percy Group, both past and present, for their friendship
and advice over the years. The author wishes to acknowledge the special member,
namely James Waring for his great friendship, good advice and helpful information.

Many friends in Thai society at Imperial college for their guidance.

Lastly, but by no meansleast,manythanksto my parents,my sisters,namely

Ann, Cherry and my girlfriend, without whoseinvariablelove and constantsupport
this work would not havebeenpossible.This thesisis dedicatedto them.
 5

LIST OF CONTENTS

Page Number
Title I
Abstract 3
Acknowledgernents 4
Contents 5
List of figures 9
List of plates 12
List of tables 14

Chapter 1 Introduction 15

Chapter 2 Literature review 18

2.1 Alurninium-magnesium-silicon alloys 19

2.1.1 6xxx series 19
2.1.2 AA 6063 20
2.1.3 AA 6082 21
2.2 Effect of alloying elements 22
2.2.1 Magnesium Silicide (Mg2Si) 22
2.2.2 Silicon (Si) 27
2.2.3 Magnesium (Mg) 28
2.2.4 Iron 29
2.2.5 Copper (Cu) 30
2.2.6 Manganese(Mn), Chromium (Cr) and Zirconium (Zr) 30
2.2.7 Other additional elements 31
2.3 Phase tranformations in AI-Mg-Si Alloys 33
2.4 Homogenisation 36
2.5 Restoration processes 39
2.5.1 Dynamic restoration processes 39
2.5.2 Static restoration processes 40
2.5.3 Extrusion Microstructures 42
2.6 Heat treatment of AI-Mg-Si Alloy 42
2.7 Hot working AA6063 alloy 44
2.8 Tube extrusion 45
2.8.1 Welded tube 46
 6

2.8.2 Tubedrawingmethods 46
2.8.3 Mannesman. process 47
2.8.4 Cold extrusion 49
2.8.5 Hot extrusion 50
2.8.5.1 Hot tubeextrusionwith rod mandrel 51
2.8.5.2 Hot extrusionwith hollow dies 52
2.9 Metal flow duringextrusion 54
2.10 Weldinglinesin extrudate 61
2.11 Extrusionlimit diagramof AI-Mg-Si Alloy 65

Chapter 3 Experimental procedure 68

3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Materials 69
3.3 The compositions 70
3.4 The extrusionequipment 72
3.5 Extrusion 75
3.5.1 Normalextrusion 75
3.5.2 Bridgedie extrusionwithouta mandrel 75
3.5.3 Tubeextrusion 76
3.6 Heattreatmentof extrudates 77
3.7 Tensiletesting 77
3.8 HardnessTesting 77
3.9 Fracturetoughnesstesting 78
3.10 Opticalmicroscopy 78
3.11 Electron microscopy 79
3.12 Drift testson tubes 81

Chapter 4 Pressure requirements in extrusion 82

4.1 Empirical Hot Workingrelationships 83

4.2 EmpericalExtrusionRelationships 86
4.3 Flow in extrusionusinga bridgedie with/withouta mandrel 91
4.3.1 The metalflow in BR,rod extrusion 91
4.3.2 The metalflow in tubeextrusionusing
a bridgedie with a mandrel 95
4.3.3 Themetalflow for varioustemperatures
 7

andextrusionratios 98
4.4 Pressure-DisplacementCurve 103
4.5 ExtrusionDataanalysis 109
4.6 Summary 122

Chapter 5 Microstructural Analysis 124

5.1 Structureanalysisof materials 125

5.1.1 Ascast structure 125
5.1.2 Homogenisation structure 128
5.2 Structural analysisof AA 6063extrusion 131
5.2.1 The effectof temperature
variationon the asextruded
microstructureof normalrod extrudates - 131
5.2.2 The asextrudedmicrostructureof BR rod extrudates 138
5.2.2.1The effectof theextrusiontemperature on the microstructure 139
5.2.2.2The effectof theextrusionratio on the microstructures 143
5.2.3 The asextrudedmicrostructureof tubeextrudates 149
5.2.3.1The effectof theextrusiontemperature(transverse) 149
5.2.3.2The effectof theextrusionratio (transverse) 154
5.2.3.3The effectof the wall thickness(transverse) 157
5.2.3.4The effectof theextrusiontemperatureand
extrusionratio (at theweldregion,longitudinal) 161
5.3 The microstructureaftersolutionisingandartificial ageing 163
5.3.1 Normalrod extrudates 163
5.3.2 The heattreatedmicrostructureof BR rod extrudates 168
5.3.3 The heattreatedmicrostructureof tubeextrudates 171
5.4 Summary 174

Chapter 6 Mechanical properties , 176

6.1 RoomtemperatureTensilepropertiesof extrudate 177

6.1.1 Normalrod tensileproperties 177
6.1.2 Tensilepropertiesof BR rod extrudates 177
6.1.3 Tensilepropertiesof flat extrudates 185
6.2 Drift test for tubeextrusion 188
6.3 Fracturetoughnessof extrudate 191
6.4 Hardnessproperties 193
 8

6.4.1 Effect of extrusiontemper-ature

in normalrod extrudates 193
6.4.2 Effect of extrusiontemperaturein BR rod extrudates 194
6.4.3 Effect of extrusiontemperatureandextrusionratio in tube 197
6.5 Summary 202

Chapter 7 Structural analysis of AA6082 extrusion 204

7.1 As cast and homogenisedmicrostructures 206

7.2 As extruded microstructures 206
7.3 Peak pressureof AA6082 212
7.4 Summary 213

Chapter 8 Conclusion and Suggestions for further work 214

8.1 Conclusion 215

8.2 Recommendationfor further work 217

AlpIpemal5res 218

1 Dimension of the bridge die usedin the investigation 219

2 Dimension of the bridge and mandrel 220
3 Dimension of the billet for producing the flat extrudate with a weld 221
4 Dimension of the bridge used for extrusion of the flat with a weld 222
5 Extrusion data and constantsused in generalpressureequation 223
5.1 Data from Clode used for calculating constants 224
5.2 Data from experiments 225
6.1 Hardnessof the normal rod extrudates(R=30: 1) 231
6.2 Hardnessof the BR rod extrudates (weld and non weld region) 231
6.3 Hardnessacrossthe weld region of the as extruded tube 231
6.4 Hardnessof tube extrusions in the as extruded condition 232
6.5 Hardnessof heat treated (T6) tube extrusions 232

ireTexemces 233
 9

ILUST Gir IFUGUIRIES

2.1 (a)Phase diagram of Al-Mg2Si 24

2.1(b)Solubility of Mg2Si in Aluminium 24
2.2 Tensile strengthpropertiesof the architectural
AI-Mg-Si extrusion alloys 25
2.3 Tensile strengthR, as a function of the Mg2Si content
with and without Si excess 26
2.4 Effect of Mg2Si content on bending radius and Charpy V
notch toughness 26
2.5 The TIT diagram developedfor AA6063 alloy 27
2.6 'Anti-fluoritic' crystal structureof Mg2Si intermetallic compound 35
2.7 Methods of tube drawing 47
2.8 Mannesmanpiercing process 48
2.9 (a)plug rolling mill (b)three-roll piercing (c)reeling mill 48
2.10 Hooker process.(Diagrammatic sketch showing the steps 49
2.11 The tube extrusion with rod mandrel 53
2.12 Seamlesstube extrusion with French rod mandrel 53
2.13 Bridge type die and Tooling arrangement 55
2.14 Spider type die and Tooling arrangement 56
2.15 Porthole type die and Tooling arrangement 57
2.16 The flow pattern of the extrudedmetal 59
2.17 The extruded billet with the deadmetal angle 60
2.18 The locations of the zonesin the extruded billet 60
2.19 Formation of charge welds 62
2.20 Respectitivecontraction and extrusion of the interface between
a billet residue and the successivebillet 63
2.21 Meandering form of a charge weld in a region of macroscopic

shrinkage 63
2.22 The apex of the charge after extrusion 64
2.23 A schematic of Limit Diagram containing

structural information 66
2.24 AA 6063 Limit Diagram 67
3.1 The Terratek short rod fracture toughness specimen 80
3.2 The drift test 81
4.1 Successive steps in extrusion using a bridge die 93
4.2 Laminar flow through a bridge die with/without a mandrel,
 10

leavingdeadmetalzones 96

4.3 The simulation of the metal flow in tube extrusion using

the grid method 97
4.4 Pressure/DisplacementCurves for extrusion using conventional
die and bridge die 104
4.5 Pressure/DisplacementCurves for extrusion using a bridge die
with/without a mandrel 1 105
4.6 Schematicof the effect of temperatureand extrusion ratio
on Pressure/DisplacementCurves for extrusion using
a bridge die with/without a mandrel 106
4.7 The bumps in the Pressure/Displacementextrusion curves 107
4.8 Variation in peak pressureof normal rod with initial billet Temp. 110
4.9 Variation in peak pressureof BR rod with initial billet Temp. 110
4.10 Variation in peak pressureof tube with initial billet Temp. ill
4.11 Variation in the peak pressurewith InR (original extrusion ratio) 114
4.12 Variation in the peak pressurewith InRm (modified extrusion ratio) 114
4.13 Variation in the peak pressurewith InRm of tube extrusion 115
4.14 Predicted pressurefrom modified generalpressureequation
Vs experimental peak pressurefor BR rod and tube extrusions 117
4.15 Variation in the maximum pressure(Pb) with initial billet Temp. 119
4.16 Variation in the maximum pressure(Pw) with extrusion Temp. 119
4.17 Predicted pressurefrom three-stepsextrusion method Vs
experimental peak pressurefor BR rod extrusions 121
4.18 Predicted pressurefrom three-stepsextrusion method Vs
experimental peak pressurefor tube extrusions 121
5.1 A schematicof recrystallised grain size as a function of
position and extrusion temperature 137
5.2 The regions of BR rod extrudate usedin the investigation 138
5.3 A schematicof recrystallised grain size as a function of T,
R and position for as extruded BR rod 147
5.4 The weld areasand the non weld areasused in the investigation 149
6.1 Effect of extrusion temperatureon the strengthof AA6063 178
6.2 A comparison of as extruded tensile strengthbetween normal
rod and BR rod at constant extrusion ratio of 30: 1 178
6.3 A comparison of heat treatedtensile strengthbetweennormal
rod and BR rod at constant extrusion ratio of 30: 1 182
 11

6.4 Tensilestrengthof theasextrudedBR specimensasa

functionof extrusionratio 184

6.5 Tensile strengthof the heat treatedBR specimensas a

function of extrusion ratio 186
6.6 Effect of extrusion temperatureand extrusion ratio on the
ulimate,tensile strengthof the BR extrudates 186
6.7 A comparison of the transverestrength of the normal flat
extrudatesand extrudateswith a weld (R=15: 1) 187
6.8 A specimenbending in fracture toughnesstest 192
6.9 Variation in apparenttoughnesswith extrusion temperature 192
6.10 Hardnessof the NR extrudate as a function of extrusion temp. 194
6.11 Hardnessof the BR extrudate as a function of extrusion temp. 195
6.12 A comparison of the hardnessin the T6 condition between the
non-weld regions and the weld regions of BR rod extrudates,
as a function of extrusion temperature 196
6.13 Variation of the hardnessacrossthe weld (as extruded) 198
6.14 Hardnessof the as extruded tubes as a function of extrusion temp. 198
6.15 Hardnessof the as extruded tubes as a function of extrusion ratio 199
6.16 Hardnessin the non weld region of heat treated (T6) tubes as
a function of extrusion ratio 201
6.17 Hardnessin the weld region of heat treated(T6) tubes as a function
of extrusion ratio 201
 12

1UST OF IPUIAITIES
Page Number

3.1 ne layout of the 5 MN extrusion press 73

3.2 A bridge die and mandrel as used in this study 74
4.1 The metal flow, in BR rod extrudates,varying extrusion ratio
from 20: 1,30: 1 and 40: 1 (T=450 OC,ramspeed=3mnVs) 99
4.2 The metal flow, in tube extrudatesusing a bridge die with on
8 mm mandrel, and varying die orifice diameters , 101
4.3 The metal flow, in tube extrudatesusing a bridge die with on
14 mm die orifice diameter, and varying mandrO diameters 102
5.1 Nficrostructureof AA 6063 alloy 126
5.2 Microstructum of as cast AA 6063 alloy (Barker's reagent) 127
5.3 Heat treatedmicrostructure of AA 6063 alloy at 575 'C 129
5.4 Nficrostructureof homogenisedAA 6063 alloy after etching
with Barker's reagent (575 'C 6 hrs, air cooled) 130
5.5 Nficrostructurefrom the surfaceof extrudate to the centre in the
as extruded condition, extrusion ratio 30: 1 (T= 250('C-350'C) 134
5.6 Microstructurr, from the surfaceof extrudateto the centre in the
as extruded condition, extrusion ratio 30: 1 (T= 450'C-550'C) .
135
5.7 Subgrain structure for various extrusion temperatures,using TEM 136
5.8 Transversemacrostructureof extrudate produced using a bridge
die without a mandrel in as extruded condition, extrusion ratio 30: 1 140
5.9 Nficrostructure of BR rod extrudate in as extruded condition,
extrusion ratio 30: 1 141
5.10 Surface microstructure of BR rod extrudate (as extruded) 144
5.11 Microstructure of BR rod extrudate in Ah area (as extruded) 145
5.12 Nficrostructure of BR rod extrudate at weld arta (as extruded) 148
5.13 Transversemicrostructure at outer surfaceof tube extrudate
(I/D=4 mm, O/D= I 6mm, R= 23.4: 1, as extruded condition) 151
5.14 Transversemicrostructure at inner surfaceof tube extrudate
CVD--4mm, O/D=16mm, R= 23.4: 1, as extruded condition) 152
5.15 Transversemicrostructure at mid radius areaof tube extrudate
(I/D=4 mm, O/D=16mm, R= 23.4: 1, as extruded condition), 153
5.16 Effect of extrusion ratio on transversemicrostructure in the weld
region of the tube, produced by varying the mandrel diameter
(O/D = 14 nun, Extrusion temp = 400 'C, as extruded condition) 155
 13

5.17 Effect of extrusion ratio on transversemicrostructure in the non

weld region of the tube, produced by varying the mandrel diameter
(O/D =14 mm, Extrusion temp = 400 *C, as extruded condition) 156
5.18 Effect of extrusion ratio on transversemicrostructure in the weld
region of the tube, produced by varying the die orifice diameter
(I/D =6 nun, Extrusion temp = 450 T, as extruded condition) 158
5.19 Effect of extrusion ratio on transversemicrostructure in the non
weld region of the tube, produced varying the die orifice diameter
(L/D =6 nun, Extrusion temp = 450 T, as extruded condition) 159
5.20 Nficrostructure at mid radiusareaof tubeextrudate
(Temperature= 450 T, R- 30:1, asextrudedcondition) 160
5.21 Longitudinalmicrostructureat mid radiusarea of tubeextrudate 162
5.22 Microstructurefrom the surfaceof extrudateto thecentrein the
heattreated(T 6) condition,R= 30:1 (T= 250'C-350*C) 165
5.23 Microstructurefrom thesurfaceof extrudateto thecentrein the
heattreated(T 6) condition,R= 30:1 (T= 45OT-550T) 166
5.24 NEcrostructure from thesurfaceof extrudateto thecentrein the
heattreated(T 4) condition,T= 2500C(at 525'C,10 hrs - 20 hrs) 167
5.25 Longitudinalmicrostructureof BR rod extrudatein theheat
treated(T 6) condition,extrusionratio 30:1 169
5.26 Transversemacrostructure of BR rod extrudatein the heat
treated(T 6) condition,extrusionratio 30:1 170
5.27 Transversemicrostructures at Nfid radiusin the weld regions
of tubeextrudates(heattreatedin T6 condition) 172
5.28 Transversemicrostructures at Nfld radiusin thenon weld
regions of tube extrudates(heat treated in T6 condition) 173
6.1 Fractrographs of thetensilespecimens in asextrudedcondition 180
6.2 Fractrographs of theheattreatedtensilespecimens 183
6.3 Macrostructure of thetubespecimens after "drift" testing 190
7.1 The opticalmicrostructures of ascastandhomogenised
AA6082 alloy (aspolished) 207
7.2 The homogenised microstructures beforeextrusion
(usingTEM) andopticalmicroscopyof theAA 6082extrudates. 209
7.3 The extrudedmicrostructures usingTEM 210
7.4 Subgrainsor cellswith high andlow boundaryangles 211
 14

ILUSIr GIF TAIBILIES

Page Number
2.1 Products from various Aluminium magnesium silicon alloys 19
2.2 Chemical composition limits of AA 6063 21
2.3 Typical mechanicalpropertiesof AA 6063 21
2.4 Chemical composition limits of AA 6082 22
2.5 Effect of alloying elementson the processingand property
characteristics 32
2.6 Al-Mg-Si invariant points of the liquidus and solidus surfaces 33
2.7 Diffusivity of some elementsin aluminium at 475 'C 37
2.8 Eccentricity study Pierced Vs Drilled billets 51
2.9 The pressurerequired for the various types of hollow die 54
3.1 The chemical compositions of the aluminium alloys 71
3.2 The M92Si and excessSi contents 71
3.3 The tube extrusion conditions used in this work 76
4.1 Modified extrusion ratio values in BR rod and tube extrusion 89
4.2 Total strain rate values calculatedusing Feltham approach 92
4.3 Variation of increment in pressure(Alý) in tube extrusions 108
4.4 Extrusion constantsof P= CTD for normal rod extrusions 109
4.5 Extrusion constantsof P= C]ýDfor BR rod extrusions III
4.6 Extrusion constantsof P= CTD for tube extrusions Ill
4.7 Extrusion constantsof P=A+BlnR for normal rod extrusions 112
4.8 Extrusion constantsfor tube extrusions using original R. 115
4.9 Extrusion constantsin general pressureequation 4.30 120
6.1 Effect of the extrusion temperatureand ratio on the microstructure 185
6.2 Results of the drift test on tubes (Room temperature) 189
7.1 The peak extrusion pressureof AA 6082 for different
homogenisationtemperatures 212
 15

ChaplaT I

Hnvodaclaon
 16

Introduction

Pipes and Tubes have beenproducedby severaldeformation processessince the

late Eighteenth century. A popular and convenient process, often used to provide a
good final surfacefinish with strict geometrictolerances,is extrusion.

The earliest extrusion method (1-3)for producing pipes from molten Lead was
invented by Joseph Bramah in 1797. Later in 1820 Thomas Bum introduced a pipe

extrusion process operated by hydraulic power. However, at that time, a great

difficulty encounteredwas maintaining a uniform pipe wall thickness. This was due to
the long mandrel bar becoming displaced from the centre of the die. Therefore a
modified extrusion press;made by J and C Hanson in 1837, consisting of a bridge die
with a short rod mandrel instead of the long mandrel, was developed. Subsequent
developments in producing extrusion pipes included the use of a hollow lead billet
instead of molten lead (in 1863), a gas-heatedcontainer (By Hamon in 1867) and an
indirect extrusion press(By Haines and Werms in 1870).

In 1894 Alexander Dick improved the pressesand tooling so that they were
rigid enough for somewhat harder metals, e.g. brassesand other copper alloys. In
1897 he also produced the first patented bridge die with six inlets for aluminium
extrusion (N.99405). This design was not capableof withstanding the high mechanical
and thermal stresses. T'his type of die also created several problems, such as the
excessivetime required for cleaning out the billet discard after each extrusion and the
larger discard produceddue to the bridge pulling off the bridge plate. It was, therefore,
eventually abandoned. Later, with advancesin fabrication technology, spider dies and
porthole dies were introduced,with the great success,for production of hollow shapes

Nowadays almost all castmetalscan be successfullyextrudedin various shapes

from a simple rod to a complex hollow section. In addition to manufacturing the
products in a single operation, the extrusion processpermits strict dimensional control
and good surfacefinish.
 17

Although therearemany successfulextrusionprocessesfor tube productionin

use today, little has beenpublished about the extrudate structuresand mechanical
properties. In the production of tube extrusions weld lines are produced in the
extrudate,which affect the mechanicalproperties.It wasthereforedecidedto studythe
metallurgicalaspectsof theextrusionwith regardto theuseof bridgediesutilising short
rod mandrels (i. e. spider dies). In addition to the metallurgical aspects, another
interesting factor important in extrusion processes, and one that has also been
investigated in this project, is the pressurerequirement for extrusion.

Aluminium - Magnesium - Silicon alloys, designatedby the Aluminium

Association as AA6xxx series,are the most commonly usedin extrusion industries.
Within this series there are a number of alloys which range widely in composition,

properties and applications. In the applications of 6xxx alloys, for example, the 6101
type is used for electrical conductors becausethis type has the best combination of
electrical conductivity and mechanical properties (with a conductivity of 55 % IACS).
The 6063 alloy is suitable for intricate extruded sections of low to medium strength for
architectural members such as glazing bars and window frames. The 6082 alloy
(moderate to high excessSi level) is used for structural purposes, having both medium
strength and generally good corrosion resistance.

In this study the tubes were produced from semi continuous as-cast billets of
heat treatable alloys, with particular attention paid to AA6063. This alloy is widely

used commercially becauseit provides an excellent combination of extrudability (fast

speed,high extrusion ratio), strength, corrosion resistance and good surface finish. As
a result of good extrudability, this alloy has a 'large window' in terms of its extrusion
limit diagram. (4) Therefore it is suitable for investigating the effects of extrusion
temperaturesand extrusion ratios on microstructure without occurrence of the incipient
meldngdefea
 18

ChapteT 2

LtrThrr i1w
 19

Littraturt rtview

2.1 Aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys

Development of the AI-Mg-Si quasi binary system was initiated in 1918.
Between 1927 and 1929 these alloys were developed for commercial (5) in both
use
castings (AA 336.0) and wrought products (AA 6151). They were designated

respectively as the AA 3xx series and the AA 6xxx series in the Aluminium
Association system. The main characteristic of the AI-Mg-Si wrought alloy system is
the response to heat treatment, i. e. by solution soaking, quenching, and subsequent

ageing,the strengthandhardnessincreaseconsiderably.
In this systemthe elementssuchasMg andSi havesufficient solid solubility to
serveasmajor alloying additions. Howeverotherelementswith solubility lower than
1 atomic% still improveto thealloy properties.(seein section2.2)

2.1.1 6xxx series

Nowadays 6xxx series alloys are available in a wide variety of products shown
in table 2.1. (6)

Sheet 6009 6010 6951 6061

Plate 6951 6061
Drawntubing 6101 6951 6053 6061 6262 6063
Extrudedtubeandpipe 6101 6053 6061 6262 6066 6070
Extrudedshapes 6006 6101 6105 6351 60536061
6262 6063 6463 6066 6071
Rolled shapes 6101 6061
WIM 6201 6151 6951 6053 6061 6262
Rod 6101 6201 6951 6053 6061 6262
6066
Rivets 6151 6053 6061
Forgings 6101 6151 6053 6061 6066
Impacts 6151 6053 6061 6063 6043
1

Table 2.1 Products from various Aluminium magnesium silicon alloys

 20

From the table above it can be seen that 6xxx series alloys are widely used in

extruded shapes, tube and pipe because of their suitable qualities ; high extrudability
(fast extrusion speed), medium strength, good corrosion resistance, good formability,

good welding characteristics, good surface finish and good hollow section weld
integrity. (7)

In thesealuminium magnesiumsilicide alloys, a rangeof tensile propertiesis

available from a yield strength
of 48 MPa typical for AA 6063 (annealed
temper),used
for architecturalapplications,to 395 MPa for AA 6063T6 (Temper)in medium-high
strengthstructuralapplications. The main sourceof strengthcomesfrom the major
alloying elementsin thesealloys, magnesiumand silicon, which in the heat treated
agedconditionform the intermetalliccompound,magnesiumsilicide (Mg2Si)which is
an effectivehardeningprecipitate.

The earliest alloy in this AlMgSi family is AA 6151, produced in 1927. It

contained 0.9% Silicon 0.6% Magnesium, and thus it achieved medium strength in

the T6 condition (about 295 MPa in yield strength). However, the most popular
extrusion alloy in this family is AA6063, produced for architectural and structural
applications in which low strength levels are required.

2.1.2. AA 6063

The AA 6063 extruded products combine excellent corrosion resistance and

surface finish with good mechanical properties. The typical mechanical properties and
limits AA 6063 in 2.2 2.3 (8.9)
chemical composition of are given tables and

From table 2.2, the composition limits of AA 6063 are fairly wide, particularly
in terms of Magnesium and silicon. As a result, a spectrum of mechanical properties
and extrudability can be developed by varying magnesium silicide content, for
examples, 0.7 wt% M92Si for high extrudability, 0.8 Wt% M92Si for general
purpose and 1.0 wt% Mg2Si for medium strength applications.
 21

Alloying element Composition limits(% by weight)

Si 0.2-0.6
Fe 0.35 max
cu 0.10 max
Mn 0.10 max
Mg 0.45-0.90
Cr 0.10 max
Zn 0.10 max
Ti 0.10 max
Others 0.15 max
Al bal

Table2.2 Chemicalcompositionlimits of AA 6063

Tensile Yield
Temper strength strength Elongation Hardness
MPa MPa % kg/MM2
0 90 48 25
T1 152 90 20 42
T4 172 90 22 ---
T5 186 145 12 60
T6 241 ý14 12 73

Table2.3Typical mechanicalpropertiesof AA 6063.

2.1.3. AA 6082

Table 2.4 shows the typical composition limits of AA 6082 which have a higher
quantity of Mg and Si therefore higher % M92SL Thus this alloy is normally used for
high strength applications such as in the body structure of the double decker TGV high
speed train. In this study the AA6082 alloy was investigated in term of the effect of
the two hornogenisationtemperatureson the microstructure. (seechapter 7)
 22

Alloying element Composition limits(% by weiLht)

Si 0.7-1.3
Fe 0.50 max
cu 0.10 max
Mn 0.4-1.0
Mg 0.6-1.2
1
Cr 0.25 max
Zn 0.20 max
Ti 0.10 max
Others 0.15 max
Al bal

Table 2.4 Chemical composition limits of AA 6082

2.2 Effect of alloying elements

In the AA 6xxx group the effects of alloying elements are important on both
mechanical and physical properties. These properties also depend on the type of
fabrication and heat treatment. The effects of major alloying elements ( Mg Si ) and
,
minor alloying elements, such as copper, manganese,chromium, zirconium, etc.,
together with the most important impurity (Fe) are discussedin the following sections.

2.2.1 Magnesium Silicide (Mg2Si)-

In previous research(lo) it was found that the addition of as little as 0.1 % of

silicon to binary alloys of aluminium and magnesium, or 0.1 % of magnesium to

binary alloys of aluminium and silicon, is sufficient to causeM92Si to appear.

Generally, magnesiumsilicide can be formed by combining magnesiumand

silicon in the approximateweightratio of 1.73:1 (or Si content= 58 % of Mg content).
The chemicalreactionis 2 atomsof magnesiumcombiningwith I atom of silicon to
form I moleculeof magnesiumsilicide.
 23

2Mg + Si ------ ý' mg2si

The weights of Mg, Si atoms and Mg2Si molecule are:

Mg --24.305
si --28.085
M92Si = 76.695

In a balancedratio of magnesiumand silicon, thesealuminium - magnesium

silicide alloysbehaveasquasi-binaryalloys.(figur-e2.1a) The maximumsolubility of
M92Si is 1.85 % at 595 OC(11)and this falls with decreasingtemperature,e.g. 1.08
% at 500 OC and 0.09 % at 200 OC. Figure 2.1 (b) showsthe solubility of Mg2Si in
aluminium. This feature makes the alloys heat treatable and improves their strength
during ageing treatment. This treatment will be discussedin section 2.6.

The tensile properties (12,13)can be improved by increasing the M92Si content, as

shown in figure 2.2(14) and figure 2.3 but this is accompanied by a decrease in the
"extrudability"(a decrease in maximum extrusion temperature)(12,14-16), and a sharp

of bendability and toughness (17) (figure 2.4 ). Barry and Hains show that
reduction ,
with further increases in M92Si (>1.0%), the quench sensitivity and deformation
(11) increase.
pressure

The coarse M92Si particles produced under the casting conditions prior to

extrusion cause tearing during extrusion initiated at the undissolved coarse M92Si
particles due to the non-equilibrium eutectic melting in the matrix adjacent to the
particles. This leads to a reduction in extrudability(extrusion speed). The mechanism
investigated by (16,18)
of tearing was several researchers.

To obtain fine and uniformly distributed particles, good control of the casting
(19)and homogenisation (11,19,20)
is
processes required, together with a rapid cooling
(16) The rapid cooling, which may
rate and rapid preheating to extrusion temperature.
be achieved through water quenching of billets after homogenisation, will increasethe

nucleation rate of phases but reduce the size of particles. Another method for
controlling precipitates is (11.17) Cu, Cr
using minor alloying elements , such as
 24

700 1300
oc L
Of?
6600
650
M28i+ L
'71200
ýx
600
=11100

1000

+ M92Si ý
goo

Soo
40011 -IL
48 12 6
Al
96 Megnesium silicide

Figure 2.1 (a) Phase diagram of AI'M92S i(21)

Melt
700
I. -N
u

Q- 600 Solidus
R Al solid
V,
0 Boo solution
I SOWS
400

300
Al Solid Solution

200 1ý492S'

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

% MC?si
Figure 2.1(b) Solubility Of M92Si in AluminiUM(4,11)
 25

and Mn, which refine the M92Si precipitateby providing nucleationsitesfor Mg2Si
during artificial ageing.

From the TTT diagram (13)of Al-Mg-Si alloy, it can be seenthat precipitation of
M92Si occurs most rapidly in the temperaturerange 316-427 IC (600-800 IF) and the
time required to start the precipitation ranges from 7-70 seconds (depending on the
alloy composition). For AA6063 the time required to initiate M92Si precipitation is
about 30 seconds. (see figure 2.5) As a result, in the case of the press quenching
(11,22)
(i. e. with no solution treatment), when the preheating to extrusion
method
temperatureor the quenchingfrom extrusiontemperatureis not rapid enough,coarse
Mg2Si particleswill form leadingto low hardnessand strength(19)after subsequent
artificial ageing,togetherwith increasedpick up on theextrudatesurface.

40 -- 270
36 - 0
.0
t: 230
32 - .,ý

28 -. 190
f
o 0 2"M eM Strtugtl
24 -AA 6063TSMa. . r-
V3 20 U.T.S. - 150 con
-
IAA 6063 TS Mix. Yi*14 " 0
AA 6063 Mm
16 - 110 2
11CSi Pro-post4NY6063 -

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

96 Magnesium silicide (Mg2Si)

Figure 2.2 Tensile strength properties of the architectural AI-Mg-Si ext

(as
alloYS(15) a function of %Magnesium silicide )
 26

Rm (N/mm3
400 r-

M92S' + 0.3 % Si
300-

M92S'+ 0* 1
200 -

'44 M92S'
100 -

00
0.5 1.0 1.5
0/0mg
ýi
Figure 2.3 Tensile strength R, as a function of the M92Si Content
Si excess.(14)(all samples water -quenched, held at room
with and without
temperature for 24 hrs then at 160 OC for 16 hrs)

r (x uu
K] (J/cm
5

- 50

Excess Si =0.08%
0. 80
,9L OON 92si

Figure 2.4 Effect Of M92Si content on bending radius, and Charpy V

(17)
notch toughness
 27

,j400
90% of T6 YS

1.300
W

200

100
1 10 100 1000

Time of isothermal hold sec

Figure 2.5 The TTT diagram developed for AA6063 alloy.

(isothermal transformation diagram(13)): maximum quenchedand aged

yield strength 178 MPa. Iso-yield curve is 90% of T6 yield strength

2.2.2 Silicon (Si)

An excess of silicon increases the mechanical strength (12.17,19,23-25)

due to the

presence of silicon particles and a refinement in Mg2Si precipitate size. This also
increases notch sensitivity(12) and decreases toughnes S(7,12),extrudability (12,19.24)
ductility. (23) Loss
and of ductility occurs because of an intergranular fracture mode
which is due to the Mg2Si and Si being deposited on the grain boundaries.

The presenceof iron, manganeseand chromium can result in some of the silicon
being'tied up'in AlMnSi, AlCrSi and AlFeMnCrSi phases(23,24) which means some
Si beingunavailablefor Mg2Siprecipitation.nus the silicon availablefor magnesium
silicide, accordingto Traenkner(24),
is equalto %Si-1/4(%Fe+%Mn).

The influence of Si content upon the maximum extrusion speed (V max ) is

(16)
reported by Reiso .
Increasing the content by 0.01 wt % Si in alloys with constant
Mg content will decreasethe maximum extrusion speedby 0.4 m/min.
 28

Corrosionresistance(7)is reducedin excesssilicon alloys dueto higherratesof

pitting penetration. 71beexcesssilicon causesa slight increasein quenchsensitivity
(14)andan increasedtendencyfor intergranularcorrosiondue to producinga depleted

zoneat thegrainboundariesanodicto thematrix.

2.2.3 Magnesium (Mg).

An excess of magnesium over that required for Mg2Si precipitation is much

(16,19)
more harmful to the extrudability than a similar excess of silicon and sharply
the M92Si (24). It has a smaller strengthening
reduces the solid solubility of compound
(7,13,24,26,27)
than silicon. In alloys containing more than 1% Mg2Si, excess
effect
Mg causesa reductionin strength.

The excess magnesium necessitates a reduced extrusion speed when the

magnesium content is more than 0.55% because of a change in the mechanism of tear
initiation. (16) For example (28) if the Mg content does not exceed about 0.55% by
,
weight, high exit speeds from the die orifice of over 40 m/rnin are usually possible. In

the temperatures of these alloys (420-500 OC) have a wider range

addition extrusion
than those of the higher Mg content alloys (430-440 OC).

High conductivity (63 % IACS) can be obtained with an excess of magnesium

and annealing treatments to precipitate all the M92Si, but mechanical properties are
(29)
poor.

