Modernistica Asiano Historico

CTBR 2010
NT RCTV DTN
ntrctv
xclsv
HW
TH
GLF
WRKS
PRTCTNG MRN LF
STRL’S LST GNTS
Brwn Plcn,
Frt Jcksn Brd
Rhblttn Cntr
SPCL RPRT
nsd th Dpw tr Dsstr
Th Tll n th By
Sylv rl: Glf Mmrs
FFCL JRNL F TH NTNL GGRPHC SCTY
VL. 218 • N. 4
Th Spll
s nthr dpw tr
dsstr nvtbl?
n th bttl gnst l,
th w tlnds rn’t gvng p
Spcl Sctn: Glf f Mxc
Th bl w ldrnss
f my chldhd
ctbr 2010
Cvr Stry
By Jl K. Brn, Jr.
By Brc Brctt
By Sylv rl
MR
Sfd Prnt
Th cs fr srdns, nt tn.
strl’s Lst Gnts
Jmb kngrs nc rld th lnd.
ctbr 2010 | Ftrs
Bng Jn Gdll
Hr wrk md s rthnk chmps.
llrd’s Wst
MR
VD
CNS
T Mny Fsh t S
$650-mlln srvy s
crtng cnss f
crbs, s sqrts, jllyfsh,
lmpshlls, nd mr.
GGRPHY
Rcrd Hl
Hlstns rn’t sy t mk,
bt thy fll w th bndn n
Kny nd r s bg s ght
nchs crss n th .S.
NVRNMNT
vrst Clnp
Th “dth zn” hlds
60 yrs’ wrth f
dmpd gr. Nw
th clnp bgns.
nsd Ggrphc
Flshbck
dtr’s Nt
Lttrs
Yr Sht
NTRCTV SLD SHW
Vsns f rth
n th Cvr
n Jn 14, th rhb
cntr cght th ld
brw n plcn. ftr
bth—th scrd brds fght
bck—t w s rlsd Jly 1.
Pht by Jl Srtr
ctbr 2010 | Dprtmnts
TH BG D
Bckng p Hstry
Lsr dvcs r mkng
dtld mgs f
lndmrks t d n ny
ftr rstrtn.
GGRPHY
Crss Crtgrphy
Vlntrs n pstqk
Ht qckly
hlpd fll n th
crtgrphc blnks.
HLTH
Th Hydrtn Myth
ght ght-nc
glsss dy? xprts
thnk tht th dctm
dsn’t hld w tr.
FR SBSCRPTNS ND GFT
MMBRSHPS, CNTCT CSTMR
SRV C T NGMSRVC.CM, R
CLL 1-800- NGS-LN (647-5463).
TSD TH .S. ND CND
PLS CLL +1-813-979-6845.
2
nsprng ppl t cr bt th plnt

NTNL GGRPHC MGZ N
DT R N CHF Chrs Jhns
DPTY DTR Vctr Pp
CRTV DRCTR Bll Mrr
XCTV DTRS
Dnns R. Dmck (nvrnmnt), Dvd Grffn (-Pblshng),
Krt Mtchlr (Phtgrphy), Jm Shrv (Scnc)
MNGNG DTR Lsly B. Rgrs
NGM.CM Rb Cvy
MSSN PRJCTS Chrstphr P. Sln
TXT DPTY DRCTR: Mrc Slvr. STRY DVLPMNT DTR: Brbr Plsn
RTCLS DTR: lvr Pyn. SNR DTRS: Lynn ddsn (Ftrs), Dn Blt (Frgn ffrs),
Rbrt Knzg (nvrnmnt), Ptr Mllr (xpdtns). DTR T LRG: Cthy Nwmn
FTRS DTRS: Glnn lnd, Jn Vssls. SNR WRTRS: Jnnfr S. Hllnd, Tm ’Nll,
. R. Wllms. WRTR: Ptr Gwn. DMNSTRTN: Kt ndrss, Nchls Mtt
CNTRBTNG WRTRS: Crln lxndr, Jl K. Brn, Jr., Rbrt Drpr, Cynth Grny,
Ptr Hsslr, Mrk Jnkns, Dvd Qmmn, Nl Sh
DPRTMNTS DRCTR: Mrgrt G. Zckwtz. DPTY DRCTR: Ln Shyr. DTRS: Jrmy Brln,
Hnnh Blch (Mssn Prjcts). DMNSTRTN: Cthrn Brkr
CPY DSK DRCTR: Dvd Brndly. SSSTNT DRCTR: lc S. Jns. CPY DTR: Ktry Krs
PRDCTN: Sndr Dn. SCHDLNG DRCTR: Crl L. Dmnt
PHT GRPHY DPTY DRCTR: Ssn . Smth. SNR DTRS: Bll Dthtt (Spcl dtns),
Kn Ggr (Dgtl Systms), Kthy Mrn (Ntrl Hstry), Ssn Wlchmn (Dprtmnts)
DTR T LRG: Mchl Nchls. SNR PHT DTRS: Gl L. Fshr, Tdd Jms, lzbth Krst,
Srh Ln, Sd Qrrr. RSRCH DTR: Mry McPk. STFF PHTGRPHR: Mrk Thssn
STD: Rbcc Hl. DGTL MGNG: dwrd Sml, vn Wldr. PHT NGNRNG: Wltr Bggs,
Dvd Mthws, Knj Ymgch. RGHTS MNGR: lzbth Grdy. DMNSTRTN: Whtny Hll;
Shrry L. Brkbchr, Trsh Drsy, Kt Npr, ln Shvk, Crstn Wlls
DSGN /RT DSGN DRCTR: Dvd C. Whtmr. RT DRCTR: Jn Vlsc
MPS DRCTR: Wllm . McNlty. SNR DSGN DTRS: Jhn Bxtr, ln H. Brdly
DSGN DTR: lvr R. brt. SNR GRPHCS DTRS: Frnnd G. Bptst, Mrtn Gmch,
Vrgn W. Msn, Sn McNghtn, Jhn Tmn. SNR CRTGRPHY DTRS: Mrgrt B.
Hnskr, Gs Plts. CRTGRPHY DTR: Ls R. Rttr. RT RSRCHR: mnd Hbbs
GRPHCS SPCLSTS: Jrm N. Cksn, Mrl Frlng, Lwsn Prkr, Sm Pppl
SNR DSGNR: Btty Clymn-Dtly. DSGNR: Mlly Snwbrgr
DMNSTRTN: Cnd Rchrd, Rbn D. Rdrgz
RSRCH DRCTR: bgl . Tptn. RSRCH DTRS: Kthy B. Mhr, Hd Schltz, Chrsty
llrch,
Brbr L. Wyckff. SNR RSRCHRS: Krn C. Fnt, Nr Gllghr, Dvd . Lnd,
Nnc Mjkwsk, lzbth Sndgrss. RSRCHRS: Tryn Slns, Brd Scrbr
TRNSLTNS: Cmll Bzzl. DMNSTRTN: Jcqln Rw
NGM.CM SNR PRDCRS: Pl Hltzl, Hns Ws (Vd). SSCT PRDCRS: Wllm Brr, Smrn
Chwl
DRCTR F PHTGRPHY: Mlss Wly. SNR PHT DTR: Mnc C. Crcrn
RT DRCTR: Shwn Grn
DMNST RT N Krn Dfrt Slgh (sst. t th dtr n Chf), Vlr Crbb-Chpmn (Fnnc); nn K. D
Vvr,
K. Rsslr vns, Nksh Lng. CMMNCTNS VC PRSDNTS: Bth Fstr, Mry Jnn Jcbsn;
Brbr S. Mfft. MG CLLCTN ND SLS V C PRSDNT: Mr . Mlvhll; Wllm D. Prry
LBRRS ND NFRMTN SRV CS DRCTR: Brbr Pnfld Frry; Rn Brdn
PRDCT N VC PRSDNT: Hns H. Wgnr. MGNG DRCTR: Thms J. Crg; Jhn Blly, Nl
dwrds,
Stv Gldmn, Grgry Lc, Brnrd Qrrck. PRNTNG: Jsph M. ndrsn
DVRTSNG PRDCTN: Jnnfr . Drnll. QLTY DRCTR: Rnld . Wllmsn; Clytn R.
Brnstn, Mchl G. Lppn, Wllm D. Rchrts. DSTRBTN DRCTR: Mchl Swrr
SRVCS
Cntrbtns t th Ntnl Ggrphc Scty r tx ddctbl ndr Sctn 501(c)(3)
f th .S. tx cd. Cpyrght c 2010 Ntnl Ggrphc Scty. ll rghts rsrvd. Ntnl
Ggrphc nd Yllw Brdr: Rgstrd Trdmrks R Mrcs Rgstrds. Ntnl Ggrphc
ssms n rspnsblty fr nslctd mtrls. Prntd n .S..
NT RNTNL DTRL DRCTR: my Klczk. DSGN DTR: Drrn Smth. TXT DTR: Jstn
Kvngh
PHTGRPHC LSN: Lr L. Frd. PRDCTN: ngl Btzr. DMNSTRTN: Wllm Shbrt
DT RS BRZL Mtthw Shrts • BLGR Krssmr Drmv • CHN Y Nn • CRT Hrvj Prćć
CZ CH Tmš Trčk • FRNC Frncs Mrt • GRMNY rwn Brnnr • GRC Mr tmtzd
HNGRY Tms Schlssr • NDNS Yns Snthn zs • SRL Dphn Rz • TLY Ggllm Pp
JPN Hryk Fjt • KR Sn-k Nm • LTN MRC mr Lpz • LTHN Frdrks Jnsns
NTHRLNDS/BLGM rt rsbrgn • NRDC CNTRS Krn Gnn • PLND Mrtyn
Wjcchwsk • PRTGL Gncl Prr • RMN Crstn Lsc • RSS lxndr Grk
SRB gr Rll • SLVN Mrj Jvrnk • SPN Jsp Cbll • TWN Rgr Pn
THLND Kwt Phdngrngkj • TRKY Nsb Bt
DVRTSNG 711 Ffth vn, Nw Yrk, NY, 10022; Phn: 212-610-5500; Fx: 212-610-
5505
SNR V C PRSDNT ND PBLSHR: Cld Mlly. NTNL DVRTSNG DRCTR: Rbrt mbrg
BSNSS ND PRTNS: Mrgrt Schmdt. MNGR: Krn Srrs (Dtrt)
NTRNTNL SR. VC PRSDNT ND PBLSHR: Dcln Mr. DRCTRS: Chrl ttnbrgh
(Mngng), Ndn Hgg (ntrntnl), Rbcc Hll (Mrktng), Dvd Mdds (Brtsh sls)
CNSMR MRKTNG VC PRSDNT WRLDWD: Trrnc Dy. DRCTRS: Chrstn C. lbrghn
(Mmbr Srvcs), nn Brkr (Rnwls), Rchrd Brwn (Nw Bsnss),
Jhn McKthn (Fnncl Plnnng nd Rtl Sls), Jhn . Sly (ntrntnl)
NTNL GGRPHC SCTY
DT NS
PRSDNT ND C Jhn M. Fhy, Jr.
XCTV VC PRSDNTS Trrnc B.
dmsn. PRSDNT, NTRPRSS: Lnd Brkly
MSSN PRGRMS: Trry D. Grc
PRSDNT, PBLSHNG: Jhn Q. Grffn
PRSDNT, BK PBLSHNG GRP: Nn D.
Hffmn. CMMNCTNS: Btty Hdsn
CF: Chrstphr . Ldl
BRD F TRSTS CHRMN: Glbrt M.
Grsvnr. VC CHRMN: Rg Mrphy.
Jn brhmsn, Mchl R. Bnsgnr,
Jn N. Cs, lxndr Grsvnr llr,
Rgr . nrc, Jhn M. Fhy, Jr., Dnl S.
Gldn, Mr . Lgmsn, Grg Mnz,
Ptrck F. Nnn, Ptr H. Rvn, Wllm K.
Rlly, dwrd P. Rsk, Jr., Jms R. Sssr,
B. Frncs Sl , Grd Schlt-Hlln,
Td Wtt, Trcy R. Wlstncrft
CNCL F DVSRS CHRMN: dwrd P.
Rsk, Jr. Drln T. ndrsn, Lcy Bllngsly,
Mchl R. Bnsgnr, Hwrd G. Bfftt,
Vrgn Bsch, Jn N. Cs, Dvd Crt, Rgr
. nrc, Jlt C. Flgr, Rbrt B. Hs, Dvd
H. Kch, r L, Svn-lf Lndbld, Brc L.
Ldwg, Dvd P. Mrgls, Mchl L. Mtkns,
Lrry Mlln, Jr., Slly nglhrd Pngr, W.
Rssll Rmsy, Cthrn B. Rynlds, Jsph
. Rbrt, Jr., Vctr P. Snt, B. Frncs Sl ,
Td Wtt, Sm R. Wltn, Grry . Wbr, Trcy
R. Wlstncrft, Wllm Wrgly, Jr.
RSRCH ND XPLRT N CMMTT
CHRMN: Ptr H. Rvn. VC CHRMN: Jhn M.
Frncs. Cln . Chpmn, Kth Clrk, Stvn
M. Clmn, Phlp Gngrch, Crl P. Hrdn,
Nncy Knwltn, Jnthn B. Lss, Dn M.
Mrtn, Sctt . Mllr, Jn Njmn,
ls M. Rdmnd, Thms B. Smth, Wrt H.
Wlls, Mlnd . Zdr
XPLRRS-N- RSDNC Rbrt Bllrd, Wd
Dvs, Jrd Dmnd, Sylv rl, J. Mchl
Fy, Zh Hwss, Bvrly Jbrt, Drck
Jbrt, Ls Lky, Mv Lky, Jhn
Rnhrd, Pl Srn, Spncr Wlls
MSSN PRGRMS VC PRSDNT, MD
TRCH: Mrk Bmn. VC PRSDNT,
DCTN: Dnl dlsn. VC PRSDNT, RC
GRNTS: Jhn M. Frncs. CHF PRTNG FFCR:
Srh Lskn. VC PRSDNT, PBLC PRGRMS:
Grgry . McGrdr. VC PRSDNT, STRTGC
NTTVS: lxndr Mn. SR. VC PRSDNT,
GLBL PRTNRSHPS: Krstn Rchbrgr
PRSDNT, JSN PRJCT: Clb Schtz
HMN RSRCS SR. VC PRSDNT:
Thms . Sbl
NTRNTNL SR. VC PRSDNT: Dcln Mr
TRSRR SR. V C PRSDNT: H. Grgry Pltts
DVLPMNT SR. VC PRSDNT:
Jcqln M. Hllstr
NT NL GGRPHC GL BL MD
PRSDNT: Tmthy T. Klly
CHF PRTNG FFCR: dwrd M. Prnc, Jr.
NT NL GGRPHC VNT RS
CHRMN: Dnns R. Ptrck
NTNL GGRPHC CHNNL
PRSDNT: Dvd Hslngdn
NTRTNMNT PRSDNT: Dvd Bl
DGTL MD PRSDNT: Jhn Cldwll
TLVSN PRSDNT: Mchl Rsnfld
NT NL GGRPHC SCHL PBLSHNG
GRP PRSDNT ND C: lsn Wgnr
D T R’ S N T
n ly w v brks n th
bch t Glf Shrs, lbm.
PHT: TYRN TRNR
2 NTNL GGRPHC CTBR 2010
t s 151 yrs, thr mnths, nd 24
dys frm th dy, gst 27, 1859, w hn dwn Drk
drlld th frst sccssfl l w ll nr Ttsvll, Pnnsylvn,
t th blw t f th Dpwtr Hrzn l
rg, 48 mls ff th cst f Lsn, ths pst sprng.
Drk’s w ll, w hch strck l t dpth f 69.5 ft,
lnchd th mdrn l ndstry. W hv bn dlng
wth th cnsqncs f r ptrlm-fld
lfstyl vr snc. Thr’s bn mch fngr-pntng
nd dbt vr w h s t blm fr th stn f l
n th Glf f Mxc, bt th flt cn b sd t l n
n smll prt w thn rslvs nd r pptt fr l.
t s n pptt tht Dr k, w th hs 20-brrl--dy
wll, cld nt hv mgnd. Th l frm tht w ll,
nd thrs f tht r, wnt mstly nt krsn,
whch ws rplcng whl l fr lghtng. Hnry Frd’s
cmpny, w hch w ld ltmtly pt cr kys n
mllns f hnds, ws nrly hlf cntry wy.
Ptr lm-bsd plymrs, plstc bttls nd bgs, frtlzrs,
jt plns, th g f Hydrcrbn Mn, s Dnl Yrgn clls
t n Th Prz, hs hstry f l, hd nt yt rrvd.
Th w rds tht fllw n ths mnth’s ss, nd th phtgrphs—
n l-skd plcn, trry shrln, th dspr n
fshrmn’s fcs—rmnd s tht thr s mr t th cst f
l thn th tckng nmbrs t th fl pmp.
Grnlnd
Yr rtcl shwd th chllngs f grcltr n
Grnlnd. Hw vr, t’s bt nfr t knck Grnlnd’s
frms fr mprtng fddr frm rp. Th rpn
nn s hghly dpndnt n mprts fr fdng ts
lvstck. vr 50 prcnt f th ’s prtn fd s
mprtd; t s lrgly sybns frm th mrcs.
Bttr tht Grnlndrs dvlp thr grcltr thn
bcm dpndnt n drllng fr l ff th cst.
HRB S. LDWNCKL
Prfssr f Plnt Pthlgy
Crnll nvrsty
Gnv, Nw Yrk
Whl Grnlnd ctzns’ ptmstc vw f l nd rr
rth prfts s ndrstndbl, t shld b tmprd by
rcnt rlts. Th dths f mnrs n Chn nd Wst
Vrgn nd th dsstr n th Glf f Mxc shld
wrn f th pssbl prc. Th thsnd-yr trdtn
f fshng nd frmng cld nd trgclly, w th th nw ly
wlthy pplc sppng p l r dggng t brd
frnds nd rltvs.
DL BRTLTT
Slns, Clfrn
Chn’s Cvs f Fth
T th frgn crtrs w h cntnd tht “thr msms
hv svd trsrs tht mght thrws hv bn
lst frvr— dstryd (Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
L T T RS
4 NTNL GGRPHC CTBR 2010 L
Cntct s
ml ngsfrm@ngm.c m
Wrt Ntnl Ggrphc
Mgzn, P Bx 98199,
Wshngtn, DC 20090-8199.
ncld nm, ddrss,
nd dytm tlphn.
Lttrs my b dtd fr
clrty nd lngth.
Th rpn
nn s hghly
dpndnt n
mprts fr
fdng ts
lvstck. vr
50 prcnt f
th ’s prtn
fd s mprtd;
t s lrgly
sybns frm
th mrcs.
NGM.CM | JN 2010
WHPNG CRN CNT 68
RDMPTN N ST H FRC 80
LND F T H T R KNGR 110
CHN’S T RSR CVS 124
Grnlnd GRND ZR FR GLBL WRMNG
Jn 2010
D NG
Y RS H T|ngm .c m /y rs h t
DTRS’ CHC ndrw Dvsn rvyhr, Mngl
n strln lvng n Mngl, Dvsn, 32, brvd -22ºF
tmprtrs t w tnss n nnl c fstvl hld n Lk
Hvsgl. n f th vnts ws ths gm, clld msn shg.
t nvlvs tw tms skmmng nml bns tw rd rd trgts.
6 NTNL GGRPHC CTBR 2010 L D
Slctns frm r dtrs
D NG
V S N S F R T H ntd Stts Lnr lght
n Clfrn’s Jsh Tr
PHT: JM PTTRSN PHTGRPHY
brsts nt vw bnth rch Rck, 12-ft-tll, 30-ft-wd grnt frmtn
Ntnl Prk. Ntrlly bg, th rck s llmntd hr by rd LD.
ntd Stts Nrly c mflgd n th dbrs-strwn bttm f Flrd’s
ml jwfsh hlds hndrds f ggs n ts mth— fv-dy ncbtn pr
PHT: MCHL PTRCK ’NLL
Lk Wrth Lgn, sx-nch-lng
css clld ptrnl mth brdng.
Th Sn NS’s nw Slr Dynmcs Lbrtry rvls n rptng plsm
lpng nt th tmsphr lng mgntc fld ln. Tn rths cld b
MG: NS
plm—k slr pr mnnc—
stckd nsd th twstng rng.
rdr prnts f Ntnl Ggrphc
phts t Prnts NGS.cm.
Lft n vrst Fr 60 yrs clmbrs hv dmpd
gr nd trsh n rt t th tp f Mnt vrst, ftn n
th lw-xygn “dth zn” bv 26,000 ft, w hr shddng
fw pnds cn prsrv prcs nrgy.
n rcnt yrs mltng c hs bgn t rvl th scp
f th hgh-lttd mprnt, xpsng xygn tnks nd thr
lng-frzn jtsm. Thgh tns f rfs r rmvd nnlly
frm bs cmps, lst sprng tw Npl grps, xtrm
vrst xpdtn nd c vrst xpdtn, trgtd th
pk’s ppr rchs nd hld dw n svn tns f wst,
ncldng dbrs frm 1973 hlcptr crsh.
Npls r ls cncrnd bt crpss cllctng n
th mntn thy cnsdr hly. Snc 1996 sm 80 clmbrs
hv prshd bv bs cmp; mst rmn nr th spt thy
dd. n My tw bds, Swss nd Rssn, w r rmvd
lng w th pr f ndntfd rms, n w rng wtch.
Brngng bck crpss ws lng cnsdrd lgstclly nfsbl,
sys Lnd McMlln f th ntrntnl Mntnrng
nd Clmbng Fdrtn. Bt s trffc n vrst hs rsn,
sh nts, s t hs th dsr t cln t. —Ptr Gwn
Mltng c xpsd n ndntfd hnd nd w tch.
NV R NM NT
Shrp n
Mnt vrst srts
trsh nt plstcs,
mtls, nd
bdgrdbls.
PHTS: CRY RCHRDS
G G R P HY
Whr’s th Hl? t’s nt sy t mk hlstn—
cndtns hv t b jst rght. Frst cm cmlnmbs
clds. Wht’s ndd nxt r pw rfl pdrfts nd
dw ndrfts. Ths wnds crry frmng prcpttn p
t th frgd tp f th clds t frz sld nd thn
dw n twrd th wrmr bttm gn t cllct mr
mstr, bfr rptng th cycl. Th mr tms th
cycl rpts, th bggr th hlstns cn grw—nd
th mr svr th dmg dw n blw .
Mst hl hts n th mdlttds, n plns dw nwnd
f mjr mntn chns. Bt ntns hl cndtns
cn xst whrvr wrm, mst r s pshd t grt
hghts, vn nr th qtr. Th hgh-lttd tgrw ng
rgn f Krch, Kny, s mr thn 7,000 ft
bv s lvl nd my hv mr dys wth hl thn
ny thr plc n th w rld.
n 2009, 306 dstrctv hlstrms n 16 stts
csd mr thn $500 mlln n dmg t crps
nd prprty n th ntd Stts. Wth wrmr, w ttr
smmrs prdctd fr th Grt Plns, xprts fr
tht nmbr s sr t rs. —Thms Hydn
PHT: JM RD, CRBS
Ths bsbll-sz hlstn fll n Knss n My 2007.
Hgh
Lw
N dt
Hlstr m
frqncy
nd ntnsty
.S.
Lrgst rcrdd
hlstn (8 nchs
n dmtr) fnd
n Vvn, Sth
Dkt, n 2010.
Mxc
Svr hl
hr cn ffct
mnrch bttrfly
clns.
Kny
Hl sdd by
dst frm frmng
rglrly plts t
flds n Krch.
rgntn
n 2003 hlstr m
klld 117
Sw nsn’s hw ks
n th Pmps.
G G R P HY| C N T N D
Th ntd Stts hs hd sm f th lrgst hlstns,
bt Krch, Kny, my hld th rcrd fr mst frqnt hl.
Bngldsh
Th w rld’s hvst
knw n hlstn
(2.25 pnds) fll n
Gplgnj n 1986.
MP SRC: MNCH R, 2009
Ths mp s frm th
nnth dtn f th tls
f th Wrld, th mst
cmprhnsv nd
lrgst frmt tls vr
pblshd by Ntnl
Ggrphc, vlbl
ths mnth. Lrn mr
t ntnlggrphc
.cm/tls.
n Fsh Tw Fsh
Dr. Sss hd th rght d
bt th w rng tls. T bgn
tlly f ll s lf, h’d
hv hd t sw p rhyms fr
rsrch—sy, 538 xpdtns
nd 30 mlln rcrds
ctlgd vr tn yrs
by 2,700 scntsts frm
mr thn 80 ntns.
Tht’s w ht wnt nt th
lndmrk Cnss f Mrn
Lf, whch nvls ts fll
fndngs ths mnth. Cncvd
by scntsts Frdrck
Grssl nd Jss sbl,
th $650- mlln srvy—
whs bggst fndr ws th
lfrd P. Sln Fndtn—sd vrythng frm cttng-dg
tchnlgs t cntrs-ld fshng lgs t fnd nd D spcs,
mp csystms, nd ssss dt dw n t 16,000 ft.
“t’s n stnshng strt,” sys Ntnl Ggrphc xplrr-n-
Rsdnc Sylv rl. Yt w th 95 prcnt f th cn dpths
stll nxplrd, sh sys, scnd cnss s wrrntd. “Dn’t
w wnt t knw wh shrs th plnt w th s?” —Jrmy Brln
C NS
CN CNSS
Ths fgrs hnt t th
scp f th smnl
Cnss f Mrn Lf.
* XCLDNG MST MCRBS;
NW SPCS S F JLY 2010
PHT: . FFS, FRMR 2006.
RT: JSN L 26 mcrbs
48 chndrms
37 thr
92 cndrns
562 crstcns &
kn
191 mllsks
67 brstl w rms
70 spngs
60 rndw rms
50 chrdts
t lst
n mlln spcs*
n th cns
230,000
prvsly
dscvrd
1,203
nw spcs
ctlgd by
th cnss
5,000
mr
wtng
dscrptn
Th yt crb (lft),
sx-nch-lng Sth
Pcfc ntv, s jst
n xtc fnd.
Hydrtn xprts r rdy t rwrt
th pplr dctm tht ppl shld
drnk ght glsss f wtr dy.
H LT H
Shttrng th Wtr Myth Mgzns,
wbsts, vn sm mdcl txts rcmmnd gzzlng
ght 8-nc glsss f wtr dy. Th bttld-w tr
bsnss lvs t. Hydrtn xprts, hwvr, rn’t
xctly sr whr th “8 x 8” rl cm frm—r
whthr t hlds wtr.
Mk Sw k, .S. rmy rsrch scntst, thnks
th rgns l n 1933 stdy n rdnt hydrtn.
Th rsrch ld t rcmmndtn f 2.5 ltrs
dy, r 84.5 ncs f lqd, fr mdrtly ctv
hmn t mk p fr w tr lst t swt nd
xcrtns. Tw nty prcnt typclly cms frm
fds hgh n wtr—sp, c crm, clry—
lvng 67.6 ncs, r rghly “8 x 8.”
(xrcs r ht dds t bdy’s nds.)
nly y dn’t nd ght dly glsss f wtr.
thr bvrgs cnt, vn f cffntd. “Th bdy’s
nd t kp fld tr mps th smll nflnc cffn
mght hv n lsng fld,” sys nvrsty f Cnnctct
xrcs physlgst Dgls Cs. Pls th bdy sn’t shy
bt lqd dsrs. Drnk f y fl thrsty. f nt, dn’t.
n xcptn: Hydrt bfr n ntns wrkt.
Whn n dbt, chck yr rn. Drk yllw ,
sys nvrsty f Pnnsylvn ntrtnst Stll Vlp,
s th h f dhydrtn. —Mrc Slvr
PHT: MRK THSSN, NGM STFF, WTH DN HV NS
G G R P HY
Crss Crtgrphy Whn dsstr strks,
ccrt mps cn b lfsvrs. ftr mgntd 7
rthqk rckd Ht n Jnry 12, frst rspndrs
wr hmprd by th scrcty f strt mps—bt nt
fr lng. Wthn hrs, vlntrs n th cptl cty,
Prt-- Prnc, nd lsw hr hd flld n crtgrphc
blnks, crtng fr mr dtld, ccssbl, nd
mmdt mps nd mgs thn mst
f ths vlbl nln.
sng txt mssgs, GPS, nd pln
ld pncls nd ppr, thy dsptchd
thsnds f lrts dy bt strt
nms, bldng cllpss, nd njry
lctns. Dsstr-rspns nrv cntrs
synthszd th nfrmtn w th stllt dt, w hch
hlpd gd mrgncy w rkrs, ncldng th .S.
Mrn Crps nd Rd Crss.
sr-gnrtd mps cn prsnt ptflls. ccrcy,
fr nstnc, sn’t grntd. Bt n Ht bnfts
tw ghd drwbcks. “Dn’t stp mppng,” cm
Jnry 17 cll frm th Fdrl mrgncy Mngmnt
gncy t shhd-Ht, stdnt-rn prjct t
Tfts nvrsty. Crss mpprs w n’t. —Hnnh Blch
HT
N. MRC
S. MRC
PHTS: MGG STBR. MPS: PNSTRTMP ND CNTRBTRS, LCNSD CC-BY-S 2.0
DCMBR 30, 2009
Tw wks bfr th qk, ths sr-gnrtd mp f Prt--Prnc
ncldd mnml nfrmtn bt strts nd lndmrks.
Sctn
Shw n
bv
Th Jnry 12 qk rdcd ths sctn f Prt--Prnc’s
Blvrd Jn-Jcqs Dsslns t rbbl—w hch stll rmnd
by My 2010, w hn th phts n ths pnrm w r tkn.
MR
JNRY 13, 2010
pnStrtMp lctd strt nms th dy ftr.
G G R P HY| C N T N D
PHTS: MGG STBR. MPS: PNSTRTMP ND CNTRBTRS, LCNSD CC-BY-S 2.0
JNRY 29, 2010
Clnc nd shltr lctns wr sn pnpntd s w ll.
fls-clr “pnt cld”
mg f str slnd
m prvds grtr dtl
thn phtgrph.
T H B G D | L S R P R S RV T N
Wth prtbl 3- D lsr scnnrs, prsrvtnsts r mkng
dgtl rcrds f th wrld’s mst vlnrbl lndmrks.
Bckng p Hstry
MG: CYRK/NTNL FRSTRY CRPRTN F CHL/TDSK.
TH B G D |C NT N D
Th stn gnts clld m hv kpt w tch—nd
scrts—n str slnd fr cntrs. Nw prsrvtnsts
hv fnd wy t lrn mr bt thm.
n 2007, sx wrkrs wh’d prtnrd w th th nnprft
Cyrk rrvd n th slnd w th 3-D lsr scnnr
nd thr srvyng qpmnt. Thy md hghrsltn
scns f crvngs nd cvs, prdcng
dt st s ccrt thy cll t “rlty cptr.”
Cyrk’s mssn s t cllct dtld dgtl rcrds
f cltrl hrtg sts rnd th wrld (s mp t
rght), frm th Ttnc w rck t Mxc’s Tthcn. ts
ky tl s prtbl 3-D lsr scnnr tht swps n
r w th plsng lsr nd rtrns hgh-dfntn
mp f th srrndng srfcs. Wth dt rcrdd
s cls s vry hlf cntmtr, th rsltng srfc
mp shws “pnt cld” tht cn ncld hndrds f
mllns f pcs f dt. n ddtn t 3-D crdnts,
th lsr scnnr rcrds ch pnt’s “ntnsty rtrn,”
vl tht rprsnts th clr nd brghtnss f
th scnnd bjct’s srfc. Ths vls r shwn
wth fls clrng. nlysts cn s ths nfrmtn
t s w hr crcks r dvlpng r whthr nwr
mtrls hv bn ncrprtd nt strctr.
Bn Kcyr ws n f th nvntrs f th lsr
scnnr sd n th srvys nd s ls Cyrk’s fndr.
H ws nsprd t strt th nnprft ftr th Tlbn
dmlshd fghnstn’s Bmn Bddhs n 2001.
f dtld lsr scns r vlbl, h rsnd, t
Tthcn
str
slnd
Ksb tmbs
Ttnc wrck
Scnnd prjcts
S
FRC
STRL
STH
MRC
NRTH
MRC RP
lst smthng r mns n th vnt f st’s lss.
Sch lss ccrrd rlr ths yr, whn fr
cnsmd th ryl Ksb tmbs n gnd. Fr
kngs f Bgnd— kngdm w thn th cntry—
wr ntmbd n th w d-nd-thtch strctr.
yr rlr, thgh, Cyrk hd cllctd scns
thr. Wthn dys f th fr, Bgnd prnc
ws tlkng t Cyrk bt rbldng.
NGM MPS
Th nnprft Cyrk hs crtd
dgtl rcrds f mprtnt cltrl
hrtg sts rnd th wrld.
MR
1
3
2
Cyrk hs dntfd mr thn 800 t-rsk sts t srvy.
Whr rsrcs llw , t wrks wth n ntrntnl
ntw rk f prtnrs t scn th sts—38 s fr. ll dt
cllctd s rchvd nd pblcly vlbl t cyrk.rg.
“r cllctv mmry s n th w rks f mn,”
Kcyr sys. “Ths s rlly nt jst mttr f prsrvng
ths st r tht st. t’s mttr f prsrvng r hmn
cllctv mmry.” —lzbth Prstn
TH B G D |C NT N D
3 Dstryd n 2010
Lcl ppl
gthrd s
flms nglfd
th tmbs. Th
cs f th fr
rmns nknw n.
1 Blt n 1882
gnd’s Ksb
tmbs w r dclrd
NSC
Wrld Hrtg
st n 2001. Fr
kngs w r brd
n ths thtchd
strctr.
2 Scnnd n 2009
Cyrk lsr
scn crtd
ths pnt cld
mg rvlng
dtls, ncldng
th bldng’s
hgh-clngd
ntrr.
PHTS: SKYBCKT3D (1); CY RK (2); FP/GTTY MGS (3)
TH GLF F L
34
Smk rss frm srfc l

