Protactinium

Protactinium (formerly protoactinium) is a chemical

element with the symbol Pa and atomic number 91. It Protactinium, 91Pa
is a dense, silvery-gray actinide metal which readily
reacts with oxygen, water vapor and inorganic acids. It
forms various chemical compounds in which
protactinium is usually present in the oxidation state
+5, but it can also assume +4 and even +3 or +2 states.
Concentrations of protactinium in the Earth's crust are
typically a few parts per trillion, but may reach up to a
few parts per million in some uraninite ore deposits.
Because of its scarcity, high radioactivity and high
Protactinium
toxicity, there are currently no uses for protactinium
outside scientific research, and for this purpose, Pronunciation /ˌproʊtækˈtɪniəm/
protactinium is mostly extracted from spent nuclear (PROH-tak-TIN-ee-əm)
fuel.
Appearance bright, silvery metallic luster
Protactinium was first identified in 1913 by Kasimir Standard atomic 231.035 88(1)[1]
Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring and named weight Ar, std(Pa)
brevium because of the short half-life of the specific
Protactinium in the periodic table
isotope studied, i.e. protactinium-234. A more stable
isotope of protactinium, 231Pa, was discovered in Pr
1917/18 by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, and they ↑
Pa
chose the name proto-actinium, but the IUPAC finally ↓
named it "protactinium" in 1949 and confirmed Hahn (Uqp)

and Meitner as discoverers. The new name meant " thorium ← protactinium → uranium

(nuclear) precursor[5] of actinium" and reflected that Atomic number (Z) 91

actinium is a product of radioactive decay of
Group group n/a
protactinium. John Arnold Cranston (working with
Frederick Soddy and Ada Hitchins) is also credited Period period 7
with discovering the most stable isotope in 1915, but Block f-block
delayed his announcement due to being called up for
service in the First World War.[6] Element category Actinide
Electron [Rn] 5f2 6d1 7s2
The longest-lived and most abundant (nearly 100%) configuration
naturally occurring isotope of protactinium,
protactinium-231, has a half-life of 32,760 years and is Electrons per 2, 8, 18, 32, 20, 9, 2
a decay product of uranium-235. Much smaller trace shell
amounts of the short-lived protactinium-234 and its Physical properties
nuclear isomer protactinium-234m occur in the decay
Phase at STP solid
chain of uranium-238. Protactinium-233 results from
the decay of thorium-233 as part of the chain of events Melting point 1841 K (1568 °C, 2854 °F)
used to produce uranium-233 by neutron irradiation of Boiling point 4300 K (4027 °C, 7280 °F)
thorium-232. It is an undesired intermediate product in (?)
thorium-based nuclear reactors and is therefore
removed from the active zone of the reactor during the Density (near r.t.) 15.37 g/cm3
breeding process. Analysis of the relative Heat of fusion 12.34 kJ/mol
concentrations of various uranium, thorium and
Heat of 481 kJ/mol
protactinium isotopes in water and minerals is used in vaporization
radiometric dating of sediments which are up to Atomic properties
175,000 years old and in modeling of various
geological processes. Oxidation states +2, +3, +4, +5 (a weakly
basic oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.5
Contents Ionization 1st: 568 kJ/mol
energies
History
Atomic radius empirical: 163 pm
Isotopes
Covalent radius 200 pm
Occurrence
In nuclear reactors
Preparation Spectral lines of protactinium
Physical and chemical properties Other properties
Chemical compounds Natural from decay
Oxides and oxygen-containing salts
occurrence
Halides
Crystal structure body-centered tetragonal[2]
Other inorganic compounds
Organometallic compounds
Applications
Precautions
Thermal ~9.9 µm/(m·K)[3] (at r.t.)
See also
expansion
References
Thermal 47 W/(m·K)
Bibliography conductivity
External links Electrical 177 nΩ·m (at 0 °C)
resistivity

History Magnetic ordering paramagnetic[4]