Reduction(15,30)
in Magnesiumcontentbelow the minimum Mg level (0.45%)
in a balancedalloy will permit higher extrudability (fasterextrusionspeed),and still
give goodmechanical propertiesin the AA6063-T5 condition (cooledfrom extrusion
temperatureandartificially aged). Thus this materialis suitablefor thin wall intricate
extrusionsnot requiring high strength. However the magnesium content should be
kept to at least0.35% in order to achieveadequateproperties,especiallyin strength,
via Mg2Siprecipitation.
 29

2.2.4 Iron

Iron in the AA 6xxx series is reported to be a controlled major impurity (13,15)

It turns this AA 6xxx group into a quaternary alloy of the Al-Fe-Mg-Si system.(30)

The presenceof iron formation Al-Fe-Si (24)

permits the of precipitates , such as
and P Al5FeSi which result in a decreasein the amount Of M92Si
FeA13,a A115Fe3Si2

precipitate. Ibus the strength of the alloy decreases. For example, increasing the iron

content from 0.10% to 0.30% is equivalent to a 0.05% Si loss which can result in a
14 MPa -21 MPa loss in the tensile strength. However, particularly in unbalanced
(excessSi) alloys, the iron is expected to have a grain refining effect and to refine the
M92Si precipitate (23) in an increase in the strength of the aged alloy. The
resulting
chemical formula of the o; AlFeSi and the P AlFeSi are A115Fe3Si2, Al5FeSi

respectively. Note that the a phasecan have either a hexagonal crystal structure, if no
Mn is present, or a cubic structure if Mn or Cr are present.

low iron (30),

In the as cast structure, if there is a very content e.g. 6463 alloy,
normal grain growth and secondary recrystallisation can occur because the grain
boundaries are not pinned. They can occur rapidly and are especially localised in

zones around the periphery of the ingot. This is due to a lower amount of iron

particles in the periphery of the ingot.

The coarse intermetallic phase in the as cast structure, P AlFeSi which has a
structure (4.22) causesmany more problems in the extrusion in terms of
monoclinic ,
both final properties and surface finish than does the more equiaxed ocAlFeSi phase.
Tberefore this P iron phase must be transformed to the equiaxed phase by using a
This improves (31)
suitable homogenisation treatment. the alloy extrudability.

Heavierpick up andinferior quality in surfacefinish occurwith increasein iron

(22)
content. The bestiron contentis of the orderof 0.15%- 0.20%;lower iron leads
to coarsegrainsandthis causesdeterioration of reflectivity andsurfaceappearance.(32)
 30

2.2.5 Copper(Cu)

Sperry (30)reported that addition of copper in amounts up to about 0.4% had no

microstructural effect but at levels greater than 1%, copper containing phases may
appear.

Copper improves the strength M23.33)

(12,14,15,
of the alloy due to solid Solution
strengthening and provides M92Si precipitate nucleation sites during ageing. In this

way it refines the M92Si strengthening phases.

In balancedalloys (7,12)small amountsof copperhaveno detrimentaleffect on

,
corrosionresistance.However,an addition of copperto the unbalanced(excessSi)
alloys reducesthe corrosion resistance,particularly under severeconditions.

2.2.6 Manganese(Mn), Chromium (Cr) and Zirconium (Zr).

For Al-Mg-Si alloys such as AA6063, the addition of these elements is generally
improving fracture (7,11,12,34)
by the formation
accepted as toughness allowing of very
fine, stable, complex precipitates within the matrix. These not only retard grain
during ingot (9) but control grain structure also. Nevertheless they
growth preheating
increase quench sensitivity (7,11,13,14,15,24)
by increasing the amount of microscopic

insoluble compounds which act as preferential nucleation sites for precipitation of

M92Si (35,36,37).
This also improves the uniformity of the M92Si phase distribution.

As reported by Lamb (38)and Zajac (39,40), the addition of small amounts of

manganese greatly accelerates the homogenising process by increasing the

transformation reaction of the brittle platelike P Al-Fe-Si phase to the more rounded a

Al-Fe-Si phaserapidly. Ibis results in superior hot formability and ductility.

Manganesealso improves the resistance,in excesssilicon alloys, to intergranular

fracture and the ductile fracture toughness(23)by either binding free silicon in order to

prevent it from precipitating at grain boundariesor absorbing iron into (FeMn)3Si2AII5

thus reducing the potential difference between compounds and matrix(4 1).
Furthermore, the addition of Mn is preferred over Cr becauseit is far less detrimental
 31

to extrusionspeedandsurfacefinish althoughit is more harmful to quenchsensitivity

accordingto A. Maitland (14).However,in thecaseof quenchsensitivitythe effect is
unclear because Arai, Otsuka andTsukuda (35)
havereportedthat the additionof Cr is
moreharmfulto quenchsensitivitythanMn.

Increasing the Mn and Cr beyond that required for adequate toughness will
further decreaseextrudability and induce a coarsegrain problem when recrystallisation
occurs.

Mn, Cr Zr be inhibitors (14,42)

because
and are considered to recrystallisation
their fine intermetallic particles are capableof pinning grain boundaries.Ibis also leads
to the reduction in intergranular fracture(43)
due to reduced stressconcentration at the

grain boundaries. However, when recrystallisation occurs in Mn or Or containing

forms (44)that leads to very low
alloys, it usually a coarse recrystallised structure
strength, especially in thinner sections. Cr is more effective in preventing
recrystallisation than Mn. Moreover, Cr increases the yield strength and corrosion
(45)
resistance.

2.2.7. Other additional elements

Lead (Pb) (45)and Bismuth containing AlMgSi alloys (AA6262) have improved

machining characteristics.

Vanadium (V) causesthe extrudate to recrystallise with a fine grain size (about
30-150 grains /mm2) and leads to improved strength, toughness and formability but
hasan extremelydetrimentaleffecton conductivity.

is
Zinc (Zn) presentas an impurity.(13)However, if (42)
this element is present
in the solid solution throughoutprocessing,it results in dynamic recrystallisation
during hot working due to the significant reduction in the stacking fault energy
comparedwith thatof pure aluminium. Ile additionof 0.05%or moreof this element
deteriorationin the appearanceof theanodisedproductsof AA6063 alloy.(46)
causes

Titanium (Ti) (13,24.30)

is added to control the grain sie in cast structure.
 32

Boron (B) (13,24)

combineswith titanium and Vanadium to form borides,e.g.
Titanium diboride which is a castgain refiner. Howeverit reducesthe conductivity.
In Al-Mg-Si alloy with high contentof Mg and Si(47).increasingthe boron beyond
thatrequiredfor refining the grainsizeallowsan increasein extrusionspeeds.

Phosphorus, Sulphur, Tellurium, Iodine Ferric (48)

or chloride are added to
spheroidise Mg2Si.

Strontium (Sr) (49)promotesthe 0 AI-Fe-Si to ccAI-Fe-Si transformation.This

is achievedby the additionof aslow as0.015weight % strontium. It is alsousedasa
grainrefiner insteadof titaniumandprovidesthe betterconductivitythan that found in
the alloys with the titaniumaddition. Thusit is usefulin alloys intendedfor electrical
conductorapplications.

Heathcock(36)reportedthe influenceof the principal alloying elementsin 6xxx

seriesalloys (Mg, Si, Fe, Cu, Mn, Cr andZn) on the propertiesandextrudedsections
in a simpleway. 'Ibis is shownin Table2.5 below

ARoying Quench DuctiEtyand

Elements Extrudability Sensitivity_ Strength Toughness
mg(mg2si) TT TT I
ExcessSi T TT 11 (4)

Mn T (2) TT

Cr T (2) TT

zr T (2) T

Fe (3) (3) T

Cu. (3) 11 TT (3)

_j
Table 2.5 Effect of alloying elements on the processing and property
characteristics.
Note (1) For constant Mg contents.
(2) No adverseeffectsor little changeprovidingquenchrateis high.
(3) Negligibleor no adverseeffects.
(4) In the absenceof Mn, Cr andZr additions.
 33

2.3 Phase transformations in Al-Mg-Si Alloys

The equilibrium phase diagram of the Al-Mg-Si system is a pseudo-binary Al-

M92Si at magnesium to silicon ratios of 1.73 to I (wt%). The two constituents form a
0 (45) By dividing the Al-Mg-Si system along the pseudo-binary line,
eutectic at 595 C.
the system can be consideredas two simple ternary eutectic systems:

I Al-Mg2AI3-Mg2Sisystem

2 Al-Si-M92Si SYSteM

The solid solubility Of M92ýi in aluminium is reduced slightly by excess silicon

but much more by excessmagnesium. The eutectic temperaturesand weight % of Mg

and Si are given in table 2.6

Compositionof participating
Description Solid phases Temp liquid Al-rich solid
present OC
I ] I
Mg% Si% MR% Si%
ý
Quasibinary AIMg2Si 595 8.15 4.75 1.13 0.67
eutectic
Ternary AI, Mg2Si,Si 555 4.97 12.95 0.85 1.10
eutectic
Temary AlsMg2Siv 451 33.2 0.37 15.3 0.10
eutectic 1Mg-2A13 I I

Table 2.6 AI-Mg-Si invariant points of the liquidus and solidus surfaces. (45)

The major alloy consideredin the AI-Mg-Si alloy systemis the balancedalloy
(AA 6063) where Mg2Si combineswith Al as a pseudo-binarysystem, shown in
Figure 2.1.
 34

From the equilibrium diagram the phasetransformation shown of supersaturated

solid solution --- >a Al + M92Si (precipitate ) is of great commercial interest
becauseMg2Si precipitation is an important factor in the strength and extrudability of
this heat treatable alloy. The single phase solid solution exists above the solvus line
and then M92Si precipitates with decreasing temperature. The driving force for
precipitation increases with the degree of supersaturation and, consequently, with
decreasing temperature. The M92Si precipitation sequence in this alloy has been
(4,21,50)
as:
reported

Needleshapedzones --> Needleshapedzones --> P'rod -> P (Mg2Si)

along <100> Al <100>with internalorder <1 10> Equilibrium

The fine needleshapedzonesare formed at around200 0C with short ageing

times. Their dimensionsare approximately6 nm(60 Angstroms)in diameterand20-
100rim.(200 to 1000Angstroms)in length.

The 0'rods (4)are consideredto have a hexagonalstructure(a = 0.705 ± 0.05

nm., c---0.405±0.005 nm. ) and form in the cubedirection. The equilibrium 0 (Mg2Si)
(51);
crystallises to form the anti- fluoritic structure the silicon atoms occupy the
fluorine sites,giving a simple facecenteredcubic system,while the cubecentersare
occupied by the magnesium atoms (Figure 2.6). This 0 forms as plateletsthereby
giving a lattice (a
parameter = 0.6338 nm. -O.6351 nm.) and density (p =1.988g/cm3).

The equilibrium precipitates can be Partially coherent with the matrix and

produce hardening in the latter by partial coherency stressing. The Mg2Si precipitation
is controlled by using a suitable homogenisation treatment, solution soak, cooling rate
(after homogenisationand after extrusion ) and artificial ageing treatment.

In a typical plant operation, if improper homogenisation and cooling conditions

are used, e.g. too short a time for homogenisation, P' rods are produced. However

these Prods still dissolve more readily than equilibrium P during billet preheating and
subsequentextrusion at 450 0C to 480'D C.
 35

*Mg, o Si

Figure '2.6 ' Anti-fluoritic crystal structure Of M92S i

intermetallic compound

Another interesting series of phasetransformationsoccurs in the Al-Fe-Si

system (30,52)
which produce a number of intermetallic phases,such as FeA13,CC
AlFeSi and P AlFeSi. When the temperaturedecreasesfrom the liquid phase,under
real solidification conditions,diffusion dependentperitecticswill be suppressedand
the remainingliquid phasewill proceedto thenext availableeutecticreaction. Thusa
might be asfollows:
solidificationsequence

Ist -- Primary aluminium dendrite at 652 IC

2nd--- L -> Al + FeA13
3rd--- L+ FeA13 --> Al +a AlFeSi (suppressed)
4th --- L --> Al +a AlFeSi
5th--- L+a AlFeSi -> Al +P AlFeSi(suppressed)
6th--- L Al + AlFeSi
7th --- L Al + AlFeSi + Si

In recent years(45)metastablephasessuch as FeA16have beenfound in 6xxx

seriesalloys underrapid solidificationconditions.
 36

2.4 Homogenisation

The major objectives of homogenisation(53,54)

for the AI-Mg-Si alloy (AA 6xxx

series) are as follows:

1. To improve extrudability and surfacefinish

2. To improve mechanical properties of the extrudates

The hornogenisation treatment, often termed soaking or preheating, is usually a

first step in the post-casting processing. In this process the billet is raised to a

sufficiently high temperature in a suitable period to achieve complete, or near

complete, solution of the soluble constituents (Mg2Si in 6xxx Al alloys) and to
distribute them uniformly throughout (equilibration). Therefore there is a reduction of

microsegregation and coring which appearswith rapid solidification in the DC casting.

That reduction depends on homogenisation time and temperature which can be
(55)
determined from the solid solubility and diffusion rate of alloying elements
Consider Fick 's First Law of Diffusion, as shown below in equation (2.4.1 and
2.4.2).

sc
R= Dx 2.4.1
5x

and,
Dx = Do. exp (-Q) 2.4.2
R.T
where,

Jx flux of speciesx 2
(kg.mol/m S)
Dx diffusivity of species x (M2/S)

diffusion coefficient of species x 2

(M /S)
Do
Q activation energy for diffusion (J/mole)

R universal gas constant (8.314 J/rnole K)

T temperature (K)
5C
concentration gradient (kg. mol/M4)
8x
 37

From equations2.4.1 and 2.4.2, it can be seenthat high diffusivity valuesgive

rise to greaterratesof diffusion, and hence,greaterrates of homogenisation. The
for in
diffusivity values someelements aluminiumare shown table in 2.7 (56)below.

Elerrrnt Do (m/s) Q (kJ/mole) Dx(m2/s) at 475 IC

Mg 0.11.10-3 117.2 7.2.10-13

si 0.90.10-4 125.6 1.5.10-13
Fe 0.41.10-14 58.6 3.3.10-19
Mn 0.22.10-4 121.4 7.3.10-14
Cu 0.29.10-4 125.6 4.9.10-14
Cr 3.00.10-11 62.8 1.2.10-15
zn 0.11.10-4 83.7 1.6.10-11
Zr 7.28.10-2 240.8 1.1.10-11

Table 2.7 Diffusivity of someelementsin alumHum at 475 OC

From table 2.7, it can be seenthat moderately high diffusivities are exhibited by
the elements magnesium, silicon, copper, zinc and manganese for diffusion within
aluminium. Thus these elements can diffuse relatively rapidly, even at lower
temperatures. However, elements such as iron, chromium, titanium and zirconium
posses much lower diffusivity values, and, hence these elements diffuse relatively
slowly. In the case of improper casting conditions the dendrite arm spacing is not
small enough therefore the thermal equilibration, in particular with respect to the iron,
is difficult to accomplish.

In homogenisationthe replacementof existing metastablephasesby stable

phasesmay occur as well, e.g.

FeA13--> (x AlFeSi --> a Al(FeMn)Si

Homogenisation improves (11,24)

in this alloy by transformingthe
extrudability
AlFeSi phase,which existsin the as caststructure,to the (x AlFeSi phasewhich
containsless silicon than the 0 phase. This leadsto an increase,indirectly, in the
 38

amountof Mg2Siprecipitates.The largera AlFeSi phaseparticles,originally present

in the ascastbillet, breakup andspheroidise.

The 0 to cc transformation is complete after homogenisation at 565 OC for 6

hours (11),although Mg2Si dissolution in AA 6063 alloy progressesrapidly when the
temperature exceedsthe solvus temperatureof 463 ()C and complete dissolution in the
matrix occurs within 2 hours. Thus, homogenising time and temperature are
deter-minedby the iron phasetransformation rather than by dissolution of the M92SL

In addition to the homogenisation conditions required, the cooling rate (19.57)

M92Si (22,58) by using a
after homogenisation affects the sizes Of precipitates , e.g.
slow cooling rate, coarse precipitates Of M92Si form, in particular if the ingot is held
too long in the temperature range 316-417 OC(13) These precipitates are difficult to
*
completely redissolve on billet reheating. In order to redissolve Mg2Si precipitates the
soaking time before extrusion would have to be extended. A slow cooling rate will
result in poor mechanical properties and also reduced extrudability (reduced speed),
especially when low extrusion temperaturesare used. Thus, if the precipitates are not

small enough to redissolve during hot working processing,the extrudability decreases.

This is due to the precipitate inhibiting dislocation movement.(59,60) However, unless

the specific pressure of the press is a limiting factor, having all the M92S]i in solid
during improve the productivity. (61,62) A slow cooling rate
solution extrusion can
also increases the amount of o; AlFeSi phase due to iron precipitation from solid

solution.

Usually the M92Si phase is precipitated after homogenisation and cooling.

However, rapid cooling produces smaller and more uniformly dispersed M92Si
during preheating and extrusion (11). Thus
precipitates which redissolve more easily
there is no need for solution treatmentto attain full age hardenedmechanical properties
in the extrudate.(63-65)Hence thesealloys are press quenchedin industry.

In addition to the cooling rate effect on microstructure, the cooling rate affects
the productivity. Treankner(24)compared the productivity of the billets that had been
fast air cooled from the hornogenising temperaturewith air/water - cooled billets and
water - quenched billets. He reported that, using the rapid air cooled billets as a
 39

reference,productivity of the air/watercooled billets and the water quenchedbillets

wasimprovedby 44% and71%respectively.

Lynch (66) reported that surface finish is a function of extrudability which

requires a properly homogenisedingot with good internal cleanliness and low chemical
segregation.

2.5 Restoration processes

Generally, a metal will work harden when it is plastically deformed under cold
(67) (e.g. at a temperature less than 0.1 of the melting point
working conditions .
temperature). Most of mechanical energy is converted to heat but a small proportion
remains "stored" within the metal as strain energy associated with various lattice
defects. Therefore the number of dislocations in a metal will be greatly increasedand
the strain energy of the metal will increase. Ibis energy provides the driving force for
the restoration process.

2.5.1 Dynamic Restoration Processes

The effect of work hardening is decreased by dynamic softening processes

which take place simultaneously in hot working (>0.5 Tm). Ilere are two main
dynamic softening mechanisms in hot working processes. The first mechanism is
dynamic recovery and the secondone is dynamic recrystallisation.

In high stacking fault energy metal, dynamic recovery (69.70)operates over the
whole range of hot working conditions and causesthe reduction of the rate of work
hardening in a stress-straincurve at high strain (even room temperature). This process
is pronounced in alurr-ýiniumand its alloys of high stacking fault energy in which
dislocation climb out of their glide plane is rapid. As deformation begins, the flow

stress rises rapidly to a maximum due to the generation and multiplication of

dislocations(68) These dislocations are initially in tangles but soon arrange themselves
.
to form rough cell-like structures. However, thermal activation assiststhe dislocations
to cross slip and climb and either be annihilated dislocations of opposite sign or
rearranged by polygonisation, into well-defined walls. The dislocation annihilation
 40

and movement will operate sufficiently rapidly to balance the strain hardening process.
This causes a reduction in the rate of work hardening. When a steady state stress is

reached the rate of work hardening is in equilibrium with the rate of annihilation
(softening). This permits the metal to be given large strains in hot deformation

processing, such as in hot extrusion, and it renders the strain in metal independent
from the stress in the plastic region. Dynamic recovery causesthe formation of well
developed, low angle boundaries within grains. This is termed a'subgrain structure!.

The secondmechanismis dynamic recrystallisationwhich operatesin metals

with low stackingfault energye.g. nickel and copper. However at small strains,the
limited dynamic recovery occurs, while it is at high strains that dynamic
recrystallisation occurs. These metals exhibit considerable numbers of partial
dislocationsunlike metalswith high stackingfault energy. This inhibits dislocation
climb and thus preventsrecovery. In addition the dislocation density increasesto
higher levels than in materials that dynamically recover. Local differences in
dislocation density eventually cause the nucleation of recrystallisation during
deformation. Recrystallisation leads to the elimination of large numbers of
dislocationsby migation of high angleboundaries.

2.5.2 Static Restoration Processes

UnRe dynamic restoration processeswhich occur under condition of stressand

concurrent straining, static restoration processes occur after hot worldng during a
delay before quenching and/or during a subsequent heat treatment (i. e. annealing).
There are two main static restoration processes. The first process is static recovery
and the secondone is static recrystallisation.

Static recovery involves the annihilation of dislocation within existing grains and
leads to changes in the amount and distribution of dislocations and point defects.
Although these dislocations undergo considerable rearrangement (i. e. formation of
subgrains), the grain structure remains almost unaltered (i. e. no motion of grain
boundaries) and the preferred orientation remains unchanged. Ibis recovery process

may be the only restoration process operating if the strain has not exceeded the so-
called critical strain for recrystallisation. The critical strain for recrystallisation is also
 41

dependentupon temperatureand time. In materials where dislocation climb and

polygonisationare relatively easythe possibility of recrystallisationis reduced. In
metalswith a distribution of large secondphaseparticles(>1 gm) an accelerationof
the nucleation process may occur, thereby enchancing static recrystallisation. In
addition the recovery process can be hindered by solute additions. The solute
additions can retard climb through the binding energies that tie vacancies to solute
atoms. In a similar way solute additions usually permit the dislocations to extend into
partials separatedby a ribbon of stacking fault. Ile extension of dislocations makes
climb and cross-slip more difficult and thus retard recovery.

Static recrystallisation eliminates large numbersof dislocations simultaneously as

a result of the motion of high angled boundaries, from a point of nucleation. Ibis
leads to a new dislocation-free structureinstead of the deformed structure. The crystal

orientation of the deformed material is altered by recrystallisation. However if the

material had a preferred orientation, the recrystallised material is also likely to have
one, usually different but related. The nucleation of recrystallisation occurs by various
mechanisms such as subgrain coalescence(a rotation of subgrains), a grain boundary
bulge mechanism or polygonisation. Once nuclei are formed they grow into the
deformed material by the migration of their boundaries. The driving force for

migration is provided by the differing dislocation densities between the interior of the
nucleus and the surrounding deformed metal. The most heavily deformed regions
containing the greatest dislocation density tend to undergo recrystallisation first. in
primary recrystallisation all recrystallised grain boundaries migrate at roughly equal
grain growth rates, with the result that at any stage the grains are roughly uniform in
size. In secondaryrecrystallisation the boundary migration is restricted to a minority
of boundaries only, so that a few grains grow very large at the expense of their
neighbouring grains. Secondaryrecrystallisation occurs particularly in the periphery
of the extrudates due to the absence of inclusions or precipitates. Thus the grain
boundary without these particles can migrate and produce the abnormal grains. In
Addition a strong preferred orientation increases the opportunity of secondary
recrystallisation to occur due to grain coalescence(72). This mechanism will be
discussedin chapter 5.
 42

2.5.3 Extrusion Nficrostructures

In extrusion processing of metals which experience dynamic recovery, the

structure of the extrudate consists of elongated original grains together with low
orientation subgrains and precipitates which are aligned in the extrusion direction.
However strain and strain -rate variations between the surface and the centre of the
extrudate produce differences in deformation history. The metal near the surface
experiences more deformation than that at the centre becausethe deformation at the
surfaceconsistsof a homogeneous componentanda redundantcomponentwhile the
deformationat the centreis basicallyhomogeneous.Thusthe strainis highernearthe
surface.In contrast,the strain-rate at thecentreis higherthanthat at the surface.The
higher strainsin the surfacelayersmay leadto a higherdislocationdensity,which can
promotestatic recrystallisation. This producesan annulusof recrystallisedgrainsin
the extrudate.

In aluminiurn extrudates,[1111and [100] fibre textures(73)commonlYoccur.

The dominanttextureis the [111] which accountsfor about75% of the grains. This
textureincreasesthe strengthof the extrudatein the longitudinaldirection. However
the strengthis reducedif a recrystallisedsurfaceannulusoccurs.

2.6 Heat treatment of Al-Mg-Si Alloys

The Al-Mg-Si Alloy is one of the heat treatableAl alloys. Therefore the strength
and hardnesswill be improved by using a suitable heat treatment. Generally this heat
treatment consists of a solution treatment (solutionising) and an ageing treatment. In
AA6063 alloy the most common heat treatmentsused,can be classified as below:

1 Annealedtemper(0). The extrudateis heat-treatedat 410 OCfor 3 hrs: and

cooledat 10 OC/hr to 260 OC
2 T1 temper. The extrudate is used for products without heat treatment. Ibis

means the extrudate after exiting from the die is quenched immediately and naturally
aged.
3 T4 temper. Ile extrudate is solutionised at 525 'C for I hour and then water
quenched.
 43

4 T6 temper. This treatmentis similar to the T4 treatmentbut an artificial

ageing(180 OCfor 8 hrs.) is added.

Two static restoration processes,as discussed in section 2.5.2, operate during

heat treatment In the case of the solution treated extrudate, the subgrains in the as

extruded microstructure are no longer retained and form new strain-free crystals, i. e.
recrystallisation nuclei, by subgrain coalescenceor subgrain boundary (71)
migration.
The nucleus then grows out and consumesthe deformed matrix around them until the
deformedstructurecompletely disappears.The recrystallisationprocessoccurs in
orderto changethe unstablestructure(high freeenergy)to a stablestructure(low free
energy) by eliminating the large numbers of defects in the microstructure, i. e.
dislocations. Although static recovery occurs during solutionising, static
recrystallisation is still the dominant process. Another phenomenon,commonly found
in extrudates during solutionising, is recrystallised grain growth. This process is
decreasesthe total surfaceenergy of grain boundariesper unit volume by migration of

grain boundaries. The grain growth process, known as normal grain growth, occurs
extremely slowly and produces a uniform increase in grain size. While abnormal grain
growth or secondary recrystallisation, as stated in section 2.5.2, occurs very fast and
produces some extremely large grains.

The maximum strength of extrudate is achieved by using the T6 treatment. In

order to achieve this, suitable solution treatment and ageing are required. In the
solution treatment stage the Mg2Si precipitates must go into solid solution. This
depends on the size and distribution of the Mg2Si precipitate, the soaking time and
For dispersed Mg2Si (11)
temperature. example, small, well precipitates will dissolve
more rapidly than large, coagulated particles. Then the alloy must be cooled to room
temperature rapidly to avoid M92Si precipitation and to retain Mg and Si in
supersaturatedsolid solution and also to retain excess vacancies which act as
nucleationsitesduring ageing. To eliminatethe labour andenergycostsof a separate
solutiontreatmentstageandfor higherproductivity,this treatmentcan be combinedin
an extrusionprocess, known as pressquenching. (' 1,22)
This requiresdissolutionof
M92Si (22)during reheatingprior to extrusion. The Mg and Si must be retainedin
supersaturatedsolid solution by quenching directly after extrusion.
 44

2.7 Hot working AA6063 alloy

During hot working processes there are generally two stages: I)the initial stage
and 2) the steady-state stage. In the initial stage, the stress rapidly rises to a peak
stress. 11us during this initial stage,the stressdependson the strain and the effect of
work hardening is greater than dynamic softening. However, when the dynamic
softening process is fully established, the steady state stage will be achieved and the
flow stresswill be approximately constant. At this stage large strains can be obtained

with little or no straining hardening. The steady state of the deformation is controlled
by the strain rate and temperature. The subgrain size and shape remain constant
throughout the steady-stateregime. T'his continuous rearrangement of the subgrains
has been called repolygonisation. The size of the subgrainsincreaseswith temperature
be (74)
and decreaseswith increasing strain-rate and can related to the temperature

compensated strain- rate parameter'Z'. The relationship between size of subgrain and
"Z" is given by the equation(75)below:

d7' =a+b In Z 2.7

wherea andb areconstants.

This equation shows that the subgrain sizes, produced over a range of
temperatures and strain rates, depend on Z. Twiss(76) has made a general study of
mean general subgrain diameter, d, during hot working and found that "d" is related to
room temperature mechanical properties, such as yield strength and hardness. The

subgrain boundaries act somewhat like grain boundaries to block the movement of
mobile dislocations and this leads to increased strength levels. The yield strength is

given by an equation of the Hall - Petch form.

Gy = Go +k dn 2.8

Where (Ty represents the yield strength, GOand k are constantsand d is the
mean subgrain diameter and n is the exponential value. (e.g. -1, for Aluminium alloy
2

andferritic alloy)
 45

In extruded products (hot-worked) which experience no subsequentheat

treatment,the strengthdepends on subgrainsize. However the subgrainsize relies
on the extrusiontemperatureand the extrusionratio. The high extrusiontemperature
and low extrusion ratio increase the subgrain size. In addition to the effect of
subgrains, the strength in the as extruded condition also relies on the solution
hardeningafter rapid quenchingandprecipitationhardeningduring naturalageingof
Mg2Si- When the recrystallisationoccurs the recrystallisedgrains are larger than
subgrainsand reduce the strengthof extrudate. The strengthof the recrystallised
is
extrudate attributedto grain boundary by
strengthening therecrystallisedgrains.

However, for heat treated extruclatesthe strengthis attributed mainly to:

1 Solution hardening

The extrudates in the T4 condition (Solution treatment only) are supersaturated

solid solutions (Mg2Si in solid solution). This causeslattice distortion which hinders
dislocation movement.

2 Secondphasehardening (precipitation hardening)

During heat treatment in to the T6 condition(ageing), very fine, coherent,

metastable P'phase particles precipitate out from the solid solution. Because of the
high degreeof coherency maintained by theseprecipitates, they are initially shearable.
As precipitate growth occurs, the particles loose their coherency and form non
coherent precipitates. Both coherent precipitates or noncoherent precipitates, formed
during ageing, increases the strength and hardnessbecausethey act as the barriers to
the dislocation movement. 77he increasein strength is causedby a shearmechanismor
(50)
by the Orowan mechanism.

2.8 Tube extrusion

Tubes are manufactured for fuel transportation, and for structural and

applications
architectural suchas tubular frames. They have someparticularly good
 46

characteristics such as maximum strength in bending, and torsion and good

compressionstrength.

There are many metals which are used to produce tubes such as copper, nickel,

aluminium, steel, etc. This thesis concentrateson AA6063 alloy tubing. Aluminium
tubes are light in weight and they have a better Young 's modulus value per unit
weight than that of steel. For this reason they are used in aircraft. Furthermore,
because of the A1203 surface film, they have a good appearance after anodising
treatmentand are thus suitable for architectural applications.

Up to the present,tubes have been produced by several processesinvolving both

hot working and cold working. Each process will be discussed briefly in the
following sections.

2.8.1 Welded tube

In this methodthe metal in sheetor strip form is rolled over into a cylindrical
shapeand welded,thus giving a weld line. This method is mostcommonlyusedfor
steel pipe for fuel transportation. For aluminium this method is not usedmuch in
industry,dueto thedifficulty in weldingalurninium.

2.8.2 Tube drawing methods

The tube drawing process (77)manufactures a seamlesstube. The first cold-

drawn seamlesstubing was made by the late Ellwood Ivins, in 1887. This method,

which is often used as a following process from the hot forming processes,has been
developed from the wire drawing process using a hollow billet, bar or crude tube.
Even today, early methods such as drilling a bar, cold cupping from sheet and casting
a hollow ingot, are still used in special cases to produce tube. The tube drawing
methods are simply classified as below:

1) No mandrel (sinIdng)

2) With a fixed or floating (short) mandrel or plug

 47

3) With a moving Gong)mandrelor rod

These three methods are shown in flgure 2.7. The reductions in cross sectional
area of metal tube are about 20-35% (sinking), 30-40% (plug), and 40-50% (moving
mandrel).

=q3 !=

(8) (I) 02) (c)

Figure 2.7 Methods of tube drawing a) sinking bl) fixed plug

b2) floating plug c) moving mandrel

2.8.3 Mannesman process

This process,a type of hot piercing, has beenused instead of tube drawing
becauseit offers improved productivity. (seefigure 2.8) 7be Mannesmanprocess
doesnot provide sufficiently large wall thicknessreduction to produce finished hot
worked tube. However the advantageis that this processdoesnot require drilling of
the billet asin tubedrawing.
 48

Figure 2.8 Mannesman piercing process

Other processesusing the sameprinciple for producing tubes involve uses of a

plug rolling mill, three - roll piercing mill and reeling mill. (shown in figure 2.9)

u u, - C=*) i
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.9 (a)plug rolling mill (b)three -roll piercing

(c)reeling mill
 49

2.8.4 Cold extrusion

Extrusion processing is an excellent method for producing tube from solid or

hollow billet. (78)

In the Hooker process (see figure 2.10) relatively heavy walled cup shaped
blanks are extruded at high speeds,using ordinary crank pressesinstead of the usual

extrusion press. A cold worked microstructure is retained completely without

recrystallisation due to the process operating at room temperature. Therefore high
strengths are attained in the finished products (tubes). Furthermore, the process is

carried out at relatively high velocities and on small massesof metal.

II

Figure 2.10 Hooker process.(Diagrammatic sketch showing the steps

in making a smaUBrass cartridge case)

Typical commercial products from the Hooker processare small arms cartridge
cases and small thin walled seamless tubes which are used in automobile radiator
manufacture. The wall thickness usually varies from 0.10 mm. to about 0.25
mm. Tubes with wall thickness greater than 0.25 mm. can be produced more
economicaUy by other methods.
 50

Another cold extrusion method is Impact extrusion (piercing or backward

extrusion) (79). This processis similar to the Hooker processbut differs from it in
somefundamentalrespects.The flow of metal in the impactprocessis in the reverse
direction cf. indirect extrusionprocesses.This processis applied to the making of
variousaluminium productsincluding cups,cans,shells,and collapsibletubes. The
wall thicknessof tubesattainedfrom the processis in the range 0.08 mm. to 1.15
mn-LThe advantagesof this processarelow productioncost,high accuracyandgood
surfacefinish, lower materialcostdueto theeliminationof wastemetal,andimproved
mechanicalpropertiesof theextrudate.

(146-149)
2.8.5 Hot extrusion

Hot extruded tubes were produced commercially in 1943 on a 4000 ton

horizontalextrusionpressat HuntingtonAlloy (80)
Products.

In this hot extrusion method the metal flows through between the die orifice and

a mandrel under high pressureat relatively high temperature( usually about 250 OC
-
550 OC for aluminium and it alloys ). The clearancebetweenthe mandrel and die wall
determinesthe wall thickness of the tube.