bng brnd by clnp crws
nr th Dpwtr Hrzn
blw t. Th w ll spwd nrly
fv mlln brrls, mkng t th
wrld’s lrgst ccdntl mrn
l spll. JL SRTR (BTH)
NFLGGNG DMND
FR L PRPLLD TH
NDSTRY NT DP WTR.
BT TH BLWT N TH
GLF FRCS TH QSTN:
S T WRTH TH RSK?
“ Y cld s th lf drnng
t f t,” sys prsh ffcl
P. J. Hhn, w h mplsvly
rscd ths svrly ld
brw n plcn n Qn Bss
slnd, L. Th brd lvd.
JL SRTR
Bttlns dlphns slp

thrgh ld w trs n Chndlr
Snd, L. n dlt
dlphn cn w gh p t 600
pnds. Bcs f thr sz,
nly fw wr rscd nd
rlctd t cln w trs.
LX BRNDN, P MGS
“ Mx tw prts sgr wht

snd w th n prt crystl bl
wtr,” rds trsm slgn
fr rng Bch, l. n rly
Jn Dpwtr Hrzn l
ws ddd t th rcp.
TYRN TRNR
shrmp th sz f stpl
sw ms md drk brw n glbls
f l. Th ffct f th
spll n th ggs nd lrv f
shrmps, crbs, nd fsh, ll ky
t th lcl cnmy, rmns
nknw n. DVD LTTSCHWGR
TH SPLL’S NSN TLL

n tm- lps vd, thr frmldhyd-flld
jrs tll tl f dmnshng lf n w tr clmn
bt 90 mls nrth f th w ll. Th ntl
My 4 s mpl, cllctd by th Dphn slnd
S Lb, l., shws nrml mnt f plnktn—
mnt plnts nd nmls tht r th fndtn
f th cn’s fd chn. Th Jn 2 jr hlds
nly 40 prcnt f th frst. Th Jn 28 jr s
dw n t 10 prcnt. Plnktn cnnt srvv
s w trs bcm hypxc—dpltd f xygn.
Th prbbl cs n ths cs: mcrbs
dgstng l nd mthn gs frm th
spll. DVD LTTSCHWGR
D NG
DP T RBL Wtrs smpld bt 35 ft dp n Jn 28 spprt
thrvng ppltn f tny crstcns clld cppds (lf t). Tw nty ft
frthr blw ws hypxc lyr lmst dvd f lf. Dp w trs r
mr lkly t r mn hypxc. DVD LTTSCHWGR (BTH)
Thr w trs clsd by th

spll, fshrmn n St. Brnrd
Prsh, L., ttndd My 1
BP trnng fr clnp crws—
nd bw d hds fr n rchbshp’s
mpr mpt pryr.
TYRN TRNR
TH GL
SPCL RPRT
TH DP DLMM
BY JL K. BRN, JR.
FRLRN N TH BY
BY BRC BRCTT
HW TH GLF WRKS
XCLSV NTRCTV GRPHCS
MY BL WLDRNSS
BY SYLV RL
FF L
TH DP
DLMM
Th dpths f th Glf f M xc r n f th
mst dngrs plcs t drll n th plnt.
BY JL K. BRN, JR.
n blstrng Jn dy n Hm, Lsn, th
lcl ffcs f BP—nw th Dpwtr Hrzn ncdnt
Cmmnd Cntr—w r swrmng w th srs
mn nd w mn n brghtly clrd vsts. Tp BP
mngrs nd thr cnsltnts w r wht, th lgstcs
tm w r rng, fdrl nd stt nvrnmntl
ffcls wr bl. Rprtrs w r prpl vsts s thr
hndlrs cld kp trck f thm. n th w lls f th
lrgst “wr rm,” hg vd scrns flshd spll
mps nd rspns-vssl lctns. Nw nd thn n
scrn shw d Wrld Cp sccr mtch.
Mrk Pln, th slvr-hrd dpty ncdnt cmmndr,
wr wht vst. 30-yr vtrn f l spll
wrs, Pln, cnsltnt, hs hlpd cln p dsstrs
rnd th w rld, (Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
Jl Brn s cntrbtng wrtr. Hs rtcl
bt Clfrn’s wtr spply pprd n prl.
SPCL RPRT
54 L D
Th $560- mlln Dpwtr
Hrzn drllng rg brns ftr
th prl 20 w ll blw t. lvn
wrkrs dd n th xplsn
nd flms tht fllw d. n
prl 22 th rg snk.
GRLD HRBRT, P MGS
D NG
LSN
MSSSSPP
CMMRC
sf
Nw
rlns
Hm
Btn Rg Blx
90°W
Glf f
Mxc
Lk
Pntchrtrn
Msssspp
TH BTTRD
GLF CST
Tw cntrs f ffrts t tm th Msssspp
Rvr w th lvs, pmps, nd chnnls hv lft
ts vst wtlnds csystm dw ndlng nd n th
vrg f cllps. “W knw thr ws crss n
th Glf prr t w ht hppnd prl 20,” Tm
Strcklnd, n ssstnt scrtry f th ntrr,
sd ftr th Dpw tr Hrzn spll. Cstlrstrtn
plns hv bn thrzd by Cngrss
bt r nt yt ndr wy. Thy ncld
brkng pn lvs t rstr th flw f rvrs
t mrshlnds. nvrnmntlsts r lbbyng
t pply l spll pnlty fnds t rstrtn.
Srfc l*
Cmltv
dly srvy
ld cst*
1 dy 10 30+
*My 17–Jly 25, 2010
R
NLRGD
PCFC
CN
NRTH
MRC
STH
MRC
MCND WLL
(st f Dpwtr
Hrzn blw t)
FLRD
GRG
LBM
L FSHNG BN
Jly 25
Lp Crrnt Jly 25
Lp Crrnt Jn 20
Lp Crrnt My 17
Tmp
Mbl
Pnscl
Pnm
Cty
Tllhss
27°N
84°
N LY ST N Wnds nd crrnts sprd srfc l, cntmntng
mr thn 625 mls f cstln, mst n Lsn. Th
spll pr mptd fshng bn n n-thrd f fdrl w trs (prtly
rscndd n lt Jly) nd mssv nd ngng clnp ffrt.
xprts blv mch f th l nvr rchd th srfc nd
rmns n vlmns nd lsv ndrw tr plms.
SM PPPL ND LS R. RTTR, NGM STFF. SRCS: N
(SRFC L); .S. NVL RSRCH LBRTRY (LP CRRNT);
N ND NFD R CMMND (LD CST)
0 m 50
0 km 50
Cnls crvd thrgh
Gldn Mdw , L., nd
lsw hr hld pplns tht
dlvr l nd gs frm ffshr
wlls. Ths chppng
p f th w tlnds s n f
mny frcs cntrbtng t
th dcln f th Msssspp
Dlt. JL SRTR
nnl Rvn
$101.5 blln
L ND GS
62.7
CMMRCL
FSHNG
0.7
TRSM
38.1
1 blck = $1 blln
WRKNG GL F
l dmnts rvns frm th Glf, bt th mply mnt
gnt s trsm. Lsn, rgnl ldr
n cmmrcl fshng bfr th spll, nrmlly
hrvsts thrd f th .S. shrmp nd ystr ctch.
Jbs*
645,000
107,000
L ND GS
14,000
CMMRCL
FSHNG
TRSM
524,000
1 blck = 6,324 jbs
*stmts
NGM RT. SRCS: (L, 2008); TRSM
DPRTMNTS F LBM, LSN,
MSSSSPP, ND TXS, ND FLRD
DPRTMNT F RVN (TRSM, 2009);
N (FSHNG, 2008, DCKSD VL).
JBS: MST RCNT VLBL DT FRM
MLTPL SRCS
FRLRN N
TH BY
Lsn’s wtlnds hv bncd bck bfr.
Bt n n knws hw lng ths rcvry wll tk.
BY BRC BRCTT
Whr lnd mts th s n th Msssspp Rvr
Dlt, dw n t th bttm f th Lsn bt, th
trm “cstln” dsn’t rlly pply. Thr s n ln.
Thr r nly th dshd pn strks f th brrr
slnds, dzn r s thn bchhds, nd bynd,
prs systm f pn bys, cnls, slt nd brcksh
mrshs, nd frshwtr sw mps rnnng nlnd fr
25 t hndrd mls.
Ths r th Lsn w tlnds—12,355 sqr
mls f n f th mst prdctv csystms n
Nrth mrc. Mllt r s prfs thy wll ltrlly
jmp nt fshrmn’s bt. Brw n plcns,
trclrd hrns, rst spnblls, grt grts, nd
bl-w ngd tl dcks cll ths plc hm.
n-thrd f th (Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
nvrnmntl jrnlst Brc Brctt lvs n Bnbrdg slnd,
Wshngtn. Ths s hs frth ftr fr Ntnl Ggrphc.
SPCL RPRT
62 L D
Wrkrs bg l-cllctng
pm-pms nr brd rkry
n Brtr By, L. bsrbnt
bm snks t thr ft. By
th nd f Jly, th clnp
hd gnrtd lmst 40,000
tns f sld wst.
JL SRTR
D NG
dd jvnl s trtl ls
mrnd n l n Brtr By,
L. Mr thn 500 s trtls
dd n th spll r. s f
gst 2, ggs frm 134 trtl
nsts hd bn mvd t lfr
bchs, nd 2,134 htchlngs
rlsd. JL SRTR
n md- My pls f l mvd

nt Lsn’s w tlnds. BP
bts ld yllw nd rng
bm t crrl th l fr clnp,
wht bm t sk t p. l
cvrd th grss, bt by md-
Jly nw grwth hd sprtd.
TD JCKSN, TMS-PCYN
Wrkrs w p l frm mrsh
grss n St. Tmmny Prsh,
L. t ds lk slly, prsh
spksmn cncds, sng
dpr-lk clths t “w p p
svn blln blds f grss.”
Bt th tsk hlpd gg th
dgr f mrsh grss cntmntn,
whch trnd t t b
smll, nd prvdd l s mpls
fr tstng. SCTT THRLKLD,
TMS-PCYN
Rst-clrd crd l cts

bl crb’s fc nd clw s t
Grnd sl Stt Pr k, L.
C. C. LCKWD
l-stnd brw n plcn
chcks hddl n Ct slnd,
brrr slnd frmng th wstrnmst
pnt f Glf slnds
Ntnl Sshr. nslld
jvnls stnd bhnd.
JL SRTR
brw n plcn rsts t th