CAS Number 7440-13-3
History
Prediction Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)
Discovery and Kasimir Fajans and Oswald
first isolation Helmuth Göhring (1913)
Named by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner
(1917–8)
Main isotopes of protactinium
Dmitri Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table with a gap for
protactinium on the bottom row of the chart, between Iso‐ Abun‐ Half-life Decay Pro‐
thorium and uranium
tope dance (t1/2) mode duct

229Pa syn 1.5 d ε 229Th

In 1871, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of
an element between thorium and uranium.[7] The 230Pa syn 17.4 d ε 230Th
actinide element group was unknown at the time.
231Pa 100% 3.276×104 y α 227Ac
Therefore, uranium was positioned below tungsten in
group VI, and thorium below zirconium in group IV,
leaving the space below tantalum in group V empty 232Pa syn 1.31 d β− 232U

and, until the 1950s, periodic tables were published 233Pa trace 26.967 d β− 233U
with this structure.[8] For a long time chemists searched
for eka-tantalum as an element with similar chemical 234Pa trace 6.75 h β− 234U
properties to tantalum, making a discovery of
protactinium nearly impossible. Tantalum's heavier 234mPa trace 1.17 min β− 234U

analogue was later found to be the transuranic element

dubnium – which, however, does not react like tantalum, but like protactinium.[9]

In 1900, William Crookes isolated protactinium as an intensely radioactive material from uranium; however,
he could not characterize it as a new chemical element and thus named it uranium-X (UX).[7][10][11]
Crookes dissolved uranium nitrate in ether, and the residual aqueous phase contains most of the 234
90Th and
234Pa. His method was still used in the 1950s to isolate 234Th and 234Pa from uranium compounds.[12]
91 90 91
Protactinium was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered
the isotope 234Pa during their studies of the decay chains of uranium-238: 238 234 234
92U → 90Th → 91Pa → 92U.
234

They named the new element brevium (from the Latin word, brevis, meaning brief or short) because of its
short half-life, 6.7 hours for 234
91Pa.
[13][14][15][16][17] In 1917/18, two groups of scientists, Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Cranston of Great Britain, independently discovered
another isotope of protactinium, 231Pa, having a much longer half-life of about 32,000 years.[17] Thus the
name brevium was changed to protoactinium as the new element was part of the decay chain of uranium-235
as the parent of actinium (from Greek: πρῶτος prôtos "first, before"). For ease of pronunciation, the name
was shortened to protactinium by the IUPAC in 1949.[18][19] The discovery of protactinium completed one
of the last gaps in the early versions of the periodic table, proposed by Mendeleev in 1869, and it brought to
fame the involved scientists.[20]

Aristid von Grosse produced 2 milligrams of Pa2O5 in 1927,[21] and in 1934 first isolated elemental
protactinium from 0.1 milligrams of Pa2O5.[22] He used two different procedures: in the first one,
protactinium oxide was irradiated by 35 keV electrons in vacuum. In another method, called the van Arkel–
de Boer process, the oxide was chemically converted to a halide (chloride, bromide or iodide) and then
reduced in a vacuum with an electrically heated metallic filament:[18][23]

2 PaI5 → 2 Pa + 5 I2

In 1961, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) produced 127 grams of 99.9% pure
protactinium-231 by processing 60 tonnes of waste material in a 12-stage process, at a cost of about
US$500,000.[18][24] For many years, this was the world's only significant supply of protactinium, which was
provided to various laboratories for scientific studies.[7] Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the US provided
protactinium at a cost of about US$280/gram.[25]

Isotopes
Twenty-nine radioisotopes of protactinium have been discovered, the most stable being 231Pa with a half-life
of 32,760 years, 233Pa with a half-life of 27 days, and 230Pa with a half-life of 17.4 days. All of the
remaining isotopes have half-lives shorter than 1.6 days, and the majority of these have half-lives less than
1.8 seconds. Protactinium also has two nuclear isomers, 217mPa (half-life 1.2 milliseconds) and 234mPa
(half-life 1.17 minutes).[26]