Nowadays several hot extrusion methods are used to produce both seamless
tubes and tubes with weld lines. A major advantage of these tubes, when compared
with tubes, fabricated by rolling a metal sheet followed by welding using filler metal,
is that there are no filler metal and heat affected zones which might have softened and
which could act as weak areas. However, in the hot extruded tubes the properties
acrossthe welds can differ from those of the other regions. These extruded tubes have
the severaloutstandingadvantages,particularly in termsof quality and cost saving.
in is
Howeverthegreatestproblem tubeextrusion tubeeccentricity, (8"82)
affectingthe
quality of product. The major factors affecting eccentricity are :

a) Accuracyof billet piercing

b) Billet diameterin relationto containerdiameter
c) Tooling (mandrels, dies, container lines
d) Billet heating
 51

e) Lubrication
f) pressalignment

J.C. ENGLAND (80)reported from his experiments that tubes extruded from
drilled billets using different hole depths [0 (undrilled), 5,7.5,12.5,25 (fun depth)
cm. ] were used for an eccentricity study. Tubes from undrilled billets had
considerably more eccentricity than the drilled billets, especially at the front end tubes
becausethe mandrel tends to deflect off - centre nearer the front end of the billeL(table
(skinned)prior to extrusion.
2.8) Thereforenowadaysalmostall billets aretrepanned,

Eccentricity, Pct of
No of billets Hole ýepth diameter tubes.
cm.
Average value
100 25 3.0

51 12.5 4.3
25 7.5 + 8.1
E
71 5 ± 6.1
J 54 0 ±15.0

Table 2.8 Eccentricity study Pierced Vs Drilled billets (80)

Ile major hot tube extrusion processeswill be discussedbriefly in the following

sections.

2.8.5.1 Hot tube extrusion with rod mandrel

This extrusiontechniqueprovidesseamlesstubes. In this processthe mandrel,

which is attachedto the ram, is insertedthrougha hollow billet and into a die so that
the mandrelformsthecontrolholein thetubeandthedie forms theoutsideof thetube.
Before extrusion a hollow billet may be cast or a solid billet trepanned to make a,
hollow billet. Figure 2.11,2.12 illustrates this type of extrusion. An advantage is
that the products, having no welds, exhibit outstanding mechanical properties.
Nevertheless, the main problem in this process is due to the relatively long mandrel
 52

producing high friction betweenthe mandrel and billet. Therefore the mandrel tends to
break easily. Also eccentric tubes are often produced. To avoid eccentric tubes, care

must be taken to use suitable equipment with good tooling and careful maintenance.
For example, mandrels must be straight and remain straight when hot. A wom

mandrel has to be replaced immediately for continued production of tubes of good

T. Matsuoka (82) introduced a new method using a die called the
concentricity.
"centering die" in which the tip of the mandrel is inserted into the die center during the
upsetting of a billet in the container. After that, the die is removed and the extrusion
operation continues giving tube product of better dimensional accuracy. This method
is called the two step extrusion method which reduces the eccentricity of the head of
the extrudate.

Nevertheless,anotherdisadvantageof this processis the considerabletime

involved in the two stagesof thehollow billet preparationandremovalof the mandrel
after extrusion. Iberefore, to overcomethis problem, dies
sophisticated areusedand
these are discussedin the next section.

2.8.5.2 Hot extrusionwith hollow dies

In this process, the hollow or semi-hollow shapesare produced with "hollow"

dies which are the most complex dies in terms of both design and fabrication. There
are three basic types of hollow die: bridge, porthole and spider dies. The other types
are variations of these. The dies contain a weld chamber so that when the billet is
pushed the metal divides to flow around the core supports which hold the stub
mandrel and then the metal welds together in the welding chamber before passing
through the die. Therefore extruded sections produced on such dies have one or
more seams or longitudinal weld lines. Becausethe separatemetal streamsarejoined

within the die without atmosphericcontamination, a perfectly sound weld is obtained.

The bridge die hasa stationarycore or mandrelwhich is held in place by core

supportsor webs (bridge)bolted to the backof the die. In the spiderdie the die is in
contactwith the steel " spider" which supportsa stubmandrelextendingthroughthe
die opening. This combinationis placedagainstthe container. The portholedie is a
modificationof the spider,in which the spideris replacedwith a chambereddisk that
 53

Figure 2.11 The tube extrusion with rod mandrel --

rl%-------'/IkT- --%

DIE

Figure 2.12 Seamless tube extrusion with French rod mandrel

 54

supportsthe stubmandrel. The threetypesof hollow die in the extrusionprocessare

shownin figure 2.13 -2.15.

With hollow dies, significantly more,pressureis required to start extruding than

with solid-shape dies. Also large differences exist in the pressure required for the
varioustypesof hollow die. (rable 2.9)

Approxirnate increase in extrusion

Type of hollow die pressure over corresponding solid
shape die for AAý ý63allLoy
Bridge 20%
Spider 20%-40%
Porthole 30%-45%

Table 2.9 The pressurerequired for the various types of hollow die(15)

Tubescanbe producedby directandindirectextrusionprocesses.NonnaUythe

direct processis used. Howeverthe big advantageof the indirect extrusionprocessis
the reducedpressurerequiredfor extrusion.

2.9 Metal flow during extrusion

The researchwork of Pearsonand Parkin (2)introduced the split billet technique

to metal flow analysis. The billet, prior to extrusion, is split along its central axis.
One of the cut faces has a grid machined on it and then the re-assembled billet is

partially extruded axisymmetrically. The distorted grid pattern is revealed after

extrusion.

Generally,the flow pattern of the extrudedmetal is classified as one of four

types:S, A, B and C (figure 2.16). The differencesin flow pattern are due to
variation in the frictional resistanceat the billet/containerinterface, the flow stress
variationacrossthebillet andthetemperature differentialbetweenbillet andcontainer.
 55

TYPICAL DIE SLIDE TOOLING ARRANGEMENT

FOR BRIDGETYPE DIES

--T D2 CAZ

t BRIDE TYPE DIE

SUB-BOLSTU ASSEMBLY

BOLSfZR ;-ý
ýz

ZXTRUSMIT
DIX CAJI?

MANDRZL
.001,
DIE RIIT4G

T DVMMY BLOCK

BILIZT t COHTAWZR LWZR

I
L---CO2TTAMZR
IIATZIT r-- \
]?]tZSSTJRZ I 3Z 311DZ
mc szn>z

TYPICAL TOOL CARRIER TOOLING ARRANGEMENT

FOR BRIDE TYPE DIES
AýBRIDGE
Gate Lock
It., M2ZI.
COUTA rZR DIZ CA3

Sýv;
3-.zlOr,,STZR BRIDE IPYE DIE
DIZ RINO DIZ CA3 ASSEMBLY
COITTAXOR
InTZR
MMORZY.
IDDRIDCIZC
slzx

3 31.,
31LZT

BOISTIR BLOCK
XXTRUSMIT
ILATZIT PRZSSURZ
700L CARRIER

Figure 2.13 Bridge type die and Tooling arrangement

 56

TYPICAL DIE SLIDE TOOLING ARRANGEMENT

FOR TAPER SPIDERDIES
st
', " 21ANDRZL
DIE CAP

TAPERED SPIDER DIE

ANSEMLY

BorsT-zR

ZX7RUSMIT
I/
IM CAI
dri

I 10
S?IDZR.-,
' 1/
ZIAIMRZL
TAPZR DIC ItnTG
'ýc
.(

BIL; ZT o-

Dvnrly BLOCK

COHTAnTZRLnTzR

PRISSUltz DIE SLIDZ DIE SLIDZ

-%.,-. - -R --. -i

TYPICAL TOOL CARRIER TOOLING ARRANGEMENT

FOR TAPER SPIDER DIES

Gat Lock slon

C rZR IIAMRZI- DIZ CAP
I
"S;
3-B'OLSTZR TAPERED SPIDER DIE
DIZ CAI ASSEMBLY
TIATZRZDDICRnTC
T
el
SIPIDZIR COHTAWZR
LWZR

!ýý,
STzrl //"""/
BILUT . 'I--
L -

rL DuMly
ZX72USMIT 351OCK

PIATZIT TRZSSURZ 700L CARRIER

"PLATZN

Figure 2.14 Spider type die and Tooling arrangement

 57

TYPICAL DIE SLIDE TOOLING ARRANGEMENT

FOR PORTHOLE DIES
I.: NX XANDRU.
0. 0 .-
21ANDRU
-f-A D'Z CAY

PORTHOLE TYPE DIE

yt 4) ASSEMBLY

EXTRUSMIT
DIZ CAP

DIZ IIANDIRZI

DVMHY BLOCK

CONTAMIR LMR

TYPICAL TOOL CARRIER TOOLING ARRANGEMENT

FOR PORTHOLEDIES
BRI: DGZ
GateLock
C02TTAnTER DIZ CAI?
-S*VD-30lSTZR I
PORTHOLE TYPE DIE
D32 RnTO I),,, CAP ASSEMBLY'
Dlý MANDRZZ
;y C02TTAMZR
LIM
XAMRZ

: STZM
----

BILUT

BOISTZR BLOCK
ZXTRUSMIT
IIA771T PRZSSXMZ ýPLATZIT ý1,
---'-TOOL CARRICR

Figure 2.15 Porthole type die and Tooling arrangement ,

 58

Flow pattem 'S'

This pattern is generated in the billet during extrusion when extrusion is

performed in the indirect mode with very good die lubrication. Only the metal in the
deformation zone positioned in front of the die flows whereas the rest of the metal in
the billet remains undefortned. However there is a small dead metal zone formed on
the die face adjacent to the die throat. Ibis dead metal zone occurs because the metal
cannot flow around the sharp comer between the container and the die. The surfaceof
the extrudate is partly generatedfrom the surface of the billet. This causesthe surface
oxide to flow into the product surface and decreasesthe quality of the surface finish in
the extrudate. Hence, the billet should be scalped prior to extrusion or extruded
leaving a shell.

Flow pattem 'A'

This flow pattern is generatedif the extrusionexperiencesvery little friction

betweenbillet andcontainerexceptat the surfaceof the die wherethereis significant
friction. This patternmay be found in the direct extrusionmode of lubricated soft
alloys such as lead,tin, and alphabrass. The dead metal zonein this type of pattern
is slightly larger than in pattern'S 'becausethe radial flow of the peripheralzonesis
retarded and there is an increase in the amountof shearing due to friction at the die
face.

Flow pattem'B'

This pattern occurswhen thereis friction at both the container/billet and die
/billet interfaces such asin the direct mode. Thereforethe deadmetal zonein this
patternis quite large. This flow patternis obtainedwhenextruding most aluminium
alloys. In this flow patterntheimpuritiesor lubricantfi-omthebillet surfacemaycause
blisteringasin patterns S, and A.
 59

SA

Figure 2.16 The flow pattern of the extruded metal

Flow pattem 'C''

This 'C' type flow pattern occurs when the friction is high, and if the flow
stressof the cooler peripheral regions is considerably higher than the flow stressof the
centre. The dead metal zone (DMZ) is huge and extends from the front of the billet to
the back. This type of flow pattern leads to the extrusion defects known as pipe'
and' funnel formation '. Examples of alloys having this flow pattern are (a + 0)

brasses.

(4)
For aluminium alloy (AA 6063), CLODE studied the flow pattern by using a
macroscopic method. The billets were extruded over a temperature range of 350 OC
-
550 OC at a constant extrusion ratio (80: 1) and constant strain-rate = 33 s"'. From
the results, CLODE reported that as the initial billet temperatureis increased,there is a
correspondingincreasein the deforming volume and also an increasein the dead metal
zone angle (see figure 2.17)
 60

a =deadmetal2

Figure 2.17 The extruded billet with the metal zone angle

Ile typical angle produced by the stagnant metal of the DMZ is 251 - 500 for
AA6063 at hot worldng temperaturesbetween 350 OC- 550 OC Outlining this zone is

a region of intense shear called the deformation zone (hemisphererical shape, see
figure 2.18). The metal from the deformation zone runs along the 'dead metal zone'

edge and forms the extrudate surface. Additionally the metal in the small deformation
volume on the die face also contributes to the surface of the extrudate(78).nte bulk of
the extrudate comes from the central deformation zone. Figure 2.18 shows the
locationsof the zoneswithin theextrudedbillet.

Main deformation zone

Surface generation zone

Dead metal zone

(Die Face) Deformation zone

Central deformation zone

Figure 2.18 The locations of the zones in the extruded'billet

 61

The materialflow throughhollow diesdependson severalfactors. They are

1 The material of the billet

2 The temperatureof the extrusion
3 The speedof extrusion
4 The degreeof deformation
5 The shapeof the die and the section
6 The friction and lubrication in the die and container
Since during the processall the factors act simultaneously it is difficult and often
impossibleto examineandpreciselyestablishtheir individualinfluences

The flow of material through hollow dies has been examined by the method of
extruding the split billets, and by analysing the macrostructure of the butt end and the
section. It was reported(83)that the material flow is uneven through the hollow'dies.
Material flows at the highest speedthrough the middle of each metal stream, w hile it
lags behind at the die edge and the mandrel. This lag is larger at the outside part of the

section near the die than it is near the mandrel.

Metal flow in an axisymetric porthole die was investigated by Valberg and

Hansen.(84) It was found that dead metal zones form in front of the flat faced front of
the die, ahead of the mandrel, ahead of the bridges and ahead of the outer
circumferential ledge located at the bottom of the container. Further more, dead zones
were found to form behind the bridges of the die and on the circumferential ledge
located at the bottom of the die. Metal deposited in the dead metal zoneswas found to
leak out slowly into the main stream of metal. The dead zone ahead of the mandrel
was found to leak metal into the inner surface of the extruded tube.

2.10 Welding lines in extruclate

Welding lines (85)in the extrude can be present in extruded aluminium either as

seam welds in hollow sections or as charge welds between successive billets in the
extrusion chamber both in hollow and in solid sections. Such welds are called
pressureweldsandareproducedby pressurewelding or deformationwelding (a type
of solid -statewelding (SSW) processinvolving the bonding of two more extruded
 62

metal parts at elevated temperature). In the pressure welding process, the metals are
joined together with homogeneouswelds produced by pressureat elevated temperature

without using electricity, flux, chemicals or gas.

In the extrusion of aluminium tubes using hollow dies (section 2.8.5.2), the
metal flow is separatedinto two or more streams around the core supports ( bridge or
spider) and welded together in the welding chamber. As a result the layer of oxide
film occurring is relatively thinner than in other solid -state processesbecausethe film
is produced from the'virgin'metal within the billet. However, such thin oxide films

still affect the mechanical properties of extruded tubes by decreasing the ductility
across the weld.

AKERET (85)studied the properties of pressurewelds in the extruded aluminium

alloy sections ( both charge welds and seam welds ). In charge welds, there are three
casesdepending on the reduction in cross - sectional area from (a) the container, (b)the
welding chamber,or (c) the die entries, respectively, to the final section (figure 2.19).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.19 Formation of charge welds

a) by leavingtheresiduein thecontainer
b) in a die with a weldingchamber
c) in theentriesof a die for hollow extrusions
 63

It is found during extrusion that the interface betweenbillets becomespartly

contractedand partly extendedon a macroscopicscale. The interfacenear the billet
axis experiencescontractionandtheremoterregionexhibitsextension.The transition
from contractionto extensionmovescloserto the middle for high extrusionratios(see
Figure.2.20). However,at the location of the chargeweld nearthe billet axis, where
the interfaceshrinkson a macroscopicscale,the surfaceof interfacebecomeslargeron
a microscopicscaleby taking a wavy, form
meandering (seeFigure2.21).

R= E)ctru! dDn
ruLicp
1000 P-m16
P--8
800
P--3.2

600
z

400

200 InsimiLion line

CL
0

-2001 1111111
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BILLITRADIUS
DICTAMFROMAKIS/
INITIAL

Figure 2.20 Contraction and extension of the interface between a billet residue
billet (85)
and the successive

9
-. ..... ;ý14*.. *". - .,
ý% 1,ý-"., -
*16
. I.-*f

Sj,

IL

'0
ýra. : *.,.-. ;.. *t..
Z
!,.. ptR,*,*".
-, ,a..
if .:. .-,

Figure 2.21 Meandering form of a charge weld in a region of

macroscopic shrinkage (XIOO) (85)
 64

The mechanical properties of charge welds in AI-Mg-Si (0.5% Mg2Si) alloys

differ due to the different degreesof the local deformation of interface between billets.
The ultimate tensile strength increaseswith increasing axial distance from the apex of
the charge weld (d in figure 2.22) and reachesa typical value for artificial aged alloys,
of 245 MN/rn2 at a distance of 500 mm from the apex (d=500mm). The crack
propagation energy is lower than that of the base material, although it increases with
increasing axial distancefrom the apex of the weld. The extrusion ratio also affects the

strength because low extrusion ratios lead to the apex of the charge weld becoming
large enough to causefracture in the interface and to reduce the strength.

Apex of the charge weld

Figure 2.22 The apex of the charge after extrusion

In seamwelds in hollow extrudedsections,defectstake the form of either low

weld strengthsor streakingon anodising. In the former defect, low weld strength,
AkeretreportedthatAl-Mg-Si alloysexperiencea slightdecreasein theultimatetensile
the
strengthacross weld line comparedwith the parent metal. The weldedextrudate
exhibited crack propagation energies reduced by 30-50 % comparedto the parent
Low strength(86)can arisealongthe entireextrusion length in situations
metal. weld
where the die designand extrusion conditionsare inadequate for forming a pressure
weld.
 65

Under suitable die design and extrusionconditions, the scamweld in hollow

sectionsneednot be a locusof preferredcrackpropagation.Separationneednot take
place in the weld interfaceitself ; typically a fibrous fractureoccursbesidethe weld
interface,in contrastshearfractureoccursin specimenscontainingno welds.

2.11 Extrusion limit diagram of AI. Mg-Si Alloy

The extrusion limit diagram (4,75,87-90)which was originally introduced by

,
Hirst and Ursell (91), is a diagram depicting the limits of extrusion in terms of

extrusion ratio and billet temperature. The first limiting factor that decides whether a
product can be extruded is the extrusion load at the start of extrusion. The extrusion
load can be reduced by increasing the initial billet temperature or reducing the ram

speed. If the extrusion exceedsthe press capacity, then obviously extrusion break out
is impossible. Another factor is the maximum temperature which may be tolerated
before incipient melting occurs. This leads to many undesirable surface features such
as hot shortness. Thus the maximum temperature is determined by these features.
Alternatively the limit diagram can be presentedin terms of exit speedand extrusion
temperature. An advantage of this form of limit diagram is that it is more useful for
(50,92)
productivity considerations.

Figure 2.23 shows the relationship between extrusion ratio (R) and initial billet
temperature M for a constant specific pressure to give the load limiting line and the
temperature limiting line, indicating the conditions under which incipient melting
occurs. However, Sheppard(75)reported that the temperature limiting curve at which
a good surface finish is obtained is more significant than the incipient melting line.
Moreover the pressure (load) limiting line is also inaccurate becausethe steady state

pressure has been represented instead of the peak pressure. This leads to the load
required for extrusion higher than the extrusion presscapacity. 1

The area under the two limiting curves is the " window " for successful
extrusion of a desired product. In contrast, in the area outside the curves, extrusion is
impossible becauseof insufficient presspressure,incipient melting of extrudate or the
onset of surface defects.
 66

In addition the limit diagram is useful for controlling the extrusion process. This
diagram can also be used to display information on metallurgical structure such as
subgrain size or recrystallised grain size (shown in figure 2.23).

D=Recrystallised grain size

4d=Subgrain size

Pressure limit

Incipient melting

Surface darna 4
X
&AJ

,I

dl/ /d2 \D2 \Dl

dl ( d2 DI > D2

Billet Temperature P

Figure 2.23 A schematicLimit Diagram containing structural infomiation

Figure 2.24 (4) comparesthe extrusion limit diagramsfor alloys AA6063,

AA2014 and AA5456 in the direct extrusionmode. In this casethe lines shownare
the pressurelimiting line andthe incipient melting line of eachalloy. It is found that
theextrudabilityof AA6063is higherthan AA2014and AA5456.
 67

In (R)
5

Ram speed II mynil

Direct Extrusion

200 300 400 Soo 600

Extrusion Temperature(OC)

Figure 2.24 AA 6063 Limit Diagram (with AA 2014 and AA 5456 as a

comparison)
 68

Chapleir 3
.

lEmpelraumemallu pTaTeftire
 69,,

cImpleir 3,

Mr.1pairaamemasia
procadmirs

3.1 Introduction
71bestudy of the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-Mg-Si alloys
(AA 6063) as a function of extrusion processing conditions was carried out. The

specimens for microstructural investigation were taken from the as-cast billets, the
homogenised.billets, the rod and tube extrudatesat different extrusion temperaturesand
the heat treated extrudates. Mechanical properties were assessedas a function of
extrusion processing conditions.

Ibe experimentalproceduresandequipmentusedin the courseof this studyare

discussedin the following sections.

3.2 Materials

The material for this investigation, supplied by British Alcan, Banbury, was Al-
Mg-Si Alloy (AA6063 and AA6082). The standard compositions are covered by the
Aluminiurn Association's specification (shown in table 2.2). The material was in the
form of semi-continuous (direct chill) cast logs, 100 mm. in diameter. The logs were
cut to the required length of 100 mm and machined to 75 nun in diameter.

The billets were homogenised in order to reduce microsegregation and to

disperse the M92S' phase uniformly throughout the cross section. Moreover, the
homogenisation also served to transform the insoluble phase (P AI-Fe-Si) into a less
detrimental form (ot Al-Fe-Si). A suitable homogenisation treatment for AA6063 is
575 *C ±5T for 6 hours followed by air cooling to room temperature (recommended
by Alcan). The homogenised billets prior to extrusion had to be scalped to prevent the

oxidised surfacesfrom being incorporated into the extruded product.

 p
70

3.3 The compositions

In order to check exact compositions of the alloys the emission spectrometerin

the department of Metallurgical Engineering, Chulalongkom,University, Thailand, was
used. The specimenswere machined with flat surfacesand immediately testedto avoid
oxidation of these surfaces. The spectrum of each element produced by sparking the
specimen was analysedand the data collected by a computer. Each material was tested
at least 5 times. The results, shown in table 3.1, are the average values of the elements
in the alloys.

Magnesium silicide (Mg2Si) can be formed by combining Mg and Si in the ratio

of 1.73: 1. Consequently, the amount of Mg2Si can be calculated(21)from the Alloy

composition in Table 3.1. ExcessSi is calculated by the formula(24)below:

Si available for Mg2Si (A) wt% = wt%Si-0.25x(wt%Fe+wt%Mn)

Si required for Mg2Si (B) wt% = 0.58xwt%Mg

Excess Si wt% = A-B

Table 3.2 shows the weight percent Of M92Si and excess Si of the 6063 and
6082 alloys used in the study. The chemical composition results taken from the test
using the emission spectrometer were calculated by the formula above. It was found
that the weight percent of Mg2Si in both 6063 alloys (D 125A, D 387A) was

approximately 0.7 %. This is a medium-strength alloy for general purpose. In contrast

the weight percent of 6082 alloy, which is an alloy for high strength applications, was
nearly 1%.
 71

Constitutent AA6063 AA6063 AA6082

D125A D387A D105
1
wt% error wt% error wt% error
I
Mg 0.436 ±2E-3 0.461 ±2E-3 0.60 +IE-2
si 0.431 ±4E-3 0.422 ±2E-3 0.72 ±0.01,
_.
Fe 0.185 ±2E-3 0.195 ±IE-3 0.274 ±IE-3
Mn 0.0062 ±5E-4 0.0056 ±IE-4 0.515 ±2E-3
Cu 0.003 ±5E-4 0.0025 +IE-4 0.004 +IE-4
T, 0.0054 ±lE-4 0.007 +3E-4 0.013 ±IE-3
Cr <0.001 <0.001 <0.00 I
Zn 0.018 ±2E-4 0.016 ±2E-4 0.014 ±lE-3
Ni 0.001 ±2E-4 0.001 +5E-4 0.001 ±2E-4
Na <0.001 <0.001 <0.00 I -I
Pb 0.001 - 0.002 - <0.001
Sn <0.001 - <0.001 - <0.00 I
Zr <0.001 - <0.001 - <0.001
Sr ý <0.001 - <0.001 - <0.00 I
-
Al 98.90 +IE-2 99.89 +IE-2 bal ±0.01

Table 3.1 The chemical compositions of the aluminium alloys.

Moy Mg2Si % by weight Excess Si %by weight

6063 D 125A 0.69 0.13

6063 D 387A 0.72 0.11

6082 D 105 0.95 0.17

Table3.2 The M92Si andexcessSi calculatedfrom alloy compositionin table3.1.

 72

3.4 The extrusion equipment

In this study, an ENEFCO 5 MN vertically mounted extrusion press was used

in the direct extrusion mode, together with a heated container. The main ram was
driven by a hydraulic slipper pump resulting in ram speeds of 3 mm/s during the
extrusion cycle. An auxiliary pump, assisting the ram movement prior to the extrusion
gave a fast approach to the billet. This resulted in reduced heat loss from the billet to
the surroundings. The dimensions of the billet were 75 mm in diameter and 100 mm in
length. The container temperature was maintained at 25 *C below that of the extrusion
billet temperature. This generally provided the liner temperatureof 50 *C below. Ibis

was done so that there would be little chilling of the billet during extrusion.
Additionally this meant that the container acted as a heat sink for some of the heat

generated during extrusion, therefore preventing excessive temperature rises in the

billet. The container temperature,controlled via a Eurotherm, was maintained within
5 *C- The lay out of the extrusion press used in this study is shown in plate 3.1.

Before extrusion,all billets werepreheatedrapidly using the induction heater.

Five thermocoupleswere usedfor temperaturemeasurementand control. Three of
them were put in the top of the billet and the other two were usedfor measuringthe
temperature in the bottom of the billet. This technique gave accurate preheat
temperatures.The typical heatingratesfor the AI-Mg-Si castbillets were 5-10 *Cls.
Oncethe setpointwasreached,thebillet temperaturewasallowedto stabilisein orderto
ensureuniform temperaturedistribution throughoutthe billet. Afterwards the billets
weredroppedinto thecontainerby pneumaticallymoving theheaterover thecontainer.
This allowed the billet to feed directly into the container and thus reduced the
temperaturelosses.

In this investigationconventionalrod, rod containingthreeweld lines andtube

extrudates were fabricated. The dies for producing rod extrudates with three weld
lines, were three-leg bridge dies which could be separatedinto two portions. The upper

portion of this die was used as a sleeve for the bridge while the lower portion was the
baseof the bridge and the chamber for metal joining. Underneathone leg of the bridge
a small hole was drilled to accommodateone end of a metal rod stud. The other end of
 73

Plate 3.1 shows the layout of the 5 MN extrusion press

(a) General Layout of the Extrusion Press

(b) Direct Tooling

 74

Plate3.2 showsa bridgedie andmandrelasusedin this study.

a) Screws b) Upper portion of die

b) A bridgewithouta mandrel

c) A bridge with a mandrel e) lower portion of die

 75

the stud was placed in the bridge baseof the lower die portion. This was done to
preventrotation movement of the bridgeduring extrusion. Plate 3.2 showsthe layout
of this die. Appendix 1 and2 showthe dimensionof the die. In the experimentsthese
extrudateswere producedwith diameters
of 12,14 and 16 mm.

In tube extrusionbridge dies, as describedabove,were again used. The only

difference was the additional use of mandrelsof diameter 4,6 and 8 mm. This
combination of bridge and mandrel is commonly called a spider die in commercial
industry.

3.5 Extrusion

In general,all billets were extrudedin the direct mode without lubrication

After the extrudatesexitedfrom thedie, theywerequenchedby waterjets to retainthe
hot-worked structure. The extrusion data in the form of Load - Displacement curves,
Temperature-Time curves (heating rate of billets) and ram speedduring extrusion were
recorded using a DATALAB DL 2800 multichannel transient recorder and an IBM
microcomputer. The process conditions for normal rod, rod using the bridge die and
tube extrusion are detailed below:

3.5.1 Normal extrusion

In this investigation, rod -shapedextrudate of AA6063 was produced by using

flat faced dies without lubrication. The extrusion temperature varied between 250 *C-
550 T. An extrusion ratio of 30: 1 was used with a constant ram speed of 3 mm/s.
Rod extrusion was investigated in order to compare with the rod extrusion using the
bridge die and with the tube extrusion in terms of the microstructure development and
the extrusion pressurerequirement.

3.5.2 Bridge die extrusion without a mandrel

The bridgedie, prior to extrusion,was heatedfor about2 hrs in the furnaceat

the required extrusion temperaturein order to preventsignificant hea lossesduring
't
extrusion. After that,it wasplacedrapidly in theextrusionpressandthe extrusionwas
 76

performed immediately. For a comparison of metallurgical aspects, rod extrudates,

designated as BR extrudates in this thesis, were produced at the same temperatures as
the normal rod extrusions except at 250 T where presscapacity limitations prohibited
this. The extrusion ratio varied between 20: 1 - 40: 1 with the sameconstant ram speed
of 3 mmlsec.

3.5.3 Tube extrusion

The bridgedie andmandrelwerealso heatedin the furnacein a similar way to

that mentionedabove. The processingconditionsfor tube extrusionare listed in table
3.3 below:
Constant Ram Speed =3 mm/sec
Billet length = 100 mm.
Billet diameter = 75 mm.

Tube O/D Tube IVD WaU thickness Extrusion Extrusion

(MM. ) (MM. ) (MM. ) ratio Temperature(C)

12 4 4 44: 1 400,450

12 6 3 52: 1 400,450

12 8 2 70: 1 450
14 4 5 31.25: 1 400,450,500

14 6 4 35: 1 400,450,500

14 8 3 42.6: 1 400,450,500

16 4 6 23.4 350,400,450,
500,550
16 6 5 25: 1 400,450,500
-8
16-1 4 29.2: 1 400,450,500

Table 3.3 The tube extrusion conditions used in this work

In order to investigatethe transversetensilestrengthof the weld, flat-shaped

of 350 *C and550 *C
extrudatewith an extrusionratio of 15:1, extrusiontemperatures
anda constant
rarnspeed. 3
of mm/swasproducedby extrusionof a billet with a bridge
 77

inserted in the bottom of billet. Before extrusion the "bridge inserted" billet was placed

on top of the die while the bridge was located perpendicularly to the die orifice. This
was done to produce a weld line along the extrudate. The dimension and layout of the
bridge and the billet are presentedin appendices3 and 4. The "normal" flat extrudate

without a weld was also produced by conventional extrusion with the same extrusion
conditions above. This was done in order to compare the strength of the weld.

3.6 Heat treatment of extrudates

As AA6063 is heattreatable,somespecimensof the extrudateswere cut and

heattreatedto theT6 condition. In this treatmenttheextrudatesweresolutiontreatedat
525 *C for I hour and water quenched to room temperature. Then they were put in an
oven for an artificial ageing treatment at 180 *C for 8 hours. After finishing this
treatment, room temperature tensile strength and fracture toughness tests were carried
out.

3.7 Tensile testing

The rod extrudates,used for longitudinal tensile testing, were cut longitudinally

and machined to standard No. 13 Hounsfield specimens (d= 4.54 mm) while the
specimensusing for measuring the transverseweld strength were cut transversely from

the 'one weld! flat extrudate and machined to standard No. II Hounsfield specimens
(d= 3.25 mm). These tensile specimens were tested at room temperature by using an
INSTRON universal tensile testing machine with a 25 kN load cell and constant cross
head speedof 0.5 nun/min. The room temperaturetensile data were recorded using an
IBM microcomputer. The proof stressvalues were measuredusing a 0.2 % offset.

3.8 Hardness Testing

Specimenswere cut transverselyand groundcarefully on both surfacesusing

silicon carbide papersfrom 120 to 1200 grade. Prior to performing this test, the
specimenswere etchedby Barker's reagentor Poulton's reagent to identify the weld
regionsand theseregionsmarkedon the specimens. The flat surfaceswere testedat
 78

room temperatureusinga Vicker Hardnesstester. Eachspecimenwas testedat least

timesin both the weld andinter-weldregionsin orderto obtainaveragevalues.

3.9 Fracture toughness testing

A Terratek short rod indicator test was used to measurethe fracture toughness.
Specimenswere machined from sectionsof the rod extrudates using the specification of
the Alcoa Applications Engineering Division (93) in figure 3.1. The specimens
, shown
were tested using an' Instron ' universal testing machine, together with a Frackjack
grip. The specimen mouth is forced open under a tensile load at a speed of 0.5
mm/ffiin.
The fracture toughnessis calculated according to the formula

KJCSR = A. F.B"3/2

where A= calibration constant = 22

F= maximum load, kN
B= specimen diameter, m.

3.10 Optical (94,95)

microscopy

Specimens were cut both longitudinally and transversely from the extrudates

and mounted in Metaserv type Fr resin. The mounted specimens were then ground
using silicon carbide papers from 120 to 1200 grade and polished on cloth wheels
using diamond sprays from 14 tLm to 0.25 gm. The specimens were then etched
electrolyticaUyusingBarker'sreagent:

3.5 g H3BO3 (Boric acid )

23 ml HBF4 (TetraFluoroboric:acid)
485 ml water

The specimen, as anode, was placed into the electrolytic etching reagent in a

stainlesssteel cup which acted as the cathode. A potential of 20 V was applied with a
maximum current density of 0.2 amps.cm-2- After a suitable etching time, the
 79

specimen was rapidly removed and washed in methanol and dried. With this
electrolyticetchingmethod,the grain structureswererevealedundercrossedpolarised
light.

In order to examine the precipitate distribution the specimenswere preparedin a

similar way to the above and etched for 5 to 30 seconds in 0.5 % Hydrofluric acid
(HF) in water.

To examineunrecrystallisedgrains and fine subgrains,the specimenswere

fashion in Barker's EtchantNo. 9 (9):
preparedin the same andetched reagentor

10 ml HF
20 ml H2SO4

170ml in water (immersefor 30 sec)

To study the macrostructure of metal in the chamber after extrusion, specimens

were cut longitudinally in half and ground using 120 to 1200 grade silicon carbide
paper and then immersed in or swabbed with a mixed acid etchant, namely Poulton's
reagent, for 10-15 sec, rinsed in water and dried. The alternative method involved
immersion in a caustic etchant at 60-70 *C (5-15 min), then rinsing in water and
dipping in 50% Nitric acid solution, and then rinsing in water and drying.

