ž Introduction

ž Applications
ž Brief history
ž Assumptions
ž Stress
• Types
• Notations
• Equilibrium conditions (3-D)
• Stress transformation
• Principal stresses
ž Strain
• Types
• Compatibility conditions

ž Stress- strain relation (3-D)

ž Application to 2-D problems

ž Theory of Elasticity deals with stress,
strain, displacements in elastic solid
under external forces

ž Similar to strength of materials

ž Limitations of Strength of Materials

• Stress near load, support
• Stress in rollers and balls
• Stress near sharp variation in cross section
of beam/shaft
ž S.M.
• practical engineer and experiments

ž T.O.E.
• physicists and mathematicians

ž APPROACHES
• S.M.– solution of particular problem rather
than generalized.
• T.O.E – generalized solution based on
mathematics
ž Influenceddesign of machine part by
eliminating weak spots

ž Essential
for many branches of
engineering like civil, mechanical,
aeronautical
……..almost every

ž Civil– stress distribution in rod, beam,

shaft, plate & shell geomechanics
ž Mechanical – general stress analysis, contact
stress, thermal stress, fracture mechanics and
fatigue

ž Material – stress field and crystalline solids,

dislocation, material with micro-structure

ž Aeronautical – stress, fracture, & fatigue analysis

of aero structures…

ž Basis for advanced topics like plasticity, visco-

elasticity, computational stress analysis
(FEM/BEM)
ž T.O.E. establishes mathematical model of
deformation problem. So, knowledge of
mathematics is essential to understand
formulation & solution

ž Governing partial differential field equation

are formed using principles of continuum
mechanics in vector and tensor form.
ž Techniques used to solve these field equations
are –

• Fourier methods
• Variational calculus
• Integral transforms
• Complex variables
• Finite difference
• Finite element
ž Concept of elastic force – deformation
relation – Robert Hooke – 1678
ž Formulation of mathematical theory of
elasticity – 19th century
ž General equations of equilibrium –
Navier– 1821
ž Basic elasticity equation & stress at a
point – Cauchy
ž Scientists and mathematicians contributed in
development of theory –

• Bernoulli
• Lord Kelvin
• Poisson
• Lame
• Green
• Saint-Venant
• Betti
• Airy
• Kirchhoff
• Lord Rayleigh
• Love
• Timoshenko
• ……………………………..
ž Two decades after world war II large amount of
analytical solutions to specific problems

ž During 1970 to 1980 considerable work on

numerical methods using FE and BE theory

ž Subsequently applications in anisotropic material,

composites material developed

ž Recently applied in micro-mechanical modeling

of materials with internal defect or heterogeneity

ž Continuum mechanics established a rational

place for theory within general frame work.
ž All engineering material possess to certain
extent property of elasticity

Load or
stress

Deformation or
strain
1. Solid behaves perfectly elastic under elastic
forces

2. Atomic structure not considered

3. Matter of an elastic body is homogeneous and

continuously distributed over volume

4. The most part of the body is isotropic, i.e.

same elastic properties in all directions.
ž At micro level material consists of crystals of
various kind and various orientation

ž Solution of T.O.E. based on assumption of isotropy &

homogeneity is applicable to steel type material,
due to very small size crystals

ž When geometrical dimensions of body are very

large in comparison of single crystal assumption of
homogeneity can be applied

ž When crystals are oriented randomly the material

can be treated as isotropy
Forces acting on deformable body may be
classified in two ways :
1. External and Internal
• Forces acting on exposed surface of body
• Forces acting inside the body between grains or
molecules – Internal
2. Surface and Body
• Forces acting on surface or area – surface force
e.g. hydrostatic pressure, contact forces, forces
developed due to thermal expansion – contraction
• Forces acting on grains of body – Body force –
volume e.g. gravity force, magnetic force, inertia
force, centrifugal force
 STRESS