The primary decay mode for the most stable isotope 231Pa and lighter (i.e. 212Pa to 231Pa) is alpha decay,
producing isotopes of actinium. The primary mode for the heavier isotopes (i.e., 232Pa to 240Pa) is beta
decay, producing isotopes of uranium.[26]
Occurrence
Protactinium is one of the rarest and most expensive naturally occurring elements. It is found in the form of
two isotopes – 231Pa and 234Pa, with the isotope 234Pa occurring in two different energy states. Nearly all
natural protactinium is protactinium-231. It is an alpha emitter and is formed by the decay of uranium-235,
whereas the beta radiating protactinium-234 is produced as a result of uranium-238 decay. Nearly all
uranium-238 (99.8%) decays first to the shorter-lived 234mPa isomer.[27]

Protactinium occurs in uraninite (pitchblende) at concentrations of about 0.3-3 parts 231Pa per million parts
(ppm) of ore.[7] Whereas the usual content is closer to 0.3 ppm[28] (e.g. in Jáchymov, Czech Republic[29]),
some ores from the Democratic Republic of the Congo have about 3 ppm.[18] Protactinium is
homogeneously dispersed in most natural materials and in water, but at much lower concentrations on the
order of one part per trillion, that corresponds to the radioactivity of 0.1 picocuries (pCi)/g. There is about
500 times more protactinium in sandy soil particles than in water, even the water present in the same sample
of soil. Much higher ratios of 2,000 and above are measured in loam soils and clays, such as
bentonite.[27][30]

In nuclear reactors

Two major protactinium isotopes, 231Pa and 233Pa, are produced from thorium in nuclear reactors; both are
undesirable and are usually removed, thereby adding complexity to the reactor design and operation. In
particular, 232Th via (n,2n) reactions produces 231Th which quickly (half-life 25.5 hours) decays to 231Pa.
The last isotope, while not a transuranic waste, has a long half-life of 32,760 years and is a major contributor
to the long-term radiotoxicity of spent nuclear fuel.[31]

Protactinium-233 is formed upon neutron capture by 232Th. It further either decays to uranium-233 or
captures another neutron and converts into the non-fissile uranium-234.[32] 233Pa has a relatively long half-
life of 27 days and high cross section for neutron capture (the so-called "neutron poison"). Thus, instead of
rapidly decaying to the useful 233U, a significant fraction of 233Pa converts to non-fissile isotopes and
consumes neutrons, degrading the reactor efficiency. To avoid this, 233Pa is extracted from the active zone
of thorium molten salt reactors during their operation, so that it only decays to 233U. This is achieved using
several meters tall columns of molten bismuth with lithium dissolved in it. In a simplified scenario, lithium
selectively reduces protactinium salts to protactinium metal which is then extracted from the molten-salt
cycle, and bismuth is merely a carrier. It is chosen because of its low melting point (271 °C), low vapor
pressure, good solubility for lithium and actinides, and immiscibility with molten halides.[31]

Preparation
Before the advent of nuclear reactors, protactinium was separated for scientific experiments from uranium
ores. Nowadays, it is mostly produced as an intermediate product of nuclear fission in thorium high-
temperature reactors:

(The times are half-lives.)

The 231 isotope can be prepared by radiating thorium-230 with slow neutrons, converting it to the beta-
decaying thorium-231, or by irradiating thorium-232 with fast neutrons, generating thorium-231 and 2
neutrons.
Protactinium metal can be prepared by reduction of its fluoride with
calcium,[33] lithium or barium at a temperature of 1300–1400 °C.[34][35]

Physical and chemical properties

Protactinium is an actinide which is positioned in the periodic table to the
left of uranium and to the right of thorium, and many of its physical
properties are intermediate between those two actinides. So, protactinium is
more dense and rigid than thorium but is lighter than uranium, and its
melting point is lower than that of thorium and higher than that of uranium.
The thermal expansion, electrical and thermal conductivities of these three
elements are comparable and are typical of post-transition metals. The
estimated shear modulus of protactinium is similar to that of titanium.[36]
Protactinium is a metal with silvery-gray luster that is preserved for some
time in air.[18][24] Protactinium easily reacts with oxygen, water vapor and Protactinium occurs in
acids, but not with alkalis.[7] uraninite ores.