Poulton's reagent:
240 ml HCI (conc)
120 ml H2NO3 (conc)
20 ml HF (48%)
20 ml water

3.11 Electron microscopy

The microstructuresof rod extrudate were investigatedusing a scanningelectron

microscope ( SEM ) and a transmission electron microscope ( TEM ). A Jeol (r2OO

25kV) scanning electron microscope was used in the secondaryelectron imaging (SEI)
mode and in the backscattered,
electron imaging (BEI) mode.
 80

ýý60*
-
3.96
0.05
0.3
=A:

1
1
12.70 * 0.05 .5 I-

5.08

19.05

5.74
----------------
0.05
1.90 0.05

All dimensions
in
are mm.

SS.2*ak

Figure 3.1 The Terratek short. rod fracture toughness specimen

 81

For structural examinations, the specimens were examined using the BEI mode while
they were examined using the SEI mode for topographical features of the extrudate
surface. Samples for this SEM study were polished using 0.25 gm diamond spray
and examined unetched. All specimensfor the SEM were sputtered with a fine coating
of gold about 200 400 OA in thickness to prevent the samples from electrically
-
charging. The tensile specimen fracture surfaces were examined in the unpolished
condition.

Additionally, a Philips EM 301 (100kV) transmissionelectron microscope

(TEM ) and a Jeol Temscan(100 kV) with quantitative EDX analysiswereusedto
in longitudinal andtransversesectionsof theextrudate.
examinethemicrostructures

3.12 Drift tests on tubes

The drift test was used to examine the tensile strength of the tube weld. This
could not be done by direct tensile testing. The strength of the tube was determined in

compression mode by using cones inserted into the tube ends; a cross head load cell of
150 kN and a cross head speed of 2 mm/min were employed. The lengths of the
specimens were 2.5 cm. and cone angles of 300,45', 600 were used in this study.
-5
The cones required centering to prevent the tube going a skew. The test stopped when
one end of the tube split (seefigure 3.2).

I= length of specimen
angle of the cone

Tub* sp*cimen

cross hoad

Figure 3.2 The drift test

 82

ChlipItT4
 83

-4 IRIal vorrklmE

Aluminiurn extrusion is a hot working process in which aluminium metal is

deformed at temperaturesabove approximately half its melting point. It is carried out at
temperatures at which the steady state flow stressis controlled by the temperature and
strain rate and not by the strain. The theory of hotworking (96,97)
is reviewed briefly
below:

4.1 Empirical Hot Working relationships

Severalworkers(98-103)haveshownthat two relationshipscan be appliedto hot

working data (Equation 4.1 and 4.2). It was found that "n" in equation4.1 and "P" in

equation 4.2 exhibit a dependence on temperature. However, it was noted that, if

equation 4.1 is applied only to flow stressdata below a critical stresslevel (low flow

stress),a constantvalueof n, independent of temperature, is obtained and, similarly, if

equation 4.2 is appliedto the data
higher-stress only (high flow stress),a constantvalue
P
of is observed.

The steadystatecondition at low flow stressesis described by a power relation:

i= Al(yn 4.1
is
where n a temperatureindependentconstant with a value of about 5.

The steady state conditon at high flow stressesis described by an exponential

relation:

i= A2exp(pcy) 4.2
where 0 is a temperatureindependentconstant.

Both relationships are similar to those found in creep experiments, which also

correspond to a balance between dynamic recovery processes within the material and
the strain hardening processes. These two equations have been combined by Garafalo
(104-105)to give :
 84

i= A3 (sinh (a cy))n 4.3

and (x =04.4
n

At low flow stress ((x(y< 0.8) equation 4.3 reduces to a power form (j =
A3.2n.cyn) which is similar to equation 4.1 while at high stress ( oca> 1.2) it gives an
A3
exponential form ýýexp(nacr)) which is similar to equation 4.2.

Garafalo used equation 4.3 for austenitic stainless steel copper and aluminium
,
alloys.

However the similarity between steady state creep and steady state hot
,
working led Sellars and Tegart (106)
to proposea more generalrelationship which
covereda wide rangeof stresses.

ý=A (sinh (xcy)nexp (-AH

iiiý) 4.5

where A, a, n are temperature independent constants

AH is the activation energy for the hot worldng process

This equationcan be arrangedto introduce the Zener -Hollomon parameter.

Z exp /A (sinh «xc;

»n 4.6
, RUT)=A

Where Z= the temperature strain-rateparameter

compensated
i (S-1)
= effectivestrainrate
a = effective stress (MNm-2)
T = absolute temperature (K)
AH = activation energy Q/rnole)
(x,n,A = material constants
R= universal gas constant
 85

The Arrhenius term (exp AH /RT) implied that the hot working processis a
thermally activated process and AH is equal to the activation energy of the rate
controlling mechanism. The value of the activationenergyfor hot working of high
stacking fault energy metals is close to that of bulk self diffusion. For example,
aluminium,has an activationenergyfor hot working of 37 kcal / mole and for bulk
self diffusion a valueof 33 kcal /mole. In this case theproximity of the two valuesis
attributed to the common mechanismof dislocation climb and is an indication of
recoveryoccurringconcurrentlywith hot working. The first materialconstantvalue,
denotedas "cc", is a reciprocal flow stress,and its magnitudeindicates where the
dependenceof flow stressupon strain rate changesfrom a power relationship to an
exponetialrelationship. Jackson(107)reportedthat the more resistanta materialis to
deformation,the lower will be its valueof cc. He alsoreportedthat the loadsrequired
to extrudethe AA 7xxx alloys (cc=0.01 1) weremuchgreaterunderthe sameconditions
than thoserequired for AA6063 (a=0.04). Thereforethe magnitudeof ccshould be
indicativeof a material's intrinsic ability to deform. The secondconstant,namely"n",
can be termedthe " inverseof the temperaturecompensated strainrate sensitivity". If
the hot working constantsareidentical exceptfor the valueof n, the lower the valueof
"n", thegreaterthe flow stressrequiredto deformthe material,therebythe greaterwork
hardeningduring deformation.It wasalsoreportedthatthis constantdependsuponthe
heattreatment.The lastconstantin the hot working equation,namelytheconstant"A",
hasnot beenexplainedin termsof its physicalsignificance.

Hot working characterisationis normally obtained through a seriesof laboratory

tests using either compression, tension or torsion. The hot torsion test(108)is the most
suitable method becausehigh strains in excess of 20 are easily achieved in aluminium
alloys. The tension and compression testing methods have limitations upon the
maximum attainable strain. Clode(4) investigated the flow stressusing hot torsion tests
on AA6063 in the homogenised condition (575 'C 6hrs + air cool ) and calculated the
four hot working constants. The hot working constantsof AA 6063 are shown below:

AH = 141550 (J/mole)
cc = 0.04 (m2/MN)
5.385
In A= 22.5
 86

In this project, the billets were supplied by the samesourcenamely Alcan

International,Banbury and were subjectedto the samepreheattreatmentas usedby
Clode. Therefore the hot working constants,obtainedby Clode, are valid for this
work.

4.2 Empirical Extrusion Relationships

According to several researchers the extrusion pressure is dependent on the

strain rate, extrusion ratio and extrusion temperature. W. Johnson(109) and

J.M. Alexander(110) found that a relationship between the extrusion pressure and the

above extrusion parameterstakes the form:

11
=a+bln(R) 4.7
cr

where:
P= Extrusion Pressure (MN/m2)
a= Mean Equivalent flow stress (MN/m2)

R= ExtrusionRatio
and a,b = Extrusion constants,depending on extrusion temperature

Assuming that the value of cr is equivalent to the steady stateflow stressdefined

by thehot worldng equation(4.6):

! Zn-l z 2n-1
a= -In A+( --X --+1)0 4.8

The two termsin the bracketareapproximatelyequal. Thereforeequation4.8

canbereducedto the simpleform:

0.7 1 (. /Zl
In 7 4.9
a+ an

Equation4.9 can be substitutedinto Equation4.7 and further modified to the

more convenient form shown below:
 87

Iz
P= --! -( A'+ B' In (R) + C' In 4.10
ccn

where A', B' and C' are extrusion constants.

The value of A', 13' and C' can be determined using multiple regressional
analysis. It was found that good correlations between the predicted and experimental
data in 1)
extrusion pressure aluminium alloys(4,107.11 were obtained. This indicates that
the derived equation 4.10 is applicable over the range of extrusion conditions
considered.

The general equation 4.10 can also be applied to correlate the peak pressure
(equation 4.11).

1( Z
Pp= A'+ B'In (R) + Cln flp-)) 4.11
an
where,
PP= Peakpressure (MN/m2)
Zp = Zener-Hollomon Parameter at peak pressure conditions

In extrusion of complex shapes such as square, rectangular or ribbed cross

12,113)
that an additional increment of pressureis required, for
sections it was reported'
a given extrusion ratio, compared to that required for the equivalent circular cross
section. Ile peak pressuresalso related to the Zener-Hollomon parameter as shown in
equation 4.12 below:

Pp= A+Bln Zp 4.12

In AA 6063 alloy the values of constant A, representing the amount of

redundant work, for the round, strip and ribbed extrusion in the above equation
increasedwith the complexity of the shape.(4)

Previous researchers(I12,113)have modified the pressure equation for circular

cross section extrusions to deal with complex shapesof equivalent cross sectional area,
 88

by the use of a shape factor. This was found to be valid over the range of extrusion
conditions investigated. In this investigation the shapefactor or peripheral ratio (X) is
definedin equation4.13 below:

X= the periphery of the section (Q J_ 4.13

the periphery of a rod of equivalent cross sectional area ( OR )

For normal rod extrusion, X is equal to I

It can be seen in equation 4.13 that the peripheral ratio is proportional to the

peripheral length while the extrusion ratio is proportional to the area (i. e. (D2/d2)); it is
therefore reasonable to modify the extrusion ratio of the shaped section by the use of
X2. In this investigation the temperaturecompensatedstrain rate of the shapedsection

must be treatedin the samemanner. Thereforethe generalequation4.11 for peak

be
pressurecan modified for the extrusion
shaped as below:

Z'
Pp= --1-( A'+ B' In (R') +C Lý) )
In '(-fA: 4.14
an

where, R' = Modified extrusion ratio =%2 R

Z!p = Modified Z parameter = X2 ZP

In the present work there is one peripheral ratio for rod extrusion using the
bridge without a mandrel (BR) and two peripheral ratios in tube extrusion, one
calculated from the periphery of the bridge ( XI) which is equal to the peripheral ratio in
the BR rod extrusion, the other ( %2)calculated from the periphery of the mandrel/die
orifice. The extrusion ratio must be treated in the same manner as peripheral ratio.
Therefore the modified extrusion ratios are shown in the equationsbelow:

Rb' = X12RI R2 4.15

 89

Rt' = X12 RI X22 R2 4.16

where,

Rb' =Modified extrusion ratio in BR rod extrusion

Rt' =Modified extrusion ratio in tube extrusion
R1 =Extrusion ratio of the metal passing the bridge
R2 = Extrusion ratio of the metal leaving the chamber and passing
through the mandrel/die gap

The dimensionsof the bridgedie and mandrelusedin this study are shownin
appendix2. The peiipheralratiosarelistedin table4.1

Shape O/D I/D Extiusion RI R2 X2 Modified

mm rrrn Ra6o extrusion Ratio
Rod 12 - 40 2.32 25.78 2.05 1.000 251.34
Rod 14 - 30 2.32 18.94 2.05 1.000 184.66
Rod 16 20 2.32 14.50 2.05 1.000 141.37
-
Tube 12 4 44 2.32 28.35 2.05 1.06 310.57
Tube 12 6 52 2.32 33.42 2.05 1.15 430.92
Tube 12 8 70 2.32 44.41 2.05 1.33 765.91
Tube 14 4 31.25 2.32 20.16 2.05 1.04 212.59
Tube 14 6 35 2.32 22.56 2.05 1.10 266.15
Tube 14 8 42.6 2.32 26.91 2.05 1.21 384.13
Tube 16 4 23.4 2.32 15.12 2.05 1.03 156.39
Tube 16 6 25 2.32 16.41 2.05 1.07 183.18
Tube 16 1 8 29.2 2.32 18.50 2.05 1.14 234.41

Table 4.1 The values of modified extrusion ratio in BR rod and tube extrusion

Another important parameter in the extrusion process is the strain rate (i ).

The most commonly used strain rate expression was developed by Feltharn. 0 14) He
assumedthat the total strain was quantitatively equal to In (extrusion Ratio).
 90

E= In(Ao) 4.17
A

where AO= The original billet area

A= The areaof extrudate

Therefore, the strain rate is:

i total strain
4.18
the time to effect that strain

It was pointed out that in extrusion the deformation took place essentially in a

well defined zone of the container, bounded by the frustum of a right circular cone
making an angle of approximately 45 degrees with the cone axis and thus the time
required for equation 4.18 was calculated using the volume of the cone.

The time required to fill the cone is defined in equation 4.19 below

t Volume of the cone 4.19

Volume of metal extrudedper unit time

For rod extrudate, t= D/6V :

where D= Diameter of the billet

V= Ram velocity

The strain and time are substituted into Equation 4.16, therefore the strain rate
is shown in equation 4.20

6V InR
4.20
D

A more accurateequationfor rod extrusion, is shownasequation4.21. This

equationwasderivedby subtractingthe volumeof the headof the conelocatedin the
die orifice.
 91

(6 V InR) tan coDb2

D334.21
b D,
C
where, (0 The deformationzoneangle(usuaHytakenas450)
Db The billet diameter
Do Theextrudatediameter
V Ramvelocity

The values of strain rate in rod and tube extrusion can be calculated using the
Feltharn approach in equation 4.18 The dead metal zone angle is assumed to be 45
degrees. The strain rate must be treated in the same manner as the extrusion ratio

above. The total strainis the combinationof strainscalculatedfrom the first extrusion
stepat which the metalis extrudedinto threestreamsandthe secondextrusionstepin
the welding chamber. Thereforethe total strain rate is the sum of strain divided by
total time which is shownin theequationbelow:

il 6
tI+ t2
4.22
tl+t2

Where, = Total strainrate

= Strainratefor first extrusionstage

i2
= Strain ratefor secondextrusionstage
tI = Time required to fill the conein first extrusionstage
t2 =Time required to fill the conein secondextrusionstage
The total strainratefor variousdie dimensionsis shownin table4.2

4.3 Flow in extrusion using a bridge die with/without a mandrel

Severalresearchersinvestigatedtheflow of metalsuchascopperalloys(I15)and
aluminium alloys(I16,117)
into the hollow shapesusing either a bridge die or porthole
die (discussedin section2.).

4.3.1 The metal flow in BR rod extrusion

In this investigation a bridge having three legs was used, thus producing three
seamwelds in the rod extrudates. The die has two parts, the upper portion which
 92

Shape OIL) I/D Extrusion tj 61 62 Total Strain-rate

t2
mm nirn Ratio sec sec gt

Rod 12 - 40 0.776 1.64 1.084 1.981 1.69

, ,
Rod 14 - 30 0.776 1.64 1.084 1.793 1.56
Rod 16 - 20 0.776 1.64 1.084 1.630 1.45
Tube 12 4 44 0.776 1.567 1.084 2.134 1.78
1
Tube 12 6 52 0.776, 1.55 1.084 2.263 1.87
Tube 12 8 70 0.776 1.50 1.084 2.528 2.03
Tube 14 4 31.25 0.776 1.567 1.084 1.916 1.64
Tube 14 6 35 0.776 1.55 1.084 2.010 1.70
Tube 14 8 42.6 0.7761 1.50 1.084 2.1941 1.81
Tube 16 4 23.4 0.776 1.567 1.084 1.7361 1.52
Tube 16 6 25 0.776 1.55 1.084 1.805 1.56
1
Tube 16 8 29.2_ 0.776 1.50 1.084 1.945 1.65

Table 4.2 The values of total strain rate in BR rod and tube extrusion (using Feltham
approach)

actedas a sleevefor the bridgeand the lower portion which forms a welding chamber
andthe die orifice. It wasfoundthat themetalflow canbe describedasa successionof
three steps.
1. The material splits into three parts after hitting the bridge and the surface of
the upper die portion. This producesthe three metal streams.(figure 4.1 a)
2. Each part of the material then flows along the bridge before hitting the lower

portion of the die. This leads to the occurence of sideways extrusion such that each
stream divides into smaller streamswhich flow tangentially into the spacebeneaththe
bridge i. e. the welding chamber.(figure 4.1 b) These streams of material are brought
into intimate contact and bonded to one another. This process, called solid state
bonding, 011)produces the seam welds in the extrusion. The time, required to fill this
chamber, dependson the volume of the chamber.
3. In the last step, the rod is extruded from the welding chamber passing
through the die orifice. Figure 4.1 c shows the last step of extrusion.
 93

Figure 4.1 Successive steps in extrusion using a bridge die with/without a

mandrel

a) the metal passingthe bfidge

b) the metal filling the welding chamberin the die

c) the through
metalpassing thedie orifice to producethe final product
 94

BMet
I

(_
-b Id- -

---lv

Billet

T-- .- 4--Emruut
 95

4.3.2The metalflow in tubeextrusionusinga bridgedie with a mandrel

The dimensions of the die and the three-legged bridge, used in tube extrusion,
were similar to those used in rod extrusion in 4.3.1. Consequently, the flow of
material in the first and second stepsis the same as discussed in section 4.3.1. In the
last step the material in the welding chamber is extruded to form a tube due to a

mandrel attachedbeneaththe centre of the bridge and suspendedin the centre of the die
orifice.

Figure 4.2 shows the dead metal zones remaining in the die after extrusion

using a bridge with/without a mandrel. It was found that the dead metal zones were
formed at the container adjacent to the surface of the upper portion of the die (location
1), in front of the bridge (location 2), near surfaces of the lower portion of the die
(location 3), beneaththe bridge (location 4) and, for tube extrusion only, a small dead

metal zone occurs near the mandrel and mandrel base (location 5). Ile dead metal
zone in location 4 in rod extrusion using a bridge die without a mandrel (left in figure
4.2 a), when compared with that in tube extrusion using a bridge die with a mandrel,
is larger and the metal flow near that location is severely distorted. Ibis is expectedto
increasepeak pressurein extrusion. The peak pressurewill be discussedlater.

Investigation of the flow using the gridded billet method was experimentally
difficult due to the complex 3-D die. However, figure 4.3 (a-f) is a simulation of the
metal flow in tube extrusion using the FEM model FORGE 2. This program was
developed by Trandvalor SA. in conjunction with the Ecole des Mines de Paris for
the numerical modelling of hot deformation processes. This simulation program used
the finite element mothod to calculate the hot working parameterssuch as load, strain-
rate, temperature rise, etc. However, in order to obtain reliable results with a high
degreeof confidence the simulation calculation must be basedon real hot working data
for a particular material.

Figure 4.3 a is a half of the initial billet with the grids. ( each grid square is 5

mm by 5 mm) It can be seenthat the grid element at the centre of the extruded metal
(fig 4.3 b) experiencesthe greatestelongation at the given speed,and thus the highest
velocity whereasthe metal in contact with the container and/or die surfaceexperiences
 96

the highest strain. The formation of the dead metal zones can also be seenin the area
above the bridge and the comer of the billet adjacent to the die. In the welding
chamber.(fig 4.3 c-d) the front of each extruded stream hits the die face and sticks at
the die coner, thereby causing side extrusion and leaving the dead metal zone in the
chamber (fig 4.3 e and f). The deformation is more severely distorted in the welding
chamber than in the container. In figure 4.3 f the metal in the outer layers near the
billet/container interface remain stationary due to the friction whilst the inner portion

moves toward the die. This causesthe formation of the well known extrusion defect,
namely the back end defect (BED) or piping at the end of extrusion(I 18,119).

CL CL

locatio4 2

location location I
001-
... dlodilil -

locition ":4 Bri ge

Upperdie Upperdie
-I--I---'-

---mandrelba;e
-*4ocation 2
location 5
lowerdie
lowerdie

CL CL

(a) (b)

Figure 4.2 Laminar flow through a bridge die with/without a mandrel, leaving dead
metal zones.(shaded)
a) Bridge without a mandrel (left) b) Bridge with a mandrel (right)
 97

Figure 4.3 The simulation of the metal flow in tube extrusion using the grid method.

comainer

cn je
-E-)
45
bridge
c,
E

u
VL

.M

m
 98

4.3.3 The metalflow for varioustemperatures

andextrusionratios.

The specimens of material remaining in the welding chamber after extrusion

were cut in half longitudinally. The specimen preparation for investigating the now is
discussed in section 3.10.

It was found that rod extrusion at various temperatures, using the same bridge
die, extrusion ratio and ram speed, shows no significant change in metal flow.
However changesin extrusion ratio did affect the flow. This is shown in plate 4.1 a, b

and c. It can be seen at the location 0 that the distortion of flow near the die orifice
becomesmore severewith increasingextrusion ratio from 20:1- 40:1 and thus the
requiredpressureto extrudethe billet increases
with increasingextrusionratio. This
will be discussedin section4.5. The areaof the deadmetal zoneshowsno significant
changewith changesin extrusionratio. This canbe seenat location 1.

From plate 4.1, the metal forming part of the surface and the centre of the

extrudate comes from virgin metal in the deformation zone in locations 2 and 3
respectively. The deformation zones which form the surface of the extrudate are called
surface generationzones. At both locations (2 and 3) the metal is deformed heavily due
to the complex shapeof the die and bridge. The metal, forced to deform severely and
then bonded together to produce the weld lines in the extrudate, comes from the
deformation zones beneaththe legs of the bridge. This can be seenin location 4. The

metal from these deformation zones also forms other regions at the centre of the
extrudates. The surface generation zones are shown in plate 4.1 at locations 2 and 5.
'ne metal from location 5 forms the surfaceof the extrudate near the weld lines whereas
the metal from location 2 generatesother surfaces.

The formation of weld lines is the result of solid statewelding involving side
extrusionin which the metal flow hasbeendistortedseverelybeneaththe bridgelegs.
This leadsto changesin microstructurenearthe weld area. Ile microstructureanalysis
is discussedin chapter5.
 99

Plate 4.1 The metal flow, in BR rod extrudates,varying extrusionratio from

20: 1 30: 1 and 40: 1 (Extrusion temperatureof 450 OCand ramspeedof 3 mm/sec)
,

a Extrusion ratio 20: 1

b Extrusionratio 30:1

c Extrusion ratio 40: 1

(a)

I III

(C)
 100

For tube extrusion it was also found that changes in extrusion temperature had
no important effect on the flow. Ilie metal forming the outer surfacesof the tube, came
from the virgin metal in the surface generation zones (locations land 2 in plate 4.2)
and
the metal forming the inner surfaces, came from the metal in the surface generation
zones adjacent to the mandrel (locations 3 and 4). It can be seen that the metal near the
mandrel in tube extrusion (plate 4.2), experienced less deformation than the metal
deformed severely beneath the centre of the bridge in rod extrusion using a bridge

without a mandrel (plate 4.1). This may lead to a reduction in peak pressure for tube
extrusion, compared to rod extrusion for an equivalent extrusion ratio.

The extrusion ratio can be changed in two ways, ie by changing the dimension
of the mandrel or the die orifice. In both casesincreasing the extrusion ratio gave rise
to greater deformation near the die orifice (seelocation 5 in the plates 4.2 a-c and 4.3 a
and b). The extrusion ratio varied from 23: 1 to 70: 1 using die orifice diameters of
12,14 and 16 mm and mandrel diameters of 4,6 and 8 mm. The combination of die

orifice andmandreldiametersgavetubewall thicknesses

between2 mm.and6 mm.

Plate 4.2 a-c shows the flow in extrusion using the same mandrel (8mm) with
different die orifice diameters of 12 mm, 14 mm and 16 mm respectively. It can be
seen that the metal deformed severely in the smallest die orifice diameter (12mm)
whereas the metal flow in plate 4.2 c (16 mm) had less deformation and the flow lines
can be easily seen. The flow pattern can also be seen more clearly as the mandrel
diameter is reduced while keeping constant the die orifice diameter.(plates 4.2 b, 4.3 a
and b respectively)
 101

Plate 4.2 The metal flow, in tube extruclatesusing a bridge die with a8 mm
mandrel, and varying die orifice diameters

a Extrusion ratio 70: 1( O/D = 12 mm)

b Extrusionrado43:1(0/D = 14mm)

c Extrusionratio 29:1(0/D = 16mm)

(a)

lo
 102

Plate4.3 The metal flow, in tubeextrudatesusing a bridge die with a constant

die orifice diameter ( 14 mm), and varying mandrel diameters

a Extrusionratio 35:1(1/D = 6mm)

b Extrusion ratio 31: 10/D =4mm)

(a)

(b)
 103

4.4 Pressure-Displacement Curve

For direct extrusion of normal rod products using a conventional die and rod
products using a bridge die, the Pressure/Displacementcurves are of the form shown in
figure 4.4. It can be seenthat the plot for the rod extrudate using a bridge die is more

complex. This is becausethe extrusion from the initial billet to the final product has
more stages in this complex die. The stagesof extrusion in both cases are discussed
below:

For the conventional die the curve can be divided into three regions:

1) The billet is upset to fill the container. After that the pressurerapidly rises
to the peak value, PO(the breakthrough pressure). Castle (120)reported that some
materials during this stage have already started to extrude and when the pressure
reachesthe peak value the deadmetal zone is completely established.
2) The pressurefalls from the peak value and the steady state extrusion starts.
A gradual fall in pressure can be seen in this region and this can be attributed to the
decreasingbillet length, and thereby decreasingfriction, and the decreasein flow stress
due to the temperaturerise.
3) In the third region the pressure first falls to the minimum value and then
shows a rapid increase. This is associatedwith the post steady state and the onset of
coring. Normally the ram is stopped before reaching this stage in order to prevent
unwanted defects in the product.

It was found that the pressuredependsmainly on the parameters,extrusion ratio

and extrusion temperature. The pressure, required for extrusion, increases with
increasing extrusion ratio or decreasingextrusion temperature.

By using the bridge die, the pressure curve after reaching the peak value is

similar to the curve for normal rod extrudates using a conventional die. The curve can
be divided into five regions:

1) The billet is upset in the container and the pressure rises to the first peak
value (PI). Some material has already been extruded past the bridge and when the
 104

pressure reaches the first peak value the dead metal zones in the billet are completely
established.

2) The metal continues to pass the bridge and fill the die chamber. The

pressure slightly increases due to the friction at the surfaces of the bridge and die
chamber.

3) The pressure rapidly rises to the second peak value (P2). Some material
has already beenextruded through the die orifice and when the pressurereachesits peak

value the dead metal zonesare formed in the die chamber. ,,

The last two stages(4 and 5) are the sameas the stages2 and 3 in the extrusion

usinga conventionaldie.

Ex=ion
pressule

&i. ol
US, til 1ý1,
v
Ituav

2
commutiazal Lie
---------------
-Af pp0
---------------- ----- y ---------------------------

-2-

Ram Displacement

Figure 4.4 Pressure/DisplacementCurves for extrusion using conventional die

and bridge die ( Schematic)

 105

When a bridge with a mandrel was used for tube extrusion under the same

extrusion conditons (ramspeed,extrusion temperature, die diameter (O/D)) as a bridge

without a mandrel for BR rod extrusion, it was found that the first two regions of the
Pressure/Displacementcurve, I and 2, coincided. However the breakthrough pressure
for tube extrusion was normally greater than the pressurefor BR rod extrusion. This is
due to the friction with the mandrel and the increase in extrusion ratio caused by the
introduction of the mandrel. Ibis can be seenin figure 4.5 below.

The extrusion pressuresusing the bridge die with/without a mandrel also

dependon the extrusiontemperatureandratio. The pressureincreaseswith increasing
extrusion ratio and/ordecreasing
extrusion This
temperature. can be seenschematically
in figure 4.6.

Extmsion
pressure
0

Rain Displacement

Figure 4.5 Pressure/Displacement Curves for extrusion using a bridge die

with/without a mandrel ( Schematic)
 106

Extrusion
pressure
or It,

before extrude
emerges T2or22

T1

Ti< T2
oo
RIý P'2
T2

Rem Displacement

Figure 4.6 Schematic of the effect of temperatureCI) and extrusion ratio (R) on
Pressure/DisplacementCurves for extrusion using a bridge die with/without a mandrel

In the current observation on the PressureMisplacementextrusion curves, it was

found that a small bump usually occurred in the steady-stateextrusion region ( i. e. the

region after the breakthrough pressure) of tube extrusions (see figure 4.7). It was also
observed in the BR rod extrusions with high extrusion ratio ( i. e. 50: 1).

The occurrence of this bump was associated with an "unexpected and

unwanted" peak pressure in extrusion and thus increased the required pressure at the
position in which it occurred. In addition, at the same time the ram speed decreased
immediately almost zero i. e. the ram almost stopped. This led to an occurrence of the

white mark on the product extrudates because the time before quenching was now
sufficient to cause oxidation. When the pressure reached the peak of the bump the
extrusion continued at the original rarnspeed and approached steady state extrusion
again. Fortunately the magnitude of these unwanted peaks was lower than the
breakthrough pressure in all extrusions in which they occurred. Therefore the
breakthrough pressure is still the factor which determines the required capacity of the

extrusion press.
 107

Pressure
(Mpa)

900. - OIDI IID ITtmp 'R

Bumps
Mim am C
goo-- Break1hrough
a 12 6 400 52:1
pressure
700-- 0v
b 14 6 400 35:1
600-- a c 12 6 450 52:1
b
500-- c d 14 6 450 35: 1
'0' Bumps
300

200

100

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 B-0 90 100
Rain Travel (n=)

Figure 4.7 The bumpsin the Pressure/Displacement

extrusioncurvesof tube
extrusions

The magnitude of the pressure (API) i. e. the increment above the steady state

pressure,is not dependentupon extrusion ratio and extrusion temperature. This can be
seen in table 4.3 below. For example, the increments of pressure at 4500C, API, are
113,36 and 82 MPa for extrusion ratios of 23.4,42.6 and 52 respectively. Therefore
it does not appear possible to relate the increment of pressure to the extrusion

parameters. A bump was generally found in the Pressure/Displacement extrusion

curve. However several bumps in extrusion curves occurred when the larger mandrel
and/or smaller die orifice were used. For example, seven bumps were found in the
extrusioncurveof the extremecase(tubeextrusion,extrusionratio of 70:1).

To investigate the effect of the bump on the thickness of tube, three specimens
were taken from three locations: 1) before the bump 2) in the middle and 3) after the
bump. It was found that no variation in thickness in the three specimens occurred.
This indicated that the increase in pressure due to the bump did not result from the
increase in metal/dieland interface in the caseof the "back fill" mechanism(121)which
increasedfriction and led to a larger thicknessof extrudate.
 108

QD J/D Extrusion API (MPa) at extrusion temperatureof

mm mm ratio
3500C 4000C 4500C 5000C 5500C
16 4 23.4 0 20,72 20
16 6 25.0 113 -
16 8 29.2 93 72 90
14 4 31.25 92 31 61 20 20
14 6 35.0 - 72 82.3,31 77,26
14 8 42.6 31 1 36 31
12 4 44.0 31 31 -
12 6 52.0 92,72, 82
72,87
12 8 70.0 77,56,
56,51,
51,61,
113

Table 4.3 The variation of increment in pressure (API) in tube extrusions. Note: each
API value was measuredfrom each bump in the Pressure/Displacementcurves

In previous Tesearch(122,123), it has been reported that the type of flow pattern

most commonly observed for Tod extrusion is one where the grid lines, originally
perpendicular to the billet axis, bow out near the die exit yielding a single maximum
pattern with the apex located at the extrusion axis. The change from this common type
to an unusual type of flow pattern has been observed in some cases(122)(i. e. rod
extrusions produced using non-lubricated conical dies with high ram speed)where two
maxima occur symmetrically about the extrusion axis separated by a minimum at the
(122)that the flow pattern started as the single maximum
axis. It was also pointed out
type until the maximum extension of the central grid element occurred (i. e. the
maximum 1/10
value where I= extended element length and lo = original element length
Note: The theoretical value of 1/10is the extrusion ratio). The double maxima type
increasesthe strain particularly at the central axis (the minimum) which is more than at
the double maxima locations. The increase in strain led to an increase in the required
pressure for continuing extrusion. Hence extrusion pressure exhibited the multipeak-
behaviour (bumps). In BR rod and tube extrusions, there are many surfacescontacting
the metal flow. Therefore the flow pattern is very complex compared to normal rod
extrusion. In this project there are three metal flow streamsof which each stream flows
around the central axis, thus an extremely asymmetric flow is produced. The

occurrence of the bump in the Pressure/Displ acement curves may result from the
combined effect of the "three maxima" flow formed from the three streams in the die
chamber and the friction of the mandrel which producesthe sufficient strain.
 109

4.5 Extrusion Data analysis

In extrusion the peak pressure is very important because it determines the

pressure capacity required to extrude the billet under the extrusion conditions
considered. Clode(4) reported for normal rod extrusions that the peak pressure is
dependent upon the initial extrusion t6mperature. For each extrusion ratio the peak
pressuredecreaseswith increasing extrusion temperature (as the flow stressdecreases).
The relationship between the extrusion temperature and peak pressure is a power

relationship of the form shown below:

p= CTD 4.23
Where "C" and "D" are constantsat each extrusion ratio, T is temperature and P is the

peak pressure.

Clode also reported values for these constants for the extrusion ratios of 20: 1,
40:1 and80:1 anda rarnspeedof 14mnVs,as shownin table4.4 below.

p= CTD 20: 1 40: 1 80: 1

c 34.98OE6 41.548E6 47.511E6
D -1.9059 -1.9059 -1.9059
cc 0.960 0.956 0.946

Table 4.4 Extrusion constantsfor normal rod extrusions (Clode(4))

In the present investigation the dependenceof peak pressure on the initial billet
temperature of normal rod extrusions (extrusion ratio=30: 1 and rarnspeed=3mm/s)is
shown in figure 4.8. The C and D constantsare (39.896E6) and (-1.9126) respectively
with an excellent correlation of 0.997. For extrusions produced using a bridge die
without a mandrel the effect of extrusion temperature is shown in figure 4.9 and the

constants are in table 4.5. In addition, it is also found that the temperature in Kelvin
(K) gives a better correlation than in Celsius (*C). Hence, for normal rod extrusion as
stated above, the C and D constants would be (1.170E12) and (-3.338) with an
excellent correlation of 0.999. An increase in extrusion ratio shifts the curve up due to
the increasein the required pressure.
 110

rA

.5vu -+VV ;)vU 600

Initial billet temperature
(C)
Figure 4.8 Variation in peak pressurewith initial billet temperature(Normal rod
extrusionswith an extrusionratio of 30:1 andram speedof 3 mnVs)

1000

90
z so

701

60(

50(

40C

300

2001
300 400 500 600
Initial biUet lemperatm (C)

Figure 4.9 Variation in peak pressure with initial billet temperature (extrusions
produced using a bridge die wihtout a mandrel, ram speedof 3 mm/s)
 ill

T(OC) T(K)
P= CTD 20: 1 30: 1 40: 1 20: 1 30: 1 40: 1
c 51.027E6 31.472E6 160.52E6 4.463E9 1.518EI 1 1.526EI2
D 1
-1.498 -1.779 -2.027 -2.419 -2.938 -3.272
cc 0.973 0.990 0.979 0.977 0.983 0.983
. 1 . 1

Table 4.5 Extrusion constants for extrusions produced using the bridge die without a
mandrel (for equation 4.23)

For tube extrusions the effect of extrusion temperature is shown in figure 4.10
andtheconstantsarein table4.6.