Frt Jcksn Brd Rhblttn
Cntr n Brs, L., ftr
clnng. nly tny frctn
f brds r rtrvd nd rlsd.
N n yt knw s hw
l nd dsprsnts w ll ffct
rprdctn. JL SRTR
LYRS F LF
Th rch hbtts f th Glf f Mxc hlp mk t n f th
mst clgclly nd cnmclly prdctv bds f wtr
n th w rld. ts nvrnmnts rng frm sndy, vr shftng
brrr slnds t mddy, td-wshd mrshs, frm frgd drk
zns mls dp t mmns slnds f fltng swd. vn
bfr th Dpwtr Hrzn rg xplsn n prl 20, 2010,
whch spwd mllns f brrls f l nt th w tr, th Glf
ws bttlng srs prblms, ncldng vrfshng, xtnsv
wtlnds lss, nd hg xygn-strvd “dd zn” t th
mth f th Msssspp Rvr. Th l spll s ffctng vry
hbtt, tstng th Glf’s rslnc.
SPCL RPRT
MR
Dtld rt n
nxt pg
GGRPHY
F FFSHR L
Fr th pst hlf cntry, l hs drvn th cnmy f th Glf
f Mxc. thrd f .S. l prdctn flw s frm nrly 3,500
pltfrms n th Glf, w th thsnds f mls f ppln dlvrng
l nd ntrl gs t shr. Snc th frst Glf wll ws drlld
ff Lsn n 1938, n lss thn 15 ft f wtr, cls-n rsrvs
hv bn dpltd nd xplrtn hs mrchd ff th
cntnntl shlf, nt th cntnntl slp, nd bynd. Tdy
Glf l s dp l; th blk f .S. prdctn drw s frm w lls n
mr thn thsnd ft f w tr. .S. Glf l rsrvs r
stmtd t 44.9 blln brrls, bt s th Dpwtr Hrzn
dsstr shw d, th chllngs f dp drllng r frmdbl.
MR
Dtld mp n
nxt pg
RSS
266
CHN
746
THLND
215
VTNM
332
BRN
126
MLYS
655
NDNS
330
STRL
400
NW ZLND
51
NTD STTS
2,087
MX
2,0
QTR
PCFC
CN
RCTC
CN
xxn
Vldz
1
8
LSK
DRLLNG FR
FFSHR L
ndrs l prvds n ncrsng mnt f th glbl
spply, s xplrtn hds vr dpr n srch f nw
“plys.” n 2020 w lls mr thn 400 mtrs blw th s
srfc wll lkly prvd 10 prcnt f th wrld’s l. Bt
gng dp pss tchncl chllngs nd sfty rsks.
Tp fv ffshr
prdcrs, 2009
Sd rb
ntd Stts
Nrwy
Mxc
Brzl
Tp fv stmtd
ffshr rsrvs
Sd rb
Brzl
ntd rb mrts
ntd Stts
Ngr
* NLY CNTRS PRDCNG T LST 25,000 BRRLS DY R SHWN
(N BRRL = 42 .S. GLLNS). FR LGBLTY, SM P CHRTS R
SHWN NLND R TSD THR CNTRY BNDRS.
NGR
1,606
CÔT D'V R
(VRY CST)
55
CNG
250
CND
299
TRNDD ND
TBG
87
VNZL
45
BRZL
1,765
NRWY
2,065
NTD
KNGDM
1,256
DNMRK
264 ZRBJN
962
TRKMNSTN
47
ND
439
LBY
TNS 167
30
KWT
139
GYPT
447
RN
733
SD
RB
2,216
Q. GN
315
CMRN
73
GBN
114
RMN
26
QTR
761
NGL
1,763
XC
059
Glf f Gn
Glf f Mxc Prsn Glf
Nrth S
NDN
CN
TLNTC
CN
tlntc
mprss &
gn
Cptn
10 9
7
6
5
14
3
2
1
Shllw wtr
2,000 Dp w tr (>400 mtrs)
500
25
ffshr l flds
Tp tn ffshr pltfrm splls,
Thsnds f brrls dy* rnkd by sz (chrt blw )
FFSHR L PRDCTN, 2009
MR
1. Dpwtr Hrzn (Glf f Mxc, 2010)
2. xtc (Glf f Mxc,1979)
3. Nw rz (Prsn Glf,1983)
4. Wdc 3 (Prsn Glf,1971)
5. scrvs (Glf f Gn,1978)
6. Fnw N. 5 (Glf f Gn,1980)
7. Phllps kfsk B-14 (Nrth S,1977)
8. nn l Pltfrm (sthrn Clfrn,1969)
9. Rn Tppmyr ( Prsn Glf,1980)
10. Chvrn Blck 41C (Glf f Mxc,1970)
Tp tn ffshr pltfrm
Mllns f brrls
01
4.9**
2345
splls, 1969-2010
1989
xxn
Vldz
0.27
1979 Cllsn f
tlntc mprss
nd gn Cptn
2.1 (lrgst tnkr spll)
** GST 2, 2010, STMT; F THS TTL, 800,000
BRRLS F L WR CPTRD BY BP T TH WLL.
MRTN GMCH, NGM STFF. SRCS: PTR BRGHRR, PL
SCHRRR NSTTT ( PLTFRM SPLLS); FLW RT TSK GRP
(DPWTR STMTS); HS NRGY (RSRVS); MCHL R. SMTH,
DTMNTR, “GLBL L ND GS NLYZR” (2009 PRDCTN)
T
T
T
TT
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
R
R
R
1
1
1
90
90
61
310
10
Thbdx
Rclnd
Prt
Frchn
Lrs
Mntgt
Chvn
Dlc
Bdrx
Ccdr Lvll
Glln
Brg Ct ff
Lckprt
Mthw s
By Cn
Dnnr
Gbsn
Gry
llmnd
Lftt
B
Crw n P
Hr
Wstw
Jffrsn
Wggmn
vndl
Rvr
Rdg
Hrhn
Mms Prk
m
Llng
Btt
Dstrhn
St. Rs
Ds
Lbdvll llmnds
Schrvr
Lfrch
Bll Rvr
Vchr
Wllc
Brwck
dlw ld
Pttrsn
By
Vst
Mrgn Cty
ml
Sprm Kr mr
Hhnvll
Nrc
St. Jms
Cnvnt
Grmrcy
Rsrv
Pln dgrd
Plttnvll
Pncrtvll
Dnldsnvll
Nplnvll
Grnd By
Prr Prt
Bll Rs
By
Crn
Chckby
Gd Hp
Gldn Mdw
Glnw ld
Hm
Mrrr
LPlc
Knnr
Mtr N
rl
Pnt Fr
slnd
Clmt .
Tmblr
slnd
Css-tt .
st Tmblr .
sl sD rn r s
tchfly
Rvr Dlt
TRRBNN
LFRCH
ST. MRY
BRVLL
JFFRS
ST. CHRLS
SSMPTN
SCNSN
ST. JMS
ST. MRTN
ST. MRTN
ST. JHN
TH BPTST
BR
Lk Pntch
Tmblr
Trrbnn By
By
GLF F MXC
Lk
Slvdr
Lc ds
llm nds
Lk
Cttch
Lk
Vrrt
Cll
Lk
Cll
By Lk Plt
Lk Brr
tchfly
By
Lttl
Lk
Lk
Rccrc
Ctfsh
Lk
Lttl
Lk
Lk
Tmbr
Dg
Lk
Plcn
Lk
Lk
Mchnt
Lk
D Cd
Lk
Bdrx
Mdsn
By
Lst Lk
Lk Flds
NTRCSTL
WTRWY
Msssspp
Lk Thrt
Lk
Plrd
Btm n
Lk
Fr Lg By
tchfly
NDNGRD WTLNDS
Th Dpwtr Hrzn spll s jst th ltst thrt t th
Msssspp Rvr Dlt nd ts nhbtnts. Bth ntrl prcsss
nd hmn ntrfrnc hv sbmrgd mr thn
2,300 sqr mls f cstl mrshs. Nnthlss, th r
s stll n f th wrld’s rchst rvr dlts, hm t shr mp
nd ystr fshrs, ndngrd s trtls, mllns f brds,
mltblln-dllr l ndstry, nd tw mlln ppl.
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
R
R
R
23
23
90
10
510
Grnd sl
Bss
Bss
Bhm
Hppy Jck
Grnd
By
Lk
Jdg Prz
Hm Plc
Prt
Slphr
Plttw n
Prt ds
Brrw d
Brs
strc
Tr mph Bthvll
Nrn
mpr
Pnt
l Hch
Dvnt
rtr
Blr
kvll
nt
Dlcr
stll
Scrsdl
Brtrndvll
Rgg
Hpdl
llvl Cty
Dlcrx
Shll
Vrrt Bch
Bll Chss
rb
Vlt
rvy
Grtn
wg
n
Crnrvn
Sbstpl
Vnc
Pydrs
rntn
Myrtl Grv
Phnx
Crlsl
Chlmtt
Trrytw n
Nw
lns
Chndlr
slnds
Grnd sl
Qn
Bss .
Plcn slnd
Brtn slnds
Msssspp
Rvr Dlt
PLQMNS
SN
RLNS
ST.
BRNRD
STT WTRS
CMBND STT
ND FDRL WTRS
FDRL WTRS
rtrn
Brtr
By
Brtn
Snd
Chndlr
Snd
Lk
Brgn
Cmnd
By
Th
Pn
Wst By
st By
Grdn slnd
By
By
Lng
Msssspp
0 m 10
0 km 10
T
R
Tdl flts nd shls
S grss
Sltw tr mrsh
ntrmdt mrsh
Frshw tr mrsh
thr frshwtr wtlnd
plnd
rbn r
l r gs w ll
Crd l r
gs trmnl
l rfnry
l r gs ppln
WLLM MCNLTY, NGM STFF;
DBB GBBNS ND MRN J.
FLYNN, NG MPS; THDR .
SCKLY. SRCS: N ND
TH NTR CNSRVNCY
(LND CVR); MMS ND
LSN DPRTMNT F
NTRL RSRCS, FFC
F CNSRVTN ND FFC
F CSTL MNGMNT (L
ND GS NFRSTRCTR);
LNDSCN 2008 (RBN RS)
1
-1,000
Ft
blw
s lvl
-3,000
-5,000
-7,000
-9,000
Plttw n
Vnc
Prt ds
1,000 t
4,999 ft
pt
999 ft dp
DPWTR
WLLS
n th Glf snc 1977
SHLLWWTR
WLLS
n th Glf snc 1938
LTRDPWTR
WLLS
n th Glf snc
Cn
N
Msssspp
Rvr Dlt
FXD
1938
p t 1,754
VK821
Typ
Frst sd
Dpth (ft)
xmpl
SFRNG RGS
Fltng rgs, frst dvlpd n
th 1960s, hv pnd dp
wtr t ptrlm xplrtn.
Fltng pltfrms llw sphnng
f l frm w lls tht cn
b mny mls frm shr.
DRLLNG DPR
s l nd gs rsrvs cls t shr hv bn
pmpd dry, prspctrs r plmbng nw
frntr: th dpths f th Glf f Mxc. n 2009
Glf l prdctn jmpd 34 prcnt—lrgly
frm w trs dpr thn 5,000 ft. Nw tchnlgs
hv md t pssbl t drll mr
thn 35,000 ft dw n thrgh w tr nd rck.
JN VLSC, NGM STFF. RT BY BRY N CHRST. SRCS: RND BRLLC,
CLRD SCHL F MNS, ND PL WMR, NVRSTY F CLRD (GLGY
ND BTHYMTRY); LSN DPRTMNT F NTRL RSRCS (SHLLW-WTR
WLLS); MMS ( DP ND LTRDP WLLS, L FRM FDRL LSS); NRGY
NFRMTN DMNSTRTN, R (.S. PRDCTN)
234
Slt
strctrs
5,000 ft
r mr
c 1987
ntnntl Shlf
Glf f Mxc
Dp cn flr
Cntnntl Slp
Dpwtr
Hrzn
4
3
2
1
TNSN-LG
1989
p t 5,000
Rm/Pw ll
SMSBMRSBL
1963
nlmtd
Dpwtr Hrzn
FPS*
rly 2000s
nlmtd
N Kk
*Fltng Prdctn Systms
SCL V RS N THS
PRSPCTV. TH DSTNC
BTWN PRT DS ND TH
FRMR ST F TH DPWTR
HRZN S BT 50 MLS.
RGNS F GL F L
rgnc mtrl tht sttld n th Glf vr th pst 120 mlln yrs
ws trnsfrmd nt vst pls f l nd ntrl gs by tm, prssr,
nd ht. Th ptrlm rss thrgh flts ntl t s trppd by slt
strctrs, sm mr thn ml blw th sflr.
MR
Shllw wtr
Dp ltrd
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
1985 1990 1995
0
1
2
3
1985 1990 1995 200
200
.S. Glf l frm fdrl l
Bllns f brrls, by dpth
.S. dmstc l prdct
Bllns f brrls
p
nshr
lsk nd
Clfrn ffshr
Glf ffshr
2005 2009
0
0
2005 2009
ss, 1985–2009
n, 1985–2009
MY BL
WLDRNSS
BY SYLV RL
Whn frst vntrd nt th Glf f Mxc n
th 1950s, th s pprd t b bl nfnty t
lrg, t w ld t b hrmd by nythng tht ppl
cld d. xplrd pw dr wht bchs, dns
mrshs, mngrv frsts, nd mls f s grss
mdw s lv wth pnk s rchns, tny shrmps,
nd shrss hlf th sz f my lttl fngr. lrnd
t dv n nxplrd rs ffshr frm th mny
rvrs tht flw nt th Glf, w hr jngls f crmsn,
grn, nd brw n swd sprtd frm rcky
lmstn rfs. ndr th cnpy f gldn frsts
f drftng srgssm, sw m w th fltng z f
smll crtrs: lcy brwn s slgs, jvnl jcks,
nd flyng fsh n lrgr thn drgnfls.
Dvng nt th cl w tr f chtckn, Wk
Wch, Wkll, nd thr nlnd sprngs, glmpsd
th hnycmb plmbng f ndrgrnd tnnls,
snkhls, shfts, (Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
Sylv rl, thr f Th Wrld s Bl: Hw r Ft
nd th cn’s r n, hs ld mr thn 100 xpdtns
s prt f hr cngrphc rsrch.
SPCL RPRT
94 L D
M ssn Bl Prtnrshp
TYRN TRNR
n th fc f rgnt thrts t th cns, th Ntnl
Ggrphc Scty, Wtt Fmly Fndtn, Dp
Srch Fndtn, nd Ntnl Ggrphc xplrrn-
Rsdnc Sylv rl nd Ntnl Ggrphc
Fllw nrc Sl hv jnd rnks t stblsh Mssn
Bl, nw glbl nttv tht sks t rstr th
hlth nd prdctvty f th ss. n f ts sgnl
gls w ll b t pr mt th crtn f mrn
prtctd rs n crtcl csystms frm th Pls
t th trpcs. nthr m w ll b t spprt sltnbsd
rsrch t rdc vrfshng whl cnsdrng
th lss f mrn-bsd lvlhds wrldw d. “Ths
ffrt s nt nly t nspr ppl t cr bt th
cns, bt ls t nspr ppl t ct,” sys Sl,
wh s mrn clgst. “f w d smthng tdy,
w knw w’ll hv n mpct tmrrw .” T lrn hw
t spprt ths nw cmpgn t sv th ss, g t
cn.ntnlggrphc.cm.
D NG
TN BT, SLMN SLNDS
JNTHN CLY
T MNY HKS N TH WTR. Tht’s
th prblm w th tdy’s fshrs. Wrkng
frm smll pl-nd-ln bts t gnt ndstrl
trw lrs, fshrmn rmv mr thn 170 blln
pnds f wldlf yr frm th ss. nw
stdy sggsts tht r crrnt pptt cld
sn ld t w rldw d fshrs cllps.
85.2
1994 (pk)
16.7 mlln mtrc tns f fsh
1950
77.9
2006
Fsh dn’t stnd chnc nw dys. Fctry shps
lk ths Lthnn trw lr ff Mrtn (bv) rm
th w rld, hlng n mssv mnts f fsh nd frzng
th ctch lng th w y.
JN GMY, MGNM PHTS. CHRT: MRL FRLNG, NGM STFF
SRC: S RND S PRJCT, NVRSTY F BRTSH CLMB FSHRS CNTR
GLBL MRN CPTR Drng th pst 50 yrs
th nnl w rld sfd ctch hs mr thn qdrpld,
s fshng flts hv ddd nw tch nlgs nd
vntrd nt prvsly nxpltd rgns.
MPTY S, FLL MRKT Hndrds t thsnds f pnds
f slmn mv thrgh Sttl’s Pk Plc Mrkt ch dy,
mch f t cght n lsk’s w ll-mngd w trs. Whl fflnt
ntns my prctc gd fshrs mngmnt t hm,
thy ftn rly n prly mntrd dvlpng cntrs fr
mch f thr sfd. Th rslt cld b mpty fsh mrkts
n th prst plcs. DN CK ND LN JNSHL
wntr prks vr thr lh shrts t blnt th chll f
th rfrgrtn. Thy flp pn thr cll phns, dl
thr clnts n Tky, Ls ngls, Hnll—w hrvr
xpnsv fsh r tn—nd w t.
Sn th bg frght drs n th swrd sd f th
wrhs sld pn, nd prd f mrn crcsss
n pllts bgns. Tn s bg rnd s w gn whls.
Sprfsh nd swrdfsh, thr blls swd ff, thr bds
lnd p lk dll gry bms. Thck-lppd ph
wth ys th sz f hcky pcks rmmd w th gld.
Thy ll tk thr plcs n th hll.
ctnrs drll cr smpls frm th fsh nd
ly th rbbns f flsh n th lflss w ht blls.
Byrs fngr ths smpls, tryng t dvn qlty
frm clr, clrty, (Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
Pl Grnbrg s th thr f Fr Fsh: Th Ftr f th Lst
Wld Fd. H lvs wth hs fmly n Mnhttn.
BY PL GRNBRG
Jst bfr dwn sfd smmt cnvns nr
Hnll Hrbr. s tw dzn r s byrs ntr
th ntd Fshng gncy wrhs, thy dn
Phytplnktn nd lg drv cn csystms. Thy cptr
slr nrgy thrgh phtsynthss nd, whn tn
by zplnktn, trnsfr tht nrgy p th fd chn. Smll
fsh t zplnktn nd n trn r tn by bg fsh, w hch
r trgtd by fshrmn.
Th cn Fd Chn MR
� Lk fr th spcl ss cn n nwsstnds
nw nd t ngm.c m/cn-spcl.
LVL 4
LVL 2
LVL 3
LVL 1
D NG
LVL 4 TP PRDTRS
Slw t rprdc, ths fsh r mng
th mst nrgy dmndng n th s.
TLNTC SLMN
Mst tlntc slmn sld
n th .S. c m frm qcltr
prtns, w hr
thy r fd fsh ml, ddng
t th prssrs n w ld fsh.
RNG RGHY
Th rng rghy fshry n
th Sthrn Hmsphr w s
hvly xpltd n th 1980s.
Th lrgst f ths dp-s
fsh lv cntry r mr.
TLNTC BLFN TN
Bcs vrfshng hs ct th
ppltn f ths fsh t frctn
f ts rgnl bndnc, cnsrvtnsts
rg fshng mrtr m.
MR
LVL 3 NTRMDT PRDTRS
Ths spcs r vtl fr kpng
lw r-lvl fsh ppltns n chck.
LSK PLLCK
lthgh ts bmss hs dclnd
n rcnt yrs, ths spcs (ftn
sld s fsh stcks) rmns th
lrgst .S. fshry by vlm.
TLNTC HRRNG
mprtnt pry fr sbrds, cn
mmmls, nd thr fsh, th tlntc
hrrng ws vrfshd n th
1960s bt s nw rcvrng.
JPNS FLYNG SQD
Pryd pn by lbtrsss nd
sprm w hls, th Jpns flyng
sqd lvs nly yr r s bt
cn rplnsh ts ppltn qckly.
MR
LVL 2 FRST-RDR CNSMRS
bl t rprdc qckly, ths spcs
ccnt fr mch f th cn bmss.
PRV N NCHV T
Th w rld’s lrgst fshry by
vlm, nchvt r ftn
grnd p fr nml fd. l
Nñ vnts drv bg ps nd
dw ns n thr ppltns.
ZPLNKTN
Ths tny nmls fd n
phytplnktn nd r tn
by fsh nd bln w hls.
MRCN LBSTR
Snc th ppltn f ts mn
prdtr, cd, ws vrfshd
nd cllpsd, th mrcn
lbstr hs rbndd.
MR
LVL 1 PRMRY PRDCRS
rgnsms t th lwst lvl cptr
slr nrgy thrgh phtsynthss.
LG
Pplr s fd rnd th wrld,
rd lg sw d spcs nd
nly w tr nd lght t thrv.
PHYTPLNKTN
Mcrscpc, plntlk rgnsms
r s bndnt n th s tht
thy r rspnsbl fr hlf f
rth’s phtsynthss.
MRL FRLNG, NGM STFF, ND LJNDR TMS
RT: HRNÁN CÑLLS
SRCS: NRC SL; S RND S PRJCT, NV RSTY
F BRTSH CLMB FSHRS CNTR; BRTN SVR
TP PRDTRS NTRMDT
PRDTRS
10 pnds
f lvl 3 fsh
Whn y t
1 pnd
f lvl 4 fsh,
t’s lk tng ...
Bt f y cnsm
1 pnd
f lvl 3 fsh,
t’s lk tng ...
LVL 3 LVL 4
Wht W t Mks Dffrnc
MRL FRLNG, NGM STFF, ND
LJNDR TMS. SRC: S RND
S PRJCT, NVRSTY F BRTSH
CLMB FSHRS CNTR
FRST-RDR
CNSMRS
PRMRY
PRDCRS
r100 pnds
f lvl 2 fsh
r 1,000 pnds
f lvl 1 rgnsms
r 100 pnds
f lvl 1 rgnsms
10 pnds
f lvl 2 fsh
LVL 1 LVL 2
tp prdtr rqrs xpnntlly mr nrgy t srvv thn
ds fsh t lw r lvl f th fd chn. Whn w lthy ntns
ctch r by tp prdtrs, thy ncrs thr mpct n th cn
cmprd w th pr ntns, w hch tnd t t smllr fsh.
NDN
CN
NDN
CN
S
STRL
S
STRL
rly 1950s
rly 2000s
Whr Fsh r Cght
: STHST S
Th pplrty f ssh hs
tkn tll n tn stcks.
Svrl spcs r shwng
sgns f dcln.
HRVSTNG PTTRNS
B: XCLSV CNMC
ZNS Crtd n 1982, th
zns hv slw d th grwth
f fshrs wthn 200 ntcl
mls f ntns’ csts.
C: GLBL STH
ftr flts mvd nt w trs
rnd ntrctc, Chln s
bss stcks wr qckly
dpltd.
D: NRTH TLNTC
thsnd yrs f fshng
by vryn frm Vkngs t
mdrn Spnrds hs drvn
cd t nr cllps.
: STRN TLNTC rpn
flts hv trgtd frc’s
csts. Ldrs sllng
fshng rghts my gnr csts
t lcl fd sppls.
MRTN GMCH, NGM STFF. SRC: S RND S PRJCT,
NVRSTY F BRTSH CLMB FSHRS CNTR
QTR
RCTC CN
PCFC
CN TLNTC
CN
QTR
RCTC CN
PCFC
CN TLNTC
CN
C
B
D
L
NTRCTC
STH
MRC
FRC
NRTH RP
MRC
L
NTRCTC
STH
MRC
FRC
NRTH RP
MRC
Mps shw hrvst ntnsty: cn ctch by hlf-dgr cll
(930 sq m; 2,410 sq km), xprssd n trms f prmry prdctn
(mtrc tns f phytplnktn) vr fv-yr prd.
LW
HGH
Ctch: Tp 20
TTL
LNDNGS
(MLLN MTRC TNS F FSH)
LNDNGS
(MLLN MTRC TNS F FSH)
Cns mptn: Tp 20
Chn
(xcpt Tw n)
Chn
(xcpt Tw n)
Jpn 9.0
.S. 4.7
ndns 3.6
nd 3.1
Phlppns 2.1
Thlnd 2.4
Rss 2.1
Sth Kr 2.7
Ngr 1.8
Spn 1.6
Tw n 1.5
.K. 1.5
Nrwy 1.4
Mlys 1.4
Frnc 1.4
Mxc 1.4
tly 1.3
Vtnm 1.3
Chl 1.3
Pr 8.3
.S. 4.9
Jpn 4.4
Chl 4.2
ndns 4.2
nd 3.4
Rss 3.1
Thlnd 2.6
Nrwy 2.6
Phlppns 2.0
Dnmrk 2.0
clnd 1.9
Sth Kr 1.7
Vtnm 1.6
Mlys 1.3
Mxc 1.3
Mynmr 1.1
Cnd 1.1
Tw n 1.0
9.9
62.6
TTL 59.2
nnl vrg 2001–05 13.6
S
N. MRC
RP
FRC
S. MRC
ndstrl
33%
Fd 67%
Wh Ctchs nd Wh Cnsms
Wlthy ntns nc btnd mst f thr fsh by fshng.
Tdy thy’r mr lkly t by swrdfsh thn t ctch t.
Jpn cnsms mr thn twc s mch fsh s t ctchs,
whl Prvns, th nmbr tw sfd prdcrs n th
wrld, cnsm brly ny t ll.
MRL FRLNG, NGM STFF, ND LJNDR TMS. SRC: S RND S PRJCT,
NVRSTY F BRTSH CLMB FSHRS CNTR
TTL CNSMPTN
nnl vrg 2001-05
Nt ll f th fsh tht r cght
r tn. thrd f tdy’s ctch
s sd fr ndstrl prpss,
sch s th mnfctrng f
pnts nd csmtcs r fd fr
frm-rsd slmn, tn, nd
vn pgs nd chckns.
LST
118G NT
Th pr hs trc mgfn lndscp srvvs n Crdl
Mntn–Lk St. Clr Ntnl Pr k n Ts mn. S
RT BY DR ND LFNS KNNS
Hg kngrs nd flghtlss brds,
rhn-sz brwsrs, nd prdtr tht
cld kll thm ll: Sch w r th mgfn
tht nc dmntd strl. Thn
mst vnshd. Dd th c g fnlly
ctch p wth thm? r dd hmns
hnt thm t xtnctn?
MRSPL LN
Thylcl crnfx
nrvld prdtr, lprd-sz
T. crnfx stlkd pn frst nd shrblnd
n srch f pry, w hch prbbly ncldd
nw ly rrvd hmns. Th cntnnt’s lrgst
mmmln crnvr, w ghng p t 350
pnds nd p t 30 nchs tll t th shldr,
ths hntr lkly thrvd s n mbsh rtst.
Brstng frm ndrgrwth, t cld thrttl
mch lrgr gm, grspng ts pry w th
dggr-shrp thmb clws nd fnshng
t ff wth ts lrg frnt tth.
Y WLL FND T H NRCRT CVS
n th pstrl w n cntry f Sth strl, fr hrs
frm dld n lnly rds hdng tw rd wht th
sss cll th Sthrn cn. Th grpvns thrv n
rd sl tht sts lk lyr f cng n prs lmstn.
t’s lvly cntry, bt t cn b trchrs. Th grnd s
pckd w th hls, mny n w dr thn cfé tbl, knw n
s ptfll trps. Thy’r dp. Thy plng nt th blckst
f cvrns. Ptfll trps hv gbbld p mny kngr
bndng thrgh th nght.
n dy n 1969 fldglng fssl hntr nmd Rd Wlls
cm t Nrcrt t xplr w ht ws thn knw n s Vctr
Cv. t ws n ld trst ttrctn, wth stps nd
hndrls nd lctrc lghts. Bt Wlls nd hlf dzn cllgs
vntrd bynd th trst sctn, clw ng thrgh
drk, nrrw pssgs. Whn thy flt sggstv brz
wftng frm pl f ls rbbl, thy knw thr ws
chmbr bynd. Wlls nd n thr slthrd nt th hg
rm. ts xpnsv flr f rd sl ws lttrd wth strng
bjcts. t tk Wlls mmnt t rlz w ht thy wr
lkng t. Bns: lts f bns. Ptfll-trp vctms glr.
Vctr Fssl Cv, s th cvrn s nw knwn, wrhss
BY JL CHNBCH
PHTGRPHS BY MY TNSNG
th bns f smthng lk 45,000 nmls. Sm f th
ldst bns blngd t crtrs fr lrgr nd mr frsm
thn ny fnd tdy n strl. Thy w r th ncnt
strln mgfn—hg nmls tht r md th
cntnnt drng th Plstcn pch.
n bnyrds crss th cntnnt, scntsts hv fnd
th fssls f gnt snk; hg flghtlss brd; w mbtlk
crtr th sz f rhncrs; nd svn-ft-tll
kngr w th strngly shrt fc. Thy’v fnd th rmns
f tpr-lk crtr; hpp-lk bst; nd lzrd,
20 ft lng, tht mbshd ts pry nd sw llw d vrythng
dw n t th lst fthr.
Th strln mgfn dmntd thr csystms—
nd thn wr gn n n xtnctn spsm tht sw pt wy
nrly vry nml tht w ghd hndrd pnds r mr.
Wht, xctly, klld thm ff?
Gvn hw mch nk
Jl chnbch s rprtng n th Glf l spll fr th Wshngtn Pst.
my Tnsng cvrd th drght n strl’s Mrry-Drlng Rvr
Bsn n prl 2009. Dtch twn brthrs nd rtsts, dr nd lfns
Knns spclz n pntngs nd mdls f xtnct nmls nd hmns.
(Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
D NG
Pr k gds sct bn-rch sdmnt