At room temperature, protactinium crystallizes in the body-centered

tetragonal structure which can be regarded as distorted body-centered cubic lattice; this structure does not
change upon compression up to 53 GPa. The structure changes to face-centered cubic (fcc) upon cooling
from high temperature, at about 1200 °C.[33][37] The thermal expansion coefficient of the tetragonal phase
between room temperature and 700 °C is 9.9 × 10−6/°C.[33]

Protactinium is paramagnetic and no magnetic transitions are known for it at any temperature.[38] It becomes
superconductive at temperatures below 1.4 K.[7][34] Protactinium tetrachloride is paramagnetic at room
temperature but turns ferromagnetic upon cooling to 182 K.[39]

Protactinium exists in two major oxidation states, +4 and +5, both in solids and solutions, and the +3 and +2
states were observed in some solid phases. As the electron configuration of the neutral atom is
[Rn]5f26d17s2, the +5 oxidation state corresponds to the low-energy (and thus favored) 5f0 configuration.
Both +4 and +5 states easily form hydroxides in water with the predominant ions being Pa(OH)3+,
Pa(OH)2+ +
2 , Pa(OH)3 and Pa(OH)4, all colorless.
[40] Other known protactinium ions include PaCl2+, PaSO2+,
2 4
PaF3+, PaF2+2 , PaF−
6 , PaF2−
7 and PaF3− [41][42]
8 .

Chemical compounds
 space Pearson density
Formula color symmetry No a (pm) b (pm) c (pm) Z
group symbol (g/cm3)
silvery-
Pa tetragonal[2] I4/mmm 139 tI2 392.5 392.5 323.8 2 15.37
gray

PaO rocksalt[35] Fm3m 225 cF8 496.1 4 13.44

PaO2 black fcc[35] Fm3m 225 cF12 550.5 4 10.47

Pa2O5 white Fm3m[35] 225 cF16 547.6 547.6 547.6 4 10.96

Pa2O5 white orthorhombic[35] 692 402 418

PaH3 black cubic[35] Pm3n 223 cP32 664.8 664.8 664.8 8 10.58

brown-
PaF4 monoclinic[35] C2/c 15 mS60 2
red
green-
PaCl4 tetragonal[43] I41/amd 141 tI20 837.7 837.7 748.1 4 4.72
yellow
PaBr4 brown tetragonal[44][45] I41/amd 141 tI20 882.4 882.4 795.7

PaCl5 yellow monoclinic[46] C2/c 15 mS24 797 1135 836 4 3.74

PaBr5 red monoclinic[45][47] P21/c 14 mP24 838.5 1120.5 1214.6 4 4.98

PaOBr3 monoclinic[45] C2 1691.1 387.1 933.4

Pa(PO3)4 orthorhombic[48] 696.9 895.9 1500.9

Pa2P2O7 cubic[48] Pa3 865 865 865

golden-
Pa(C8H8)2 monoclinic[49] 709 875 1062
yellow

Here a, b and c are lattice constants in picometers, No is space group number and Z is the number of
formula units per unit cell; fcc stands for the face-centered cubic symmetry. Density was not measured
directly but calculated from the lattice parameters.