P= CTD 23.4:1 29.2:1 31.25:1 35:1 42.6:1

c 2.826E6 2.243E6 2.636E8 1.279E8 1.192E6
D -1.398 -1.345 -2.110 -2.004 -1.208
cc 0.973 1 0.991 1 0.950 0.991 1 0.939

Table4.6 Extrusionconstantsfor tubeextrusions(for equation4.23)

1000

900

800
wl 700
R

600

Soo

400

300

IniiW biUattemperature(C)
Figure 4.10 Variation in peak pressurewith initial billet temperature of tube extrusions
(ram speedof 3 mm/s)
 112

It was found that the peak pressurein tube extrusion is also dependenton
extrusiontemperature.An increasein extrusionratio generallyshifts the curve up to
higherpressureexceptthe extrusionratio of 35:1 (I/D=6mmi,O/D=l4mm) in which the
peak pressureis lower than at 31.25:1 (I/D=4mm,O/D=14mm) in figure 4.10. This
may be due to the insignificant difference in extrusion ratio and hencethe smaller
mandrel (L/D=4nim) causes more severely distorted metal flow, beneaththe bridge legs
adjacent to the mandrel, than with the larger mandrel. Consequently the more severe
distortion leads to an increasein the required pressure.

It was also reported (4,74,124-128)

that the peak pressure is dependent upon

extrusion ratio at given ram speed and temperature. The results show an increase in the

peak pressure with increasing extrusion ratio and the data is plotted in figure 4.11. It
indicates a linear relationship between the pressure and extrusion ratio is in the form
below:

A+BlnR 4.24
WhereA andB areconstants

For nonnal rod extrusionsof AA 6063alloy, Clode(4)reported

goodcorrelation
at all temperaturesusing the equation 4.24. This is shown in table 4.7 below.

P=A+BlnR 350 OC 400 OC 450 OC 500 OC 550 OC

A 121.0 100.0 37.5 32.5 42.5
B 121.0 98.0 90.0 73.0 57.0
cc 0.976 0.980 0.991 0.990 0.987
Table 4.7 Extrusion constantsfor nonnal rod extrusions (Clode(4))

In extrusion using the bridge die it is found that the required pressurefor
extrusionis higher than for the normal extrusion. This is becausethe complexity of
extrusionincreasesthe resistanceto deformation.Hencea componentof the increased
pressureis requiredfor,the severeredundantdeformationassociatedwith the "bending"
of the flow lines and the increasedfrictional resistanceassociatedwith the increasein
the contact area in the die. However, figure 4.11 shows the relationship between the
peak pressure and the extrusion ratio of the "bridge die" extrusions. Good correlation
 113

is found only in the 500 `C extrusions. With decreasingextrusion temperaturethe

correlationdecreases (i.e.at 400 'C, cc=0.934). This is becausethe pressurerequired
for the first two steps(seefigure 4.4) is dependentupon the extrusiontemperaturedue
to the constantRI valueusedfor the threeextrusionratios usedin the investigation,as
discussedin section4.4. The pressurefor the first two stepsof the 500 'C extrusionis
lessthanthat for the lower temperature(400'C) extrusion. Consequently,the variation
in the pressurefor the first two stepsat different temperaturesaffectsthe total pressure
(breakthroughpressure)and hencepoor correlation results. In the presentcasethe
correctionin thePressure/Extrusion ratio relationshipis doneby usingthe secondorder
of the peripheral ratio (X2) as statedin section 4.2. Hence equation 4.24 can be
modifiedinto the equation4.25below:

P=A+B In (X2RI R2) 4.25

where = 2.05 for the bridge in the study
RI = 2.32
R2 = extrusion ratio calculated from the area of the welding chamber
in the die divided by the areaof extrudate
Rm = X2 RI R2 and the values were given in table 4.1

It can be seen in figure 4.12 that the correlation is improved for the 400 'C and
450 OCextrusion temperatures. Although the correlation for 500 OCslightly decreases,
it is still good (0.988). Hence it can be concluded that the pressure/extrusion ratio
in
relationship equation 4.25 (using the peripheral ratio) is more suitable than equation
4.24 particularly for the lowest extrusion temperature. For tube extrusion, the
relationship between the peak pressureand extrusion ratio must be treated in the same
manner as in the BR rod extrusion. Therefore the equation can be modified into the
fonn below:
P=A+B In (%12RI X22 112) 4.26

where XI = 2.05 for the bridge used in the study

X2 = Peripheral ratio of the mandrel/die orifice shown in table 4.1
Rj = 2.32
R2 = Extrusion ratio calculated from the area of the welding chamber
in the die divided by the areaof extrudate
X12RIX2 2R2
Rm = and the values were given in table 4.1
 114

900-
P(400C)=- 225.10+ 282.601n(R)cc = 0.934
P(450C)=- 34.845+ 195.581n(R)cc = 0.967
;ý 80(). P(500C)= 120.64+ 110.761n(R)cc = 0.999
-1-110

0
-9
it 40

500 C
450 C
400 C

2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

In(R)

Figure 4.11 Variation in the peak pressurewith InR (R=original extrusion ratio)

P(400C)= 1111.9+ 351.071nRmcc 0.985

P(450C)= 634.33+ 240.24lnRmcc 0.998
P(500C)= 204.01+ 133.21lnRmcc 0.988

13 500 C
450 C
400 C

4.9,5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

ln(R modified)

Figure 4.12 Variation in the peak pressurewith InRm (modified extrusion ratio)
 115

Table 4.8 shows the extrusion constantsand correlation of the relationship

betweenthepeakpressureandoriginalextrusionratio of the tubeextrusionin which the
extrusionratio is not modified by usingtheperipheralratio. In figure 4.13 the curves
are ploted by using the modified extrusionratio in equation4.26. It can be seenthat
good correlationsare obtainedin the curves using the modified extrusion ratio and
henceit is more accurateto relatepeakpressureto modified extrusionratio ratherthan
to the original extrusion ratio.

P=A+BlnR 400 OC 450 OC 500 OC

A -534.83 -361.84 -571.72
B 368.25 280.49 325.34

cc 0.924 70 0.919

Table 4.8 Extrusion constantsfor tube extrusions using original extrusion ratio

E
z

I
5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2
In Rm

Figure 4.13 Variation in the peak pressurewith InRm of tube extrusion

 116

From the results obtained above it may be concluded that, for the more complex
extrusions, the initial billet temperature and the extrusion ratio still affect the peak
pressure in the power relationship shown in equation 4.23 and the linear relationship
shown in equation 4.25 and 4.26 above. However these equations are of limited use
and prove to be cumbersomein practice. To use theseequations, a number of values of
constantsare requiredto cover the rangeof possibleworking conditions. In addition,
to obtainthe constants,extensiveextrusiontrials mustbeperformedandthusit may not
be industrially feasible when devoloping new alloys. Consequently,a relationship
between the peak pressure and the extrusion parametersis produced in a more
convenient form, as stated earlier in equation4.11. To assessthe validity of the
equation4.11, a multiple analysis
regression on extrusiondataof AA6063 collectedby
Clode and on normal rod extrusionsdatain the currentinvestigationwas carriedout.
The results obtained for the general empirical pressure equation are presented along
with the correlation coefficient below:

A' = 4.48
B' = 17.37
C, = 10.24
CC = 0.932

As stated in section 4.2 the peak pressure for the complex shapes can be

predicted by the use of shape factors. For the peak pressure of extrusions using the
bridge die with/without a mandrel the constants above are subtituted in equation 4.14.
Figure 4.14 shows the experimental peak pressurefor the BR rod extrusions and tube
extrusions against the predicted peak pressure. It can be seen that for a given set of
extrusion conditions the predicted pressurevalues are close to the experimental pressure
values in the pressure regions less than 500 MN/m2. This implies that the modified
general equation 4.14 can be applied only for high temperature extrusions (>500 OC)

and low extrusion ratios (20: 1-30: 1). For the high pressure values i. e. low extrusion
temperature and high extrusion ratio, the predicted peak pressures are significantly
lower than the experimental peak pressures. This is due to the complexity of the multi-
step extrusion which has three steps in the current investigation using the bridge die.
This multi-step extrusion distorts the metal flow more severelyand increasesthe ffiction
due to an increase in the Area of material/tool interface. Therefore the severe
 117

deformation and friction leads to an increasein the pressureparticularly for low

extrusiontemperatureandhigh extrusionratio conditions. it can be concludedthat the
modified generalequation with the shapefactors (equation4.14) is not suitable to
predictpressurerequirementsfor muld-stepextrusions.

v2
CA

LU

400 500 600 700 800 900

predicted peak pressure (MN/m2)

Figure 4.14 Predicted pressure from modified general pressure equation Vs

experimental peak pressurefor BR rod and tube extrusions

It has been found that the maximum pressure, required for extruding the billet
past the bridge to produce the three metal streams (first step extrusion), is constant and
dependentupon extrusion temperature. Moreover an increment in pressure,required in
the welding chamber prior to extruding the product (second step extrusion), is also
constant for a given extrusion temperature. This is due to the use of constant
dimensions of the bridge, the upper die portion and the lower die portion except the die

orifice. Figure 4.15 and 4.16 show the variation in pressurewith extrusion temperature
for extruding past the bridge and in the weld chamber respectively. By the use of

multiple regressionanalysis, it can also be seenthat the correlation coefficient is good in

both pressure/temperature curves. Consequently, if we assume that the maximum
 118

pressure value and the steady state pressure value in both step extrusions are similar,
the breakthrough pressure (total pressure,Pr) can be divided into three parts below.

1) The maximum pressure (Pb) occurs when the billet is extruded into three

metal streams and the pressurecan be described by equation 4.27 and shown in figure
4.15 below:

Pb= A+B 4.27

where A and B are constants obtainedby multipleregressionmethod

Ti is initial billet temperature('C or K)

2) An increment in pressure (Pw) is required for extruding the metal in the

welding chamber and the relationship between Pw and extrusion temperature is in the
form of equation 4.28 and shown in figure 4.16 below:

Pw +1 Tp
4.28

where C and D are constantsobtained by multiple regressionmethod

Tp is extrusion temperatureat Pw ( OCor K)

3) An increment in pressure (Pe) is required for extruding the metal in the die
chamber through the die orifice. The relationship between Pe and extrusion parameters
is in the form as stated in equation 4.14. For the BR rod extrusion the constants a

correlation coefficient of 0.943 are listed below:

A'= - 396.37
243.67
C' = 49.82

Ibus the total pressurevaluecanbedescribedin equation4.29 below:

PT ý- Pb+ Pw + Pe 4.29
 119

Pb 316.35+ 2.0491e+5(1/T(C))cc = 0.997

Pb 609.37+ 5.4427e+5(1/T(K))cc = 0.995

E
zI
ts;

.0
0-

C/)
CD

0.0010 0.0014 0.0018 0.0022 0.0026 0.0030

I/T
Figure 4.15 Variation in the Pb pressurewith extrusion temperature

Pw=- 143.14+ 1.1523e+5(1/Tp(C)) cc= 0.984

Pw=- 283.23+ 2.8697e+5(llrp(K)) cc= 0.991

a-

0.0010 0.0014 0.0018 0.0022 0.0026 0.0030

I/TP

Figure 4.16 Variation in the maximum pressure(Pw) with extrusion temperature

 120

Equation4.27,4.28 and4.14 can be substitutedinto equation4.29 and further

modffied to theform shownbelow:

PT 'V
A'+ B'71,+ C; F' + D'In (R')+E'ln 4.30
otn p
where A', B', C, D'and E' are constants and the other terms have been
defined earlier

For the BR rod extrusion the constantsdetermined are listed in table 4.9.

I I I I I
A' B' D' E' cc
1 1 243.67 1 49.82 1
BR rod - 1288.97 5.443 e +51 2.870 e+5 0.968
Table4.9 Extrusionconstantsin generalequation4.30

Unlike the constantsof the modified generalequation4.14, the constantsin

table 4.9, found by using multiple regression, include friction in each steps of
extrusion. The high correlationcoefficient in equation 4.30 indicates that the derived
equationis applicableover therangeof extrusionconditionsconsidered.Equation4.30
the
alsopredicts pressurerequirement with the error range of ±I I% and averageerror
of 5.4%. The equationhas incorporated dependencies upon initial billet temperature,
extrusiontemperatureandmodified extrusionratio and hence definesthe breakthrough
pressureunder a given set of extrusion conditions. This is clearly demonstratedin
figure 4.17 which showsthe experimentalpressuresagainst thepredictedpressures.

By the use of the shape factor (%2,as stated in table 4.1) in equation 4.30 the
predicted peak pressure for tube extrusion can be obtained. It can be seen in figure
4.18 that experimental peak pressureversuspredicted peak pressureplot is less accurate
than in figure 4.17 (far from ideal pressure line, slope = 1). This may be due to the
variation in size of the mandrel base. Although the predicted peak pressurevalues for
some extrusion conditions are not close to the experimental values, the equation based
on three step extrusion is better than the modified general pressure equation 4.14.
Equation 4.30 predicts the pressurerequirementsfor tube extrusion with the error range
of ± 13% and the average error of 8.4%. However the error become 26% only in a
tube extrusion (O/D=16mm, I/D=4mm, T=550 (ýC) shown as position A in
case of
figure 4.18. In conclusion equation 4.30 can be used to approximately predict the
'total' peak pressure for tube extrusion.
 121

E
I

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Predictedpeak pressure(MN/m2)

Figure 4.17 Predicted pressure from three-step extrusion method Vs

experimental peak pressurefor BR rod extrusions

300 400 500 600 700 Soo 900 1000

Predicted peak pressure

Figure 4.18 Predicted pressure from three-step extrusion method Vs

experimental peak pressurefor tube extrusions

 122

4.6 Summary

1. In the current investigation extrusions produced using a bridge die can be

treated as three-step extrusions. In the first step metal is extruded past the bridge.
Secondly the metal is further extruded to fill the welding chamber. In the final step the
,
metal in the chamber is extruded through the die orifice to produce the final product.

2. Extrusion temperature does not alter the metal flow paths significantly

while extrusionratio doesaffecttheflow of metal.

3. Different parts of the extrudate originate from different portions of the

deformation zones. Metal forming the weld region originates from the metal in the
deformation zone beneath the bridge leg. The weld formation is the result of solid

statewelding.

4. The pressure/displacementcurve of the three-stepextrusion produces two

'clearly seen' peak pressuresand an apparent peak pressure which is produced when

themetalfills theweldingchamber.

5. The pressure "bumps" on the pressure/displacement curve are usually

found in the steady-state pressure regions of the tube extrusions and in the BR rod
extrusions with high extrusion ratios and low extrusion temperatures. The bumps are
unwanted increments in pressure and their magnitudes are not dependent upon the
extrusion ratio or extrusion temperature. The occurrence of bumps may be causedby
the "three maxima" flow formed from the three streams in the die chamber and the
friction with the mandrel. (Note: each streamhas a single maximum flow pattern)

6. Peakextrusionpressureincreaseswith decreasingextrusiontemperature
and increasingextrusionratio, and is greaterin extrusionsproducedusingthe bridge
die. By using a shapefactor the correlationbetweenthe pressureand the extrusion
ratio is improved.
 123

7. A generalpressureincorporatingthe hot working constantstogetherwith

the use of a shapefactor (peripheralratio) is not suitableto predict the 'total' peak
pressurefor theextrusionusinga bridgedie.

8. A pressure equation modified using the three-step extrusion analysis

produces predicted 'total' peak pressure for the BR rod extrusion with a good
correlation, an error range of 11% and average error of 5.4%. For tube extrusion,
pressure equation using a shape factor is less accurate for predicting the pressure
requirements becausethe error range is 13% and average error is 8.4%. However it
can be used to estimatethe peak pressure.
 124

ChajpleT5

MUTTIDGqTMTqMT&U M&UYSIG
 125

ClElplarr 5 MIcTomairmclmnO mmmIgalm

5.1 Structure analysis

5.1.1As cast structure

The semi-continuous (direct-chill) as cast structure of AA6063 alloy can be seen

in plate 5.1 (a) and 5.1 (b) (as-polished structure), plate 5.2 (a-e) (structure etched by
Barker's reagent) It was found that heterogenities existed in the cast structure. Most
of the magnesium is in solid solution. Eutectic Mg2Si and small particles of AlFeSi
025) These dendrite arms have a
phases exist between the primary dendrite arms.
typical width of 25 grn as shown in plate 5.2 b and d. However the most important
feature of the cast - structure is the presenceof 0 AlFeSi (monoclinic structure) at the

grain boundaries. This phase forms coarse particIes and causes a decreasein
extrudabilityand strengthtogether
with a poorersurfacefinish in the fmal product.

The 0 AlFeSi phaseappearsaslight metallic grey "bladelike" coarseparticles

at grain boundariesin the as - polished optical micrograph (plate 5.1 a) and in the SEM
(SEI mode) micrograph (plate 5.1 b) but appearsblack in the optical micrographs using
polarized light after etching with Barker's reagent (plate 5.2 a, c e). Both ccand P
AlFeSi phases appear white in the SEM (BEI mode) due to the great number of

reflected electrons of the higher atomic number elements (Fe,Si) compared to the Al
(126) Most
matrix. of the black particle like features shown in plate 5.1 (a) are in fact
voids where the Al-Fe-Si phase has beenpulled out of the matrix during the specimen
preparation. These voids can be seen clearly in plate 5.1 (b) near the AlFeSi phase.
The remaining black precipitates at the grain boundaries in plate 5.1 (a) are the Mg2Si

coarse precipitates. To identify this M92S' (without EDX ), the SEM was switched
to BEI mode. The voids, due to the pulling out of AlFeSi, appear black in both modes
(plate 5.1 b and e) whereas the M92Si appearsgrey in BEI mode. In the matrix (plate
5.1 b) the black or nearly black rounded "particles" may be voids due to the pulling out
of small AlFeSi particles. The white precipitates might be the Mg2Si or inclusions.
Plate 5.1 e shows the microstructure of the homogenised specimen in a SEM
investigation. The white particles were identified as the (x AlFeSi phase.
 126

Plate 5.1 The microstructure of AA 6063 alloy.

a) As cast structure (as pohshed) c) Homogenised structure 575 'C for 6

hrs (as polished), air cool

b) As cast structure in SEI mode (SEM) d) Homogenised structure 575 'C for 6
hrs, air cool in SEI mode (SEM)

e) Homogenised structure 575 'C for 6 hrs in BEI mode (SEM)

shows the ccAlFeSi (white) and the voids (black) due to pulling out

of AlFeSi phasesduring the specimenpreparation

 'Voids

1) AlFcSt

i
40

e-
-, -". 00

10 pm 10 gm

(a)

(b)
(d)

- -"I

(C)
 127

Plate 5.2 The microstructure of as cast AA 6063 alloy after etching with
Barker's reagent.

a) As cast structure (normal light) 30 x c) As cast structure (normal light) 240 x

b) As cast structure (polarized light) 30 x d) As cast structure (polarized light)240 x

e) As cast structure (normal light) 120 x

A

-, 0. '%ý - j'; ýI
1.1 ty
4,
- ý,: '%ý

POO

(a) (i: )

(b) I (.1

-. '- .
..

:. _
:_ --

-
'

':
. ""
.
"
E
:
"
" ". .
... ..
'S

"".
". "-

"
;
S
"'"d5 I

. 1:
r ' S
'S S
" "- "
rfl
/ :""" _

(e)
 128

Due to the harmful effect of this P iron -intermetallic phasein aluminium

alloys , this P phasemust be transformed during homogenisationtreatmentto the (x
AlFeSi phasewhich is lessdetrimentalto extrusionandis lessbrittle, having a more
roundedform. This transformationalso results in dissolutionof the excesssilicon
because0 AlFeSi contains approximately 15% silicon, while cc AlFeSi contains
8% (9) This leadsto an increasein the silicon
approximately silicon. availableto be
precipitatedduring agehardeningasthe Mg2Siphase.

5.1.2 Homogenisedstructure

The objective of hornogenisation treatment in the AA 6063 alloy is to improve

extrudability and surface finish and to obtain adequatemechanical properties. For this
reason the P AlFeSi must be transformed to a AlFeSi (see section 2.5 for details).

To examinethis AlFeSi phasechange,theas-castspecimenswerehomogenised

at a temperature
of 575 "C ±5 'C for times of 1-6 hrs and quenchedrapidly using a
in to the
waterquench order retain elevated temperature structure.Ile microstructures
of the specimenswereexaminedunder an optical microscope in thepolishedcondition.
Plate 5.3 (a-d) showsthe as cast,2 hrs, 4 hrs, and 5 hrs heattreatedmicrostructures
respectively.

From plate 5.3, it was found that the 0 AlFeSi " blade like" particles changed
to the more rounded cc AlFeSi phase on homogenisation for 2 hours. The coarse
M92Si at the grain boundaries, appearing black (plate 5.3 a ), was dissolved very
rapidly (plate 5.3 b-d). The actual homogenisation treatment used in the extrusion

experiments involved heating at 575 T for 6 hrs, followed by an air cool. This

treatment improves extrudability ( less pressurerequired to extrude ) with reduced cost

no need for solutionising prior to ageing). This is due to the presenceof the Mg2Si in
0' (hexagonal) form(49) which tends to have partially coherent interfaces and more

readily dissolves on passing through the deformation zone during extrusion. This

provides more Mg and Si in solid solution available for precipitation. Therefore this
increasesthe tensile strength of the final product in the T5 condition ( extruded + aged

at 180 T8 hrs). The homogenisation treatment did not significantly affect the grain

size(seeplate 5.2 d and5.4 d).

 129

Plate5.3 The as-polishedmicrostructureof AA 6063afterheattreatment

at 575 OC.

a) As cast structure

b) Homogenisedfor 2 hrs + waterquenched

for 4 hrs + waterquenched

c) Homogenised.

d) Homogenisedfor 5 hrs + waterquenched

 - 0,
,;,

(D
LL
4c

('

/I

/:
 130

Plate 5.4 The microstructure of homogenisedAA 6063 alloy after etching with
Barker's reagent. (575 'C 6 hrs, air cooled)

a) Homogenised structure c) Homogenised structure

(nonnal light) 30 x (normal light) 240 x

b) Homogenised structure d) Homogenised structure

(polarized light) 30 x (polarized light) 240 x

e) Homogenised structure (nonnal light) 120 x

 rT) 25 pm

(a) (c)

ý)
ýIrr
.I

(b) (cl)

?
f«1-:
-
---:
4.?..:
4'

- -.

A 1.
-ýý -t., '. .

(C)
 131

For a microstructural comparison between as cast structurr. and homogenised

structure at the samemagnification after etching with Barker's reagent, seeplate 5.2 (a-
e) and plate 5.4 (a-e). These show a reduction in microsegregation(127) after
homogenisation and they verify that hornogenisationdoes not affect the grain size.

5.2 Structure analysis of AA 6063 extrusion

In the literature, many researchers(128-133) have written that the

thermornechanicalprocessparameters,especially temperatureand extrusion ratio, affect
the microstructures of the extrudates. Therefore this study examined the effects of
these two parameters on all microstructures of as-extruded specimens, produced in
normal rod shapeand tube shape. The heat treated microstructures in the T6 condition
were also investigated.

5.2.1 The effect of temperaturevariation on the as extrudedmicrostructure,

of
nonnal rod extrudates.

Several researchers(69,74,98,134)
have reported that when metals with high
stacking fault energy are extruded, the microstructure after extrusion consists of
elongatedoriginal grains containingsubgrainstogetherwith statically recrystallised
grains. The term "subgrains"is applied to the dislocation cell structureswith low
boundary angles. The misorientation between subgrains in Aluminium and its
is reportedas being between10 and 70. The mean subgrainsize
alloys(133,135,136)
increaseswith increasein extrusiontemperatureand with decreasein strainrate (i.e.
(137)
decreasingram speedor extrusionratio). Subramaniyan statedthat an increasein
extrusiontemperaturein Al-Cu-Mg 2024alloy increasedthe dislocationmobility and
facilitateddislocationannihilationandincreasedsubgrainsize. Thereforethis reduces
the driving force for recrystallisationduring subsequentheat treatment. However,it
must be noted that an increasein extrusion temperaturealso producesa high exit
temperaturein the extrudateafter extrusion. In Al-Mg-Si 6063 alloy, this is sufficient
prior to quenchingeven though the stored
to causestatic recrystallisation(131.138)
energy (driving force) was reducedvia the occurrenceof larger subgrainsin high
temperatureextrusion. This recrystallisationwas quite often found in the quenched
structure,especiallyin high strainregion,Le. surfaceof extrudate.
 132

In this study the extrudateswere producedby using flat faced dies without
lubrication. The extrusiontemperaturevariedbetween250 OC- 550 'C. An extrusion
ratio of 30:1 wasusedwith a constantrarn speedof 3 mmls.

The microstructures in plate 5.5 (a, b) -5.6 (a, b) show variations from the
surface of the extrudate to the centre. These variations are due to the different strains
and the different temperatures at the surface and the centre(125,139).The region near
the surface experiencesmuch more strain and higher temperature than the centre as the
surface is formed from metal, originating in the heavily sheared regions of the
deformation zone, adjacent to the dead metal zone. This increases the dislocation
density in this region and produces a greater number of nucleation sites and sufficient
internal energy to promote recrystallisation. The recrystallisation involved is static
recrystallisation due to the delay (-3.5 sec) before quenching the extrudate, as
discussedabove.

In plate5.5 (a) (temp250 OC) theoriginal homogenised

grainswhich elongated
in the extrusion direction at the centre of the extrudateare larger than those some
distance from the centre. These elongated grains are the main feature of the typical

microstructure of the extrudate at low temperature (T<350('C ). However occasional

statically Tecrystallised grains can be seen at the surface. These are limited to
approximately 18 gm in size due to the time for grain growth being limited i. e. the
delay before quenching. When the temperatureincreased,an annulus of recrystallised
grains occurred in the surface regions due to the higher strain (high dislocation density )

and higher temperature compared to the centre. The high density of nucleation sites in
this annulus produced a recrystallised grain structure with a typical grain size of
approximately 15 gm - 80 gm. (plate 5.5 b)

The microstructures in plate 5.5(b), and plate 5.6 (a), for extrusion
350T and450 T respectively,showthat the annulus,formedof smaller
temperatures
equiaxedgrains,was thicker than that of the lower temperature
extrusions(plate 5.5
(a), T=250 'Q becauseat the higher temperaturemore efficient recovery produces
larger subgrainswhich in turn leadsto fewer but larger nuclei for recrystallisation.
Also the amountof recrystallisedgrainsincreasedwith increasingextrusiontemperature
becausetheenergyavailablefor recrystallisationis a functionof thetemperature.
 133

The recrystallisation occurred first at the surface and then spread to inner

regions of the extrudate. In the inner regions the recrystallised grains were somewhat
larger than those near the surface becauseof the lower density of nucleation sites (lower

strain and dislocation density). This can be seenclearly in plate 5.6 (b).

The microstructure in plate 5.6 (b) (T= 550 'C) shows a completely
recrystallised structure. This type of structure can be observed at high temperature
(>500 'C ). There are different sized recrystallised grains at different locations in the

cross section. The cross section can be divided into three regions:
a. The region near the surface consists of a recrystallised annulus in which the
equiaxed grains (-100 gm) are larger than in the previous extrudates at lower
temperatures(shownin plate 5.5 a, b and5.6 a).
b. In theregion betweenthe surfaceandthecentre themicrostructureconsists
of large equiaxedgrains(100-200gm) dueto the decreased strain,comparedwith the
surfaceregion,which in turn resultedin a relativelylow densityof nucleationsites.
c. In theregion nearthecentrethe microstructureconsistsof smallerequiaxed
grains due to the lowest strain and temperature,obtained at the centre of the
deformationzoneduring extrusion. Thus the recrystallisationoccurredvery slowly,
comparedwith theotherregionsbecauseof thereduceddriving force.

Plate 5.7 shows the subgrainsat the centre of extrudatesfor a temperaturerange

of 250 'C 450 *C, formed during extrusion as the result of the balance between the
-
work hardening mechanisms within the material and the recovery (softening)
mechanisms. Their sizes vary from 2 gm at a temperature of 250 *C to 6 gm at a
(4)
temperature of 450 *C. These are close to the values reported by CLODE for

recovered aluminium alloys. At high extrusion temperature (450 'Q the subgrains
increase in size and improve their perfection, showing reduced boundary widths and
internal dislocation density. This is a result of the increase in thermal activation,
increasing the mobility of dislocations to facilitate cross slip and climb. The subgrains
tend to be elongated in the extrusion direction at low temperatures(i. e. T< 350 OC)but
are more equiaxed at high temperature. This effect of temperature on the shape of
(4,140,141)It
subgrains also agrees with the results of the other researchers. can be
concluded that the subgrain size increases with increasing extrusion temperature and
their shapesalso dependon temperature,as expected.
 134

Plate5.5 The microstructurefrom the surfaceof extrudateto thecentrein theas

extrudedcondition,extrusionratio 30:1 usingpolarisedlight,
Barker's etch.(Longitudinalsection)

a) Extrusion temperature250 'C

b) Extrusion temperatum350 OC
-i-F=,- - =t ,
S-3ý I--

ww mpý

I-

11
-.
 135

Plate5.6 Themicrostructurefrom the surfaceof extrudateto thecentrein the as

extrudedcondition,extrusionratio 30:1 usingpolarisedlight,
Barker's etch.(Longitudinalsection)

a) Extrusion temperature450 'C

b) Extrusion temperature550 'C

xft-

'1Z
.Z
 136

Plate 5.7 Subgrain.structure for various extrusion temperatures,using TEM

a) Extrusion temperatum 250 OC

b) Extrusiontemperature350OC

450 'C
c) Extrusiontemperature
I

(a)

PF
-&I

(b)

ýC)
 137

By considering and comparing the microstructure in plate 5.5 and plate 5.6, the

relationship between the recrystallised grain size and the position (radial) for the various
extrusion temperatures can be represented as in figure 5. L It can be concluded that
recrystallisation occurred when the required combination of strain and temperaturewas
present. This combination provides sufficient driving force for recrystallisation. It is
also clear from figure 5.1 that the recrystallised,grain size increaseswith the extrusion
tempemture.

Temp
m 250, b
Recry3U11i3ed
g0 350 0C
8 11 0 4SO')C

11 "c
SSO

Fine recrys%llised grai,

-00 o
fUnrecr.M-0- --0 A-*- -

wWlised(recovered grains)
Surface Centre-

Distance

Figure5.1 A schematicof recrystallisedgrain sizeasa function of positionand

extrusiontemperature
 138

5.2.2 The as extruded microstructure of extrudates produced using a bridge

die without mandrel (BR rod extrudates)

Ile main aim of this experiment was to investigate the microstructure variations
compared with normal rod and tube extrudates. This technique of producing extruded
rod by using a bridge die without a mandrel provides two advantages.

1. Rod material with seam welds is produced which can be used in

microstructural investigations to determine the effect of such welds on recrystalli sation

behaviour.

2 The strength of these "welded" rods and the integrity of the searnscan be

assessedby tensile testing . This is not possible with tube extruclates.

The work presented in this section deals with the microstructure changes in the

weld region, in the region near the surface and in the region between the weld region

and the surface, i. e. Ah region. The specimens were cut along the line AN, as shown
in figure 5.2a and the longitudinal microstructures were investigated. Figure 5.2 b

shows the interesting areas, as mentioned above. Extrusions were performed in a

temperature range of 350 T- 550 T with extrusion ratios of 20: 1,30: 1 and 40 : 1.

The mechanical properties will be discussed in chapter 6.

weld line
surface region

Ah region

centre region

ab
Figure 5.2 The regions of BR rod extrudate used in the investigation.
 139

5.2.2.1 The effect of the extrusion temperature on the microstructure (in

comparison with the conventional rod extrudates)

As previously statedin section 5.2.1, the microstructurechangedfrom one

containing recovered subgrainsto statically recrystallised grains with increasing
extrusiontemperature. It was found that the microstructuresin the Ah region of the
30:1 extrudehad the sametrendas thoseof the normal rod extrudates.For example,
the microstructure at low temperatureshows elongatedgrains while that at high
temperatureshowsrecrystallisedgrains. However,if the time delay before reaching
the quenchingunit is assumedto be constantdue to the constantramspeed(3 mm1s)
andextrusionratio (30:1), thenit canbe statedthat the recrystallisationoccurredfaster
and the recrystallisedgrain sizewas smaller than for the normalrod extrudatesat the
same extrusiontemperature. This is due to the higher strain occurring in the severely
deformedmetal in the chamberof the die. The effect of extrusion temperatureon
transverse macrostructuresis shown in plate 5.8.(a-e) and on the longitudinal
be in
microstructurescan seen plate 5.9 (a-c) (comparedwith plate5.5 and5.6)

The microstructure of the surface area had smaller recrystallised grains than
those of the Ah area because the surface experienced higher strain as discussed in
section 4.3. However the most interesting area in this type of extrudate is the weld

area. This area experienced heavy strain during its deformation history. The metal,
fom-iing this area,originated from the deformation zone adjacentto the dead metal zone
above the bridge in the container and subsequently came from the deformation zone
near the dead metal zone beneaththe bridge. The metal flow into this region is thereby
a combination of the complex flow of metal in the chamber of the billet container and
the flow in the die chamber.

Akeret(142) stated that welding in extrusion is a process of solid state bonding.