ΔF – intensity of internal force

ΔA – stress

limit
Stress, σ = ΔA 0 ΔF
ΔA
ž Stress is a property of body under load. It is a sort
of reaction produced in the molecules of a body
under some action, which tends to produce some
deformation. The intensity of these additional
forces per unit area is known as stress

ž External forces are not always necessary to

produce stress. Other actions that tend to
produce a change in the mutual distance of
molecules of the body can also produce stress
e.g. temperature gradient
 According to the type of body on which they
act

ž One dimensional/
uniaxial

ž Two dimensional/
biaxial
ž Three dimensional/ triaxial
According to Action of Stresses
In general resultant of internal forces is inclined
and can be resolved into three components– one
normal and second along surface.
Along surface
Resultant stress

normal
ž Normal/direct stress —
• Developed due to normal forces
• Denoted usually by σ or p

ž Tangential/ shear stresses –

• Developed due to force along surface

• Denoted usually by t or q

ž Direct stress – compression or extension

ž Shearstress – distortion of body / change of

angle & shape
ž Surface force in x,y,z cartesian
coordinate axis
X, Y ,Z
ž Body force in x, y, z direction
X, Y, Z
ž Normal stress σ
ž Shear stress t
Two systems for denoting stress

ž Tensor system Stress tij

i – direction of the normal to the surface on
which stress acts
j – direction of the stress
txx, tyy, tzz – normal stresses
txy, txz, tzx – shear stresses
ž Ordinary system
σx σy σz – normal stress
txy, txz, tzx – shear stresses
 σx

txy
txz
txz

σx txy
X -- plane
 t
yz

t
yx

σy σy

t
t
yx
yz

Y -- plane
 σz

tzy
tzx

tzx
tzy
σz Z -- plane
ž To describe stresses on all six faces – three
dimensional state of stresses
• Normal stresses – σx,σy,σz
• Shear stresses – txy, txz, tyx, tyz, tzx, tzy

ž Considering equilibrium of solid under

shear stresses
 ∑M = 0

(txy ´ dy ´ dz) ´ dx = (tyx ´ dx ´ dz) ´ dy

txy = tyx
similarly
txz = tzx
tyz = tzy

so, no. of shear stresses reduces to three

i.e. txy, txz, tyz
ž Sign conventions for stresses
ž Stress – magnitude
– direction of plane
– direction of stresses
If both the directions are +ve or –ve
stress is positive
Otherwise if one is +ve or –ve stress is
negative
 txx txy txz
[t] = tyx tyy tyz
tzx tzy tzz ti j
x,y,z x,y,z
or

σx txy txz
[S] = tyx σy tyz
tzx tzy σz
Direct tensile stress +ve
compressive stress –ve
total no. of stresses = 3 x 3 = 9
ž Generally stress may vary from point to point in
all directions.
ž Variation of σy – rectangle along x-direction
trapezoidal along z-direction
general along y-direction

ž General variation of σy in x & z direction involves

small quantities of higher order. So for
calculation of force these faces, one general
variation is considered and in other two
direction variation is absent or linear.

ž Total force on face 3 & 4 is

average stress at center ´ area of face
sum of forces in Y direction

(σy+∂σy.δy)δx.δz – σy.δx.δz
∂y
+ (txy+∂ txy.δx)δy.δz – txy.δy.δz
∂x
+ (tzy+∂ tzy.δz)δx.δy – tzy.δx.δy
∂z
+ Y δxδy.δz = 0
 ∂σy.δx.δy.δz + ∂ txy.δxδy.δz
∂y ∂x
+ ∂ tzy.δxδy.δz + Y δxδy.δz =0
∂z

∂σy + ∂ txy + ∂ tzy + Y = 0

∂y ∂x ∂z
similarly equations of equilibrium can be
considered in x and z direction
Equations of equilibrium in three
dimensions
∂σx + ∂txy + ∂txz + X = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂tyx + ∂σy + ∂tyz + Y = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂tzx + ∂tzy + ∂σz + Z = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