Oxides and oxygen-containing salts

Protactinium oxides are known for the metal oxidation states +2, +4 and +5. The most stable is white
pentoxide Pa2O5, which can be produced by igniting protactinium(V) hydroxide in air at a temperature of
500 °C.[50] Its crystal structure is cubic, and the chemical composition is often non-stoichiometric, described
as PaO2.25. Another phase of this oxide with orthorhombic symmetry has also been reported.[35][51] The
black dioxide PaO2 is obtained from the pentoxide by reducing it at 1550 °C with hydrogen. It is not readily
soluble in either dilute or concentrated nitric, hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, but easily dissolves in
hydrofluoric acid.[35] The dioxide can be converted back to pentoxide by heating in oxygen-containing
atmosphere to 1100 °C.[51] The monoxide PaO has only been observed as a thin coating on protactinium
metal, but not in an isolated bulk form.[35]

Protactinium forms mixed binary oxides with various metals. With alkali metals A, the crystals have a
chemical formula APaO3 and perovskite structure, or A3PaO4 and distorted rock-salt structure, or A7PaO6
where oxygen atoms form a hexagonal close-packed lattice. In all these materials, protactinium ions are
octahedrally coordinated.[52][53] The pentoxide Pa2O5 combines with rare-earth metal oxides R2O3 to form
various nonstoichiometric mixed-oxides, also of perovskite structure.[54]
Protactinium oxides are basic; they easily convert to hydroxides and can form various salts, such as sulfates,
phosphates, nitrates, etc. The nitrate is usually white but can be brown due to radiolytic decomposition.
Heating the nitrate in air at 400 °C converts it to the white protactinium pentoxide.[55] The
polytrioxophosphate Pa(PO3)4 can be produced by reacting difluoride sulfate PaF2SO4 with phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) under inert gas atmosphere. Heating the product to about 900 °C eliminates the reaction by-
products such as hydrofluoric acid, sulfur trioxide and phosphoric anhydride. Heating to higher temperatures
in an inert atmosphere decomposes Pa(PO3)4 into the diphosphate PaP2O7, which is analogous to
diphosphates of other actinides. In the diphosphate, the PO3 groups form pyramids of C2v symmetry.
Heating PaP2O7 in air to 1400 °C decomposes it into the pentoxides of phosphorus and protactinium.[48]

Halides

Protactinium(V) fluoride forms white crystals where protactinium ions are arranged in pentagonal
bipyramids and coordinated by 7 other ions. The coordination is the same in protactinium(V) chloride, but
the color is yellow. The coordination changes to octahedral in the brown protactinium(V) bromide and is
unknown for protactinium(V) iodide. The protactinium coordination in all its tetrahalides is 8, but the
arrangement is square antiprismatic in protactinium(IV) fluoride and dodecahedral in the chloride and
bromide. Brown-colored protactinium(III) iodide has been reported where protactinium ions are 8-
coordinated in a bicapped trigonal prismatic arrangement.[56]

Protactinium(V) fluoride and protactinium(V) chloride have a

polymeric structure of monoclinic symmetry. There, within one
polymeric chain, all the halide atoms lie in one graphite-like plane
and form planar pentagons around the protactinium ions. The
coordination 7 of protactinium originates from the 5 halide atoms
and two bonds to protactinium atoms belonging to the nearby chains. Coordination of protactinium (solid
These compounds easily hydrolyze in water.[57] The pentachloride circles) and halogen atoms (open
melts at 300 °C and sublimates at even lower temperatures. circles) in protactinium(V) fluoride or
chloride.
Protactinium(V) fluoride can be prepared by reacting protactinium
oxide with either bromine pentafluoride or bromine trifluoride at
about 600 °C, and protactinium(IV) fluoride is obtained from the oxide and a mixture of hydrogen and
hydrogen fluoride at 600 °C; a large excess of hydrogen is required to remove atmospheric oxygen leaks
into the reaction.[35]

Protactinium(V) chloride is prepared by reacting protactinium oxide with carbon tetrachloride at

temperature of 200–300 °C.[35] The by-products (such as PaOCl3) are removed by fractional
sublimation.[46] Reduction of protactinium(V) chloride with hydrogen at about 800 °C yields
protactinium(IV) chloride – a yellow-green solid which sublimes in vacuum at 400 °C; it can also be
obtained directly from protactinium dioxide by treating it with carbon tetrachloride at 400 °C.[35]