n Klly Hll Cvs n Kngr slnd,
ps sbly n f th lst plcs mgfn
srvvd n strl. Scntsts
r fndng bndnt rmns f
nmls tht fll nt th cvs.
GNT WMBT
Dprtdn pttm
plddng clsss, D. pttm, th lrgst knw n
mrspl, grw t rhncrs sz. Th bggst ns
rchd vr sx ft tll t th shldr nd tn ft lng,
thr frry, pllr-lk lgs spprtng thr tns f wght.
Dprtdn ccpd nch smlr t th frcn lphnt,
brwsng n shrbs nd cllctng t w tr hls. ts SV
sz nd lck f glty w ld hv md t tmptng
trgt fr mrspl lns nd hmn hntrs.
GNT SHRT- FCD KNGR

Prcptdn glh
N lvng kngr cn d ths: rch bv ts
hd nd pll lvs ff tr. Lng, clw d fngrs
nd frlmbs tht cld xtnd pwrd lk hmn
rms llw d P. glh, th lrgst kngr vr,
t thrv s brwsr n pn frsts. Th svn-fttll
mrspl w th hflk ts ws n f th lst
f th mgfn t g xtnct, vrlppng w th
hmns fr thsnds f yrs nd lkly
nsprng brgnl tls bt
lng-lmbd fghtng r.
STRTN’S THNDRBRD
Drmrns strtn
Prhps th lrgst knw n brd, D. strtn nvr
lft th grnd. Tn ft tll nd w ghng thsnd
pnds, t blngd t fmly f gnt flghtlss brds,
th drmrnthds. Hmns nvr sw Strtn’s thndrbrd;
t lvd bt ght mlln yrs g n th lt
Mcn, w hn strl ws dryng t.
MRSPL TPR
Plrchsts pn
“Tr w rckrs”: tht’s hw plntlgst Tm
Flnnry dscrbs Plrchsts, cw-sz mrspls
tht sd pw rfl lmbs, trnk-lk ns, nd lng
grff-typ tng t strp brk nd tr p rts. Scntsts
frst mstk thr tth fr ths f gnt kngrs
bt w mbts nd kls r thr clsst kn.
0 m 500
0 km 500
PCFC
CN
NDN
CN
Cdd Sprngs
Nrcrt Cvs,
Vctr Fssl Cv
Mmmth Cv,
Tght ntrnc Cv
Drysdl Rvr
Ntnl Prk
Crdl Mntn–
Lk St. Clr
Ntnl Prk
Wllngtn Cvs
Prth
dld
lc Sprngs
Sydny
Cnbrr
RNHM
LND
STR L
NW
ZLND
Nllrbr Pln
Tsmn
Kngr
slnd
MYSTRS XT NCT NS
Btw n 50,000 nd 10,000 yrs g, tw -thrds f ll lrg
nml gnr n th w rld, frm mstdns t gnt kngrs,
dspprd. Ws clmt chng, w th shfts n rnfll
pttrns nd vgttn, rspnsbl fr th d-ff f mgfn
(lrg-bdd nmls w ghng bt hndrd pnds
r mr)? r, s mntng vdnc sggsts, dd th fnnng
t f hmns frm frc nd s— nw, sphstctd
prdtr—cntrbt t rpd, cntnnt-wd xtnctns?
HRM HNRQZ ND PTRC HLY. RT: RÚL MRTÍN. SRCS: NTHNY D. BRNSKY,
NVRSTY F CLFRN, BRKLY; RN CMNS, NVRSTY F DLD; RPT
HKW, MSM F NW ZLND; RCHRD N. HLDWY, PLCL RSRCH LTD; JHN .
LNG, NTRL HSTRY MSM F LS NGLS CNTY; DNNS STNFRD ND HNS- DTR
SS, NTNL MSM F NTRL HSTRY; RD T. WLLS, FLNDRS NVRSTY
DSPPRNG MGFN MR
strl
xtnctn f mjrty f
mgfn gnr pprs
t cncd wth hmn
sttlmnt vr 5,000-yr
prd. Cntrbtng fctrs
ncldd hntng nd chngs
n vgttn csd by fr
nd fllng ppltn
f gnt hrbvrs.
Nrth nd Sth mrc
Nrth mrc nc hrbrd
n rry f lrg mmml
spcs rvlng frc’s.
Wthn fw mllnn f
mjr nflx f hntrs frm
Sbr bt 13,000 yrs
g, mst mgfn n Nrth
nd Sth mrc w r gn.
Nw Zlnd
cntry r s ftr th
rrvl f Plynsns, w h
bcm th Mr, hntng
nd lnd clrng lmntd
gnt brds, mst ntbly th
wnglss m nd ts mn
prdtr, Hst’s gl, th
wrld’s lrgst knw n gl.
70,000 YRS G (Y..) 60,000 50,000 40,000
Hmns rrv bt
50,000 yrs g.
70,000 YRS G 60,000 50,000 40,000
Txdn pltnss 13,000 y..
Mcrchn ptchnc
Mgthrm mrcnm 7,900 y..
Dnrns rbsts 6
Hr
Cnmrns clctrns 660 y..
Nthrthrps shstnss 13,000 y..
Smldn ftls 13,000 y..
rctds sms 12,800 y..
Mmmths pr
Vrns prscs 45,000 y..
Dprtdn pttm 45,000 y..
Gnyrns nwtn 45,000 y..
Thylcl crnfx 45,000 y
Prcptdn gl
Plrchsts zl 45,0
pprxmt xtnctn dts*
strl
Nrth mrc
Sth mrc
Nw Zlnd
TDY
Hmns rrv btwn
30,000 nd 13,000 yrs g.
Hmns frst sttl
bt 700 yrs g.
30,000 20,000
Th strpd Ts mnn tgr, dgsz
mrspl, srvvd ntl th
rly 20th cntry n Tsmn.
* DTS NDCT TH LST TM TH NMLS WR BNDNT.
XTNCTN LKLY FLLWD SN FTR.
** SLTD SLND PPLTN XTNCTN 3,900 YRS G
10,000
30,000 20,000 10,000 TDY
13,500 y..
660 t 560 y..
ts mr 720 t 590 y..
mgns 10,500 y..**
y..
h 45,000 y..
Thylcns cncphls 74 y..
000 y..
mgn n brgnl hntng prty
45,000 yrs g crchd ndr
n tcrp n th sthrn cst
f Kngr slnd. Th smrd
scrb lnd thy sw, smlr t tdy’s
lndscp, hrbrd mgfn
th hmns trgtd fr fd.
Th mssv jw s nd tth f
ths prdtr, Thylcl crnfx,
lk lthl n cst skltn t
dld’s Sth strln Ms m.
Pssbly th frst drct vdnc f

hmn- mgfn ntrctn, rck
rt lng th Drysdl Rvr pprs
t shw hntr fndng ff lrg
prdtr, lkly Thylcl crnfx.
n dryng lk bd n Vctr,
frmr n 2007 lrtd scntsts t
mjr fnd: w ll-prsrvd trcks
f Dprtdn. Th slw -mvng
bhmth hd bn crssng
vlcnc pln 100,000 yrs g,
whn mgfn stll w lkd tll.
Jn
Ffty Yrs t Gmb
n 1960 sprtd nml lvr w th n scntfc
trnng st p cmp n Tngnyk’s Gmb
Strm Gm Rsrv t bsrv chmpnzs.
Tdy Jn Gdll’s nm s synnyms w th
th prtctn f blvd spcs. t Gmb—
n f th lngst, mst dtld stds f ny
wld nml—rvltns bt chmps kp c mng.
144 MRTN SCHLLR
HG VN LWCK L D
mst f s dn’t ntr pn r lf’s dstny t ny
ntly dscrnbl tm. Jn Gdll dd.
n th mrnng f Jly 14, 1960, sh stppd nt
pbbl bch lng r mt strtch f th st shr
f Lk Tngnyk. t w s hr frst rrvl t wht ws
thn clld th Gmb Str m Gm Rsrv, smll
prtctd r tht hd bn stblshd by th Brtsh
clnl gvrnmnt bck n 1943. Sh hd brght
tnt, fw tn plts, cp w tht hndl, shddy
pr f bnclrs, n frcn ck nmd Dmnc,
nd—s cmpnn, t th nsstnc f ppl w h
frd fr hr sfty n th wlds f pr-ndpndnc
Tngnyk—hr mthr. Sh hd cm t stdy
chmpnzs. r nywy, t try. Csl bsrvrs
xpctd hr t fl. n prsn, th plntlgst
Ls Lky, w h hd rcrtd hr t th tsk p n
Nrb, blvd sh mght sccd.
grp f lcl mn, c mpd nr thr fshng nts
lng th bch, grtd
Wh’s w tchng whm? Jn trds gzs wth Ff, n f hr
rgnl stdy sbjcts. Th w dn fnc kpt chmps frm
chrgng nt cmp nd scttrng prvsns. Yrs ltr Ff
clmbd t tp mtrrch, w th svn f nn ffsprng srvvng—
th mst f ny fml. Sh nd hr yngst dspprd n
2004, “ rlly sd tm,” Jn sys.
BY DVD QMMN
Cntrbtng wrtr Dvd Qmmn’s bk n zntc dsss
wll b pblshd nxt yr by W. W. Nrtn.
(Tch Txt bttn t rd mr.)
D NG
Jn’s ntry n 1961 fld ntbk
CRTSY JN GDLL
Khm
Klnd
Kskl
M
Mtng
Kzng
Lk
Tngnyk
lv. 2,536 ft
773 m
n r f 13.5 sqr mls
smd ngh n 1968, w hn
Gmb ws nmd ntnl
prk. Bt stds hv snc
shw n tht ths prmt ppltn—
bt hndrd chmps—
wll nd lrgr frgng r
t thrv n th lng tr m. s
frms nd l plm plnttns
hv clsd n n th prk,
chmp hm rngs tsd hv
shrnk, lkly ntnsfyng trrtrl
cnflcts. Dss hs ddd
t th tll. Th Jn Gdll
nsttt s nw prmtng lvlhds
tht bth bnft vllgrs
nd rstr chmp hbtt.
Hvn
fr Chmps
By 1977 th Kskl
cmmnty hd klld
r bsrbd chmps
f th Khm grp.
Thr cnflct s clld
th Fr Yr Wr.
GMB
NTNL
PRK
DM. RP. TNZ N
F TH
CNG
(frmrly Zr)
Nrb
FR C
VLLG FRST
RSRV
(stblshd 2009)
Btl
Gmb Str m
Rsrch Cntr
Mtng
Kzng
Bbng
Chnkl
Mw mgng
Mgrgnz
GMB
NTNL
PRK
Klnd
Kskl
1966
Mtmb
md-1990s
Lk
Tngnyk
T NZ N
l
tmb
Rft
Kgnz
Bbng
Chnkl
Mw mgng
Mgrgnz
Mlnd
Mntn
5,315 ft
1,620 m
GMB
NTNL
PRK
T NZ N
1970s 2000s
MPS: MRTN GMCH, NGM STFF; NTRNTNL MPPNG SSCTS
SRCS: LLN PNT, JN GDLL NSTTT; NN PSY, DK NVRSTY;
MK WLSN ND DS CYPRN, NV RSTY F MNNST
Th pw rfl Kskl
cmmnty (crrnt
ppltn t lst
60) s th mst
ntnsly stdd.
ncdtl vdnc
sggsts tht chmp
cmmnty, clld
Rft, rngd tsd
th prk n th 1960s.
Thgh mntrd
snc 1999, th
Klnd chmps
hv nvr bn
hbttd.
Mtmb nd Klnd rngs n th 1970s r stmts;
rngs tsd th prk r spcltv.
1966 Cmmnty rng*; yr hbttd Dfrsttn snc 1972
0m1
0 km 1
1960 1970
1919* 1947 1953 1958
Fl
ds
1949
1949
nfnt Pm Prf Px
P
nfnt
Gn
Gbln Gr mln
Stllbrn
nfnt Gm
Fbn Fgn Ff Flnt Flm
Frd Frd
Pssn
Fl
Mlss
Hgh-rnkng Fl ws n
ttntv, plyfl mthr.
Sh lvd n stmtd 53
yrs, n f th lngst
lvs rcrdd t Gmb.
Gmb’s tp mtrrch, Ff
hs th mst ffsprng:
svn f nn srvvng.
Gmb’s lrgst chm
n rcrd, 121-pnd
Frd hs srd th
mst ffsprng: ght.
Hr sn
dspn
thr w
Strng rltnshps
wth hr
chldrn hlpd
Mlss mntn
hr scl rnkng.
Gbln bcm n lph ml, n f 11 th
Kskl cmmnty hs hd snc 1960.
tn by Pss
Pm, nd Prf.
Pssn nd hr dghtr,
Pm, klld nd t
t lst fr nfnts.
clls nd
ndffrnt mthr,
Pssn’s nsl
bhvr tk
vlnt trn.
FMLY TS
Thr mtrrchs n th Kskl cmmnty bcm ky
prsnlts n th stdy f chmp rprdctn, nrtrng,
nd scl bhvr. Fmly lns r trcd thrgh th
mthrs, snc ptrnty ws ncrtn bfr DN tstng.
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pm jns Mtmb cmmnty.
Flss jns Mtmb cmmnty.
Mlss ds
Pm dspprs
Pssn ds
Ml
Fml
Dd lv
nknw n
lph ml
Frh
Fnd Fml Fdhl
n nfnt
Ggl
bl & Gyr Grch
Gtty nfnt Glhd G Gldn & Glttr Gml Gzm
nfnt
tw ns
Gdt
Stllbrn
nfnt
Fnn Flss Fstn Frdnnd Frd
Fdg
Flrt
Fx
Frst Fns Flw r Fld
mp
d Hs ttmptd
nfntcd.
Flnt,
dnt, ds
wks ltr.
Ff, lst f th
rgnl chmps
n th stdy,
dspprs
wth hr dghtr
Frh.
n,
Fnn nd hr mthr,
Ff, try t kll nfnt G,
bt Grmln prtcts hr.
Grmln stls hr
nw-brn grndsn
Gdt, pssbly
t prtct hm
frm Fnn, bt h
ds mnths ltr.
nly st f Gmb twns
t srvv t dlthd.
GRPHC: LWSN PRKR, NGM STFF
GRPHC SRC: JNN C. SCHMCHR-STNKY. PHTS: CRTSY JN GDLL NSTTT
Mrch 21, 1963
Fr m: LS LKY
Crrspndnc t
Ntnl Ggrphc
xctv Mlvn Pyn
n mm, Lky—
Jn’s mntr—
crdtd hr wth
dscvry tht hlpd
rdfn wht t mns
t b hmn: Chmps
mk tls. Thr
yrs rlr Jn hd
bsrvd chmps fshng
fr trmts w th
plnt stms. Ths chmp,
phtgrphd n 2005,
dsplys hmnlk
cncn-trtn s h
sngs trmt snck.
NG RNDT, MNDN PCTRS
(RGHT); NTNL GGRPHC
RCHVS & SPCL CLLCTNS
“ Y cnnt shr yr lf wth ny nml