X, Y, Z are the components of the body

force per unit volume in x, y, z directions.
 Transformation of Stresses

Stresses on inclined plane

σx, σy, σz, txy, txz, tyz are attached to co-

ordinate axes x, y, z.

when axis are rotated to new position x’,

y’, z’, stresses change to σx’, σy’, σz’, txy’,
txz’, tyz’.
Direction cosine

inclination
of plane in
space can be
defined using
direction cosine.
Inclination of normal ON w.r.t. x, y, z axis is α,β,γ &
cosine.
l = cos α
m = cos β
n = cos γ
l, m, n determine inclination of plane effectively.

Direction cosines can also be expressed as

“aij” (tensor type notation)
“aij” cosine of angle between any two lines i and j
so, l = anx= cos α
m = any= cos β
n = anz= cos γ
This notation makes transformation of stresses
systematic.
For considering equilibrium of element,
area of each face and force acting on it
are considered.
Area of face KLM = A
Area of face LOM = A anx
Area of face MOK = A any
Area of face KOL = A anz
Considering sum of all forces in x, y, z
directions as zero
AX = txxA anx+ tyxA any+ tzxA anz
AY = txyA anx+ tyyA any+ tzyA anz
AZ = txzA anx+ tyzA any+ tzz A anz
 X = txx anx+ tyx any+ tzx anz
Y = txy anx+ tyy any+ tzy anz
Z = txz anx+ tyz any+ tzz anz
Now resolving forces in N-direction
A tnn= A(X anx+ Y any+ Z anz)
substituting X, Y, Z
tnn= (anx)2 txx+ (any)2 tyy+ (anz)2 tzz
+2 anx any txy + 2 any anz tyz + 2 anz anx tzx
In short
tnn= ∑∑ ani anj tij
i j
i and j can take form of x, y, z.
In general for all transformed stress
components along a rotated set of axis x’, y’,
z’ –
tx’x’, ty’y’, tz’z’, tx’y’, tz’x’, ty’z’ are
tns = ani asj tij
n,s → x’, y’ z’
& i, j → x, y, z
due to symmetry six terms are left in six
equations giving total 36 terms
In deriving above equations body forces
are neglected Because
if side of small tetrahedron are δx, δy, δz ,
then area will be proportional to square
of small term and volume to cube.

Suppose δx = δy = δz = δl
one of equations can be written as
X (δl)2 = anx txx (δl)2 + any txy (δl)2 + anz txz (δl)2
+ X (δl)3
as (δl)3 is very small, can be neglected
ž Transfer stresses 200 100 0
N/mm2
100 0 0
0 0 500
From x, y, z to x’, y’, z’ axes as shown
Solution:
y tns= ani asj tij
direction cosines
Y’
60º
X’ x y z
60º x’ ax’x ax’y ax’z
x
y’ ay’x ay’y ay’z
Z z’ az’x az’y az’z
Z’
Values
x y z
x’ 1 √3 0
2 2
y’ -√3 1 0
2 2
z’ 0 0 1

tx’x’ = ax’xax’xtxx + ax’xax’ytxy + ax’xax’ztxz

+ ax’yax’xtyx + ax’yax’ytyy + ax’yax’ztyz
+ ax’zax’xtzx + ax’zax’ytzy + ax’zax’ztzz
= 136.6
 similarly

tx’y’ = -136.6 , tx’z’ = 0

ty’y’ = 63.4 ty’z’ = 0 tz’z’ = 500

i.e.
new stresses = 136.6 -136.6 0
-136.6 63.4 0 N/mm2

0 0 500
Alternatively using matrix operations
tns= ani asj tij = [ ani ] [tij ] [ ani ]T
1 √3 0 200 100 0 1 -√3 0 T
2 2 2 2
= -√3 1 0 100 0 0 √3 1 0
2 2 2 2
0 0 1 0 0 500 0 0 1

= 136.6 -136.6 0
-136.6 63.4 0 N/mm2

0 0 500