Protactinium bromides are produced by the action of aluminium bromide, hydrogen bromide, carbon
tetrabromide or a mixture of hydrogen bromide and thionyl bromide on protactinium oxide. An alternative
reaction is between protactinium pentachloride and hydrogen bromide or thionyl bromide.[35]
Protactinium(V) bromide has two similar monoclinic forms, one is obtained by sublimation at 400–410 °C
and another by sublimation at slightly lower temperature of 390–400 °C.[45][47]

Protactinium iodides result from the oxides and aluminium iodide or ammonium iodide heated to 600 °C.[35]
Protactinium(III) iodide was obtained by heating protactinium(V) iodide in vacuum.[57] As with oxides,
protactinium forms mixed halides with alkali metals. Among those, most remarkable is Na3PaF8 where
protactinium ion is symmetrically surrounded by 8 F− ions which form a nearly perfect cube.[41]
More complex protactinium fluorides are also known such as Pa2F9[57] and ternary fluorides of the types
MPaF6 (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs or NH4), M2PaF7 (M = K, Rb, Cs or NH4) and M3PaF8 (M = Li, Na, Rb,
Cs), all being white crystalline solids. The MPaF6 formula can be represented as a combination of MF and
PaF5. These compounds can be obtained by evaporating a hydrofluoric acid solution containing these both
complexes. For the small alkali cations like Na, the crystal structure is tetragonal, whereas it lowers to
orthorphombic for larger cations K+, Rb+, Cs+ or NH4+. A similar variation was observed for the M2PaF7
fluorides, namely the crystal symmetry was dependent on the cation and differed for Cs2PaF7 and M2PaF7
(M = K, Rb or NH4).[42]

Other inorganic compounds

Oxyhalides and oxysulfides of protactinium are known. PaOBr3 has a monoclinic structure composed of
double-chain units where protactinium has coordination 7 and is arranged into pentagonal bipyramids. The
chains are interconnected through oxygen and bromine atoms, and each oxygen atom is related to three
protactinium atoms.[45] PaOS is a light-yellow non-volatile solid with a cubic crystal lattice isostructural to
that of other actinide oxysulfides. It is obtained by reacting protactinium(V) chloride with a mixture of
hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide at 900 °C.[35]

In hydrides and nitrides, protactinium has a low oxidation state of about +3. The hydride is obtained by
direct action of hydrogen on the metal at 250 °C, and the nitride is a product of ammonia and protactinium
tetrachloride or pentachloride. This bright yellow solid is stable to heating to 800 °C in vacuum.
Protactinium carbide PaC is formed by reduction of protactinium tetrafluoride with barium in a carbon
crucible at a temperature of about 1400 °C.[35] Protactinium forms borohydrides which include Pa(BH4)4. It
has an unusual polymeric structure with helical chains where the protactinium atom has coordination
number of 12 and is surrounded by six BH4− ions.[58]

Organometallic compounds

Protactinium(IV) forms a tetrahedral complex

tetrakis(cyclopentadienyl)protactinium(IV) (or Pa(C5H5)4) with four
cyclopentadienyl rings, which can be synthesized by reacting
protactinium(IV) chloride with molten Be(C5H5)2. One ring can be
substituted with a halide atom.[59] Another organometallic complex is
golden-yellow bis(π-cyclooctatetraene) protactinium, or protactinocene,
Pa(C8H8)2, which is analogous in structure to uranocene. There, the metal
atom is sandwiched between two cyclooctatetraene ligands. Similar to
uranocene, it can be prepared by reacting protactinium tetrachloride with
dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide, K2C8H8, in tetrahydrofuran.[49]
The proposed structure of
Applications the protactinocene
(Pa(C8H8)2) molecule
Although protactinium is located in the periodic table between uranium and
thorium, which both have numerous applications, there are currently no uses
for protactinium outside scientific research owing to its scarcity, high radioactivity, and high toxicity.[27]