nd nt rlz tht nmls hv prsnl
Bnns gv Jn n
dg. stdy spply
lrd chmps nd nbld
hr t gn thr
trst. Dvd Grybrd
(lft), wh nc t
bt 50 bnns n
sttng, ws th frst
Gmb chmp t ls
hs fr f hmn cntct.
Whn h lt Jn
grm hm, t w s, sh
wrt, “ prd mmnt.”
t s nw knwn
tht chmps lck mmnty
t sm hmn
dsss, s Gmb
rsrchrs mst kp
t lst 25 ft wy.
wth w ll-dvlpd brn
ts.” —Jn Gdll
HG VN LWCK
GMB SCRPBK
Fr th pst 50 yrs, Gmb
hs hd tw fmls—th
chmps w h lv n th prk
nd th scrs f rsrchrs
wh’v wtchd thm. Ld
by Jn, thy’v cmpd t
fr mnths, crchd n th
wds, nd spnt cntlss
hrs bsrvng r clsst
kn. Tnznn hlprs
bcm trckrs nd dt
cllctrs n th 1970s; nw
thy r lrgly n chrg.
“t’s rlly vbrnt plc fr
rsrch,” Jn sys. Wth
tdy’s mppng nd DN
tchnlgs, “th cpblts
r vstr thn nythng
cld hv mgnd s
st w th my ntbk
nd sld rl.”
1962: Dvd Grybrd rns bnn
CHMPNZS HNT
MMMLS S FD
Pblshd n 1963
Jn’s frst ky fndng
ndd th lng-hld
ssmptn tht chmps
wr vgtrns. Mt
s rlshd nd shrd.
CHMPNZS MK
ND S TLS
Pblshd n 1963
Yng chmps lrn by
wtchng thrs prb
trmt mnds w th plnt
stms, fr nstnc, r
s lvs s spngs.
HGHLGHTS
F 50 YRS
F GMB
RSRCH
1962: Jn nd prtnr shw th flg
CHMPNZS HV
RCH SCL LVS ND
FMLY TS
Pblshd n 1965
Cmplx scl ntrctns
mng chmps ncld
rbst mtrnl bnds
tht lst nt dlthd.
FML CHMPNZS
SK MLTPL MTS
Pblshd n 1971
Fmls ftn mt w th
ll mls n cmmnty.
Sm mls try t mnplz
fml r tk hr
wy n cnsrtshp. HG VN LWCK (BTH)
MR
1970: Lr Bldw n rtrvs pn frm tls
1970: Chmps pr n mrrr
1971: Stff dcmnt chmps w th pry
1971: nn
FML
CHMP NZS
CMMT NFNTCD
Pblshd n 1977
Cmpttn mng
fmls fr gd
fdng rs my
ncld th kllng f
thr fmls’ nfnts.
CHMPNZS
GGRSSVLY
CMPT FR LND
Pblshd n 1979
Nghbrng chmpnz
cmmnts lv
n prmnnt stt
f hstlty; bttls
cn b ddly.
Shldc dcks Mstrd
1973: Nw s f grnt mvs Jn nd cllgs t dnc
1974: Jm Mkkw nd Yssn
Slmn w th Fgn
CHMPNZS MTR
SLWLY ND RMN
FRTL LT N LF
Pblshd n 1979
Mny spcts f chmp
gng mrrr ths f
hmns, bt fml
chmps d nt xprnc
mnps.
ML CHMPNZ S
STY N NTL GRP;
FMLS LV
Pblshd n 1979
Mls sty n nd dfnd
thr brth cmmnty fr
lf. Fmls ftn jn
nw grp bfr brdng.
Trns fr rdcs nbrdng.
CLCKWS: CRTSY
DVD BYGTT (3); ML
VN ZNNCQ BRGMNNRSS;
CRLN VN
ZNNCQ BRGMNN;
CRTSY DV D BYGTT
MR
1995: Jn w th rsrchr Hll Mtm
2003: Wtchng Gr mln nd fmly
2006: Scnnng hbtt dg
FML CHMPNZS
HV THR WN
HRRCHS
Pblshd n 1997
Mls dmnt, bt
fml rnk mttrs: Hgh
rnk s ssctd w th
mprvd nfnt srvvl,
shrtr brth ntrvls, nd
fstr mtrng dghtrs.
CHMPNZS GT
NFCTD BY SMN
FRM F DS
Pblshd n 2009
Chmpnzs r ntrl
hsts fr th prcrsr
t HV-1. Sm dvlp
DS-lk symptms
nd d rly.
2010: Jn w th Gmb stff
2008: Mthd Vymp bsrvs Zs
CLCKWS: MCHL NCHLS, NGM STFF; LZBTH LNSDRF, LNCLN PRK Z;
CRTSY MCHL L. WLSN; RBRT ’MLLY (2)
Snc 1986 Jn hs lvd s n dvct,
t mprv th plght f chmpnzs bth
Bck n th frst
n 1995 fr “sprtl
rfrshmnt,” Jn
njys th cmpny
f Px, rm rsd
fr grmng by hs
brthr, Prf. “Whn
’m n my w n t
Gmb nw , cn
sly rcptr hw
flt t 26, w hn ll th
wrld ws nw,” sh
sys. “Thr’s stll
sprtl pw r thr.
cn brth t n.”
drvn by sns f mssn
cptv nd w ld.
MCHL NCHLS, NGM STFF
LN RDR, TXS, 1974
f thr s n mg f mn tht cptrs th
wd-pn Wst tht hs s nrptrd m, t s
ths n f Wst Txs cwby t fll gllp.
“D Y VR FL LK
RTRSPCTV LK
Wllm lbrt llrd s 46-yr-lng cntrbtr.
Ntnl Ggrphc Bks w ll pblsh Wllm lbrt
llrd: Fv Dcds, n md-ctbr. cmpnn
xhbtn w ll pn Dc mbr 2 t Stvn Kshr
Gllry n Nw Yrk Cty.
t w s smmr dy n 1969. Thr hd bn n rn fr
wks. Th 17-yr-ld by frm Httrt rlgs
cmmnty n Stnfrd, Mntn, sd y cn tll t’s
rlly dry w hn sngl rdr cn kck p dst trl. W
stppd w th r hrss t strm. Th w tr ws cl
nd tstd f th rth. W drnk crlssly, splshng
r fcs ntl r shrtfrnts hng wt.
“Y knw —d y vr fl lk lvng th clny?”
“N,” th by sd. “t mst b prtty rgh lf
n th tsd, ll ln, tryng t mk lvng. Dn’t
y thnk?”
W lt th hrss drnk, nd thn rd n.
“Ys,” tld hm. “t cn b ll f tht.”
Snc tht nncnt xchng, ’v spnt mch f
my lf trvlng th w rld. ’v sn lt f wndrfl
plcs. Bt t w s th mrcn Wst tht nvr lft m.
t kpt drw ng m bck.
Rsd n Mnnpls, ddn’t gt my frst lk t th
GNG WY?” skd.
llrd tlks bt
th cvr pht f
hs nw bk.
Wst ntl th md-1960s w hl n my frst ssgnmnts
fr Ntnl Ggrphc mgzn. cn stll r mmbr
n rly mrnng n Wymng nd th frst lght n
hgh mntn mdw s, th wsps f clds wthn
my rch. Tht lk dmndd nthr, nd nthr,
ntl fnd myslf skng ny xcs, ny stry d
tht w ld ld m bck frm th st, w hr hd
mvd, t tht grnd xpns. Nw lv hlf th yr
n w strn Mntn.
nc knw n ld Mntn cw hnd, nw dd, wh
sd t ms bt tms w hn th cntry ws mr
pn, w th fwr fncs nd gts t slw mn dw n—
rstrctns n th lnd f th fr. spps w ll fl
mr rstrctd tdy. Thr sm t b gts n r lvs
tht w nvr gt pn. Bt f w’r lcky, w fnd plc
spcl t s. vn thgh t my chng w th tm, f w
lv t dply ngh, thr s prt f t wthn s t th
nd. Tht’s hw fl bt th Wst.
D NG
T. J. SYMNDS, NVD, 1979
T. J. w s 17 whn mt hm n cw cmp. H hdn’t bn dng t w ll t
schl nd cldn’t sty t f trbl, s hs dd snt hm t th L Rnch
n Nvd t b bckr. Hr h’s gt tw slbs f cmp-md brd
slthrd w th pnt bttr nd pnck syrp.
HNRY GRY, RZ N, 1970
Hnry rn cttl fr 50 yrs n th rgn Pp Ccts Ntnl Mnmnt
dsrt cntry. H w s 72. Th gvrnmnt w ntd hs cttl ff th lnd.
s w mvd bt th hs, Hnry psd, lst n hs thghts, bhnd
hm 48-str flg.
SRPRS CRK CLNY, MNTN, 2005
Sspndd mmntrly ndr vst gry sky, ths chldrn f my
lflng Httrt frnds fnd jy n smpl plsrs. n ths cmmnl
rnch th ldr chldrn ply bll n mkshft fld, th fnclss
tfld strtchng t frvr.
CLD 9 BR, NVD, 1979
’v lw ys lkd brs. Th glw ng, jlly-clrd lghts nd dr mlk nm
rflctd t nght bcknd m n lk, fvrt cw twn f mn.
STN KNDLL, NVD, 1979
n Mntn Cty, bckr hd tht lvng lk nd dd
s th nxt mrnng.
KTHY WLTR, MNTN, 1969 (BV); BRN MRRS, NVD, 1970 (RGHT)
n dy t Sprng Crk Clny, yng Httrt grl llw d m t
phtgrph s sh brdd hr hr n gldn pntrly lght. Brn
Mrrs nd crw frm th Crcl Rnch hd jst cm n frm rnscrd
cttl drv w hn md prtrt n Prds Vlly br.
STPHN STHL, MNTN, 2005

Th lk n 14-yr-ld Stphn Sthl’s fc drng bsbll gm
t Srprs Crk hs lwys ntrgd m. Wht ws n hr mnd? tk
th pctr fw yrs ftr n f hr sstrs rn wy frm th clny
bcs sh “w ntd t b dffrnt.”
PHT: LS LMR
Ws Skls prprs fr
flm sht n th Bhms.
N MMRM
Ws C. Skls Lngtm Ntnl Ggrphc
cntrbtr Ws Skls pssd wy n Jly 21 w hl
dvng ff th Flrd cst. H w s 52. hsbnd,
fthr, nd nsprtn t mny, Skls ws n
ccmplshd ndrw tr xplrr, phtgrphr,
nd flmmkr. Brn n Jcksnvll, Flrd, Skls
hd mppd 200 mls f pssgs n ndrgrnd
sprngs by yng dlthd. H skppd cllg
t prs hs pssn fr th ndrwtr nvrs
nd hs drm f prtctng t. “Ws hd ddctn,
drv, nd bysh nthssm,” sys Ggrphc
Snr Pht dtr Sd Qrrr. ssgnmnts
tk hm frm ntrctc t Mxc nd—mst
rcntly—t th Crbbn, w hr h phtgrphd
“Bhms Bl Hls,” r gst cvr stry.
“Fltng vr nrly bttmlss vds rss th
hrs n yr nck mr thn th tght plcs,” h
bsrvd. Skls’s lv fr hs wrk ws nrlntng,
rmmbrs frnd nd cllg Jll Hnrth: “Ws
chsd hs mgntn rnd th wrld.”
NS D G G R P H C
NS D G G R P H C
GLB L CT N TLS
Th nw Ntnl Ggrphc Glbl ctn tls
wbst ftrs hndrds f cs-rltd prjcts
rnd th w rld—nd wys t gt nvlvd. Ths
ffrts, ncldng svrl spcfclly fcsd n th
Glf l spll, r ll w rkng twrd gls f rdcng
hmn sffrng nd prsrvng wldlf nd csystms.
G t ctntls.rg/lspll t xplr, spprt,
vlntr, nd dnt.
NT G CHNNL
Ths Nv mbr th Ntnl Ggrphc Chnnl
prdly dbts Grt Mgrtns, n nprcdntd,
svn-prt, glbl prgrmmng vnt.
NG BKS
Wth ts stnnng mrn lf phtgrphy, nggng
txt, nd fn trv, Ctzns f th S w ll ntc
rdrs f ll gs. Fnd t n strs Sptmbr 14 ($26).
Scty pdts
PHT: WD WRLD PHTS/NTNL GGRPHC STCK