The main obstacle to perfect solid state bonding in aluminiurn extrusion is a

contamination of lubricants and aluminiurn oxide on the joining surfaces. The

lubricants such as graphite are soft and thus they can be spread and smeared over the

weld interface, particularly in charge weld. The charge weld is involved with the

extrusion of two billets, as stated in chapter 2. Ibis limits the quality of the solid state
bonding and prevents any bonding in the extreme case. However aluminium oxide,
 140

Plate5.8 Transversemacrostructure produced

of extrudate using a bridgedie
in
without a mandrel asextruded condition,extrusionratio 30:1,
Poulton's etch.(Magnification= 4.2 x)

350
a) Extrusiontemperature OC b) Extrusion temperature400 OC

450
c) Extrusiontemperature
OC d) Extrusiontemperature500 OC

550 OC
e) Extrusiontemperature
 :ir
-
 141

Plate5.9 The microstructureof extrudateproducedusinga bridgedie without a

in
mandrel asextrudedcondition, extrusionratio 30:1, Barker's
(Longitudinal
etch. polarised
section, light)

a) Extrusion 350
temperature OC, d) Extrusiontemperature350OC,
Ah area weld area

b) Extrusiontemperature450 OC, Extrusion 450

temperature OC,
e)
Ah area weld area

c) Extrusion temperature 550 OC, f) Extrusion temperature 550 OC,

Ah area weld area
(a) (d)

te)

C)
 142

being harder than the metal, is broken into short fragments when the interface is
stretched. This allows the virgin metal in the spacingsbetweenthesefragmentsto
comeinto contactso that solid statebondingcan takeplace. Akeret alsofound that the
contaminationof oxide in seamwelds came from the front faces of the two metal
streamswhich combinein the weld chamber.This oxide film was detectedonly in the
very first part of the extrudate. In otherpartsof the extrudatethe metalproducingthe
seamwelds camefrom the virgin metal in the deformationzone inside the billet and
thustheoxidefilm waseliminatedleadingto excellentsolid statebonding.

Plate 5.9 (d-e) shows the microstructure of the weld area at the same extrusion
temperaturesas plate 5.9 (a-b). It can be clearly seenthat fine recrystallised gains exist
and that the grain size increaseswith increasing extrusion temperature.

No evidenceof aluminiurnoxide contaminationin weld areawas found in the

steady - state region of extrusion for all extrusion conditions indicating that the metal
streams can combine well with each other to produce good seam welds. In addition
plate 5.9 (d-e) also shows that recrystallised grains occurred across the seam weld.
This implies that the great number of metal atoms from each streamscan diffuse across
the weld interface leading to the excellent solid statebonding therefore the recrystallised
grain boundary can move across the weld interface. This confirms that the seamwelds
in Al-Mg-Si products have a good weld integrity. However it must be noted that the

occurrence of these recrystallised grains in the weld region reduced the mechanical
properties of products. This will be discussedin chapter 6.

It was found that secondary recrystallised grains (abnormal grains) formed in

the microstructure, as shown in the bottom right comer of plate 5.9 e. An increase in
extrusion temperaturepromotes the occurrenceof secondaryrecrystallisation. (seeplate
5.9 f) In general secondaryrecrystallised grains(141),also called abnormal grains, are
defined as grains which are at least twice as large as the neighbouring grain (primary

recrystallised grains or normal gains). The causesare not entirely clear but it may be
due to gain coalescence. (72) Unlike subgrain coalescence,which involves the rotation
of subgrains, the mechanism of grain coalescence is described as an encounter of two
"nearly identical orientation" grains at the expenseof other grains located between the
two grains which leads to the formation of a boundary interface with very
 143

low surface energy. This interface eventually disappearsand causesthe formation of a

very large grain with more than six sides. This grain thus has the opportunity for
continued rapid growth(71). The possibility of the occurrence of grain coalescenceis
higher in a highly textured(strong preferred orientation) region such as the weld region.

5.2.2.2 The effect of the extrusion ratio on the microstructures

The microstructure at the surface of the extrudate changes with extrusion

temperatureand extrusion ratio. It can be seenthat at the low temperature (4000C) and
low extrusion ratio (20: 1) the microstructure at the surface shows small recrystallised

grains while the microstructure removed from the surface shows a mixture of recovered
grains and a small amount of recrystallised grains (Plate 5.10a). Once again an increase
in extrusion temperature promotes the occurrence of recrystallisation. However it was
found that the grain size at high extrusion temperature (5000C) was larger than that at
the lower temperature (4500C). This is due to the variation of subgrain sizes with
extrusion temperature leading to variations in the density of the nucleation sites for
recrystallisation as discussedin section 5.2.1. The microstructures can be seenin plate
5.10 a-c, 5.10 d and 5.10 e-f for extrusion ratios 20 : 1,30: 1 and 40: 1 respectively.
The increase in extrusion ratio also promotes recrystallisation. This is due to the larger

amount of strain produced during extrusion and the increased temperature rise with
higher extrusion ratio. This combination of strain and temperature rise acts as the
driving force for recrystallisation. Therefore the microstructure, at 4000C with
extrusion ratio of 40: 1, exhibits more recrystallised grains than that at 20: 1 for the same
temperature. However, for recrystallisation at higher extrusion temperatures (4500C
and 5000C), it can be seen that the recrystallised grain size was reduced on increasing
the extrusion ratio from 20: 1 to 40: 1. This can be seenby comparing Plate 5.10 b with
5.10 e for extrusion temperature450 OC and Plate 5.10 c with 5.1.0f for 500 OC.

The microstructures of the region between the surface and centre, namely Ah,
for various extrusion ratios and extrusion temperaturesare shown in plate 5.11. It can
be seen that an increase in extrusion temperature transformed the recovered gains to
recrystallised grains. The higher the extrusion temperature used in extrusion the larger

the recrystallised gains which were produced.(seePlate 5.11 a- c) The extrusion ratio
also affected the recrystallisation in this region. Plate 5.11 d for extrusion ratio 40: 1
 144

Plate5.10The surfacemicrostructureof extrudateproducedusinga bridgedie without

a mandrelin asextrudedcondition,Barker's etch.(Longitudinalsection,
polarisedlight )

a) Extrusion temperature400 T, d) Extrusion temperature 500 *C,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 Extrusion Ratio 30: 1

b) Extrusion temperature450 OC, e) Extrusiontemperatum450 'C,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 ExtrusionRatio40:1

c) Extrusion temperature500 *C, f) Extrusion temperature 500 *C,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 Extrusion Ratio 40: 1
(a) ((1)

(b) (C)

(c)
 145

Plate5.11 The microstructureof extrudateproducedusingabridge die without a

in
mandrel asextruded condition Ah areaof extrudate.Barker's etch.
(Longitudinalsection,polarisedlight )

a) Extrusion temperature400 'C, d) Extrusion tempemture 400 'C,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 ExtrusionRatio 40:1

b) Extrusion temperature450 T, e) Extrusion temperature 450 T,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 Extrusion Ratio 40: 1

c) Extrusion temperature500 'C, f) Extrusion temperature 500 *C,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 Extrusion Ratio 40: 1
(a) (d)

(b) (C)

(C)
 146

(4000C) shows a greater amount of partially recrystallised grains than Plate 5.11 (a) for

extrusion ratio 20: 1 (400 OC).

The microstructures at the centre of extrudates show very fine recrystallised

grains compared to the Ah region. This is due to the large deformation. It was also
found that the recrystallisation occurred across the weld line. This indicates that this
6063 alloy has good weld integrity, as mentioned in section 5.2.2.1. Plate 5.12 shows

the change in the size of the recrystallised grains with varying extrusion temperatures

and ratios.

The informationon extrudedmicrostructures

from the micrographsin plates5.9
to 5.12 can be summarisedin Figure 5.3. The microstructurevaried from the surface
to the centreof the extrudateanddependedon theextrusiontemperatureandextrusion
ratio. Most microstructuresat low extrusion temperatureand low extrusion ratio
consistof recoveredgrains. Increasesin both extrusiontemperatureandextrusionratio
give rise to the occurrenceof staticrecrystallisation.Ile recrystallisedgrainsoccurred
firstly at the surfaceand in the regionsnearthe weld lines. This is due to the heavy
deformationwhich actsasthedriving forcefor recrystallisation.

At higherextrusionratio andconstantextrusiontemperature(500 OC)complete

recrystallisationoccurredand smallerrecrystallisedgrainswere produceddue to the
high strain which resultedin a relatively high densityof nucleationsites. This can be
seen,in figure 5.3, at the regions from the surfaceof extrudates(extrusionratio of
20:1-40:1,500 *Q to the Ah regions(the middle of curves). At the regionsnearthe
the is
centre grain size reduced for the 500 T extrudates.This reductioncausedby the
relatively low exit temperature(comparedto the centreregion) and the less severely
deformed structure which has insufficient to driving force for the growth of
recrystallisedgrains. Thereforeit resultedin the smallerrecrystallisedgrains. The
microstructure in the centre regions experiencessecondaryrecrystallisation and
therefore abnormal grains are obtained. This is due to severe strain and high
temperature. However it was found that the 40:1 extrusion ratio exhibited larger
recrystallisedgrains than the 30:1 and 20:1 ratios. This may be due to greaterheat
generatedfrom thedeformationin theweld regionsof thehigherextrusionratio thereby
acceleratingthe growth of recrystallisedgrains. These abnormalgrains would be
 147

expectedto occur because,in AA 6063 alloy, abnormal grains were normally found in
the heavily deformed region near the surface of the normal rod extrudates after heat
treatment in the T6 condition. Therefore it can be implied that due to the more severe
deformation in the weld regions abnormal grains can occur here in the as extruded
condition.

Grain size 400C 40:1 500C 40:1

400C 30:1 500C 30:1
400C 20:1 o 500C 20:1 Alnonad
9mbs I

1111

rstmisea

-1ý
Lt

-0-m-
PsAisUV
mcowrel+ Puti&Uy
0-
structm
recrystsMel
0-
le 1",

OwfAce Centre

Dist=e 110

high sumin lov stvin high stiin

high tempemtm lov lemp high lemp

Figure 5.3 A schematicof recrystaHisedgrain size as a function of extrusion

temperature,extrusionratio andposition for asextrudedrod producedusing a bridge
but no mandrel.
 148

Plate5.12Ile microstructureof extrudateproducedusinga bridgedie without a

mandrelin asextrudedcondition,at weld of extrudate,Barker's
etch.(Longitudinal section, polarised light)

a) Extrusion temperature400 T, d) Extrusion temperature400 T,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 Extrusion Ratio 40: 1

b) Extrusiontemperature450 OC, e) Extrusion 450

temperature T,
Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 ExtrusionRatio40:1

c) Extrusion temperature500 T, f) Extrusion temperature 500 'C,

Extrusion Ratio 20: 1 Extrusion Ratio 40: 1
(a) (d)

(e)
(b)

(C) (0
 149

5.2.3 The as extruded microstructure of tube extrudates

The extrusion temperatures and extrusion ratios used in this experiment were
discussed in section 3.5.3. In this section transverse microstructures of the weld and
non weld were investigated (see figure 5.4). The weld area is the area where the two
metal streamscombined with each other to produce each weld line. The non weld area
is the remaining area which forms the majority of the cross section. The material here
has experienced less deformation and represents the bulk of the material forming the
three metal streamsin the extrusion.

weld line
weld lines and weld areas

non weld area used for samples

the remaining non weld area

Figure 5.4 The weld areas and the non weld areas used in the investigation.

5.2.3.1 The effect of the extrusion temperatureon the transversemicrostructure

In both the weld and non weld areas as mentioned above, the microstructure
varied from the outer surface to the inner surface of the tube. Therefore in order to
study the effect of extrusion temperature on the microstructure, these areas are divided
into three regions as follows: outer surface area, inner surface area and the mid-radius

arealocated betweenthe inner areaand the outer area.

In all tube extrudates it was found that no oxide film occurred in the weld
regions of extrudates as was previously reported for the extrudates produced using a
bridge die without a mandrel (discussedin section 5-2.2)- This indicates that the weld

should have good integrity. However it was also found that recrystallisation occurred
in this region. This is expectedto reduce the mechanical strengthof the tube.

Plate 5.13 (a-f) shows the microstructure at various extrusion temperaturesand

a constant extrusion ratio of 23.4 1,
: at the outer tube surface. An increase in extrusion
temperature (350 'C 550 OC)caused recrystallisation to occur. The recrystallisation
-
 150

occurred more completely and rapidly in the weld area than in the non weld area. (see
plates 5.13 a and d) This is due to the more severe deformation in the weld area.
Thereforethis givesa reductionin the activationenergyfor recrystallisationwhich is a
functionof the amountof deformation. It was alsofound that therecrystallisedgrains
werelargerin the non weld area. For example,the grain sizeat 450 T in the non weld
areais approximately90 gm while in theweld areait is about30 gm. This is dueto the
larger subgrains produced by dynamic recovery in this area during extrusion.
Generallytherecrystallisedgrainsoccurringnearthe outer surfaceof the extrudateare
smallerbecauseof the smallersubgrainsformedprior to recrystallisation,asdiscussed
in section5.2.1. Neverthelessplate 5.13 d andf showlarger recrystallisedgrainsnear
the surfacethan in the interior. This is due to secondaryrecrystallisationor abnormal
grain growth.

Plate5.14 (a-f) showsthe microstructuresat the tube inner surfaceof the weld
and non weld regions for the sameextrusioncondition as plate 5.13. The effects of
extrusiontemperatureon the microstructureare similar to thosefor the outer surface
areas.Increasingextrusiontemperatureincreasesthe sizeof theprimary recrystallised
grains. The increasein grain sizecan be seenin the interior of plates5.14 a compared
with 5.14 b (for weld area),and 5.14 d comparedwith 5.14 e (for non weld area).
However when secondaryrecrystallisationoccurredthe abnormalgains in the weld
area were larger than in the non weld area due to the higher strain and higher
temperatureduring extrusion. Plate5.14c showsthis behaviour.

Plate 5.15 shows the microstructures at the at the mid radius positions of the
weld and non weld regions. was It found for the low extrusion temperature of 350 'C
(plates 5.15 a and d) that the primary recrystallised grains in the weld area are smaller
than those in the non weld area. For higher extrusion temperatures secondary
recrystallised grains occurred in the weld area in plates 5.15 b and c whereas normal
primary recrystallised grains were found in plate 5.15 f showing the non weld area.
This indicates that in the weld area the strain was sufficiently large and the temperature
required for secondaryrecrystallisation was attained. The abnormal grains at the weld
can be readily seen in plate 5.15 e. It was also found that the recrystallisation and
subsequentgrain growth in this mid radius position are slower than in the inner and the
outer regions. This is becauseof the lower strain occurring here.
 151

Plate5.13ne inicrostructureof tubeextrudate(I/D=4 mm., O/D=16mm.and

Extrusion Ratio =23.4:1) in asextrudedcondition,at outersurface
of tube,Barker's etch. (transversesection,polarisedlight )

a) Extrusiontemperature350 'C, d) Extrusiontemperature350

Weld area Non weld area

surface interior surface interior

b) Extrusion temperature450 e) Extrusion 450

temperature 'C,
Weld area Non weld area

surface interior surface intezior

c) Extrusiontemperature550 T, f) Extrusiontemperature550 OC,

Weld area Non weld area

surface interior surface interior

 (d)

(b) (c)

ýCI
 152

Plate5.14The microstructureof tubeextrudate(I/D--4 mm., O/D=16mm.and

Extrusion Ratio =23A 1) in asextrudedcondition,at innersurface
of tube,Barker's etch. (transversesection,polarisedlight )

a) Extrusiontemperature350 "C, d) Extrusiontemperature350T,

Weld area Non weld area

interior surface interior surface

b) Extrusion temperature450 OC, e) Extrusion temperature450 T,

Weld area Non weld area

interior surface interior surface

c) Extrusiontemperature550 "C, f) Extrusiontemperature550 T,

Weld area Non weld area

interior surface interior surface

 (d)

(C )
(b)
 153

Plate5.15The microstructureof tubeextrudate,

(I/D--4 mm., O/D=I 6mmand
Extrusion Ratio =23.4:1) in asextrudedcondition,at mid radiusarea
of tube,Barker's etch. (transversesection,polarisedlight )

a) Extrusiontemperature350 T, d) Extrusiontemperature350 T,
Weld area Non weld area

b) Extrusiontemperature450 'C, e) Extrusion temperature400

Weld area Weld area

c) Extrusion temperature550 T, f) Extrusion temperature550 T,

Weld area Non weld area
(it) (1

(c)
(h)

(C)
 154

5.2.3.2 The effect of theextrusionratio on the transversemicrostructure.

It wasfound in previouswork (4)that an increasein extrusionratio reducedthe

subgrain size due to the higher dislocation density and the reduced dislocation
interactiondistance. In solid rod extrusionan increasein extrusionratio for a given
billet diametercan be achievedby a reductionin extrudatediameter.Howeverin tube
extrusionanincreasein extrusionratio canbe achievedby two methodsasfollows:
1 Changingthe inner diameterof the tube by increasingthe mandreldiameter
while maintaininga constantouterdiameter.
2 Changingthe outer diameterof the tube by reducing the die orifice while
maintaininga constantmandrelsize.

1. Nficrostructurechangesproducedby varyingthe mandreldiameter.

Plate 5.16 a-c shows the effect of increasing extrusion ratio Q 1:1 - 43: 1) at the
weld area for a constant extrusion temperature of 400 'C. At the low extrusion ratio
(31: 1, plate 5.16 a) the primary recrystallised grains were larger than for the higher
extrusion ratios (35: 1 and 43: 1, Plate 5.16 b and c respectively). This is becausethe
increasein extrusion ratio produces a higher dislocation density, therefore the primary
recrystallised grains are smaller, as stated in section 5.2.2.2. At the inner and outer
surfaces of the tube the increase in extrusion ratio produced more secondary
recrystallised grains (see plate 5.16 c) The secondaryrecrystallised grains at the mid
radius were smaller for the higher extrusion ratio. This may be due to the combination
of the smaller primary recrystallised grains and the greaternumber of grains suitable for

secondaryrecrystallisation which can reduce the secondaryrecrystallised grain size.

Plate 5.17 a-c shows the effect of increasing extrusion ratio (31: 1 - 43: 1) at the
non weld area for a constant extrusion temperature of 400 'C. It was found that the
microstructure at the low extrusion ratio consisted of a mixture of recovered and
recrystallised grains. This can be in
seen plate 5.17 a. When the extrusion ratio was
increased, complete recrystallisation occurred. It can be clearly seen also that the
extrusion ratio affected the microstructuresof the product via the primary recrystallised
grain sizes. The increase in extrusion ratio caused a reduction in the recrystallised
grain size as discussedabove. In addition to changing the extrusion ratio, changing the
mandrel sizes also affects the microstructure of the tube inner surface. It was found

that the extent of the abnormal grain growth increased at that surface when
 155

Plate5.16Ile effect of extrusionratio on microstructurein theweld regionof the tube,

producedby varyingthe mandreldiameter(OA:) = 14mm. andextrusion
temp.= 400 T). As extrudedcondition,Barker's etch.
(transversesection,polarisedlight )

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

a) Inner diameterof 4 mm.,Extrusionratio of 31.3:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

b) Inner diameterof 6 mm.,Extrusionratio of 35:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

c) Inner diameter 8
of mm., Extrusionratio of 42-6:
1
(t))

(C)
 156

Plate5.17The effectof extrusionratio on microstructurein thenonweld regionof the

tube,producedby varyingthemandreldiameter(0/1) = 14mm. and
extrusiontemp.= 400 'Q. As extrudedcondition, Barker's etch.
(transversesection,polarisedlight )

Outersurfacearea NEdradiusarea Inner surfacearea

a) Inner diameterof 4 mm.,Extrusionratio of 31-3:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

b) Inner diameterof 6 mm.,Extrusionratio of 35:1

Outersurfacearea Nfid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

c) Inner diameter 8
of mm., Extrusionratio of 42-6:
1
(a)

(b)

(C)
 157

themandreldiameterincreased.
(seeplate5.16and5.17 at the innersurfaces)

2) Nlicrostructurechangesproducedby varyingthe die orifice.

Plate 5.18 a-c shows the effect of increasing the extrusion ratio (25: 1 52: 1) on
-
the weld area and plate 5.19 a-c shows the microstructures of the non weld area at the
sameconstant billet temperatureof 450 T. The increasein extrusion ratio produced by
changing the die orifice affects the occurrence of abnormal and normal recrystallised
grains in the sameway as changing the mandrel diameter. However when a smaller die
orifice was used abnormal grain growth also occurred at the outer surface of the tube.

5.2.3.3 The effect of the waR thickness on the transversemicrostructure

In this case the extrusion temperature and extrusion ratio were maintained in
order to investigate the microstructure of tube of various wall thicknesses. The
specimenswere taken from two tubes. The first tube (wall thickness =5 mm) had an
inner diameter of 4 mrn and an outer diameter of 14 mrn which gave an extrusion ratio

of 31.25: 1 . The second one (wall thickness =4 mm) had an I/D of 8 mm and an O/D
of 16 mrn which gave an extrusion ratio of 29.2: 1. Both tubes were extruded at an
extrusion temperatureof 450 'C

Plate 5.20 showsthe microstructuresof thesetwo tubes at the mid radius of

weld and non weld regions. In the weld area the secondaryrecrystallised grains of the
first tube were smaller than those of the second tube. This can be seenin plate 5.20 a
and d for the transverse section and plate 5.20 b and e for the longitudinal section. In
addition the primary recrystallised grains in both weld area (seeplate 5.20 a and d) and
non weld area (see plate 5.20 c and f) of the first tube were smaller than those of the
second tube. This can be explained by the flow of material during extrusion. It was
found that the metal flow experienceda greaterdeflection under the bridge in the caseof

the smaller tube (the first tube). Therefore this flow pattern produced larger strains and
a higher dislocation density which resulted in smaller subgrains and thus eventually
smaller recrystallised grains. It is concluded that in addition the effect of extrusion
temperature and extrusion ratio, the wall thickness is another significant factor which
affects the microstructure of the tube.
 158

Plate5.18Ile effect of extrusionratio on microstructurein the weldareaof tube,

producedby varyingthe die orifice diameterin asextrudedcondition,
Barker's etch. CVD=6 mm. andextrusionternp.= 450 T)
(transversesection,polarisedlight )

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

a) O/D diameterof 16mn-L,Extrusionratio of 25:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

b) O/D diameterof 14 mm.,Extrusionratio of 35:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

c) O/D diameter 12
of mm., Extrusionratio of 52:1
(it)

(h)

(C)
 159

Plate5.19The effect of extrusionratio on microstructurein thenonweld areaof tube,

producedby varyingthedie orifice diameterin asextrudedcondition,
Barker's etch. (I/D =6 mm. andextrusionternp.= 450T)
(transversesection, polarised light )

Outersurfacearea Nlid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

a) O/D diameterof 16mm.,Extrusionratio of 25:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

b) O/D diameterof 14 mm.,Extrusionratio of 35:1

Outersurfacearea Mid radiusarea Inner surfacearea

c) O/D diameter 12
of mm., Extrusionratio of 52:1
(a)

(h)

(c)
 160

Plate5.20The microstructureof tubeextrudatesin asextrudedcondition,at mid radius

position (in the weld areaandin the non weld area),Barker's etch.
(Polarisedlight )(constantextrusiontemp.of 450 'C andextrusionratio -30: 1)

I/D= 4 mm, O/D= 14mm, d) IVD=8 nun, O/D= 16 mm,

Transversesection,at weld area Transversesection,at weld area

b) I/D= 4 mm, O/D= 14 mm, I/D= 8 mm, O/D= 16 mm,

longitudinal section, at weld area longitudinalsection,at weld area

c) I/D= 4 mm, O/D= 14 mm, f) IVD= 8 mm, O/D= 16 mm,

Transverse section, Non weld area Transverse section, Non weld area
 (t.i
(it)

(C)
(h

(C)
 161

5.2.3.4 The effect of the extrusion temperature and extrusion ratio on the
longitudinalmicrostructureof theweld region.

The weld in tube extrusion using a bridge die with a mandrel affects the
microstructureof tubes. Thereforein addition to studying the transversesectionit is
useful to investigatethe effects of extrusion ratio and extrusion temperatureon the
microstructurein longitudinalsection.

Plate 5.21 shows the weld areasof the tube extrudates produced by varying the
extrusion temperature and extrusion ratio. At the low extrusion temperature and
extrusion ratio (plate 5.21 a) the microstructure appears to be partially recovered and
partially recrystallised. In fact very fine primary recrystallised grains plus abnormal
in
grains occurred the weld region at ( the centre of plate 5.21 a). On increasing the
temperature,the microstructure becamecompletely recrystallised and the grains became
larger (plate 5.21 b compared to 5.21 c: and plate 5.21 d compared to 5.21 f for
extrusion ratios of 29.2 and 42.6 respectively). However, with increasing temperature,
the secondary recrystallised grains were reduced in size [ at the centre of Plate 5.21 b
(200-250 gm) and c: (150-200 gm)]. This is because for the higher extrusion
temperature the primary recrystallised grains are larger and have less surface area
volume area and thus a lower driving force for secondaryrecrystallisation.

An increase in extrusion ratio increased the occurrence of the recrystallisation

and additionally the recrystallised grain size was reduced with increasing extrusion
ratio. Plate 5.21 a, b, d and e show the microstructures with increasing extrusion ratio
(23.4: 1 to 52: 1) and constant extrusion temperatureof 400 'C while plate 5.21 c and f
show the microstructures at a constant extrusion temperature of 500 *C, The secondary
in
recrystallised grains are reduced size with increasing extrusion ratio. The reason for

this was discussed in section 5.2.3.2. At the low extrusion temperature and high
(
extrusion ratio plate 5.21 e) the microstructure consisted of fine recrystallised grains
while the secondaryrecrystallised grains seemto have disappeared.

It can be concluded that the microstructure of extrudates in the weld region

depends on the extrusion temperature and extrusion ratio. When either the extrusion
temperature or the extrusion ratio was increased,more static recrystallisation resulted.
A low extrusion temperature and high extrusion ratio (such as 400 *C, 52: 1) produced
small primary recrystallised grains together with "small" abnormal grains.
 162

Plate5.21The microstructureof tubeextrudatesin asextrudedcondition,at mid radius

in the weld area,Barker's etch.(Longitudinalsection,Polarisedlight)

a) IVD=4 mm, O/D= 16mm, d) IVD= 8 mm, O/D= 14 mm,

Extrusiontemperatureof 400'C Extrusiontemperatureof 400'C
ExtrusionRatioof 23.4:1 ExtrusionRatioof 42.6:1

b) I/D= 8 mm, OA:)= 16 mm, e) I/D= 6 mm, O/D= 12 mm,

Extrusion temperatureof 400"C Extrusion temperatureof 400'C
Extrusion Ratio of 29.2: 1 Extrusion Ratio of 52: 1

c) I/D= 8 mm, O/D= 16 mm, 0 IVD= 8 mm, O/D= 14 mm,

Extrusion temperatureof 500*C Extrusion temperatureof 500'C
Extrusion Ratio of 29.2: 1 Extrusion Ratio of 42.6: 1
(a) (d)

(c)
ýhý

c)
 163

5.3 The microstructure after solutionising and artificial ageing.

In AA 6063 alloy heat treatment, solutionising and artificial ageing are

commonlyusedsubsequent to extrusionin orderto improve the mechanicalproperties
via precipitation hardening by M92Si as discussedin section 2.2.1. However the
solution treatment,involving a high temperature,affects the grain structureof the
extrudate.In thecaseof the solutiontreatedextrudate,the subgrainsin the asextruded
microstructureformedrecrystallisationnuclei. The nuclei thengrewandconsumedthe
surroundingdeformedmatrix until thedeformedstructurecompletelydisappeared.The
mechanismsof nuclei formation were discussedin detail in section 2.6. If the as
extruded structure contains primary recrystallised grains, during subsequent
solutionising these may grow by a normal grain growth process or secondary
recrystallisation.The heat T6
treatmentto the condition (solutionising525 OC
effect of
for I hr and artificial ageing 180 OCfor 6 hrs) will be discussedin the following
section.

5.3.1 Normal rod extruclates

Plates 5.22 - 5.23 show the effect of extrusion temperaturevariation on

microstructureafter heattreatment(T6). The higherextrusiontemperaturespecimens
hadlargerrecrystallisedgrains. This occurredbecauseof the differentsubgrainsizesin
the recoveredoriginal grainsprior to heattreatment. This leadsto differencesin the
sizeof recrystallisednucleiandthenumberof nucleationsites. Therefore in
differences
recrystallisedgrain sizeareobtainedafterheattreatment. Also the grain sizedecreased
with increasingradial from
distance thecentredue to strainvariationsduring extrusion.

Plate 5.23 b shows equiaxed grain growth at the extrudate centre from the
in
smaller equiaxed grains present the extrude prior to heat treatment (see plate 5.6 b).
Plate 5.22 (a-b) and plate 5.23 (a) show elongated recrystallised grains. These
elongated recrystallised grains, produced in low temperature extrusions (250OC-
4500C), may be caused by the non-uniform misorientation(143) of "elongated
i.
recrystallisation nuclei", e. large elongated subgrains with "sufficiently" high
boundary angles. It has been reported(143)that the mobility of the boundary increases
with increasing misorientation between grains and thus the grain boundary can migrate
more easily in the "high misorientation" direction. For high extrusion temperature
(550'C), the recrystallised nuclei, formed from the equiaxed subgrains, have more
 164

uniformmisorientationandthusexperienceisotropicboundarymigration. This leadsto

theformationof equiaxedgrainsafter subsequent
solutiontreatment.

Another interesting feature in the heat treated "normal rod" specimens is

abnormal grain growth (secondary recrystallisation) in the regions near the surface.
This was often observed in the specimensextruded above a temperature of 350 'C It
can be seen in plate 5.23 that no evidence of particle-free zones ( the absenceof iron
particles) was found in the surface regions of AA 6063 extrudate. This implied that the
occurrence of abnormal grains in the extrudate does not result from the absenceof the
iron phaseparticles which pin the grain boundaries, as reported in the heat treated low
iron content alloy(30), AA 6463. The causefor secondaryrecrystallisation may be due
to grain coalescence(72), as discussed in section 5.2.2.1. The possibility of the
occurrence of grain coalescence is higher in a highly textured (strong preferred
orientation) region such as the surface region. It can be concluded that this secondary
recrystallisation in AA6063 alloy in the region near the surface may result from the
occurrenceof strong preferred orientations which dependson the extrusion temperature
during extrusion.

The specimensat an extrusiontemperatureof 250 T were solution-treatedat a

temperatureof 525 T for 10 hrs and20 hrs in order to studythe grain growth nearthe
surface. The microstructuresin plates 5.24 a and b are composedof recrystallised
grainsof different sizes. The gain size in the centreregion was large and decreased
with increasingradial distancefrom the centreaxis becausethe recrystallisedgrains
originatedfrom a greaternumberof nucleationsites. The recrystallisedgrainswere
elongatedin the extrusiondirectionasdiscussedearlier. Theseplatesalsoillustratethe
effect of time on grain growth. The grain size slightly increasedwith increasing
solution time. Due to no abnormalgrains being found in this experimentit can be
concluded that the occurrenceof secondaryrecrystallisation also dependson the
extrusion temperaturei. e. they occur during solution treatmentof high temperature
normalrod extrudates(>350'Q.
 165

Plate5.22The microstructurefrom the surfaceof extrudateto thecentre

in T6 condition,extrusionratio 30:1, Barker's etch.
(Polarised light, Longitudinal section)

a) Extrusion temperature250 'C

b) Extrusiontemperature350T
 'S

-C

ft

wil
41
 166

Plate5.23The microstructurefrom the surfaceof extrudateto thecentre

in T6 condition,extrusionratio 30:1, Barker's etch.
(Polarised light, Longitudinal section)

a) Extrusion temperature450 T

b) Extrusiontemperature550*C
 -I
pp

Ads

AIL

"w

0
91%

I ,ý!, ý, tý4 -: -,
, .

-J
 167

Plate5.24The microstructurefrom the surfaceof extrudateto thecentre

in T4 condition (solutionised only), extrusion ratio of 30: 1,
Barker's etch. (Polarised light, Longitudinal section)

a) Extrusion temperature 250 T, 525 T for 10 hrs

b) Extrusiontemperature250 T, 525 T for 20 hrs

 I..,

-C
-R

-J

1-
 168

5.3.2 The heat treated microstructure of extruded rods produced using a bridge
die without a mandrel

Three major types of the microstructure after heat treatment to the T6 condition
were identified and are shown in plate 5.25. These consist of elongated recrystallised
grains, equiaxed recrystallised grains and abnormal grains.

It was found that the elongated recrystallised grains occurred in the extrudates
produced at the lower extrusion temperature (350 IC-400 'C) (seeplate 5.25 a). Ibis
is attributed to the as extruded microstructures which consisted of elongated subgrains
within recovered grains as discussed in 5.3.1. The equiaxed grains are shown in plate
5.25 b, c and d. These structures originated from the smaller equiaxed grains in the as
extruded microstructures for the higher extrusion temperatures (>400 *Q and higher
extrusion ratios, such as 30: 1. The equiaxed grains were enlarged by the grain growth
process. Therefore the grains in plate 5.25 b (500 'Q are larger than those in plate
5.25 c and d (450 'Q.

Abnormal grains were commonly found in the weld regions (plate 5.25 e).
Increasing extrusion temperature increases the size of these abnormal grains. (250 -
300 gm. ) However at the high extrusion temperature (500 'Q the microstructure
consisted of smaller abnormal grains (100- 200 gm. ). This can be seenin plate 5.25 f
and plate 5.26 d (at the centre). This could be becausethe high extrusion temperature
led to an increase in the growth rate of primary recrystallised grains and thus an
increasein the size of normal grains in the weld region. These large normal grains can
inhibit the growth of the abnormal grains becauseof the reduction in driving force for
the occurrence of secondary recrystallisation. Therefore it is more difficult to
consume neighbouring grains to form extremely large, i. e. abnormal grains.