Protactinium-231 arises from the decay of uranium-235 formed in nuclear reactors, and by the reaction
232Th + n → 231Th + 2n and subsequent beta decay. It was once thought to be able to support a nuclear
chain reaction, which could in principle be used to build nuclear weapons: the physicist Walter Seifritz once
estimated the associated critical mass as 750 ± 180 kg.[60] However, the possibility of criticality of 231Pa has
been ruled out since then.[61]

With the advent of highly sensitive mass spectrometers, an application of 231Pa as a tracer in geology and
paleoceanography has become possible. So, the ratio of protactinium-231 to thorium-230 is used for
radiometric dating of sediments which are up to 175,000 years old and in modeling of the formation of
minerals.[28] In particular, its evaluation in oceanic sediments allowed to reconstruct the movements of
North Atlantic water bodies during the last melting of Ice Age glaciers.[62] Some of the protactinium-related
dating variations rely on the analysis of the relative concentrations for several long-living members of the
uranium decay chain – uranium, protactinium, and thorium, for example. These elements have 6, 5 and 4
valence electrons and thus favor +6, +5 and +4 oxidation states, respectively, and show different physical
and chemical properties. So, thorium and protactinium, but not uranium compounds are poorly soluble in
aqueous solutions, and precipitate into sediments; the precipitation rate is faster for thorium than for
protactinium. Besides, the concentration analysis for both protactinium-231 (half-life 32,760 years) and
thorium-230 (half-life 75,380 years) allows to improve the accuracy compared to when only one isotope is
measured; this double-isotope method is also weakly sensitive to inhomogeneities in the spatial distribution
of the isotopes and to variations in their precipitation rate.[28][63]

Precautions
Protactinium is both toxic and highly radioactive and thus all manipulations with it are performed in a sealed
glove box. Its major isotope 231Pa has a specific activity of 0.048 curies (1.8 GBq) per gram and primarily
emits alpha-particles with an energy of 5 MeV, which can be stopped by a thin layer of any material.
However, it slowly decays, with a half-life of 32,760 years, into 227Ac, which has a specific activity of 74
curies (2,700 GBq) per gram, emits both alpha and beta radiation, and has a much shorter half-life of 22
years. 227Ac, in turn, decays into lighter isotopes with even shorter half-lives and much greater specific
activities (SA), as summarized in the table below showing the decay chain of protactinium-231.[27]

Isotope 231Pa 227Ac 227Th 223Ra 219Rn 215Po 211Pb 211Bi 207Tl

SA (Ci/g) 0.048 73 3.1 × 104 5.2 × 104 1.3 × 1010 3 × 1013 2.5 × 107 4.2 × 108 1.9 × 108
Decay α α, β α α α α β α, β β
Half-life 33 ka 22 a 19 days 11 days 4s 1.8 ms 36 min 2.1 min 4.8 min

As protactinium is present in small amounts in most natural products and materials, it is ingested with food
or water and inhaled with air. Only about 0.05% of ingested protactinium is absorbed into the blood and the
remainder is excreted. From the blood, about 40% of the protactinium deposits in the bones, about 15% goes
to the liver, 2% to the kidneys, and the rest leaves the body. The biological half-life of protactinium is about
50 years in the bones, whereas in other organs the kinetics has a fast and slow component. For example,
70% of the protactinium in the liver has a biological half-life of 10 days, and the remaining 30% for 60 days.
The corresponding values for kidneys are 20% (10 days) and 80% (60 days). In all these organs,
protactinium promotes cancer via its radioactivity.[27][55] The maximum safe dose of Pa in the human body
is 0.03 μCi (1.1 kBq), which corresponds to 0.5 micrograms of 231Pa. This isotope is 2.5 × 108 times more
toxic than hydrocyanic acid.[64] The maximum allowed concentrations of 231Pa in the air in Germany is
3 × 10−4 Bq/m3.[55]

See also
Ada Hitchins, who helped Soddy to discover the element protactinium
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Bibliography
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.).
Butterworth–Heinemann. ISBN 978-0080379418.

External links
Protactinium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/091.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)

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