FL S H B C K
Bng “Sm kngrs cn cvr 30
ft n sngl bnd, nd my tstrp
hrs fr shrt dstnc,” nts th
cptn t ths pht n th Dc mbr
1936 Ggrphc stry “Bynd strl’s
Cts.” Whl drvng crss shp
sttn, wrtr W. Rbrt Mr fnd
hmslf n rc: “Prpllng thmslvs
wth nly thr pwrfl hnd lgs, w th
thr tny ndvlpd frnt lgs hld
hgh, thr rnnng sms ncnny. Bt
s r spdmtr tchd 45 mls
n hr, n ld kngr kpt pc
bsd th cr.” —Mrgrt G. Zckwtz
CRSS
1 Wllnss rsrt
4 Flt dw llr
10 Gy sbjct, nkd
nd clthd
14 Pnm, .g.
15 Cmdn Yrds bllplyr
16 Trck shp
17 Bfr nw
18 Physcn-srcd
ntrtnl spplmnt?
20 Lk s m fsh ppltns
22 Wth nfrmty
23 Rghts Bb Rcrds
crtr DFrnc
24 Frnch Plyns cmpnnts
25 t’s mng cnnbl’s fmly
rcps, ltrlly?
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
20
28
31 32
21 22
23 23 24
37
22
33 34
25 26 27 28 29 30
36
41 42 43
47 44 50 45
55 57
14 15
9
16
17 18 19
1234
35
39 40
36
38
54
57 58
61
62
60 65
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
48 49 51
56
59
62
G P ZZL
190 NTNL GGRPHC CTBR 2010 L
7 Btryd scrt
8 Cllgn n th Whffnpfs
9 Mrrymkrs
10 T grtr xtnt
11 Th Brd’s rvr
12 Bg hs
13 n n yr sd
19 ch’s prtnr
21 Sm hv gttrs
24 Th Mssd’s cntry
25 Lttng g
26 f frrm bn
27 Bw ld vr
28 Flvrfl
29 Fnd t
30 ccl sts, ftn
31 Cmrn’s cnt.
34 Wrd w th snppr r hrrng
36 Dnglng clng-fn prt
37 Lvthn
39 Wntry w thr w
40 Stckpls
42 Lm
43 Brtn’s Bckt c-str
46 Fr th hck __
47 Ms cnt
48 Brry f th blckthrn
49 Bttm bt f th sfd chn
50 Pks, .g.
51 Bck mscls, brfly
52 Frry Jd frnd
53 Trctr-trlr cmb
55 Slngy ndng fr tw r g
31 Shfts btw n whls
32 Gt htchd
33 Rng brr?
35 Bss prts
36 Hmngwy nd Hydn,
ncknmw s
37 Cntrbtd
38 Gntc mssngr
39 Wng f bk nd flm ttls
40 Rn n TV
41 Wlly’s Dth f Slsmn
kn gvn th thrd dgr?
44 Cnst bjctv
45 Svng Fsh Frm Drwnng
thr my
46 Hw frlncrs my w rk
49 Ptr nd Pl, bt nt Mry
54 Stk shrd by cpl w th
th sm s mmr sgn?
56 Bw l vr
57 Prvy t
58 ntrtn bndntly
59 Ml tht mw s
60 __ ff (ffndd)
61 Ml mllrds
62 mlt Bd nd Lndsy
DWN
1 ts r r dlccy
2 Smmns w th bpr
3 Strddlng
4 Gphrs’ grp
5 Lk th Km Str
6 “Wll plyd!”
D NG
N XTM NTH
Nv mbr 2010
Grt Mgrtns
Brds, bttrfls, nd bsts cvr thsnds f mls.
Lst Hrds
Thy srvvd Sdn’s cvl wr yt stll nd prtctn.
Sthrn Sdn
Th scrs nd hps f by nmd Lgch mrrr hs lnd.
Jpn’s Ss
Th w trs hst rctc crbs, tmprt sqd, trpcl shrks.
nbryng th ztc
Dg ncvrs gls, fr-wrppd knvs, bt n mprr’s tmb.
Bsn rm Sth Dkt pln. PHT: JL SRTR
192 L D N G
9
Mdrn s
ncyclpd f
9
Mdrn s
ncyclpd f
Vlm 1
bcs t Chn
Brkshr Rfrnc Wrk
Dvd Lvnsn • Krn Chrstnsn, dtrs
Vrgn ksn
Mc Mstr nvrsty
dwrd Bchmp
nvrsty f Hw , Hnll
nthny Bchl
Cntrl Mchgn nvrsty
Rbcc Bchl
Pnnsylvn Stt nvrsty
Lnsn Chng
nvrsty f Msschstts, Drtmth
Grld Fry
nvrsty f Mnnst
Brc Fltn
nvrsty f Brtsh Clmb
Pl Hckngs
nvrsty f llns, Chcg
Rbrt LPrt, Jr.
Pnnsylvn Stt nvrsty
ssct dtrs
Lnd rthr
nvrsty f Hw , Mn
Jml ls
mhrst Cllg
lln Gttmnn
mhrst Cllg
Js Hrnndz d Ln
Lrntn nvrsty
Gstf Htmn
Ryl nthrplgcl nsttt, Lndn, .K.
Brc Lckhrt
Sngpr Ntnl nvrsty
Ptt Mshr
Smblpr nvrsty
nthny Smth
nsttt f Sthst sn Stds, Hnll
9dtrl
Brd
ncyclpd f Mdrn s
Dvd Lvnsn nd Krn Chrstnsn, dtrs
Cpyrght © 2002 Brkshr Pblshng Grp
Chrls Scrbnr’s Sns
n mprnt f Th Gl Grp
300 Prk vn Sth
Nw Yrk, NY 10010
Gl nd Dsgn™ nd Thmsn
Lrnng™ r trdmrk s sd hrn
ndr lcns.
Fr mr nfrmtn, cntct
Th Gl Grp, nc.
27500 Drk Rd.
Fr mngtn Hlls, M 48331–3535
r y cn vst r ntrnt st t
http://www.gl.cm
LL RGHTS RSRV D
N prt f ths bk my b rprntd r
rprdcd r tlzd n ny frm r by
ny lctrnc, mchncl, r thr mns,
nw knw n r hrftr nvntd ncldng
phtcpyng nd rcrdng, r n ny nfrmtn
strg r rtrvl systm, w tht
prmssn n w rtng frm Brkshr
Pblshng Grp.
Th ppr sd n ths pblctn mts
th rqrmnts f NS/NS Z39.48-1992
(Pr mnnc f Ppr).
Fr prmssn t s mtr l frm ths
prdct, sbmt yr rqst v Wb t
http://www.gl-dt.cm/pr mssns, r
y my dw nld r Pr mssns Rqst
frm nd sbmt yr rqst by fx r
ml t:
Prmssns Dprtmnt
Th Gl Grp, nc.
27500 Drk Rd.
Fr mngtn Hlls, M 48331-3535
Pr mssns Htln:
248-699-8006 r 800-877-4253, xt. 8006
Snc ths pg cnnt lgbly ccmmdt
ll cpyrght ntcs, th cknw ldgmnts
cnsttt n xtnsn f th
cpyrght ntc.
LBRRY F CNGRSS CTLGNG- N-PBLCTN DT
Lvnsn, Dvd, 1947-
ncyclpd f mdrn s : / Dvd Lvnsn, Krn Chrstnsn,
p. cm.
nclds bblgrphcl rfrncs nd ndx.
SBN 0-684-80617-7 (st hrdcvr : lk. ppr)
1. s—ncyclpds. . Chrstnsn, Krn, 1957- . Ttl.
DS4 .L48 2002
950'.03—dc21
2002008712
Prntd n ntd Stts f mrc
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Brkshr Pblshng Grp
Prjct Drctrs
Dvd Lvnsn nd Krn Chrstnsn
Prjct dtr
Jnh Km
Snr dtr
Frncsc Frrst
ssct dtr
Mrcy Rss
Cpy dtrs
Ptr Dnvn, Shrn mmns, nn Frks, dm Grff,
Sznn Gd, lzbth Hysltt, Jn Kpln, Gry Ksslr,
Mchl Lrq, Lr Lw r, Hp Lmn, Stphn Lynch,
L Mlly, Mk Nchls, Glnn Pr kns, Wllm Rdr mr,
Stphn Snbrn, Mr k Smns
nfrmtn Mngmnt nd Prgrmmng
Dbrh Dlln
Chrls Scrbnr’s Sns
Prjct dtr
Srh Fhn
Dsgnr
Jnnfr Wh
Prfrdrs nd dtrs
Tny Cltr, Mry Flw r, Dvd Hll,
rch Hbsn, ndrw Lbby, Kthrn Mr,
Lr Ptchkfsky, Jsph Pmrnc, Lnd Sndrs
Snr dtr
Jhn Ftzptrck
Pblshr
Frnk Mnchc
dt9rl nd
Prdctn Stff
Vlm 1
Lst f Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Prfc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
cknw ldgmnts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Srvy f s’s Rgns nd Ntns . . . . . . xxv
Rgnl Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxx
Rdr’s Gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxx
bcs t Chn
Vlm 2
Lst f Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Srvy f s’s Rgns nd Ntns . . . . . . . x
Rgnl Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Rdr’s Gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Chn-nd Rltns t Hyg
Vlm 3
Lst f Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Rgnl Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Rdr’s Gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
d t Mly-ndnsn Lngg
Vlm 4
Lst f Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Rgnl Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Rdr’s Gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Mlys t Prtgs n Sthst s
Vlm 5
Lst f Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Rgnl Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Rdr’s Gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Pssssn t Trky
Vlm 6
Lst f Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Rgnl Mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Rdr’s Gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Trkc Lnggs t Z Zngtng
Drctry f Cntrbtrs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
ndx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
NCYCLPD F MDRN S v
Cn9tnts
Frnt Mttr f ll Vlms
Cntrl s
Chn nd st s
Sth s
Sthst s—nslr
Sthst s—Mnlnd
Wst nd Sthwst s
Vlm 1
fghnstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
lty Mntns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
m Dr’y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
ndmn nd Ncbr slnds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
rl S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
rmn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
zrbjn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Bngldsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
By f Bngl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Bhtn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
Brn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
Brhmptr Rvr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Brn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
Cmbd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
Ccss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
Chng Rvr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
Chn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
Vlm 2
st Tmr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
phrts nd Tgrs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
Frgn Vlly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Gngs Rvr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
Gb Dsrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
Grt Wll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
Glf f Thlnd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Hmlys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513
Hng Kng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
Hng Rvr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
Vlm 3
nd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
ndns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
nds Rvr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
rn Jy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
rrwddy Rvr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Jmm nd Kshmr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Jpn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
Jv nd Bl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Klmntn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Krkrm Hghwy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Kr-Km Cnl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Kr-Km Dsrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
Kzkhstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Kllng Flds—Cmbd (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
Kyrgyzstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
Ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
Lzn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Mc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
Vlm 4
Mlys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Mldvs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Mrts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Mkng Rvr nd Dlt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Mndn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Mngl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Mynmr (Brm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Npl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
Nrth Kr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Pkstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
NCYCLPD F MDRN S x
Lst f 9Mps
x NCY CLPD F MDRN S
Pmr Rng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
Prsn Glf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
Phlppns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
Vlm 5
Rd Rvr nd Dlt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Rénn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Srw k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Sbr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Slk Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Sngpr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
Sth Kr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Sprtly slnds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
Sr Lnk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Strt f Mlcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
Smtr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Syr Dr’y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Tw n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Tjkstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
Tklmkn Dsrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Thlnd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
Tn Shn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
Tbt (Xzng) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
Tnl Sp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513
Trky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
Vlm 6
Trkmnstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
zbkstn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Vtnm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
LST F MPS
T h ncyclpd f Mdrn s s n nprcdntd ffrt t glbl ndrstndng.
Wth rdrshp f stdnts nd nnspclsts n mnd, tm f mr thn
ght hndrd schlrs nd thr xprts frm rnd th w rld hs cmpld ths
sx-vlm, 2.2- mlln-wrd pblctn. n t, w xplr cnmcs, rlgn, tchnlgy,
pltcs, dctn, th fmly, th rts, nvrnmntl sss, ntrntnl
rltns, scntfc dvncs, nd thr vtl spcts f th sn xprnc tht w ll
shp th tw nty-frst cntry. Th ncyclpd xplns th rltnshp f s t
th rst f th wrld thrgh ts xtnsv cvrg f th hstrcl xchng f ds
nd nvntns. Mst mprtnt, t prvds vrty f prspctvs n sss nd
vnts, nd ncmpsss th pst nd th prsnt f s n n thrttv nd flly
crss-dscplnry wrk.
T prvd th cmprhnsv vw ndd by stdnts nd schlrs n r glbl
g, th ncyclpd tks th brd nd dynmc vw f sn hstry nd cltr
tht ds nt mk fls ssmptns bt sn nty r nfrmty, bt llw s s
t lk fr cntnty nd dvrsty, chng nd vrtn, crss nd bynd ths vst
trrtry.
Th ncyclpd cntns vr 2,600 ntrs, whch rng frm 200 t 4,000
wrds. Th txt s spplmntd by 1,300 llstrtns, tbls, nd sdbrs f mnly
prmry-src mtrls; 90 mps; tpcl nd rgnl tlns; nd n xtnsv ndx.
rtcls hv bn wrttn by xprts frm mr thn dzn schlrly dscplns,
frm flds ncldng bnkng, cnmc dvlpmnt, lw , nd hmn rghts,
nd frm mr thn sxty ntns.
r gl w hn w bgn ths prjct w th Chrls Scrbnr’s Sns n 1998 ws t
mk th ncyclpd f Mdrn s th stndrd rfrnc wrk n s. Mch hs
hppnd n s snc thn—th sn cnmc crss f 1997–1998 (th ffcts f
whch rmn), th Sptmbr 11th trrrst ttck n th ntd Stts n 2001 nd
sbsqnt nvsn f fghnstn nd wr n trrrsm, nd ncrsd fghtng n
th Mddl st—t nm jst fw.
ftr Sptmbr 11, 2001, ppl w r fscntd by th fct tht thr yrs rlr
w cm p w th th d fr ths prjct, cmplt w th cvrg f th Cntrl
sn rpblcs, th Tlbn, nd mny rtcls n slm. "Wr y smrt r lcky?"
smn skd. r smll pblshng c mpny’s mssn s t fcs n th "glbl
NCYCLPD F MDRN S x
9Prfc
x NCY CLPD F MDRN S
xprnc nd cntmprry sss." r frst pblctn ftr Sptmbr 11 ws
th ncyclpd f Fndmntlsm, fllw d by th ncyclpd f Crm nd Pnshmnt,
nd nw th ncyclpd f Mdrn s.
Fr yrs g w hd n d tht trrbl, drmtc vnts w ld hv mrcns
rvtd by nfrmtn n th rlgn nd cltr f slm, r tht bkstrs
wld b sllng fghnstn mps by thr csh rgstrs. W dd knw tht s ws
mprtnt nd nt w ll ndrstd. W fnd ts dvrsty nd cmplxty bsrbng.
t’s bn thrllng t w rk w th s schlrs ll vr th wrld, vn thgh
w’v dlt w th thrts tht -ml srvc n Trkmnstn w ld b stppd by th
gvrnmnt, cntrbtrs’ w rrs bt pltcl rprcssns, nd vrty f lngstc
nd cltrl brrrs.
s nw pltcl nd cnmc cnflcts—nd pprtnts—dvlp wrldwd,
nd ntrntnl trd brrrs cm dw n, nd s thr s n ncrsng mgrtn
nd xchng f ppl nd ds, th ncyclpd f Mdrn s wll b vtl src
f rlbl nd ccssbl nfrmtn n th vnts, ds, nd sss tht r shpng
r ftr. Th rdrshp w hv n mnd s nt jst schlrs nd stdnts bt
ls jrnlsts, bsnssppl, gvrnmntl ffcls, nd trsts.
r ssntl prps hs bn, snc th frst tm w dscssd ths mbts
nd smtms nrly vrw hlmng prjct, t prvd rdrs wth nfrmtn nd
knw ldg bt mdrn s frm n sn prspctv. Ths mmdtly rss
svrl qstns bt w ht rdrs wll fnd n th ncyclpd f Mdrn s. Wht
s nfrmtn? Wht s knw ldg? Wht s s? Wht s mdrn s? Wht s n
sn prspctv?
Wht r nfrmtn nd Knwldg?
n th g f rpd nfrmtn vlblty v th ntrnt, ndrstndng nd pprctng
th dstnctn btw n nfrmtn nd knw ldg s crcl t mkng
r wy n th glbl cmmnty. nfrmtn nd knw ldg r bth vlbl, bt
thy r nt th sm thng, nd n th nd nly knw ldg w ll nbl th ctzns
f th twnty-frst cntry t wrk tgthr t crt bttr wrld.
By nfrmtn w mn fcts—dts, plcs, ppl, vnts, sttstcs—bt w h,
wht, whr, nd whn. n th ncyclpd y wll fnd tns f thsnds f fcts,
s r gl s lw ys t prvd nfrmtn bt th w h, wht, w hr, nd w hn
f mdrn s. Sm f ths fcts stnd ln, thrs pnt brd pctr whn
cmbnd w th thr fcts, nd stll thrs prvd cntxt fr dpr nlyss nd
dscssn.
By knw ldg w mn nfrmtn tht hs bn rgnzd, cmbnd, stdd,
nlyzd, nd synthszd t nswr qstns bt hw nd why. Hr, y w ll
fnd mch knw ldg, prmrly n th frm f rtcls by hndrds f ntrntnl
xprts. Ths rtcls prvd cmprhnsv, p-t-dt, nd thrttv dscssns
f th ky lmnts f th hstry nd cltr f mdrn s.
Wht s s?
By s w mn th thrty-thr ntns tht cmprs th sbrgns f st
s, Sthst s, Sth s, Cntrl s, nd Wst-Sthwst s. Ggrphclly,
ths ntns rng frm Jpn n th st t Trky n th w st nd frm Kzkhstn
n th nrth t ndns n th sth. Tmprlly, s nclds ntns nd
cvlztns tht r svrl thsnd yrs ld, sch s Chn, Jpn, nd rn (ncnt
Prs); ntns tht cm nt bng s ntn-stts nly n th tw ntth cntry,
sch s Trky nd Sngpr, nd n ntn—st Tmr—tht s brnd nw .
PRFC
NCYCLPD F MDRN S x
Th s f th lbl s n ths w rk s nt mnt t mply tht thr s n s
nr t msk th sgnfcnt vrtns tht xst bth crss th rgn nd btwn
nd vn w thn ntns. n fct, qt th ppst s th cs. Th ncyclpd mphszs
dvrsty, wth ttntn gvn t ch rgn nd ch ntn.
n cnnt xggrt jst hw dvrs s s n lngg, rlgn, cnmy,
frm f gvrnmnt, hstry, nd cltr. t s mr dvrs nd hs lss pltcl nd
cnmc nty thn ny thr rgn n th w rld tdy. Thr s n sngl hstrcl
r mdrn ftr tht dfns r nts ll f s.
n s, thr s n rlgn lk Chrstnty, w hch hs lng prvdd nty crss
rp nd th Nw Wrld. slm s th mst w dsprd rlgn n th rgn, bt
s mnrty rlgn n svrl lrg ntns sch s Jpn, nd, Chn, nd th
Phlppns, nd th mjrty f ppl n s r nt Mslms. Bddhs m s th mjr
rlgn n st nd mnlnd Sthst s bt s n lngr prmnnt n Cntrl
s nd nvr ws n Wst s. Wstrn clnlsm ls dd nt prdc
rgnl nty s t hs n prts f frc. s ws nvr clnzd by n ntn, lthgh
Brtsh nflnc ws th brdst nd n plcs th dpst. Chn hs hd
mch nflnc n st nd nrthrn Sthst s, bt lttl n Cntrl nd Wst
s. sn clnztn by th Mngls mvng sth nd w st, Hnd ndns mvng
st, nd th Chns mvng sth nd st hs hd sbrgnl rthr thn rgnl
nflnc.
vry frm f gvrnmnt hs bn fnd, nd mny stll cn b fnd, crss
s—thcrcs, mnrchs, cnstttnl mnrchs, stbl dmcrcs, mrgng
dmcrcs, cmmnst stts, nd mltry dcttrshps. lthgh sn ntns
r mmbrs f th ntd Ntns, thr s n pn-rgnl bdy tht s th
qvlnt f NT, th rpn nn, th rgnztn f mrcn Stts, r
th rgnztn f frcn nty. n fct, t s sbrgnl ssctns lk NT
fr Trky, SN fr Sthst sn ntns, nd CS fr Cntrl sn ntns
whch r spclly mprtnt tdy.
Th cnmy s ls dvrs, ftn wthn ntns nd crss th rgn. n mch
f sthrn s nd th st, wt-rc grcltr nd vllg nd fmly lf bsd
n t hv bn pw rfl nfyng frc. Bt lswhr, n rrl rs, w fnd thr
prmry sbsstnc mthds ncldng nmdc pstrlsm, th frmng f w ht
nd brly, hrtcltr, hntng, nd fshng. n mdrn tms, sn ntns hv
xprncd vry dffrnt pttrns f cnmc dvlpmnt, w th sm rlyng n
sngl rsrc, sch s l, ntrl gs, r tmbr. thrs rly n ndstrlzd
frmng, w hl stll thrs rply n mnfctrng nd thrs n srvc-bsd cnmy.