Plate 5.26 shows the transverse macrostructures of the heat treated (T6)
specimens (extrusion ratio = 30: 1). It can be seen that at the weld regions the grain
structure experience abnormal grains. The "abnormal" grain size increases with
increasing in extrusion temperature (350 T- 450 'Q (see plate 5.26 a-c). However
for extrusion temperatureabove 450 T the grain size decreasesagain until at 550 T it
is similar to that in the non weld area (plate 5.26 e). The reason for this has been
discussed previously. It was also found that the abnormal grains occurred in the
surface of the non weld region. This can be clearly seen in plate 5.26 d. The
Occurrenceof abnormal grains reduced the extrudate strength, as discussed in chapter 6
 169

Plate5.25Themicrostructureof extrudateproducedusinga bridgedie without a

mandrel in as heat treated condition, Barker's etch.
(Longitudinal section, polarised light )

a) Extrusiontemperature350 'C, d) Extrusiontemperatum450 T,

ExtrusionRatio 30:1 ExtrusionRatio40:1

b) Extrusiontemperature500 'C, e) Extrusion 450

temperature T,
ExtrusionRatio40:1 Extrusion
at weld area, Ratio 30: 1

c) Extrusion temperature450 T, f) Extrusion temperature 500 'Cý

Extrusion Ratio 30: 1 at weld area,Extrusion Ratio 30: 1
(a) (d)

(e)
(h

(Cý I
 170

Plate5.26 Transversemacrostructure
of BR extrudatein heattreatedcondition,
extrusionratio 30:1, Poulton's etch.( Magnification= 4.2 x)

a) Extrusion temperature350 OC b) Extrusion temperature400 OC

C) Extrusion temperature450 'C d) Extrusion temperature500 OC

550 OC
e) Extrusion temperature
 171

5.3.3 The heattreatedmicrostructureof tubeextrudates

In heat treated tube extrudates,almost all microstructuresshow equiaxed

recrystallised grains except at the lowest extrusion temperature(350 'Q and the
lowestextrusionratio of 23.4:1 which exhibitselongatedrecrystallised
grainssimilar
to thosein plate5.25 a. This is due to the elongatedgrainsand subgrainsproducedin
the asextrudedcondition asdiscussedin 5.3.1.

The extrusiontemperatureand extrusionratio did not significantly affect the

equiaxed primary recrystallised grain size of the heat treated microstructures.
However it was found that an increasein extrusion temperatureor a decreasein
extrusionratio gaverise to slightly largerequiaxedprimary recrystallisedgrains. This
can be seenat the top of plate 5.27 a andc for increasingtemperaturefrom 450 *C -
5500Candplate 5.27 d andf for increasingextrusionratio. Theseeffectscan also be
found in the non weld area.(seeplate 5.28 a and c for increasingextrusionratio and
plate5.28 a andb for increasingextrusiontemperature)

Abnormal grainswere usually found in the weld areasand the areasnearthe

outer and inner surfacesof the extrudates. However, for high extrusionratios, the
extremely large abnormalgrains were found firstly in the non weld area(seeplate
5.28 d- f). An increasein extrusion ratio can be produced by either increasein
mandreldiameteror the decreasein die orifice. It wasalsofound that theseabnormal
grains increasein size with increasingin both extrusion temperatureand extrusion
ratio. For example,the grain sizeis 400 pm at an extrusionratio of 42.6:1 (seeplate
5.28 d) increasing to I mm at extrusion ratio of 70:1 (see plate 5.28 f). These
abnormal grains can consumethe primary grains rapidly and occupy the whole
microstructure. This is becausethe strain is sufficient to the driving force for
secondaryrecrystallisationto occur. This can be seenin plate 5.28 f (heattreatedT6
condition) which representsa tube with wall thicknessof 2 mm.( IVD=8 mm., O/D=
12 mm.) It can be concludedthat secondaryrecrystallisationoccursif the extrusion
temperatureandstrainaresufficientlyhigh. Thereforesecondaryrecrystallisedgrains
were found in the weld region, at both the inner and outer surfacesand at the mid
radiusof the non weld areaat high extrusionratiosandtemperatures.

In summary, the heat treated microstructures are very dependenton the

deformationhistoryaswell ason theheattreatmentconditions.
 172

Plate5.27Themicrostructuresat Nfid
radiusof the weld areasof tubeextrudates
produced in the as heat treated condition, Barker's etch.
(Transversesection, polarised light )

a) Extrusion temperature450 "C, d) Extrusiontemperature400 T,

Extrusion Ratio 23.4: 1 ExtrusionRatio 29.2:1

b) Extrusion temperature 500 'C, Extrusiontemperature500 T,

e)
Extrusion Ratio 23.4: 1 ExtrusionRatio 29.2:1

c) Extrusiontemperature550 'C, f) Extrusiontemperature400 'C,

ExtrusionRatio 23.4:1 ExtrusionRatio 52:1
(a) (d)

(h) (C)

(c)
 173

Plate5.28The microstructuresat Nfid radiusof the non weld areasof tubeextrudates

produced in the as heat treated condition, Barker's etch.
(Transversesection, polarised light )

a) Extrusion temperature450 'C, d) Extrusion temperature 400 'C,

Extrusion Ratio 23.4: 1 Extrusion Ratio 42.6: 1

b) Extrusiontemperature500 T, 500 *C,

e) Extrusiontemperature
ExtrusionRatio 23.4:1 ExtrusionRatio 42.6:1

c) Extrusiontemperature450 T, f) Extrusion temperature 450 'C,

ExtrusionRado35:1 Extrusion Ratio 70: 1
 (a) (d)

...

.:

w
-0

ILfl

(h) I (, I

(k )
 174

5.4 Summary

I Heterogenity,such as microsegregation,in the as cast billet (AA 6063) is

decreasedby usingan homogenisationtreatmentwhich improvesextrudabilitydue
to
the 0 to cc AIFeSi phasetransformationand the occurrenceOf P'Mg2Si precipitates.
7be homonegisation
treatmentdoesnot significanItyaffect die grainsize.

2 In the homogenised microstructures the P to cc AlFeSi phase

transformationdependson the homogenisingtime and temperaturewith rounded cc
AlFeSi phaseproducedafter homogenisingat 575 OCfor 6 hrs.

3 Dynamicrecoveryduring extrusionproduceda subgrainmicrostructure.'ne

extrusion conditions, such as the extrusion temperature,strain and strain -rate
(extrusionratio), dictatedthe subgrainsize. Due to thedelay beforequenchingof the
rod extrudatefrom the higherextrusiontemperatures, staticMcrystallisationoccurred
producinga surfacerecrystallisedannulus.This staticrecrystallisationoccurredmore
rapidly in therod extrudateproducedusingthe bridgedie without a mandrelandin die
tubeextrudate.

4 The microstructureof asextrudedrod (usinga bridgedie) and tubeextrudates

dependson the extrusion temperature,extrusionratio and the complexity of metal
flow in the weldingchamber.In the weld regionsprimary recrystal-lisation
occursdue
to the severedeformation.No evidenceof oxidecontaminationwas found in the weld
region and the recrystallisationoccurredacrossthe weld line, thus indicating good
weld intergrity. The primary recrystallised grain size increasedwith increasing
extrusiontemperatureanddecreasingextrusionratio.

5 In asextrudedcondition,secondaryrecrystallisationwasusually found In the

weld region, the inner surfaceand outer surfaceof the tubes. An increaseIn either
extrusion temperatureor extrusion ratio promotes the occurrence of secondary
recrystallisation. However the secondaryrecrystallisedgrain size is reducedwith
increasingextrusionratio. 7bis may be dueto thecombinationof the smallerprimary
recrystallised grains and the greater number of grains suitable for secondary
mxqstallisation.
 175

6 On subsequentheat treatment of rod and tube extrudates,the subgrain

structure undergoes static recrystallisation. The subgrain size influences the
recrystallisedgrain size andin the alreadyrecrystallisedannulusgrain, grain growth
occurs. This may be promoted by favourable grain growth orientations in the
recrystallisedannulus.

7 Secondaryrecrystallisationin the heat treatednormal rod extrudateis often

found at the periphery of the extrudate. This may be due to strong preferred
orientation of the recrystallisedannulusgrains,dependingon extrusiontemperature.
In the heat treated "bridge die" extrudatesand tubes, the secondaryrecrystallised
grains increasedin size. However for the highest (>500
extrusiontemperature OC) the
secondaryrecrystallisedgrain growth in the weld region is inhibited by the large
primary recrystallised grains and thus smaller abnormal grains resulted after
subsequentheattreatment

8 Secondaryrecrystallisationwasalsofound in the non weld regionof the heat

treated "bridge die" extrudatesand tubes. An increasein extrusion temperature
(>450()C)and extrusionratio increasedthe secondaryrecrystallisedgrain size after
subsequentheattreatment.
 176

Chapleir 6

M(B(Clb@Mh&U
1PIP01pall'aleGO
 177

6.1 Room temperature tensile properties of extruclate

6.1.1 Normal rod tensile properties.

The tensilepropertiesof as extrudedAA6063 alloy are shown in figure 6.1.

AA 6063 aBoy achievesits best properties in the fully heat treated condition (T6) due
to the hardening precipitates of Mg2Si- The as extruded (TI) tensile strength is mainly
due to substructure strengthening at the lower temperatures. At the higher extrusion
temperature (T=450 OC),the subgrain size is larger than the size at lower temperature
i. e. 250 OC (see plate 5.7). Thus the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength
decrease with increasing extrusion temperature. However at a temperature of 550 OC
static recrystallisation occurs due to the delay before quenching the extrudate, thus it is
quite clear that the tensile properties in this specimen can not be attributed to
substructural strengthening. In this event the increase in tensile strength may be
produced by increased solution strengthening as the solid solubility increases with
temperature, or by an increase in the number of M92Si precipitates formed by natural
ageing of this enriched solid solution.

The effect of extrusiontemperatureon tensilestrengthafter solutionisingand

artificial ageing ( T6 is
condition) not very significant. The strength is mainly
contributedby Mg2Siprecipitation. Howeverit was found that the strengthis slightly
decreasedwith increasingtheextrusiontemperature.Ibis is due to the microstructures
after subsequentheattreatmentin the T6 condition consistingof recrystalliscdgrains
whosesizesdependon extrusiontemperature,asdiscussedin section5.3.1.

6.1.2The tensilepropertiesof extrudatesproducedusing a bridgedie without a

mandrel,i.e. the BR extrudates

In this study rod specimenswith three weld planeswere investigated. It was

found in figure 6.2 ( seecurves with an abbreviationof DR) that the strengthof as
extrudedspecimens(350OC4500C)decreasedwith increasingextrusion temperature
due to the change in the microstructuresi.e. recovered grains at lower extrusion
temperature,recrystallisedgrainsat higher temperaturesand in the weld regionsthe
 178

Strength
mpa

0.2%PSTI
UTS TI
02%PS T6
UTS T6

200 300 4W 5W 600

Extrusion temperature eQ

Figure 6.1 The effect of the extrusiontemperatureon the strengthof AA6063

alloy (Normalrod extrudates,extrusionratio =30:1)

As Extrusion
--10-- 0.2%PSNR30.1
get UTS NR 30-.1
--«-- 0.2 % PS DR 30.1
--0-- UTS DR 30-.1

200 300 400 500 6W

Extrusion tempera(ure eQ

Figure 6.2 A comparisonof as extrudedtensile strengthbctwccn normal rod

(NR)and the rod producedusing a bridge die without a mandrel (13R)at constant
extrusionratio of 30:1
 179

recrystallisedgrainsbecamelargerwith increasingtemperature.7lie tensilestrengthof

thesespecimensis comparedto that of normal extrudateshaving no welds in figure
6.2. It can be seenthat the strengthsof theseBR specimensfor the samenominal
extrusion temperatureare lower than those of the normal rod specimens. This is
becausethe microstructure in the weld regions is recrystallised due to the severe
deformationduring extrusionand the delay beforequenching,asdiscussedin section
5.2.L The recrystallisedgrainshavelessstrength(resistanceto appliedstress)than the
recovered grains with subgrains. Hence recrystallised grains in the weld planes
representweak regionsof the as extrudedproducts. 71iis leadsto a reductionof the
tensile strengthof the BR extrudatewhencomparedto the normalrod extrudatefor a
given extrusioncondition. However the strengthat 500 'C increaseddue to solution
strengtheningas discussed It
above. was found that the microstructureat 550 OC
consistedof larger recrystallisedgrains(- 150 )
Am. than that at 500 OC( -45 pm.) and
further.
thus the strengthdecreased

From themicrostructuresshownin chapter5 thereis no evidenceof oxide films

at the weld lines andrecrystallisedgrainshavegrown acrossthe weldL This indicates
good weld integrity. Plate 6.1 a shows the fractrographafter tensile testingof the as
extrudedBR specimen. There is a triangular shapedfracturecone caused by the three
weld lines while plate6.1 b showsthefracturesurfaceof the normalrod specinvenwith
a normal cup and cone shape. However it can be clearly seenin plate 6.1 (a) that the
failure of the tensilespecimenstartedin the regionof the weld lines which consistedof
recrystallised grains. It can be postulatedthat when the applied stressreachedthe
maximum strength(UTS), the cross sectionof specimenwas still circular and then
(i.
necking e. limit of uniform elongation) occurred. On continued increaseof the
applied stressthe strengthof the recrystalliscdgrains was exceeded. I 1owcvcrthis
stresswas still lower than the strengthof the recoveredgrains. Thereforethe fracture
in in
originated the weld region,moreparticularly thecentreof the specin-triwherethe
(i.
threeweld planesconverged e. the largestareaof recrystallisedgrains). This feature
introduceda stressconcentration.The fracturethen propagatedfrom the ccntreto the
surfacealong the weld lines which have lower strength,due to rccrystallisation,than
the recoveredgrainsin the non weld region. When the fracturepropagatingalong the
weld lines the
approached surface, the specimen consistedof three separate ligaments
 180

Plate6.1 The fractrographsof the tensilespecimensin asextrudedcondition.

(Extrusionratio = 30:1,extrusiontemperature= 450 OC)

a) the specimenproduced using a bridge die without a mandrel (BR)

b) thenormalrod specimen
 181

appliedstresswasdistributedto
as therewerethreeweld planes. Iberefore subsequent
those threeligamentsand the stressconcentrationwas high in the regionsadjacentto
the weld planesespeciallyin theregionnearthecentre. This mayleadto theoccurrence
of the triangular shapedfracture (seeplate 6.1 a). In plate 6.1 b, the normal rod
specimenexhibits a cup and conefracturedue to the uniform microstructurewith the
fractureoriginatingfrom microvoidsat thecentre.

After heattreatmentin the T6 condition the strengthis mainly providedby the

M92Si precipitates.
(seefigure 6.3) It wasfound that the tensilestrengthdecreasedwith
increasingextrusiontemperaturefrom 350 OC-450 OC. This is due to the variation In
secondary recrystallised grain sizes together with increasedrecovery (i. e. larger
subgrainsize) at the higher extrusiontemperature,as discussedearlier in normal rod
extrudates.At the higher extrusiontemperature ( 500 OC) the averageabnormalgrain
size was reducedto - 140 gm. This improved the strength as in
shown figure 6.3.
When comparedwith the normal rod specimens,it was found that the strengthsare
only slightly lower even with the abnormalgrains existing in theseBR specimens.
7bis may be becausethe combinationof abnormalgrainsand small equiaxedprimary
in
recrystallisedgrains the tensilespecimenscanmaintain the tensilestrengthof the BR
extrudates. For example,at an extrusiontemperatureof 450 OC the microstructureof
the specimenconsistsof abnormalgrains ( 525 Jim.) and small equiaxcdgrains (100
9n,L) comparedto a typical grain sizein thenormalrod of 200 9nL

Plate6.2 showsthe fractrographsof the heattreatedtensilespecimensin the T6

condition. Plate 6.2 a showsthe fractrograph of the DR specimen while plate 6.2 b
shows the fractrographof the normal rod specimen. Both specimensshow cup and
cone fractures. There is no triangular shapedfracture found in the heat treatedDR
specimensunderall extrusionconditions. This may be because the strength of the heat
treated DR specimenis controlled by the M92SI precipitates. Consequently.the
ultimate tensilestrengthvalue,due to precipitationhardening.is much greaterthan the
strengthof therecrystallisedgrainsand thusfracture occurredrapidly. This leadsto die
cup andconefracture.
 182

Heat Treated at T6 condition

23

02%PS NR 30.1
UTS NIZ 30:1
0.2%PSDR 30.1
---0- UTSDR30.1

200 300 400 Soo Soo

Temperature? Q

Figure 6.3 A comparisonof asheattreatedtensilestrengthof normal rod (NR) and the

rod usinga bridgedie without a mandrel(BR) at constantextrusionratio of 30:1

The microstructuresof as extrudedspecimensalso dependon extrusion ratio

and henceextrusionratio affectstheproof tensilestrengthof extrudates.
(seefigure 6.4)
It was found that at low extrusiontemperature(400 OC)an increasein extrusionratio
from 20:1 to 30:1 increasesthe strengthvia the smaller subgrainsin the recovered
grains. Although staticrecrystallisedgrainsarepresentin the weld region, the overall
volume fraction of the recrystallised/recovered
grainsin tensilespecimenis relatively
low and thus the strengthis mainly due to subgrainstrengthening. I Iowcver for the
40: 1 extrusion ratio the strength was reduceddue to a reduction in the number of
recoveredgrainstogetherwith an increasein the numberof recrystallisedgrains. At an
extrusiontemperatureof 450 *C recrystallisationwas completeand thus the strength
wasreduced.It can be seenthat thestrengthat this constanttemperatureincreaseswith
increasingextrusionratio. 7bis is because
of thesmallerrecrystallisedgrainsdue to the
finer subgrains. The strengthfor a 500 *C extrusion temperatureis higher than the
lower temperatures.Although the microstructuresat 500 ()C extrusion temperature
containedabnormalgrains, the strengthbehaviourcan be explained by the solution
strengtheningmechanism discussed earlier. However it can be alsoseenthat.at 5000C
when the extrusion ratio is increasedto 40: 1, the strength decreases becauseof the
relatively biggerabnormalgrainsasshownin figum 5.2.
 183

Plate 6.2 The fractrographsof the heat treated tensile specimensat constant
extrusiontemperature of 350 OC andextrusionratio of 30:1.

a) Specimen
producedfrom the BR extrudate

b) Specimenproducedfrom thenormalrod extrudate

(b)
 184

0.2%PS-Extrusion ratio 20:1.40:1, As Extrusion

caw
400(b
450 (t
500 CC

8
10 20 30 40 50
Extrusion Ratio

Figure 6.4 The tensilestrengthof the as extrudedBR specimensas a function

of extrusionratio

The proof strength of the heat treatedspecimensof the DR extrudatcsas a

function of extrusion ratio is shown in figure 6.5. In addition to the precipitation
hardening,the strengthalsodependson grain andsubgrainstructureobtainedafter heat
treatment.The grain size,quantityand typeof grainsare shownIn table6.L It can be
seenthat the strengthat an extrusiontemperatureof 400'DCis greaterthan at 450 OC
becauseof the variationin grain structure. It wasfound that if the sizeandquantity of
the abnormalgrainswerehigh the extrudatestrengthwasreduced.e.g. 185MIa for 68
vol % of abnormalgrains(600 tim average)in the 20:1,450 OCextrudate. I lowever
the strengthfor the high extrusion temperature(500 'Q Is higher than for the lower
temperatures(400 OCand 450 OC). 7bis is a result of the small equiaxedgrains
appearingat 500 OCrather than the larger abnormalgrains which occur at die lower
extrusion temperatures. (400 OCand 450 IQ The ulitimate tensile strength of as
extrudedand heat treatedspecimenshavethe sametrend as the proof stress. This Is
shownin figure 6.6.
 185

Extrusionratio 20:1 30:1 40:1

Temp Primary Abnormal Primary Abnormal Primary Abnormal
Grains ins Grains gy. ins Gminq ins
(0c) Vol Size Vol Size Vol Size Vol Size Vol Size Vol Size
% gm I % gm % Am % tim % prn % gm
400 40 240* 60 400. 39 180*. 61 350 40 60 60 600
1
450 22 180 68 6001 33 1061 67 480 27 90 73 420
-
500 15 200 85 3501 10 1501 90 200 5 120 95 250

Table 6.1 The effect of the extrusiontemperatureandratio on the microstructure

Note : grainshavingthe * symbolindicateselongatedprimary recrystallised
grains and the primary grains without the * symbol means cquiaxed
recrystallisedgrains.

It canbe concludedthat thestrengthin theT6 conditiondependsnot only on the

precipitation hardening by M92Si but on the size and quantity of the primary
recrystallisedgrainsand theabnormalgrainsin then*rostructum also.

producedusinga bridge.
6.1.3 The tensilepropertiesof flat extruclates

In this study normal flat shapedextrudatcsand flat shapedcxtrudatesusing a

bridge wereproducedin order to investigatethe transversetensilestrengthof the wcld.
77heextrusionconditionswerestatedin section3.5 andthe dimensionsof the billet and
the bridge are shownin appendix3 and4. Extrudatcswere machinedto standardNo
II Hounsfield,specimensandthentested.The resultsare shownIn figure 6.7.

For the lowestextrusiontemperature(350 OC)it wasfound that the asextruded

microstructureof the normal flat extrudateconsistedof recoveredgrains while the
microstructure of the flat extrudateproduced using a bridge ( i. e. with one weld)
consistedof rccrystallisedgrains in the weld region and recoveredgrains elsewhere.
This leadsto a reduction in strengthof the cxtrudatewith the weld. r-or the highest
temperature(550 OC) the microstructuresof both cxtrudatcs were rccrystallised,
howeverit wasfound that themicrostructumof extrudatecontainingtheweld contained
 186

0.2 %PS, Extrusion Raflo 20: 1-40:1,11TT6

cl 2
r_4
IF-4
pe.
400 OC
ts 450 oc

(n
21
/011ýý 500 OC

1801 4
111
10 20 3ý so
Extrusion Ratio

Figure 6.5 7be tensile strength of the heat treated DR rod specimens as a
function of extrusion ratio

Ulitimate tensile strength

240-
cl

2W
a 00'Casextrusion
50-Casextrusion
-0-500C asextrusion
200
--*--400t asheatmated
0
---. *--450 C asbeattreated
---. G--500'C asheattreated
180

1401 11i
10 2ý 3ý 4; 56
Extrusion ratio

Figure6.6 The effect of extrusiontemperatureandextrusionratio

on theulimatetensflestrengthof the BR extrudatcs
 187

abnormal grains in the weld region. Thus the strength was reduced due to this
secondaryrecrystallisation.

Heat treatment to the T6 condition again improved the strength in both normal
flat extrudatesand flat extrudatescontaining welds. Once again an increasein extrusion
temperature reduced the strength of extrudates. However the occurrence of the weld
reduced the strength of heat treated extrudates due to secondary recrystallisation in the
weld region.

Normal flat
Z« ý
Flat with a
weld

PS PS PS PS UTS UTS UTS UTS

350C 350C 550C550C 350C350C 550C 550C
As ext T6 As ext T6 As ext T6 As ext T6

Figure 6.7 A comparison of the transvere strength of the non-nalflat extruclates

350 OC 550 OC)
and extrudates with a weld. (Extrusion ratio 15:1, Temperature and

It can be concluded that the weld is not so strong as the surrounding jilatfix due

to the occurrence of recrys tall isation in the weld region. Consequently the weld

weakens the extrudates.

 188

6.2 The drift test

This test is designedto determinethe "splitting strength"of tubes. Table 6.2

illustrates the conditions and dimensions of the 'drift test' specimensused in the
investigation. Plate6.3 (a-j) showsasextrudedAA 6063specimensafter thedrift test.
It can be seenthat the specimensexhibit ductile failure howeverthereis no evidenceof
fracture either in the weld region or in the non weld region under all test conditions.
Thereforethe drift test failed to determinethe splitting strengthof the tubesand could
not be usedto assessthe strengthof the welds. In generalthe drift testendedin failure
due to oneof the threefailure modesdiscussedbelow:

1 Buckling due to excessively long specimens.

In this casethe specimenbuckled becauseit was too long. This is shownin

table 6.2 (a, b, f, g and h). Plate 6.3 (a, b, f, g and h) shows buckling of the
specimens.

2 Touching of opposing cones due to excessively short specimens.

When testing short specimens,the specimensdid not exhibit buckling.

However the touching of the two opposing cones occurred during testing. When the
test was stopped before touching of the two cones, the specimen can be seen in plate
6.3 c. If the test was continued, the cones touched and this led to the cones moving out
of alignment. This resulted in twisted specimen.(seeplate 6.3 d)

3A cone touching the baseplate.

In order to avoid the occurrenceof failure mode2, as discussedabove,a test

was developed using only the upper cone. The lower cone was replaced with a flat
plate. This was done to increasethe possible ram displacement. However it was found
that the upper cone touched the base plate without splitting the specimen and the test
was immediately stopped. The specimencan be seenin plate 6.3 e.
 189

In addition to replacing the cone with the plate, a reduction in cone angle from
600 to 450 and 30' was tried in order to increasethe possible ram displacement and "the

splitting rate". Nevertheless, it was found that buckling occurred in the long
specimens, i. e. the 4.4 cm and 4 cm specimens.(see plate 6.3 f, g and i) For the short
specimens the test was stopped before the cone touched the base plate. The specimens
can be seenin plate 6.3 (h and j).

It can be concluded that the drift test is not suitable for the AA 6063 alloy tubes
extruded here becausethis alloy is very ductile and the wall thickness of the tube is so
large that the cones can not split the specimensbefore one of three modes of failure, as
discussedabove,occurs.

Code Cone QD IM Numberof Lengthof Results

angle cones specimen(cm)
a 60 16 4 2 5.00 Buckling
b 60 16 4 2 4.40 Buckling
c 60 16 4 2 2.54 ConesTouching
d 60 14 8 2 4.40 ConesTouching
andspecimen
twisted
e 60 14 8 1 4.40 Touchingtheplate
f 45 14 8 1 4.40 Buckling
9 45 14 8 1 4.00 Buckling
h 45 14 8 1 3.60 Touchingtheplate
1
i 30 14 8 1 4.40 Buckling
j 30 14 8 2.54 1Touchingtheplate

Table 6.2 The results of the drift test ( Room temperature and 0.5 mm/sec
cross head speed)
 190

Plate6.3 Macrostructureof the tubespecimensafter "drift" testing.

(The 'drift test!conditionsandthedimensionof specimensare shownin table6.2)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(1) (g) (h)

(i) 0)
0. '
 191

6.3 The fracture toughness of extrudate

Whenthe specimensweretested,thecrackin eachspecimenoriginatedfrom the

region adjacent to the notched tip, where the stressconcentration was highest, and then
the crack propagated only 2-3 mm from the notched tip into the material. At this stage
the test failed due to bending of the specimencausing it to fall out of the grips.

From the investigations, two occurrences invalidated the toughness values of

AA6063 alloy measured. These are discussedbelow:

1 Largeplasticdeforniationzonesize

In fracturetoughnesstestingof AA6063,unlike brittle materials,thereis a large

plastic zone size in front of the crack tip. The dimensionand shapeof the specimen
were shownin figure 3.1. The geometryof the test specimenwasdesignedin order to
increasethe stressconcentrationin front of the crack tip thusproducinga plane-strain
stateof stress.Howeverthe AA6063 alloy exhibitedthehigh shearplasticdeformation
in this area with a large plastic zone size. This leads to the fracture toughness
measurementbeing made under a mix mode of conditions ( plane-strainand plane-
stressconditions)and thusthe valuesof the toughness(KIC) wereoverestimated.The
presence of plane stress due to the large plastic zone also promotes a bending
mechanism in the specimen after subsequent applied stress. This will be discussed
below.

2 Specimen bending

Continued increase of the applied load resulted in the specimen bending

instead of rapid crack propagation. Therefore the applied load consisted of

components used in bending the specimen and in the crack propagation. Specimen
bending can be seenin figure 6.8. Ibis occurrence made the crack propagation more
difficult. Eventually the specimen bent until the grip was not able to hold the
specimen and thus the specimenfell from the test rig.
 192

As a result, the applied loads, obtained from these experiments, are incorrect for
calculating the fracture toughness (KIC). The data from these experiments, shown in
figure 6.9,cannot be treatedashavingany significance.

Crack tip propagate

Bending

a) Before test b) After test

Figure 6.8 A specimenbending in fi-acturetoughnesstest

As extruded
E
Heattrealed T6
ci
CL
2

c3)

F-
ý

200 300 400 500 600

Extrusion Temperature? C)

Figure6.9 The variationin apparenttoughnesswith extrusiontemperaturefor

AA 6063 alloy
 193

6.4 The hardness properties

6.4.1 Effect of extrusion temperatureon the hardnessproperties in the normal

rod extrudates

The variation of hardnesswith extrusion temperature is shown in figure 6.10.

The hardnessmeasurementswere taken at the centre of the extrudate to determine the

variation in properties with extrusion temperature. Furthermore, the hardness of as

extruded rod, was measured at the peripheral region to determine the variation in
properties acrossthe extrudate.

The hardness values of any press quenched extrudate are in general due to
contributions from the following factors : the substructureof the extrudate, formation
of precipitates on natural ageing and solid solution hardening due to the elements (i. e.
in this material mainly due to magnesium and silicon) present. The current

observations indicate that, for the lowest extrusion temperature (250 OC), the
contributions due to the first two factors are more significant in the TI condition (as
extruded and naturally aged). Hence, the 250 OC hardness is high due to a
combination of substructurestrengtheningand precipitation hardening associatedwith
the formation of G.P zones at room temperature. With increase in extrusion
temperature to 450 OCthe hardnessdecreasesdue to the reduction of the substructure
strengthening effect. However for the highest extrusion temperature (550 OC) the
hardness increases again. This is due to the increase in solid solubilty with
temperature. This leads to the increasedsolid solution hardening or the increasein the
number of Mg2Si precipitates formed by natural ageing.

It was also found that the hardness of the 250 1C, as extruded normal rod
increasedfrom the centre to the suiface of extrudate. This is due to the variation of the

subgrainsize from the centreto the surface,i.e. the smallersubgrainsin the surface
region. With increasein extrusion temperature to 450 OC, static recrystallisation
occurredin the surfaceregionandthusthe hardnessdecreased further. Onceagainfor
the 550 'C extrudate,the hardnessincreaseddue to an increasein solid solubility as
discussedabove. Nevertheless,when comparedto the centre region, the hardness
 194

value in the surface region was lower than in the centre due to the variation in
recrystallised grain size, as shown in plate 5.6 b.

Heat treatment to the T6 condition increased the hardnessdue to the

precipitation hardening by M92Si- In these normal rod specimens extrusion
temperature has only a small effect on recrystallised grain size.(see plates 5.22 and
5.23) Consequently, the contribution due to the precipitation hardening is more

significant and this controls the hardness.

; 90

,o80

TI (centre)
00
.C.
)
0 TI (swface)
T6 (centre)

60

50

40
200 300 400 500 600
Extrusion temperature (IC)

Figure 6.10 Hardness of the normal rod extrudate as a function

of extrusion temperature(Extrusion ratio = 30: 1)

6.4.2 Effect of extrusiontemperatureon the hardnesspropertiesin the BR rod

extrudates
For the low temperatureextrusions(350'C -4500C) the hardnessof the as
extrudedBR rod extrudatesdecreaseswith increasingextrusiontemperaturedue to
substructure coarsening and the occurrence of recrystallisation. For the high
 195

temperatures (500 OCand 5500C) it can be clearly seen that the hardnessesincrease
due to the increased solid solution strengthening or the greater number of Mg2Si

precipitates after subsequentnatural ageing. However at the highest temperature(550

OC)the hardnessdecreasesagain due to the occurrence of larger recrystallised grains,

as discussed in section 5.2.2.1. The effect of increasing extrusion temperature on the

hardness is shown in figure 6.11.

From figure 6.11 the hardness in the non weld region is higher than in the
weld region for all extrusion temperatures. This is due to the variation of the
microstructure in the weld regions and non weld regions. It was mentioned earlier in
section 5.2.2.1 that for the extrusions below 450 OC the microstructure in the weld
regions exhibited recrystallisation while in the non weld regions the microstructure
contained recovered grains. For the higher temperature extrusions (450 OC 5500C),
-
complete recrystallisation occurred in both regions, however the microstructure in the
weld regions also contained secondary recrystallised grains. Hence these differences
in microstructure lead to variations in hardness.

cm
ril

Non weld region

Weld region(centre)

300 400 500 600

Extrusion temperature ýC)

Figure 6.11 Hardnessof the as extrudedBR rod extrudatesas a function of

extrusion temperature(extrusion ratio =30: 1)
 196

It was shown earlier in plate 5.26 that the microstructures after subsequent
heat treatment to T6 could be classified into three types: elongated recrystallised

grains, equiaxed recrystallised grains and secondary (abnormal) recrystallised grains.

In the non-weld regions elongated recrystallised grains occurred in the low
temperature extrusions (350 *C and 400 OC) while at the same time secondary
recrystallised grains occurred in the weld regions. Hence, when compared with the
non-weld region, a decreasein the hardnessof the weld region results. The hardness
in the weld region is lowest at 450 'C due to the variation of secondary recrystallised

grain size. The hardness in the non-weld regions of extrusions above 400 OC
increases due to the fineness of the equiaxed recrystallised grains present.
Furthermore it can be seen that the hardness in the weld regions above 450 OCalso

increases due to a reduction in secondaryrecrystallised grain as shown in plate 5.25 f.

The variation of the hardnessis shown in figure 6.12.

cl
r-
.
W

tj

El - nonweld T6
weld T6

300 400 500 600

Extrusion temperature (OC)

Figure 6.12 A comparisonof the hardnessin the T6 condition

between the non-weld regions and the weld regions of BR rod extrudates,as a
functionof extrusiontemperature

After thesubsequentheattreatment(T6) therecrystallisedgrainsweredifferent

in shapeand sizeas statedabove. Hencethe hardnessvalue is contributedto by the
 197

grain structure and the Mg2Si precipitates. It can be concluded that the occurrence of
primary (in the as extruded condition) and/or secondary recrystallisation (in the T6
condition) in the weld regions produces weaknessesin these regions in the DR rod
extrudates and thus reduce the overall mechanical properties of the extrudates. It is
important to note that for the high temperature
extrusions an increasein solid solubility
affects significantly the hardnessin the TI extrudates.