s hss th prst ntn n th w rld (fghnstn), th scnd-ldng
cnmy (Jpn), nd th fstst-grwng cnmy (Chn). Wthn ntns, thr s
mch dffrnc n w lth btwn rrl nd rbn rs nd ls n mny ntns
wth n mrgng nd ncrsngly nflntl mddl clss.
Cltr lly nd lngstclly, th rgn s gn th mst cmplx n th w rld.
s th dzns f rtcls n lnggs shw , thr r thsnds f lnggs spkn
crss s nd wthn svrl ntns (fr xmpl, nd, Chn, ndns) ppl
spk mny dffrnt lnggs. s s ls hm t t lst thsnd dffrnt
cltrl grps, sm f w hm hv nvr bn stdd clsly. nd nd ndns
hv svrl hndrd ch, Chn hs t lst ffty-fv, nd vn thnclly hmgns
ntns sch s Jpn nd rn hv vsbl thnc mnrts.
Th ntns f s ls vry n th mnt f frdm f xprssn thy ffrd
thr ctzns. Sm ntns—rn, rq, Chn, Vtnm—r cnsdrd t b qt
rstrctv n ths rgrd. Ths hd mprtnt mplctns, s t lmtd th nmbr
f xprts frm ths ntns w h wld gr t wrt fr th prjct. Svrl
PRFC
xv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
thrs md t clr tht thr cntrbtns wr fr schlrly prpss nly, nd
n skd tht hs rtcl b pblshd w tht ttrbtn.
Prhps th n fctr cmmn t ll f s n 2002 s cntct wth th Wst
nd rctns t Wstrnztn. Th dffrnt rgns f s fl th ffcts f Wstrnztn
dffrntly nd rspnd t t dffrntly, bt t s n ss ll f s fcs.
nd, t sgnfcnt dgr, hw t s dlt w th wll hv mch t d w th th ntr
f s n th twnty-frst cntry.
t mst b ntd tht thr r svrl ntns nd rgns nt cvrd hr n dtl
tht sm xprts mght clssfy s blngng n s: th Ccss r Ccs,
Sbr, nd strl. Ccs nd Sbr r cvrd n svrl rtcls, bt nt n
th sm dtl s thr rgns, mnly bcs mst xprts gr tht frm cltrl
nd pltcl prspctv thy r bttr clssfd s bng n rp. strl,
t, thgh t nw hs cls ts t svrl sn ntns nd grw ng sn ppltn,
s pltclly, lngstclly, nd cltrlly rpn. Ths, t s nt cvrd
n dtl lthgh ts rltns w th sn ntns r wll cvrd. ls nt cvrd
n dtl r svrl Wst sn ntns—Lbnn, Syr, Jrdn, srl nd th ntns
f th rbn pnnsl—w hch r ggrphclly prt f s. Thy r nt
cvrd n dtl fr bth cncptl nd prctcl rsns. Cncptlly, thy frm
mch f sprt rgn knw n s th Mddl st, rgn dfnd by rb cltr
nd slm. Th thr ntns f th Mddl st cvrd hr—Trky, rn,
nd rq—r prt f wht sd t b clld th Nr st nd n svrl wys r
td t s t th st. nd frm prctcl stndpnt, w rlzd rly n tht sx
vlms s stll vry lttl spc t cvr ll f s nd s w rstrctd brdth f
cvrg s s nt t cmprms dpth f cvrg.
n fctr n chsng nt t ncld th thr Mddl strn ntns ws th
pnt md by xprt dvsrs tht w w ld ls hv t cvr Nrth frc, w hch
s cltrlly nd pltclly prt f th Mddl st. scnd cnsdrtn ws th
vlblty f rfrnc mtrl n ths ntns. n 1996 Mc mlln pblshd ts
fr-vlm ncyclpd f th Mdrn Mddl st, w hch prvds xcllnt cvrg
f ths ntns.
Bcs w tk dynmc, ntrntnl rltns prspctv, th ncyclpd
ls cvrs mny ntns tsd s. Fr xmpl, th mny rtcls bt rltns
btw n sn ntns nd th ntd Stts nd bt sn ntns nd rp r
rpn ntns, tll s mch bt th ntd Stts nd rp tdy. Smlrly,
th mny rtcls n cnmcs nd cmmrc mphsz bth th ntrntnl nd
rgnl dmnsns, sgnfcnt cnsdrtn n ths tm f rpd glblztn.
Wht s Mdrn s?
Nw tht w hv dfnd s, wht d w mn by mdrn s? Nt srprsngly,
thr s n sngl dt tht mrks th trnstn t mdrn—f sch dt ctlly
xsts t ll—tht ppls t ll ntns. rly n n th pr jct, th yr 1850
ws sggstd by hstrns s rsnbl dt, bt w d nt pply t systmtclly
crss s. Frm tmprl pnt f vw , w hv fcsd n s n th
tw ntth cntry nd n ths rlr vnts tht hv cntnng mpct tdy. Bcs
sn ntns hv rch nd dp hstrs nd mch cltrl cntnty vr
tm, mny rtcls cvr ppl, plcs, vnts, dvlpmnts, trnds, nd ds f
th pst.
r cncptlztn f mdrn s s dynmc nd ntrctnl nd strsss
ths pnts n rcnt sn hstry whn sn ntns bcm mr pn t
cntct wth thr ntns bth n th rgn nd bynd. Ths, f crs, vrs
wdly frm ntn t ntn, nd n fct sm ntns, sch s rn nd fghn-
PRFC
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xv
stn, hv n rcnt tms mvd t rstrct cntct w th th tsd wrld. Nnthlss,
ths mphss n ntrctns nd rltnshps s n mprtnt dfnng ftr
f r mnng f "mdrn" nd ls dfnng nd nq fcs f ths wrk. t
s th rsn tht thr r vr n hndrd rtcls n rltnshps btwn
ntns (sch s Chn—nd Rltns nd Jpn—ntd Stts Rltns),
dzns f rtcls n trd, rtcls n nvrnmntl sss crss th cntnnt, srvys
f hmn rghts, nd rtcls n th md, trs m, nd sn c mmnts tsd
s.
Cncptlly, ths ncyclpd tks mdrn wrld systms vw f s, wth
sn ntns nd th nstttns n thm sn s ncrsngly sgnfcnt prtcpnts
n rgnl nd ntrntnl cnmc, pltcl, nd cltrl ntw rks. Ths pprch
llws s t xtnsvly cvr tpcs gnrd r gvn lss ttntn n rlr
rfrnc wrks n s: cntmprry pltcl nd bsnss dynsts, ntrntnl
bsnss ntwrks, cnmc dvlpmnt, th chngng rls f w mn, hmn
rghts, mgrtn, rgnl nd sbrgnl llncs, nd thnc rltns.
Wht s n sn Prspctv?
Whn w frst bgn dscssng ths prjct wth schlrs, svrl tld s tht thy
wr cncrnd tht thr w rks tk Wstrn prspctv nd thy w ntd ths
wrk t b dffrnt—t dscrb nd xpln s s sns s nd xprnc t.
W knw tht ths ws wht w wntd t d: prvd frsh vw f vtl prt f
th w rld, vw tht w ld nbl stdnts t trvl, ntllctlly nd mgntvly,
t th hrt f s.
r dtrmntn t prvd n sn prspctv—n ddtn t xplnng th
Wstrn prspctv—nflncd th prjct’s dvlpmnt n prctcl lvl. Frst,
w ncldd mny rtcls n tpcs tht d nt trnslt ntly nt nglsh. Ths s
why thr r svrl dzn rtcls wth sn trms s thr ttls, sch s chbl,
jch, bdy, nd kyk mm.
Scnd, t mnt tht w hd t cvr th dvrsty f s. W dd ths n svrl
wys, by, fr xmpl, ncldng sprt rtcls n th sm phnmnn n dffrnt
plcs r frms. Th dzns f rtcls n slm, Bddhs m, nd Chrstnty
crss s rflct ths dvrsty. W ls ncldd gnrl srvy rtcls n svrl
tpcs—hstry, pltcs, cnmy, hmn rghts, w mn, mrrg nd fmly, dctn—
fr ch ntn r sbrgn. Ths rtcls hghlght bth smlrts nd
dffrncs nd mk crss-ntn nd -rgn cmprsns sy nd qck. By ncldng
hndrds f rtcls n spcfc tpcs sch s ppptry, sm, hk, nd
btk, w r bl t hghlght nq cltrl, pltcl, nd cnmc ftrs f ll
th ntns. Fnlly, w nsrd dvrsty by rcrtng n ntrntnl tm f dtrs
nd thrs—nrly nn hndrd n ll frm mr thn sxty ntns.
ll f th bv dcsns wr "fld-tstd" n prl 2001 by w tw dtrs nd
r tw chldrn, gd tw lv nd fftn, n mnth-lng trp t Jpn, Chn, nd
Kzkhstn. Thrgh cntcts md drng th prjct, w knw ppl n ll thr
ntns nd thrgh thr hsptlty w wr bl t smpl lf n ths ntns n
w y nt pssbl fr mny trvlrs.
r trp bgn drng th w k n 2001 w hn th ntd Stts nd Chn wr
crmnsly ngttng vr grndd .S. spy pln nd ts tw nty-frmmbr
crw. t ws sn ftr th snkng f th hm Mr, Jpns fshng
bt, by .S. nclr sbmrn. s w drv t th rprt, t ccrrd t s tht
th dstntn w wr n bst trms wth ws Kzkhstn.
n Bjng w hd mtngs w th cntrbtrs t th ncyclpd, xctvs t n
ntrnt cmpny, nd n dtr t th Ppl’s Dly, whch s bsd n grnds
PRFC
xv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
grdd by sldrs. W spk t th Rtry Clb n lmty, Kzkhstn. r fnl
fw dys wr spnt n Kyt, Jpn, n th trnql sttng f mhrst Hs, n
th Dshsh nvrsty cmps. " mght w nt t b n xpt," sd r dghtr
Rchl rflctvly.
W mngd w tht tr gds nd wr th nly wstrnrs n mst f r
flghts (sm f whch wr dlyd—w wr gld w brght spr stcs
f pprbck bks). W stll tlk bt th dy w gt tx t tk s t Hvn
Lk, n th mntns nrth f rmq n th fr wst f Chn. Ngttn w th
th drvr cntrd rnd tny mp n my gdbk nd my mmry f th
Chns nm fr th mntns. H nd th htl dr mn s md t knw whr
w wntd t g, bt s w lft th drmn w vd nd sd pltly, “Hpng t s
y gn sm dy.”
n Chn nd Jpn w smpld th trdtnl nd th mdrn, lthgh th mdrn
ws fr mr bqts n Jpn. Th mx f ld nd nw s prhps mst strkng
n Bjng w hr brd shppng strts lnd w th mdrn dprtmnt strs nd
shps r jst rnd th crnr frm trdtnl crtyrds (htng) frntd by tny
fd stlls wth drt flrs. t s ls pprnt n cmprng rrl nd rbn lf nd
lf n th rpdly dvlpng Bjng rgn nd n th lss-dvlpd Xnjng
prvnc n th fr wst. n Kyt, Jpn, th ld nd nw s mr ntly strctrd
wth stl nd glss ffc cmplxs stndng lngsd ncnt Shnt shrns nd
Bddhst tmpls. n Kzkhstn w wtnssd th sss nvlvd n mkng th trnstn
frm stt t prvt cnmy w th drmtc nqlts f wlth, dtrrtng
pblc srvcs, nd grb-t-whl-y-cn tttd. W ls lrnd f th
wrk f Wstrn mdcl mssnrs tryng t fll hlth cr gp s wd tht th
rrl pr ftn d frm srs, bt trtbl, llnsss.
n ll thr ntns w wr cntnlly wr f th Wstrn nd spclly, th
mrcn, prsnc, nd ftn hd t cnscsly ct s s t vd t. n lmty,
Kzkhstn, thr s th TxsKzkh Bnk, n "tbck" stkhs, nd thr lxrs
nd brnd nw htls srvng th ntrntnl bsnss cmmnty. n Bjng,
mjr strt sgns r n nglsh nd Chns nd thrght th ntn mch
s dn t mk trvl sy fr trsts. n Chn w tlkd w th svrl yng mn
wh spk bt f nglsh nd wr gr t lrn mr. n f ths yng mn
gdd n nglsh cpl nd s thrgh th ntrccs f chngng mny t bnk
n rtrn fr th pprtnty t spk nglsh fr n hr. nd n Kyt, t ws hrd
nt t fl tht n w s n smllr, ntr, mr plt ntd Stts.
By tlkng t ppl n ll thr ntns w ls lrnd th dp mstrst tht prvds
mch f frgn rltns n s. Sm Jpns sm t vw th Chns s
bckw rd nd ncltrd, nd ls s thrt t Jpns cnmc dmnnc n
st s. Th Chns hv yt t frgt thr trtmnt t th hnds f th Jpns
bfr nd drng Wrld Wr . nd, th Kzkhs wrry t ny mmnt th
Chns w ll nvd t btn Kzkhstn’s mnrl rchs.
t th sm tm, thr r frndly xchngs mng th ntns. W sw mny
Jpns trsts n Chn nd Chns stdnts n Jpn. nd th plns frm
rmq, Chn, t lmty, Kzkhstn, w r flld w th Rssn Kzkhs n shppng
trps t Chn, w hr gds r mch chpr.
Th cntrdctns nd cmplxts w xprncd gv s nw nthssm
fr th cvrg w wr prvdng n th ncyclpd f Mdrn s nd
frsh pprctn fr th chllngs fcd by schlrs tryng t xpln n clr, ccssbl
nglsh th shr vrty, vltlty, nd vtlty f th s f th twnty-frst
cntry.
PRFC
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xv
Cntnt nd Typs f rtcls
Th ncyclpd f Mdrn s prvds cvrg f th fllw ng gnrl tpcs:
rts, Ltrtr, nd Rcrtn
Clthng
Csn
cnmcs, Cmmrc, nd Trnsprttn
dctn
thncty
Ggrphy nd th Ntrl Wrld
Gvrnmnt, Pltcs, nd Lw
Hstry nd Prfl
Hmn Rghts
ntrntnl Rltns
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
Mrrg nd Fmly
Md
Ppl, Cltrs, nd Scty
Prvncs nd Cts
Rgnl nd ntrntnl Rltns
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
Scnc, Tchnlgy, nd Hlth
Sgnfcnt Ppl
Fr ll f ths tpcs thr r bth lng nd shrt rtcls, rtcls tht fcs n
nq lmnts f sngl ntn r rgn, nd gnrl rtcls tht llw cmprsns
crss ntns nd rgns. Thr r ls svrl dzn pn-s rtcls, sch
s ths n nvrnmntl sss, n rgnztns (ntd Ntns, MF) w hs ctns
ffct ll f s, n vnts tht mpctd th ntr cntnnt (sch s Wrld
Wr ), n rltns btw n s nd thr prts f th wrld, nd n pn-sn
trnds cncrnng sss sch s frtlty nd DS. n rdr t fcltt bth ndrstndng
f ch ntn nd cmprsns crss ntns, w hv ncldd stndrd
lst f rtcls fr ch ntn r ch rgn. Fr ch ntn r ch sbrgn y
wll fnd rtcls n th pltcl systm, cnmc systm, hstry, dctn systm,
hmn rghts, csn, clthng, ltrtr, rts, msc, rlgn, mrrg nd fmly,
ntrntnl rltns, mrrg nd fmly, md, w mn, nd Wstrnztn.
ddtnl Cntnt
Th ncyclpd s nrchd by mps, phts, nd sdbrs, whch prvd nfrmtn
nt ncldd n th rtcls thmslvs.
Th mps r mnt t hlp th rdr lct plcs mntnd n th ntrs.
Thr r gnrl mp f s nd mps f ch rgn n th frnt mttr f ch
vlm. ch ntn—prfl rtcl (sch s Bngldsh—Prfl) nclds pltcl
mp f th ntn shw ng cts, ntrl ftrs, nd prvncs s rqrd. thr
PRFC
xv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
mps shw th lctn f prtclr plcs, sch s mjr rvrs r lks nd ccmpny
th ntrs n ths tpcs.
Th phtgrphs prvd mgs f plcs, ppls, vnts mntnd n th txt,
nd xmpls f mprtnt ftrs f sn lf. Thy r mnt t prvd rdrs
wth nthr frm f nfrmtn bt s nd w r crflly slctd frm th
vst Crbs cllctn nd frm th prvt cllctn f Stphn G. Dnldsn, w h
spnt ghtn mnths phtgrphng s frm 1996 t 1998.
Th sdbrs r n spclly mprtnt prt f th ncyclpd. Th cntnt n
th sdbrs s mnt t spplmnt th rtcls nd prvd rdrs wth ddtnl
rsrcs n s. Th sdbrs r f tn dffrnt typs:
1. xtrcts f txt frm hstrcl dcmnts, sch s grmnts, trts, nd
cnvntns tht prvd rdrs wth prmry src dcmnttn fr sgnfcnt
vnts n th hstry, pltcs, nd ntrntnl rltns f sn ntns.
2. xtrcts f txt frm thngrphy tht prvd rdrs wth frst-hnd
ccnts f dly lf nd th cltrs nd cstms f sn ppls.
3. xtrcts frm th ltrtr, ptry, drm, nd rlgs txts f s tht
llw rdrs t xprnc th brd nd dp ltrry trdtns f s.
4. Rcps fr dshs fr ll mjr sn csns tht nbl rdrs t njy
th rchs nd vrty f sn lf by ckng sn dshs thmslvs.
5. p-t-dt sttstcl prfls f ch ntn tht prvd rdrs wth
snpsht f th ntn nd llw sy cmprsns crss ntns.
6. Th pr mbls t ntnl cnstttns, w hch ccmpny th Ntn—
Pltcl Systm rtcls. Ths llw rdrs t xprnc th phlsphy tht
frms th dlgcl bss fr th ntn.
7. Tmlns tht trc th hstry f ntns nd mjr rs nd hstrcl prds
nd tht llw rdrs t qckly plc vnts n thr hstrcl cntxt.
8. ccnts by rly trvlrs nd sttlrs (mnly rpn) f lf n s
tht prvd rdrs wth nsghts nt hw nd why th rpn r Wstrn mg
f s dvlpd s t dd.
9. Nttns fr th pprxmtly n hndrd plcs dscrbd n th ncyclpd
tht r dsgntd by th ntd Ntns s Wrld Hrtg Sts. Ths
nttns ssst trsts n slctng sts t vst nd n lrnng mr bt thm.
10. Txt wrttn fr th ncyclpd tht hghlghts spclly sgnfcnt r
ntrstng fcts r tht prvds ddtnl nfrmtn.
sng th ncyclpd f Mdrn s
Th ncyclpd s cmplx wrk, nd t hlp rdrs mk mst ffctv s
f t, w hv prvdd svrl sr ds. Prhps mst mprtnt r th c mprhnsv
ndx n Vlm 6 nd th Rdr’s Gd t th frnt f ch vlm. Th
ndx hlps rdrs fnd rtcls n rltd tpcs crss th ncyclpd, w hl th
Rdr’s Gd hlps rdrs fnd rtcls n rltd tpcs fr ch ntn nd rgn.
n ddtn, thr r mr thn n-hndrd blnd ntrs tht drct rdrs
t rlvnt rtcls s wll s crss-rfrncs t th nd f mny rtcls.
W hv ls trd t hlp rdrs n th mnnr n w hch w hv rgnzd th
rtcls. Th bsc rgnztn s t Z frm Vlm 1 thrgh Vlm 6. Wthn
ths strctr w hv trd t grp rltd rtcls tgthr. Fr xmpl, ll bsc
srvy rtcls n ch ntn r fnd ndr th ntn’s nm (fr xmpl, Pkstn—
Prfl, Pkstn—cnmc Systm, Pkstn—Pltcl Systm, nd s
frth). ls ll mjr rtcls n tpc r plcd tgthr (fr xmpl, slm—
Mynmr, slm—Sth s; slm—Sthst s, nd s frth).
PRFC
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xx
Fnlly, w hv cnsdrd th nds f rdrs n th dtrl nd styl dcsns
w md. Mst mprtntly, w hv md cnsdrbl ffrt t stndrdz spllng
f plcs nd nms dspt th cnsdrbl dvrsty f sch spllngs n th ltrtr.
Nnthlss, stndrdztn s nt cmplt s sm cntrbtrs nsstd tht
prtclr spllngs b sd. ls f mch mprtnc w s r dcsn ftr mch dscssn
nd cnslttn w th xprts t nt ncld dcrtcs xcpt fr th yn nd
hmz sd n rbc, Prsn, nd rltd lnggs. (r lngg rtcls r xcptns
t ths rl, s t xprss lngstc pnts t s ftn bsltly ssntl t s
dcrtcs.) r dcsn ws bsd n prt n th nds f gnrl srs wh, w lrnd,
r ntmdtd by dcrtcs w hch thy d nt ndrstnd. r hp s tht by lttng
gnrl rdrs xprnc th rchnss f th sn xprnc wtht th brrr f
dcrtcs, w my drw ppl t frthr stdy—t whch pnt thy w ll b bl t
lrn th cmplxts f th mny ftn cnflctng mthds f rprsntng sn lnggs
n nglsh.
nthr ss ws hw t rdr th nms f ppl cvrd r mntnd n th
ncyclpd. r frst prncpl n lstng ppl ws t lst thm by th sgnfcnt
dntfyng prtn f thr nm. Fr mst ntnlts nd thnc grps, ths s
th fmly nm. Bcs rpn nd mrcn fmly nms c m ftr th prsnl
nm, ths mns tht rpn nd mrcn ppl r lstd n th trdtnl
nvrtd fshn fmlr t srs f ctlgs nd rfrnc mtrls (fr
xmpl, Jhn Smth bc ms Smth, Jhn). Bcs Chns, Jpns, nd Krn
fmly nms cm bfr th prsnl nm, n th thr hnd, mst ntrs fr
Chns, Jpns, r Krn fgrs r lstd n thr trdtnl rdr, wth n
cmm, s n nvrsn hs ccrrd (s M Zdng s lstd s M Zdng, nt
M, Zdng). n Thlnd t s cstmry t dntfy ppl by thr prsnl nm
rthr thn thr fmly nm, thrfr Th fgrs cn b fnd ndr thr prsnl
nm, w th thr fmly nm c mng scnd nd n ntrvnng cmm.
n th cs f crtn vry wll-knw n fgrs, hwvr, scnd prncpl cm
nt ply; nmly, tht w wntd t lst ppl n th wy tht mst rdrs w ld
thnk t srch fr thm. n sm css ths scnd prncpl hs ld t dvtns frm
th frst prncpl. n ll css whr thr s mbgty bt nm r mltpl w llknw n
spllngs f nm (fr nstnc, Gnghs Khn vrss Chnggs Khn), w
hv ncldd blnd ntrs t drct th rdr t r lstng f th fgr n qstn.
Fnl Thghts
Mssv s ths pblctn s, t s by n mns th lst wrd n s. W hv
flt cnstrnd by spc lmttns s w lrnd mr bt th ntrccs f rgnl
rltns n s nd bynd nd bt th vr-prsnt lnks btw n th pst
nd th prsnt nd th ftr. n ddtn, s mr ntns, sch s ths n Cntrl
s, pn p t mr tsd stdy, r knw ldg f s wll grw nd chng.
Fr xmpl, mr nd mr Cntrl sn schlrs r stdyng thr ntns, nd
thr w rk s rplcng tht f prvs gnrtns f Rssn schlrs.
lthgh ths s w rk prdcd by schlrs nd xprts, t s ntndd fr brd
dnc. W hp tht jrnlsts, trsts, gvrnmnt ffcls, wrtrs, tchrs,
nd th gnrl rdng pblc w ll fnd smthng f ntrst nd s. W w lc m
sggstns nd crrctns, nd frthr nfrmtn bt mdrn s. Pls wrt
t s t snf@brkshrpblshng.cm.
Dvd Lvnsn nd Krn Chrstnsn
Brkshr Pblshng Grp
http://www.Brkshrpblshng.cm
PRFC
T h prps f ths sctn s t xpln th dvsn f lbr fr th prjct nd
t pblcly cknw ldg nd thnk th mny ppl w h cntrbtd t th prjct.
Th ncyclpd f Mdrn s tk nrly fr yrs t rgnz nd prdc
nd nvlvd th ffrts f mr thn ght hndrd ppl rnd th w rld. Th
frst cknw ldgmnt mst g t dtr Krn Chrstnsn, C f Brkshr Pblshng
Grp, w h cncvd th d f gnrl ncyclpd n mdrn s nd
hs srvd s stdyng nflnc nd th prjct’s snr dplmt thrght ts
dvlpmnt. Hr chldhd pssn fr vrythng Jpns ld t hr tryng t prsd
hr Mnnstn fthr t mv th fmly t Jpn nstd f th Slcn Vlly
n 1968, s th ncyclpd hs bcm th clmntn f lflng ntrst.
srvd s snr prjct drctr nd tk prmry rspnsblty fr shpng th
scp f th wrk, crtng cnsstncy crss cntrs nd rgns, stppng n t
dl w th crtn rtcls, rvwng rtcls s ncssry, nd mngng th sdbr,
pht, nd mp rsrch. s cltrl nthrplgst nd dtr, w lcmd th pprtnty
t w rk gn w th sm f th cntrbtrs t th ncyclpd f Wrld
Cltrs nd ncyclpd f Cltrl nthrplgy, s wll s wth schlrs frm w d
vrty f flds.
n th rly dscssn stgs f th prjct, svrl ppl wr spclly hlpfl,
nt ll f w hm bcm nvlvd w th r rmnd w th th prjct. Thy r
Vrgn ksn (McMstr nvrsty), Drs G. Brgn (nvrsty f Msschstts,
mhrst), Thms Hdlnd (Smmr nsttt f Lngstcs), Pl Hckngs
(nvrsty f llns, Chcg), Jnnfr Jy (nvrsty f lbrt), ntly Khznv
(nvrsty f Wscnsn), l Schmlgl (nvrsty f Wscnsn), Crln
Hrrck (dtr f Prsmmn: sn Ltrtr, rts, nd Cltr), Jnthn Bnthll
(Ryl nthrplgcl nsttt, Lndn), th lt Dgls Pk ( Txs Tch nvrsty),
nd Wllm McNll ( mrts, nvrsty f Chcg).
Th dtrs nd ssct dtrs plyd mjr rl n slctng tpcs fr cvrg,
rcmmndng cntrbtrs, nd rvwng rtcls. dtrs r Vrgn ksn
(McMstr nvrsty), dwrd Bchmp (nvrsty f Hw , Hnll),
nthny nd Rbcc Bchl (Cntrl Mchgn nvrsty nd Pnnsylvn Stt
nvrsty), Lnsn Chng (nvrsty f Msschstts, Drtmth), Grld Fry
(nvrsty f Mnnst), Brc Fltn (nvrsty f Brtsh Clmb), Pl Hckngs
(nvrsty f llns, Chcg), nd Rbrt LPrt, Jr. ( Pnnsylvn Stt
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xx
cknwldgm9nts
xx NCYCLPD F MDRN S
nvrsty). Th ssct dtrs r Lnd rthr (nvrsty f Hw , Mn),
Jml ls (mhrst Cllg), lln Gttmnn ( mhrst Cllg), Js Hrnndz