6.4.3 Effect of extrusion temperature and extrusion ratio on the hardness

properties in the tube extrudates

In the asextrudedconditon,the variationof hardnessacrossthe weld regions

is shownin figure 6.13. It can be seenthat the hardnessin the weld regionsis lower
than the surroundingmatrix, in particularfor the low temperatureextrusions(350OC-
400 0Q. This is due to the occurrenceof primaryrecrystallisationin the weld regions
while recoveredgrains exist away from the weld. Hence the effect of substructure
strengtheningis no longer retained in the weld region. As a result, the hardness
drops. With continuedincreasein extrusiontemperature,the deformationstructure
undergoes large scale static recrystallisation (i. e. primary recrystallisation and
secondaryrecrystallisationas discussedin section5.2.3) Thereforethe hardnessat
450 OC in the non weld regions is slightly lower than the lower temperature
extrusions. Howeverabove450 OCthe hardnessincreasesagaindue to an increasein
solid solubility Of M92SL Furthermorethe hardnessesin the weld and non weld
regions are similar due to the small difference in the recrystallisedgrain sizes as
shownin plate 5.15 (c andf). The variationof the hardnesswith increasingextrusion
temperatureis shownin figure 6.14.

An increasein extrusion ratio slightly increasedthe hardnessof tube extrudates

in the as extruded condition due to the formation of smaller recrystallised grains. This
led to an increase increase in hardness though the Hall-Petch effect. Figure 6.15

shows the variation of hardness as a function of extrusion ratio. However, at the

lowest extrusion temperature (400 OC) and extrusion ratio (23.4 : 1) the hardness is

greater than that of the higher extrusion ratios ( i. e. 25: 1 to 3 1: 1). This is due to the
is
effect of substructure strengtheningwhich retained the in 400 OC, 23.4: 1 extrusion.
 198

70-

65-

10 60-
cl
.r- 55-
rA
50-
>
45- 350 CC
400 ct
40- 450 9C
0 500%-
31
-- 550 CC

C: 1
%. 00
C.,
.2 .20 .00

11ý 10 Itl "0 10

T
00
zz

Figure 6.13 The variationof the hardnessacrossthe weld in the asextruded

condition OVD=4 mm, O/D = 16mm, extrusionratio = 23A 1)
70

",
IZ 65
rA
u2
60

55

50

45

40
Non weld region
35
Weld region
30 -t-
300 400 500 600
Extrusion temperature ýC)

Figure 6.14 Hardnessof the as extruded tubes as a function of extrusion

temperature(IVD=4 mm, O/D = 16nun, extrusionratio = 23.4:1)
 199

Furthermore, it can be seen that for the 450 OC, 23.4: 1 extrusion the hardness is
lower than for the 400 OCextrusion at same extrusion ratio due to the occurrence of

recrystallisation. At 450 OC,for the extrusionratios above29.2:1, the hardnessis

higher than that of the 400 OCextrusionsfor the equivalent extrusionratios. This
increasein the hardnessis probablyrelatedto the greatertemperaturerisesoccurringat
the higher extrusionratios which assiststhe solutionisingeffect. Onceagainfor the
higher temperature(500 OCand above) the hardnessis higher than at the lower
temperature, as discussedearlier.

It is interesting to note that when higher extrusion ratios and/or extrusion

temperatures are used the difference in the hardness value between the weld region
and non weld region is reduced due to the similarity of the grain structure in both
regions, as disscussedin section 5.2.3.

cm
10
s.
cu

4COt Non weld

4500CNon weld
00t Non weld
5C,
550't Non weld
400tWeld
4500CWeld
5000CWeld
--a- 5500CWeld

20:1 30-:1 41il 50:1 60:1 70:1 80:1

Extrusion ratio

Figure6.15Hardnessof the asextrudedtubesasa functionof extrusionratio

 200

Figure 6.16 shows the hardnessvariation in the non weld regions of tube
heattreatmentto the T6 condition. It canbe seenthat the
extrusionsafter subsequent
hardnessslightly increaseswith increasingextrusionratio. This is dueto the smaller
recrystallised grains produced with increasing extrusion ratio. However for the
highestextrusionratio (70:1) the grain structurestrengtheningis reducedbecauseof
the occurrenceof secondaryrecrystallisationin the whole material,as shownin plate
5.28 f. An increasein extrusiontemperaturealsoaffectsthe hardnessof tubesvia the
larger original recrystallisedgrainsprior to subsequent
heattreatment.This resultsin
largerrecrystallisedgrainsafter heattreatmentandthusthe hardnessis slightly lower
with an increasein extrusiontemperature.Onceagain,as was mentionedin section
5.3.3, an increasein extrusiontemperaturealso assistedthe occurrenceof secondary
recrystallisation. Henceit can be seenthat the hardnessdecreasedin the caseof the
500 OC,42.6:1 extrusiondueto secondaryrecrystallisation,as shownin plate5.28 e.

For extrusionratios below 30:1 the hardnessin the weld region after T6 heat
treatmentis lower thanin the non weld region. This is dueto the occurrenceof large,
secondaryrecrystallisedgrainsasdiscussedin section5.3.3. Howeveran increasein
extrusionratio reducesthe secondaryrecrystallisedgrain size and thusthe difference
in hardnessbetweenthe non weld region and the weld region, in a given extrusion
is
condition, reduced. As a result, the in
hardness the weld region increases with
increasingextrusionratio. Howeverwhen secondaryrecrystallisation,originating in
the non weld region, is sufficient to consumethe whole matrix, in particular in the
highestextrusionratio (70:1) and extrusiontemperature(450 'Q, a decreasein the
hardnessresults. It was also found that an increasein extrusiontemperature,for a
given extrusion ratio, resulted in a decreasein the hardness. This is becausethe
hardness,at the high extrusiontemperature,is contributedto by the combinationof
large primary recrystallisedgrains and the large, secondaryrecrystallisedgrains.
Figure 6.17 showsthe hardnessvariation of the heattreatedtubesin the weld region
asa function of extrusionratio.
 201

rA
u2

ci

13 400 Ct

450 OC

5oo lb
550 OC

20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Extrusion ratio

Figure 6.16 Hardness variation in the non weld region of heat treated tubes in
the T6 condition as a function of extrusion ratio

95-

90-

85-
10
S.
cl
80-

75-

70-
0ý5ý
400 0C
450 OC
500 0C
550 OC

20 30 40 so 60 70 so
Extrusion ratio

Figure6.17 Hardnessvariationin the weld regionof heattreatedtubesin the

T6 conditionasa functionof extrusionratio
 202

6.5 Summary

I In the normal rod and BR rod extrudates in as extruded condition, the

microstructureconsistedof the recoveredgrains. The strength of the as extruded
product is mainly due to the sub-structurestrengthening. Increasing extrusion
temperaturereducesthe strengthand hardnessvia a reduction of the substructure
strengtheningeffect. When static recrystallisationoccurreddue to a delay before
quenching,this leadsto a reductionof thosemechanicalproperties.

2 High extrusion temperatures above 450 'C, increases the solid solubilty of
M92Si and thus the strength and the hardnessof extrudates (normal rod, BR rod and
tube) in the as extruded condition. This increaseis probably due to the increasedsolid
solution strengthening and/or to an increasein the number of Mg2Si precipitates after
natural ageing.

3 Ile longitudinaltensilestrengthandhardnessof 'bridgedie' extrudatesin the

as extrudedcondition are also dependentupon the microstructures(i.e. recovered
grains or recrystallised grains) which resulted from the variation of extrusion
temperatures and extrusion ratios. Increasing the quantiy and grain size of
recrystallisedgrains decreasesthe productpropertiesespeciallyin the weld region.
The occurrenceof recrystallisationin the weld region is detrimentalto the hardness
and the strengthof extrudates.Hencetheweld planesrepresentweakregionsin terms
of mechanicalproperties.

4 The transverse tensile strength of flat extrudates with one weld is lower than
that of the normal flat extrudatesdue to the occurrence of recrystallisation in the weld
region.

5 The hardnessof the as extruded tubes is dependentupon the extrusion

temperatureand extrusionratio. An increasein extrusiontemperatureresults in a
decreasein the hardness. For the lowest extrusion ratio (23.4:1) and extrusion
temperature(400 OC) the hardnessis mainly due to the substructurestrengthening
effect. Whenrecrystallisationoccurscompletely,the hardnessdecreases.However,
 203

a continued increasein extrusion ratio increasesthe hardnessof tubes due to a

reduction in recrystallised grain size. It is interesting to note that the extrusion
temperatures above 450 OC,the hardness increases as concluded in 2. The hardness
in the weld region is lower than in the non weld region. However an increase in

extrusion ratio and extrusion temperatureproduce slight differences in microstructure

in both regions and thus the hardness in the weld region approached that in the non

weld region.

6 Heat treatment to the T6 condition improves the room temperature tensile

strength and hardnessof AA 6063 extrudate (normal rod, BR rod and tube extrudates)
due to the precipitation of Mg2Si. The initial extrusion temperatureand extrusion ratio

also affect the T6 mechanical properties via the microstructures produced prior to the
heattreatment.
subsequent

7 Secondaryrecrystallisationreducedthe mechanicalpropertiesof all extrudates

in which it occurred. An increasein extrusion temperature(ý: 500 OC) and/or
extrusionratio reducedthe secondaryrecrystallisedgrain sizein the weld regionafter
heattreatmentandthusimprovedthe hardnessandtensileproperties.Howeverin the
(i.
non weld region theincreasein extrusiontemperatureandextrusionratio e. 450 OC,
70: 1) producedthe extremely large secondaryrecrystallisedgrains, consumingthe
whole section,after subsequent heat treatmentto the T6 condition. Thereforethe
mechanical properties of the extrudatesdeteriorated.

8 In tube extrudates the drift test is not suitable for measuring the splitting
strength over the range of extrudates investigated. Ibis may be due to excessive tube

wall thickness and/or excessivematerial ductility.

9 Fracture toughnessis difficult to measureby using the short rod test due to the

problem of specimen bending. It appearsthat AA6063 is "too tough" for this test to
be valid.
 204

ChaplaT7

BaTucamirma mmalyals

(DT

ARDY AA VD022 IEZqIrM@NDMG

 205

In the Al-Mg-Si system, the AA6082 aluminium alloy gives a higher strength

thanthe AA6063 alloy. In addition,it offers thefollowing advantages:

light weight

good corrosion resistance

good weldability
suitable for drawing, rolling, forging and extrusion

Thus this alloy is normally used for high strength applications such as in the
body structure of the double decker TGV high speedtrain(144).

As previously mentioned in chapter2, this alloy contains additions of chromium

and manganesewhich have beneficial effects on impact strength(145)due to the Cr-Mn
dispersoids, within the grains of the microstructure.

In industry it was found that a higher homogenisation temperature produced

recrystallised. grains in the extrudates, whereas a lower homogenisation temperature
produced recovered microstructures in the extrudates. The aim of this experiment was
to investigate in detail the effect of the two homogenisation temperatures on the
microstructure.

The preparation of the billets is as discussed in section 3.2. Billets were

homogenised at two different temperatures, 490 *C and 580 OC as suggested by
N. Parson(146),Alcan International Ltd. Both homogenisation temperaturesare above
the Mg2Si solvus line of the quasi-binary equilibrium phasediagram. Ibis was done to
ensure that the Mg2Si phase was dissolved into solid solution. The combination of
temperatures and the times required for homogenisation treatment were based on the
required phasetransformation of P AlFeSi phaseto a AlFeSi phase.

The extrusion temperatures and extrusion ratios were the same as stated in
section 3.5.1 for rod extrusion. The transversedimensions of the die, used for the bar
37 in
shape,were mm. width and 75 mnL in thickness. Thus the extrusionratio was
approximately15:1.
 206

7.1 As cast and homogenised microstructures.

The aspolishedmicrostructureof ascastmaterialcan be seenin plate 7.1 a and

d. The non equilibrium 0 AlFeSi phaseappearsat the gr-ainboundariesaslight metallic
grey, "bladelike" coarseparticles. This type of microstructuremust be eliminatedin
order to ensuregood extrudability. This is the major purposeof the homogenisation
treatment. The as polished microstructuresof homogenisedmaterialscan be seenin
plate 7.1 b ande (490 'C) andplate 7.1 c andf (580 OC). The P AlFeSi phasehasbeen
transformedinto thelessdetrimental a AlFeSi phase.

The ccAlFeSi phases in plate 7.1 c were more rounded (spheroidised) than
those in plate 7.1 b This is expected becausethe combination of the temperature and
time, used for the higher temperaturehomogenisation treatment (580 OC,2hrs), provide
greater opportunity for spheriodisation than the lower temperature homogenisation
treatment (490 OC,4 hrs). It was also found that a AlFeSi particles produced by the
580 OC temperature were smaller than those for the 490 OC temperature. This was

expected to inhibit recrystallisation more strongly. M92Si coarse particles, appear blue
under the optical micrograph but tamish easily to appear black. Therefore the particles
with blue in the centre surrounded by a black annulus were in fact Mg2Si- This can be
seen in plate 7.1 a-f. Certain other features which appeared to be black particles were
voids due to the pulling out of either AlFeSi or Mg2Si particles during specimen
preparation. The tiny particles in the grains, which appeared after homogenisation at
both temperatures, were identified using TEM with EDX. This revealed that the
homogenised microstructure in plates 7.2 (a and e) contains Mg2Si precipitates present
in the meta-stable P' form, which is rod shapedabout 1-2 pm in length and 0.1 gm in

width, and lie in the cube direction, that is the <100> direction. The tiny precipitates
are AlMnSi phase which is less than 0.5 gm in length and 0.08 Jim in width. In plate
7.2 a and e, the denser distribution and smaller size of AlMnSi can be seen after the
homogenisation
treatmentat thelower temperature.

7.2 As extruded microstructures

The main dynamicsofteningmechanismoperatingduring hot extrusionof Al-

Mg-Si alloy is dynamic recovery. This operatesover the whole range of extrusion
 207

Plate 7.1 7he optical microstructures of as cast and homogenisedAA6082 alloy

(aspolished)

a) As cast structure 480x d) As cast structure 1200x

b) Homogenisedstructure e) Homogenisedstructum
490 'C 4 hrs 480x at 490 OC4 hrs 1200x
at

c) Homogenised structure f) Homogenisedstructure

at 580 OC2hrs 480x at 580 OC2hrs 1200x
 AlFcSi

t* ,

(a) (d)

I-.,.
r %k * -a- ýMgsi '.

Mg,, Si

All
.

Výt

25

(e)

C(AlFeSi. --lb, t mg"si

14
-

a AIF Si
,J00

25)1 lop

(C) (0
 208

temperatures. However, when the deformed metal, at elevated temperature, passes

from the die orifice to the quench unit, there is enough time during this delay for static

recrystallisation to occur. Therefore static recrystallised grains can be found in the

extrudates,depending on the extrusion conditions.

The as extruded microstructures of rod extrudates can be seenin Plate 7.2 (b, c,
f and g). It is found that for a low extrusion temperature (<450 OC) recovered grains
are present for both homogenisation temperatures. At higher extrusion temperatures
(>450 OC),it can be seen that recrystallised gains together with recovered grains are
present in the microstructures. However, comparing the two different homogenisation
temperatures, the volume fraction of recrystallised grains for the high homogenisation
temperature (5 80 OC)is greater than that for the low homogenisation temperature( 490
OC). This can be seen clearly in the flat extrudates at the same extrusion temperature
(plate 7.2 d and h) where the greater strain produced from the severe 'total' strain
(homogeneous strain and redundant strain) due to the more complex flow. This leads
to provide a stronger driving force for recrystallisation than in the rod extrudates.

TEM micrographs of the microstructures of rod extrudates show subgrains at

the various extrusion temperatures (4500C and 5500C). It was found that the greater
density of fine AlMnSi particles produced during homogenisation at 490 OC,detected
by using EDX, inhibited dislocation movement in the subgrains and at the subgrain
boundaries (plates 7.3 a- c). In contrast in the microstructures of the 580 "C
homogenisation material the subgrains contain a fewer fine particles (plate 7.3 d and

e). The AlMnSi in

particles the 580 OChomogenisation material were larger and also
had a lower distribution density. This tends to favour the occurrence of

recrystallisatýOn. Although the treatment at the low homogenisation temperature

produced fine particles, plate 7.3 f shows a larger than average subgrain, which grew
due to the lower volume fraction of the fine particles in this local area. This subgrain
could typically act as a nucleus for recrystallisation.

Plate 7.4 a shows a high angle boundary of about 26 degreesbetween

"subgrains"A andB whereasthe boundary,betweenB andC hasa low angleof about
4 degrees.Thusit appearsthat A is a recrystallisednucleusor grain whereasBand C
are subgrains. Plate 7.4 b and c are the diffraction patterns for A and B
 209

Plate 7.2 The homogenisedmicrostructuresbeforeextrusion(usingTEM) and

optical microscopyof the AA 6082extrudates.

a) Homogenised structure 490 OC e) Homogenised structure 580 'C

beforeextrusion beforeextrusion

b) rod extruded structure f) rod extrudedstructure

at 450 OC (homogenisedat 490'Q at 450 OC(homogenised at 5800C)

c) rod extrudedstructure g) rod extruded structure

at 550 'C (homogenisedat 490cC) at 550 IC (homogenisedat 5800C)

d) flat extrudedstructure b) flat extrudedstructure

at 500 'C (homogenised at 4900C) at 500 OC (bomogenised at 580'Q
 (a) ii 4w

II)

MWA

",. I
Vý I., IV :

0.1,

" -il Ii
 210

Plate7.3 The extrudedmicrostructures

usingTEM

a) rod extruded structure d) rod extrudedstructure

at 350 OC (homogenisedat 4900C) at 350 'C (homogenisedat 5800C)

b) rod extrudedstructure e) rod extrudedstructure

at 550 OC at 490'C)
(homogenised at 550 'C (homogenisedat 5800C)

c) particles pinning dislocation f) subgrain in the absenceof

particles
 j.A.

oiv 4

(d)

'a

IV

(C)

*-%, 1
46-

(C) (t)

I
 211

Plate 7.4 Subgrains or cells with high and low boundary angles

a) the bright field image of AA6082,

homogenisedat 580 'C 2hrs, extruded at 5500C

b) diffractionpatternof dislocationcell A

c) diffraction pattern of dislocation cell B

V

(a)

(h)

(( I
 212

which had zone axes (electron beam) of <011> and <013> respectively. This
confirmsthatpartial recrystallisationoccurredin theAA6082 extrusion.

It can beconcludedthat thelow homogenisationtemperaturecanproducevery

fine particles which can reducethe likelihood of recrystallisationdue to subgrain
boundarypinning.

7.3 Peak pressure of AA6082

In extrusion it was found that the peak pressuresfor the extrudates which were
homogenised at 490 OC were greater than those of the extrudates homogenised at
5800C. This can be seenin table 7.1 below:

Extrusion Ramspeed Extrusionratio, peakpressure(MPa),

Shape Homog nisedat
tempera re(OC) (mm./sec) 490 (C 580 'C
250 3 30:1, Rod 837 814
350 3 30:1, Rod 583 561
450 3 30:1, Rod 411 398
550 3 30:1, Rod 269 251
500 6 30:1, Rod 357 310
500 12 30:1, Rod 375 337
500 6 15:1, Flat 314 278
500 12 15:1, Flat 332 310

Table 7.1 The peak extrusion pressure for different homogenisation

temperatures.

The explanationof increasingpeakpressurewith decreasinghomogenisation

temperature,is that the density of fine AlMnSi particles is greater for the low
homogenisationtemperature. These fine particles act as barriers for dislocation
movement. Therefore the pressurerequired, during extrusion, to overcomethese
dislocationbarriers,in orderto deformthematerial,is gmater.
 213

7.4 Summary

1. The homogenisation treatment, to a large degree, controls the

microstructures of the billet. The low homogenisation temperature produced finer
AlMnSi particles. This leads to pinning of subgrain boundaries inhibiting

recrystallisation during subsequentextrusion.

2. Occasional subgrains having a significantly lower than average density of

fine particles are present. These consequently tend to be larger in size due to reduced

particle pinning and are potential nuclei for recrystallisation.

is dominatedby dynamic
3. The microstructurefor low extrusiontemperatures
recoveryprocessestherebyproducingsubgrains.When high extrusiontemperatures
are used,staticrecrystallisationoccursimmediately due to a delay beforequenching
the
andeliminates subgrainsandproduces recrystallisedgrains in the microstructure.
A greateramount of recrystallisationoccurs in flat extrudatesas comparedto rod
extrudates. This is due to the higher "total" strainsproducedin the flat extrudates.
This providesa strongerdriving force for recrystallisation.

4. The pressures required for extrusion of low hornogenisation temperature

billets are greater than those for high homogenisation temperature billets due to the
inhibitation of dislocation movement during extrusion by the fine particles.
 214

(ChEpItT 8

(COM(ýIUMIOMS
 215

8.1 Conclusions

1 Tube extrusions of good concentricity have been produced in a single

extrusionprocessusinga bridgedie with a mandrel.

2 The as-extrudedmicrostructure in the presentinvestigation is divided into two

categories: recovered structure and recrystallised structure. The microstructure is
dependent upon the extrusion ratio and extrusion temperature. Dynamic recovery is
the domimant mechanism during extrusion and produces a subgrain microstructure in
which the subgrain size is dependent upon the extrusion conditions. Static
recrystallisation occurs due to a delay before quenching and produces a surface
recrystallised annulus.

3 The microstructure of as extruded BR rod and tube extrudatesdependson the

extrusion temperature,extrusion ratio and the complexity of metal flow in the welding
chamber. An increase in these factors promotes static recrystallisation. In the weld
regions primary recrystallisation occurs due to the severe deformation. The primary
recrystallised grain size increaseswith increasing extrusion temperature and decreasing

extrusion ratio. Secondary recrystallisation is usually found in the weld region, inner

surface and outer surface region of tubes. An increasein either extrusion temperature
or extrusion ratio promotes the occurrence of secondary recrystallisation. However

the secondary recrystallised grain size is reduced with increasing extrusion ratio. To
avoid recrystallisation a low extrusion temperature, i. e. less than 350 OC,and a low

extrusion ratio should be used.

4 No evidence of oxide contamination was found in the weld region and

recrystallisation occurred across the weld line for all extrusion conditions of BR rod
and tube extrudates. This indicates that good weld intergrity was obtained.

5 On subsequentheattreatment(T6) of rod and tube extrudates,the subgrain

structure undergoesstatic recrystallisation. The heat treated microstructurealso
dependson the extrusionconditions. The subgrainsize influencesthe recrystallised
grainsizeand in the alreadyrecrystallisedgrains, grain growth occurs. Secondary
recrystallisation in the normal rod extrudates is often found at the periphery of the
extrudate.This may be dueto strongpreferredorientaionof therecrystallisedannulus
grainswhich depends on extrusion temperature. For the BR rod and tube extrudates
 216

secondary recrystallisation is found in the surface regions and the weld region. The
secondary recrystallised grain size increases with increasing extrusion temperature.
However for the highest extrusion temperature (>500 OC)the secondaryrecrystallised
gain growth in the weld region is retarded by the large primary recrystallised grains
and thus smaller abnormal grains resulted. The secondary recrystallised grains arre
also found in the non weld region of the heat treated BR rod and tube extrudates. An
increasein extrusion temperature(>450'Q and extrusion ratio increasesthe secondary
recrystallised grain size in this non weld region.

6 The strength of as extrudated product is dependent upon the microstructure

and thus extrusion temperature and extrusion ratio. Strength is mainly due to sub-
structure strengthening. Increasing extrusion temperatureor decreasingextrusion ratio
reduces the strength and hardness via a reduction of the substructure strengthening
effect. It is evident that the occurrenceof both primary recrystallisation and secondary
recrystallisation is detrimental to the strength and hardnessof extrudates. However a
continued increase in extrusion ratio increases the hardness due to a reduction in
recrystallised grain size. The weld region exhibits lower hardness than the non weld
region. This is due to the variation in microstructure which occurs in the weld region
and non weld region.

7 The strengthof normal rod extrudateis higher than the strengthof BR rod
extrudateundera given set of extrusionconditions. This is due to the weld regions
exhibiting recrystallisedgrains. Thereforethe effect of substructure strengtheningis
reducedin the BR rod extrudates. It is also found that transversestrengthof the
normalflat extrudateis higherthanthatof theflat extrudatewith oneweld.

8 Heat treatment to the T6 condition improves the room temperature tensile

strength and hardness of the extrudates due to the precipitation hardening effect of
Mg2Si. Secondaryrecrystallisation reducesthe mechanical properties of all extrudates
in which it occurs.

9 Pressurerequiredfor extrusionis dependentuponextrusiontemperatureand

ratio. An increasein extrusionratio or decreasein extrusion increases
temperature the
pressure. In the BR rod and tube extrusionsthe use of a shapefactor in a linear
relationship between peak pressure and extrusion ratio improves the correlation
coefficient.
 217

10 The general pressure equation together using a shapefactor is not suitable

for predicting the pressure required for BR rod and tube extrusions. However it was
found that acceptablepeak pressure prediction for tube extrusion can be achieved by
the use of three-steps extrusion analysis. The range of errors of the prediction are
±1 1% for the BR rod extrusions and ± 13% for the tube extrusions while the average

errors are 5.4% for the BR rod extrusions and 8.4% for the tube extrusions. it
indicates that the prediction using this method is industrically feasible.

11 In AA 6082 alloy the low homogenisation temperature produced finer

AlMnSi particles. This leads to pinning of subgrain boundaries inhibiting
recrystallisation during subsequent extrusion. This improves the strength of
extrudatesdueto theeffect of substructurestrengthening.

8.2 Recommendations for further work

I An extensionof the seamweld studyto includemorehighly alloyedmaterials

andmpid solidificationpowderalloys would alsoassistin gainingfurther knowledge
of seamweld, i. e. weldability of powderparticles,oxide layer andmicrostructureat
theweld regionsandnon weld regionsof extrudates.

2 It would be usefulto studythe effect of variationsin dimensionand shapeof

the die, including the bridge and the mandrel,on microstructureparticularly in the
weld region of the other more complexhollow shapedextrusionssuchasrectangular
tubeextrusion.

3 Secondaryrecrystallisationshouldbe studiedin regardto theeffect of texture

afterextrusion. This would be doneby the useof SEM with a microprobedetectorto
investigatetheorientationof individualgrains.

4 The pressurerequirementand mechanicalpropertiesfor the more complex

hollow shapedextrusionswould be interesting to study in terms of the effect of
extrusionparameters.The requiredpressurewould alsobe investigatedto confirm the
predictionusingthethreestepextrusionanalysiswith a shapefactor.
 218

Appam(dam
 219

147mm

i 64 mm

Pý 0-10
30 m; 646m-0ýý 5 mm
10FTn7 I r- 1
l3b mm No
-
147fnm

Top view of upperdie Front view of upper die

-lImm
64 mm
wo

111 mm 1
45 m 16mm
10 m

130mm
R R =5.5nim
16omm
-057,11oý

13()mm
14/mm
160mm

Top view of lower die Front view of lower die

Note : The alphabetV meansthe die orifice diameteri. e.the outer diameterof the
product.

Appendix I thedimensionof thebridgedie usedin theinvestigation.

 220

Billet length is about 100 mm. Container diameter is 75 mm.

ý'40- --- ---- -0+

77rnZ

30nun
\A-
23nun 22.5mm 2OAmm

8mrn 6nun 4mm

--------- --- 4 -------

Bridge with mandrel 30mm

q
Cha mber 15nun

Die land
T15nun

Die orifice = 12,14,16mm. respectively with same height

Appendix2 7le dimensionsof thedie usedin the study

 221

Billet dimension
Top view

Diameter--72 mm -

1 15mm 1

Front view

Diameter--72 mm -1

Appendix3 Ile dimensionof thebillet for producingtheflat extrudatewith a weld

 222

Top view

72 mm -I

I
F15mm 4
ksmm
TT 5mm
m
diameter= 72 mm

Front view Side view

1 1
-72 mm
11

R=0.5inch
T
15mm

H
251
iII
lomm

Appendix 4. The dimension of the bridge used for extrusion of the flat with a weld
 223

Appendix5 showstheextrusiondataobtainedfrom the experimentsandthepredicted

peakpressurerequiredfor extrusion.

The predicted extrusion peak pressure values were calculated from the general

pressureequation below:

zt
Pp= A+ B' In (R') +C In 4.14
an

and by using the three-stepsextrusion analysis the predicted peak pressurewere calculated
from the equation below:

I IIT
PT A'+ B'T -+ C; F + D'In (R')+E'ln 4.30
an , P
whereas
A' 4.48(in equation4.14),-1288.97 (in equation4.30)
B, 17.37(in equation4.14), 5.443e+5(in equation4.30)
C1 10.24(in equation4.14), 2.870e+5(in equation4.30)
D' 243.67
E' 49.82
R' Modifiedextrusion ratio in
(discussed chapter4)
71 Initialbillettemperature (K)
Tp Extrusiontemperature atpeak (K)
zi p Zener-Hollomon parameteratpeak
AH Activationenergy (141550J/mole.K)
R Universalgasconstant (8.314J/mole)
a valueof 0.04
Materialconstant
n valueof 5.385
Materialconstant
In A 22.5
 224

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-0 cD --E 4 4 ý ý
:a 92. Z c; rý cý
cr) rý C)
c;
cý
LO CO CY) CO C%i r,- cý T-ui cý
CD qt e 00 N
d
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cli c
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lqt 9t CVDCY CM Le) LO le

(n CM
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CO (» CD U)
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le
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le v-
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rz (ý -4 rý 12 lý CY CY CY CY C%iN CY N c\I CY CM
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(D
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.E -e -e -e cy) c; cý cý
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CD 1 1 1J
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-it e 0 0 Cj CZ C) q, CD

ta
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.2 0 <O CO (0 m CD (0 (D (D
Z CU (D (0 CO CD CO CO CO 00 CO m (0
cr- CYCYcy cm cm (0
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wl

0 (D LO 0 CO qt CO CO
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Q 0 CD C) a) o C) 0 CM CY LO
qt Li) CY
cli -4 C,4 LE) C,2
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ce)le le Lin LC)cr) lit -e Li) LC) le le
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«a «a «a M 90 M M m m m m «a M a m «o 10
(D m «a 10 10 «a «a *0 C) (0 CO r- (D
m CO CY (D C) CO Ln C) CV) C» r- CD nt r2 cli rZ er L'n
rý. CO r.% 0 r N Lt) (D (D 0 (0 CD rý 1- c) v- 0 0 C» C» C» (7)
(D r- C\j CIJ

""
CO 00 00 CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
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ý v) m
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r) CO
C'2
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2 r)
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 225

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C14 CO LO U) r. (D (D to CD mt N M V-- U) "
a
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t- q;r lqT v-- Cr) (n Cl) LO 0 v- C) v- M W) W) 0 a) W) Cr) Cf ) N 0 -
r - CIJ (D
CL z U) a) r% cc v cr) co U) lot co CD M tý C) co rl% Lf) IV tll%
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cz
(1)

C
LO to LO LO
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N cj
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cv)

CV)CII) "t Nr IT M CV)cv) M M

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 231

Normal rod Vickers Hardness (Hv)

Extrusion As extruded( TI ) Heat treatedT6
temperature Centre Surface Centre
250 OC 52.9 54.7 82.5
350 OC 50.8 53.1 81.5
450 OC 44.6 45.0 79.8
550 'C 1 51.8 49.5 79.5

Appendix 6.1 Hardnessof the normal rod extrudate (Extrusion ratio 30: 1)

BR rod VickersHardness(Hv)
Extrusion Non weld Weld Non weld Weld
Temperature region region region region
TI T1 T6 T6
350 OC 52.7 50.2 81.5 74.1
400 OC 51.5 48.1 78.8 73.1
450 IC 45.0 44.0 80.2 72.1
500 OC 54.0 53.8 83.6 79.5
550 OC 52.4 51.8 81.8 80.2
1

Appendix 6.2 Hardness data BR in

of rod extruclate the weld region and non weld
region (Extrusion ratio 1)
=30:

Temperature
- -
non w2ld mid distance weld region n-ýddistance non weld
350 *C 52.7 47.1 51.0 53.0
50.3
400 OC 50.9 47.3 48.5 50.9
48.5
450 OC 48.1 48.1 46.4 47.9 48.3
500 OC 54.8 55.1 55.0 55.1 55.1
550 OC 53.8 53.8 52.0 53.6 53.8

Appendix6.3 Hardnessdataacrossthe weld regionof the asextrudedtube

(O/D=16 mm, I/D--4 mm, extrusionratio =23.4:1)
 232

Vickers Hardness (Hv)

Extru OC I OC1 OC OC 1 OCI OC I
400 450 500 OC 550 400 450 500 550 OC
Ratio
(R) Non wel regions Weld regions
23.4 50.9 48.1 54.8 53.8 47.3 46.4 55.0 52.0
25.0 49.5 = --
dT7
- - - .5 - -
29.2 78-1 7 57 -0 -- F4F5- 47.1 -- U - - 54.1
- .5 -
- 3-1.3 7 F).27 - 5Z- - 5 3.8 - 797 - 48.5 5 3.6
.7 - -
35.0 50.0 50.6 53.9 - 48.3 49.9 53.8 -
42.6 50.4 52.7 54.3 49.8 - 5-1.-7 54.2
2P 0 51.2 149.2
- - - -
Y2-.0 51.2 53.8 51.2 - 52 4.
70. U- '

Appendix 6.4 Hardnessdata of tube extrusions in the as extruded condition

Tubes Vickers Hardness (Hv)

Extru II OC I IC OC I OC I OC I
400 OC 450 OC 500 550 400 450 500 550 OC
Ratio
(R) Non wel regions Weld gions
-M-7- 79.3 78.7 77.7 75.7 77.2 77.1 7 6.5 -17=.
25.0- -- 78.8 777 -
- - - -
-- 799'.
-2 -T -1 1. 80.5 -79--9 - -- 78.7 1 76.8
3 1-7- --rl-. 3 79.8 -7 97.27 7 7757 - 79.0 - 7 -1 - 79 - 5- 75.7
- 75- 0 81.1 80.2 79.6 79.5 79.0 --' -' =
-
4 -71-3 80.6 -7 OT2- 79.5 79.5
T4IT 81.8 --867.6- 81.4 80.0
=15 82.0 82.2 +- 2.1 82.2
7U.Z-
L2z2-_L -_ L 6ý. 4 68.1

Appendix 6.5 Hardnessdata in the T6

of tube extrusions condition
 233

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47lt