d Ln (Lrntn nvrsty), Gstf Htmn ( Ryl nthrplgcl nsttt,
Lndn), Brc Lckhrt (Sngpr Ntnl nvrsty), Ptt Mshr (Smblpr
nvrsty), nd nthny Smth (nsttt f Sthst sn Stds).
dtrl brd mmbrs ls dvsd n nmrs dtrl sss, nd Brc Fltn,
Grld Fry, nd Js Hrnndz d Ln mst b thnkd fr thr ws cnsl
nd tmly hlp n ths mttrs. n ddtn, Stphn Frrst (nvrsty f
Msschstts, mhrst) ws rdy src f cnsl.
Th w rk n th ncyclpd s prhps bst dscrbd s vltnry, wth th
lst f rtcls nd cntrbtrs nt cmpltly fnlzd ntl th lst fw mnths f
th prjct. t vrs stgs, svrl xprts prvdd tmly nd vry hlpfl ssstnc
n rcmmndng chngs t th rtcl lst nd sggstng cntrbtrs: Dvd
Bck (nvrsty f Wscnsn), Mrt Smdchv (Yrk nvrsty), Thms Dln
(Clmbs Stt nvrsrty), Vncnt Klly Pllrd (nvrsty f Hw , Mn),
Kvn ln Brk, Pl Krtsk ( Ntnl nvrsty f Sngpr), nd Krk Dntn
(h Stt nvrsty).
W ls w nt t cknw ldg nd thnk pblcly r hsts n s w h pnd
mny drs tht w ld nt thrw s bn vlbl t s: Dr. Mrty Brrtt nd th
Rtry Clb n lmty, W Sh Png nd Dr. Chn B-xng n Bjng, nd Fsk
nd Hd Hgch n Jpn.
Th ncyclpd w s dvlpd nd mngd frm r ffcs n Grt Brrngtn,
Msschstts, smll Nw nglnd tw n wth ppltn f 7,700, nly
fw mls frm Stckbrdg w hr Nrmn Rckw ll pntd sm f th mst
wll-knw n mgs f n dlzd mrcn w y f lf . Th lnggs spkn by
stffrs vr th crs f th prjct ncld Krn, Trksh, Jpns, Prsn,
Hnd, nd Mndrn.
Jnh ( Jn) Km, Pr jct dtr, mngd th prjct nd dsrvs nbndd
prs fr s smthly crdntng th w rk f sm ght hndrd dtrs, thrs,
nd cpy dtrs nd mngng th flw f mr thn tw nty-sx hndrd mnscrpts.
Fr hr, dlng w th hndrds f -mls dy ws rtn. Jn ws brn
n Kr, mvd t Thlnd t g sx w th hr fmly, thn t Trky fr hgh
schl nd t th ntd Stts fr cllg—xprncs tht lft hr nqly qlfd
t crry t th rspnsblts f Prjct dtr.
Snr dtr Frncsc Frrst dd n ncrdbl jb mngng th nr msly
cmplx dtrl sd f th prjct. Wth mny yrs spclzng n dtng rsrcs
n s nd svrl yrs’ rsdnc n Jpn, sh ws jst th rght prsn t
dvlp th dtrl gdlns nd mng th cpydtng nd fct-chckng
prcsss. Th cnsstncy n ss crss rtcls—nd th snsbl dtrl dcsns
bhnd ths cnsstncy—s lrgly d t hr ffrts. Sh ws bly dd by ssct
dtr Mrcy Rss w h ls smthly hndld gd bt f th fct-chckng
nd pdtng f th rtcls.
Dbb Dlln nd Trvr Yng dsrv spcl mntn fr s chrflly mtng
r prgrmmng nds t prvd th cmplx dtbs systm ndd t mng
th prjct. thr mmbrs f th Brkshr stff wh chrflly ptchd n w hn
ndd w r Bn Mnnng, Shn Stlkr, Rbn ’Sllvn, Pyn Lft, Grg
Wdw rd, nd Lz n. ntrns Shnnn Bll nd Jms McGrk rlvd s f
mny f th clrcl tsks; Jms ls gthrd nfrmtn fr nmbr f th sdbrs.
W ls w nt t thnk Pl xnr t xnr Prdctns fr prdcng th mps
CKNWLDGMNTS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xx
nd Stv Dnldsn fr spplyng prtn f th phts nd th strs f hs trvls
tht w nt wth thm.
t Scrbnrs, w wnt t thnk Krn Dy fr sgnng th prjct fr yrs g
nd Frnk Mnchc nd Tm DWrff fr thr strng spprt. Jhn Ftzptrck
nd Srh Fhn md crdntn nd dlvry f th mnscrpt smth nd sy,
nd thr tmly rspnss t r qstns hlpd mv th prjct lng.
Fnlly, r thnks g t ncyclpd dtrs Grld Fry nd Lnsn Chng,
Rbrt Bnsch f th Nw Yrk nvrsty Cntr fr Pblshng, Kl Hng f
th Msschstts Cllg f Lbrl rts, frnd nd thr Smn Wnchstr, nd
Hhm Chbng f Yns nvrsty fr th cntcts thy prvdd whn Krn
Chrstnsn gn vstd Chn n gst 2002, s th fnl typsttng fr th ncyclpd
f Mdrn s ws tkng plc. r ffrt t brng nfrmtn bt s
t stdnts n th .S. s w lcmd n s tslf, nd th ntwrks dvlpd thrgh
r wrk w th hndrds f schlrs rnd th glb cntn t xpnd nd prvd
nsprtn fr frthr rsrch nd pblshng ffrts.
Dvd Lvnsn
Brkshr Pblshng Grp
Grt Brrngtn, Msschstts
CKNWLDGMNTS
T h ncyclpd f Mdrn s cvrs thrty-thr ntns n dpth nd ls th
Ccss nd Sbr. W hv dvdd s nt fv mjr sbrgns nd ssgnd
th thrty-thr ntns t ch.
Wst nd Sthwst s
Th Wst sn ntns cvrd n dtl hr r Trky, rn, nd rq. fghnstn
nd Pkstn frm Sthw st s, lthgh n sm clssfctns thy r
plcd n Cntrl nd Sth s, rspctvly. fghnstn, n th crssrds f cvlztns
fr thsnds f yrs, s spclly dffclt t clssfy nd dsplys ftrs
typcl f Cntrl, Wst, nd Sth s.
Dspt dvrsty n lngg (Prsn n rn, rbc n rq, Trksh n Tr ky)
frm f gvrnmnt (thcrcy n rn, dcttrshp n rq, nd nstbl dmcrcy
n Trky) nd ntrntnl ts (rn t th slmc w rld, rq t th rb Mddl
st, Trky t th Wst), thr r svrl srcs f nty crss Wst s. Prhps
th ldst s ggrphcl lctn s th st f trnsprttn rts btw n
rp nd Cntrl, st, nd Sth s. Snc ncnt tms, ppl, gds, w lth,
nd ds hv flw d crss th rgn. n 2002 th flw f l ws mst mprtnt,
frm th w lls f rn nd rq thrgh th pplns f Trky. nthr src f
nty s Snn slm, mjr ftr f lf snc th svnth cntry, lthgh rn
s mnly th mnrty Sh_ trdtn nd thr hv lng bn Zrstrn, Jw sh,
Chrstn, nd Bh’ mnrts n th rgn. Dvrsty s ls vdnt n th fct
tht Trky s "sclr" stt whl rn s thcrcy, nd n th cnflct btwn
fndmntlst nd mnstr m slm n ll th ntns.
nthr mprtnt c mmn thrd s th shrd hstrcl xprnc f bng prt
f th ttmn mpr nd hvng t cp w th Brtsh nd Rssn dsgns n thr
trrtry nd, mr rcntly, mrcn nflnc. nd, n th tw ntth cntry, ll
thr ntns hv sght t dl w th th Krdsh mnrty nd ts dmnds fr
Krdsh stt t b stblshd n lnd tkn frm ll thr ntns.
nty crss fghnstn nd Pkstn s crtd by dhrnc t Snn slm (lthgh
thr s Sh_t mnrty n fghnstn) nd th prmnnc f th Pshtn
thnc grp n ch ntn. Bth ntns ls xprncd Brtsh clnlsm,
lthgh th lng-trm Brtsh nflnc s mr ntbl n Pkstn, w hch hd bn
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xxv
9 Srvy f s’s
Rgns nd Ntns
xxv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
td t nd ndr Brtsh rl. Wst s s th nly rgn n th w rld nvr clnzd
by Brtn, lthgh s m xprts rg tht t dd xprnc sgnfcnt
Brtsh cltrl nflnc. n ll ntns rsstnc t xtrnl cntrl—Brtsh, Rssn,
r ntd Stts—s nthr cmmn hstrcl xprnc.
crss th rgn (lthgh lss s n fghnstn) s th strk cntrst btw n
th trdtnl cltr nd th mdrnty f lbrtn frm mpr l rl, stll nt
cmplt crss th rgn. Ths cntrst s pprnt n clthng styls, mnnrs, rchtctr,
rcrtn, mrrg prctcs, nd mny lmnts f dly lf.
n 2002 ll th ntns fcd w tr crss f bth t lttl w tr nd wtr
plltn. Thy ll ls fcd sss f cnmc nd scl dvlpmnt, ncldng
rdcng xtrnl dbt, cntrllng nfltn, rdcng nmplymnt, mprvng dctn
nd hlth cr, nd cntnlly rctng t th ngng rb-srl cnflct,
whch xcrbts mny f ths prblms. Th gvrnmnts ls fcd th dffclt
tsk f slvng ths prblms w hl rsstng mrcnztn nd ls w hl cntrllng
ntrnl pltcl nrst. Pltcl nrst s ftn td t ffrts t crtng dmcrtc
gvrnmnts nd th prsstnc f lt cllbrtn w th tyrnncl
gvrnmnts.
Cntrl s
Cntrl s s knw n by mny nms, ncldng rs, Mddl s, nd nnr
s. t ts cr, th rgn s cmpsd f fv stts tht bcm ndpndnt ntns
fllw ng th cllps f th Svt nn n 1991: Kzkhstn, Kyrgyzstn, Tjkstn,
Trkmnstn, nd zbkstn. Schlrs smtms ncld fghnstn, Mngl nd
th Xnjng prvnc f Chn w thn th lbl Cntr l s. Fr ths prjct, Cntrl
s s rstrctd t th fv frmr Svt cntrs, whl fghnstn s clssfd n
Sthw st s, nd Mngl nd Xnjng s prt f st s. Ths stts hv
shrd lndmss f 1.5 mlln sqr mls, bt n-hlf th sz f th ntd Stts.
Th rgn’s nty cms frm shrd hstry nd rlgn. Cntrl s sw tw
cltrl nd cnmc trdtns blssm nd ntrmx lng th fmd Slk Rd:
nmdc nd sdntry. Nmdc hrdsmn, rgnzd nt knshp grpngs f
clns, lvd bsd sdntry frmrs nd ss cty dw llrs. Fr f th cntrs
shr Trkc rts, whl th Tjks r f nd-rpn dscnt, lngstclly rltd
t th rnns. Whl stll rcgnzbl tdy, ths shrd hrtg hs dvlpd
nt dstnct thnc cmmnts.
Th ppls f Cntrl s hv sn cntrs f nvsn, ntbly th lgndry
Mngl ldr Gnghs Khn n th thrtnth cntry, th Rssns n th nntnth
nd th Svts n th tw ntth cntry. Fr bttr r wrs, ch nvdr
lft bhnd mrkrs f thr prsnc: th rbs ntrdcd slm n th svnth cntry.
Tdy slm s th prdmnnt rlgn n th rgn, nd mst Cntrl sns
r Snn Mslms. Th Rssns brght th mxd lgcy f mdrnsm, ncldng
n dctd pplc, lr mng nfnt mrtlty rts, strng cnmc nd pltcl
prtcptn by w mn, hgh grcltrl dvlpmnt, nd nvrnmntl dsstrs
sch s th shrnkng f th rl S. t w s ndr Rssn clnlsm tht dstnct
thn-ntnl bndrs w r crtd t dvd th ppl f th rgn. Ths dvsns
lrgly shp th cntmprry Cntrl sn lndscp.
Tdy th fv Cntrl sn ntns fc smlr chllngs: bldng rbst
cnms, dvlpng stbl, dmcrtc gvrnmnts, nd ntgrtng thmslvs
nt th rgnl nd ntrntnl cmmnts s ndpndnt stts. Thy cm t
ths chllngs w th vrd rsrcs: Kzkhstn nd Trkmnstn hv rch l
rsrvs; svrl cntrs hv xtnsv mnrl dpsts; nd th Frgn Vlly s
bt n xmpl f th rgn’s rch grcltrl rgns.
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xxv
Fnlly, th trgc vnts f Sptmbr 11, 2001, cst wrld ttntn n fghnstn’s
nghbrs n Cntrl s. Th "w r n trrrsm" frgd nw llncs nd
ffrd mx f pltcl prssr nd cnmc spprt fr th ntns’ ldrs t
spprss thr cntrs’ ntrnl fndmntlst Mslm mv mnts.
Sthst s
Sthst s s cnvntnlly dfnd s tht sbrgn f s cnsstng f th
lvn ntn-stts f Brn, Cmbd, st Tmr, ndns, Ls, Mlys,
Mynmr, Phlppns, Sngpr, Thlnd, nd Vtnm. Mynmr s smtms ltrntvly
clssfd s prt f Sth s nd Vtnm s n st s. Th rgn
my b sbdvdd nt Mnlnd Sthst s (Cmbd, Ls, Mynmr, Thlnd,
nd Vtnm) nd nslr Sthst s (Brn, st Tmr, ndns, Phlppns,
nd Sngpr). Mlys s th n ntn n th rgn tht s lctd bth
n th mnlnd nd slnds, thgh thnclly t s mr lnkd t th slnd ntns
f ndns, Brn, nd th Phlppns.
Prhps th ky dfnng ftrs fr th rgn nd ths tht r mst w dsprd
r th trpcl mnsn clmt, rch ntrl rsrcs, nd wy f lf n rrl rs
bsd n cprtv wt-rc grcltr tht gs bck svrl thsnd yrs.
n th pst nty ws ls crtd n vrs plcs by mjr cvlztns, ncldng
ths f Fnn, ngkr, Pgn, Skhth, Mjpht, Srvjy, Chmp, ytthy,
nd Mlk. Mnrchs cntn t b sgnfcnt n svrl ntn—Brn, Cmbd,
Mlys, nd Thlnd—tdy. Sbrgnl nty hs ls bn crtd snc
ncnt tms by th cntnd s f wrttn lnggs, ncldng Vtnms, Th,
L, Khmr nd th rch ltrry trdtns ssctd wth ths lnggs.
Th rgn cn ls b dfnd s bng lctd btw n Chn nd nd nd hs
bn nflncd by bth, w th ndn nflnc gnrlly brdr, dpr, nd lngr
lstng, spclly n th mnlnd, xcpt fr Vtnm nd Sngpr, w hr nflncs
frm Chn hv bn mr mprtnt. slmc nflnc s ls prsnt n ll
lvn f th Sthst sn ntns. Cltrlly, Sthst s s ntbl fr th
cntrl mprtnc f th fmly, rlgn (mnly Bddhs m nd slm), nd sthtcs
n dly lf nd ntnl cnscsnss.
n th pst–Wrld Wr Cld Wr r, thr w s lck f rgnl nty. Sm
ntns, sch s ndns ndr Skrn, w r ldrs f th nnlgnd ntns.
Cntrs sch s Thlnd nd th Phlppns jnd th .S. sd n th Cld Wr
by bng prt f th Sthst s Trty rgnztn (ST). mv tw rd
grtr nty ws chvd wth th stblshmnt f th ssctn f Sthst
sn Ntns (SN) n 1967, w th th fndng mmbrs bng ndns,
Mlys, th Phlppns, Sngpr, nd Thlnd. Sbsqntly thr Sthst
sn ntns jnd SN (Brn, 1984; Ls, Mynmr, nd Vtnm 1997; Cmbd
1999). s f 2002, cmmns m w s stll th systm n Ls nd Vtnm nd
cptlsm n Brn, Cmbd, st Tmr, th Phlppns Thlnd, ndns,
Mlys nd Sngpr. Pltcl, cnmc, nd cltrl cprtn s fstrd by
th ssctn f Sthst sn Ntns (SN), w th hdqrtrs n Jkrt,
ndns. cnmclly, ll th ntns hv ttmptd t mv, lthgh t dffrnt
spds nd w th dffrnt rslts, frm rlnc n grcltr t n ndstrl
r srvc-bsd cnmy. ll ntns ls sffrd n th sn cnmc crss bgnnng
n Jly 1997.
lngsd ths srcs f smlrty r nty tht llw s t spk f Sthst
s s rgn s ls cnsdrbl dvrsty. n th pst rlgn, thncty, nd dvrs
clnl xprnc (Brtsh, Dtch, Frnch, mrcn) w r mjr srcs f
dvrsty. Tdy, th thr mjr srcs f dvrsty r rlgn, frm f gvrnmnt,
nd lvl f cnmc dvlpmnt. Thr ntns (ndns, Mlys,
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
xxv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Brn) r prdmntly slmc, fv r mnly Bddhst (Vtnm, Ls, Cmbd,
Thlnd, Mynmr), tw r mnly Chrstn ( Phlppns nd st Tmr),
nd Sngpr s rlgsly htrgns. n ddtn, thr s rlgs dvrsty
wthn ntns, s ll ths ntns hv szbl nd vsbl rlgs mnrts nd
ndgns rlgns, n bth trdtnl nd syncrtc frms, ls rmn mprtnt.
n trms f gvrnmnt, thr s cnsdrbl vrtn: cmmns m n Vtnm
nd Ls; stt sclsm n Mynmr; bslt mnrchy n Brn; vlvng dmcrcy
n th Phlppns, Thlnd, Cmbd, nd ndns; nd thrtrn dmcrcy
n Mlys nd Sngpr. Th cnmc vrtn tht xsts mng th
ntns nd ls crss rgns wthn ntns s rflctd n dffrnt lvls f rbnztn
nd cnmc dvlpmnt, w th Sngpr nd Mlys t n nd f
th spctrm nd Ls nd Cmbd t th thr. Mynmr s cnmclly ndrdvlpd,
lthgh t s rbnzd, w hl Brn s n f th wlthst ntns n
th w rld bt nt vry rbnzd.
n 2002, Sthst s fcd mjr nvrnmntl, pltcl, cnmc, nd hlth
sss. ll Sthst sn ntns sffr frm srs nvrnmntl dgrdtn, ncldng
wtr plltn, sl rsn, r plltn n nd rnd cts, trffc cngstn,
nd spcs xtnctns. T sgnfcnt xtnt ll ths prblms r th
rslt f rpd ndstrl xpnsn nd vrxplttn f ntrl rsrcs fr ntrntnl
trd. Th cnmc crss hs hmprd ffrts t ddrss ths sss
nd hs thrtnd th cnms f sm ntns, mkng thm mr dpndnt n
ntrntnl lns nd ssstnc frm ntns sch s Jpn, strl, nd Chn.
Th prsstng cnmc dsprts btw n th rch nd th pr r ctlly xcrbtd
by rpd cnmc grw th. Rltd t pvrty s th DS pdmc, w hch
s spclly srs n Cmbd, Mynmr, nd Thlnd nd bc mng mr srs
n Vtnm; n ll ths ntns t ssctd wth th cmmrcl sx ndstry.
Pltclly, mny Sthst sn ntns fcd n r mr thrts t thr stblty.
Pltcl crrptn, lck f trnsprncy, nd w k cvc nstttns r prblm
t vryng dgrs n ll th ntns bt r mst svr n ndns, whch fcs
thrts t ts svrgnty. Cmbd nd Thlnd fc prblms nvlvng mnrch
sccssn, nd svrl ntns hv hd dffclty fndng ffctv ldrs. Mynmr’s
thrtrn rlrs fc cntnl thrt frm th pltcl ppstn nd
frm thnc nd rlgs sprtsts.
n ddtn, svrl ntns fcd cntnng rlgs r thnc-bsd cnflcts tht
dsrpt pltcl stblty nd cnmc grw th n sm prvncs. Th mjr cnflcts
nvlv Mslm sprtsts n th sthrn Phlppns, Mslms nd Chrstns
n sm ndnsn slnds nd ch sprtsts n nrthrn Smtr, nd Mslms
nd th Krn nd thr thnc grps gnst th Brmn gvrnmnt n Mynmr.
Snc th cnmc crss f 1997, thnc nd rlgn-bsd cnflct hs ntnsfd,
s w lthr thnc r rlgs mnrts hv ncrsngly bn ttckd by mmbrs
f th dmnnt thnc grp. rltd ss s th cltrl nd pltcl ftr
f ndgns ppls, ncldng th s-clld hll trbs f th mnlnd nd hrtcltrlsts
nd frmr hntr-gthrrs f th slnds.
n lkng t th ftr, mng th rgn’s pstv ftrs r th fllw ng.
Frst, thr s Sthst s’s strtgc lctn btwn nd nd Chn, btw n
Jpn nd rp, nd btw n rp nd cn. t stnds n cls prxmty t
th w rld’s tw mst ppls cntrs, Chn nd nd. Sngpr, th cntrlly
lctd prt n Sthst s, s n f tw mjr gtw ys t th dynmc Pcfc
Bsn (th thr s th Pnm Cnl). Scnd, thr s th rgn’s hg ppltn
nd rltd cnmc mrkt, w th ttl ppltn pprchng tht f n hlf f
Chn’s. ndns s th w rld’s frth mst ppls ntn. Thrd, thr s nr-
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xxx
ms trst ptntl n sts nd rcrtnl lcls sch s ngkr Wt, Bl,
Brbdr, Phkt, nd H Lng By. Frth, thr s th rgn’s ntbl clctcsm
n brrw ng frm th tsd nd rslncy n trnscndng trgds sch s
xprncd by Cmbd nd Vtnm. Ffth, thr s th rgn’s sgnfcnt cnmc
ptntl: Sthst s my w ll hv th w rld’s hghst-qlty lbr frc
rltv t cst. nd, sxth, thr s th rgn’s pnnss t nw tchnlgs nd
ds, n mprtnt ftr n th mdrn glbl cmmnty.
Sth s
Sth s s th sst rgn t dmrct, s t s bndd by th Hnd Ksh
nd Hmlyn rngs t th nrth nd th By f Bngl nd rbn S t th
sth. t cntns th ntn-stts f Bngldsh, Bhtn, nd, Npl, nd Sr Lnk
nd th mr dstnt slnd ntns f th Mldvs nd Mrts. Mynmr nd
Pkstn, w hch r cnsdrd prt f Sth s n sm schms, r hr clssfd
n Sthst s nd Sthwst s, rspctvly.
Whl th rgn s dvrs cnmclly, cltrlly, lngstclly, nd rlgsly,
thr s nty tht, n sm frm, hs xstd fr svrl thsnd yrs. n src
f nty s th hstrcl nflnc f tw mjr cvlztns (nds nd Drvdn)
nd thr mjr rlgns (Hnds m, Bddhsm, nd slm). Rgnlly, Skhs m nd
Jnsm hv bn f grt mprtnc. Thr s ls cnsdrbl cnmc nty, s
th mjrty f ppl cntn t lv by frmng, w th rc nd spclly wt-rc
th prmry crp. n ddtn, thr-qrtrs f th ppl cntn t lv n rrl,
grcltrl vllgs, lthgh ths hs nw bcm n mprtnt src f dvrsty,
wth clr dstnctns btwn rbn nd rrl lf. thrd src f nty s th
cst systm, w hch cntns t dfn lf fr mst ppl n th thr mnlnd
ntns. nthr src f nty s th ntr nd strctr f scty, whch ws
hvly nflncd by th svrl cntrs f Brtsh rl. fnl src f pltcl
nty n th tw ntth cntry—lthgh smtms w knd by thnc nd rlgs
dffrncs—hs bn ntnlsm n ch ntn.
Sth s s dvrs lngstclly, thnclly, rlgsly, nd cnmclly. Ths
dvrsty s mst bvs n nd, bt xsts n vrs frms n thr ntns, xcpt
fr th sltd Mldvs, w hch s th hm f n thnc grp, th Dvh, w h
r Mslms nd w h hv n cnmy bsd lrgly n trsm nd fshng.
Th dzns f lnggs f Sth s fll nt fr mjr fmls: nd-rpn,
strstc, Drvdn, nd Tbt-Br mn nd svrl cnnt b clssfd
t ll. Bcs f ts lngstc dvrsty, nd s dvdd nt "lngstc" stts wth
Hnd nd nglsh srvng s th ntnl lnggs.
Hnds m s th dmnnt rlgn n Sth s, bt nd s th hm ls t
Bddhsm, Jns m, nd Skhs m. nd ls hs vr 120 mlln Mslms nd th
wrld’s lrgst Zrstrn ppltn (knw n n nd s Prss) nd Bngldsh s
prdmntly Mslm ntn. nd ls hs bt tw nty-fv mlln Chrstns
nd ntl rcntly nd hd svrl smll bt thrvng Jwsh cmmnts. Npl s
mnly Hnd w th Bddhst mnrty, nd Bhtn th rvrs. Sr Lnk s mnly
Thrvd Bddhst w th Hnd, Mslm, nd Chrstn mnrts. Mrts, w hch
hs n ndgns ppltn, s bt 50 prcnt Hnd, w th lrg Chrstn nd
smllr Mslm nd Bddhst mnrts.
Lngstc nd rlgs dvrsty s mr thn mtchd by scl dvrsty. n
clssfctn sggsts tht th sccltrl grps f Sth s cn b dvdd nt
fr gnrl nd svrl sbctgrs: (1) csts (Hnd nd Mslm); (2) mdrn
rbn clsss (ncldng lbrrs, nn-Hnds, nd th Wstrnzd lt); (3) hll
trbs f t lst sx typs; nd (4) prpttcs.
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
xxx NCYCLPD F MDRN S
cnmclly, thr r mjr dstnctns btw n th rrl pr nd th rbn
mddl clss nd lt, nd ls btw n th rbn pr nd rbn mddl clss nd
lt. Thr r ls sgnfcnt w lth dstnctns bsd n cst nd gndr, nd
szbl nd w lthy ndn dspr. Thr s pltcl dvrsty s wll, w th nd
nd Sr Lnk bng dmcrcs, Bngldsh shftng bck nd frth btw n slmc
dmcrcy nd mltry rl, th Mldvs bng n slmc stt, nd Npl nd
Bhtn bng cnstttnl mnrchs.
n 2002, Sth s fcd svrl ctgrs f sss. mng th mst srs
r th ngng thnc nd rlgs cnflcts btwn Mslms nd Hnds n nd,
th cnflct btwn th ntns f Pkstn nd nd; th thnc cnflct btw n
th Snhls nd Sr Lnkn Tmls n Sr Lnk; nd th cnflct btw n th
Npls nd Bhtns n bth ntns. Thr r ls vrs thnc sprtsts
mv mnts n th rgn, s nvlvng sm Skhs n nd. Th mst thrtnng t
rdr n th rgn nd bynd s th cnflc t btw n nd nd Pkstn vr th
Kshmr rgn, s bth hv nclr w pns nd rms gthrd t thr rspctv
brdrs.
scnd srs ss s th hst f rltd nvrnmntl prblms, ncldng
plltn; lmtd w tr rsrcs; vrxplttn f ntrl rsrcs; dstrctn
nd dth csd by typhns, fldng, nd rthqks; fmn (lss f prblm
tdy), nd pdmcs f trpcl nd thr dsss. Th Mldvs fcs th nq
prblm f dspprng nt th s s glbl w rmng mlts glcrs nd rss th
s lvl. Cstl rgns f Bngldsh cld ls sffr frm ths.
Thr r prssng scl, cnmc, nd pltcl sss s w ll. Sclly, thr
r w d nd grwng gps btwn th rch nd mddl clsss nd th pr, w h
r dsprprtntly w mn nd chldrn nd rrl. Trbl ppls nd ntchbls
stll d nt njy fll cvl rghts, nd w mn r ftn dscrmntd
gnst, lthgh nd, Sr Lnk, nd Bngldsh hv ll hd w mn prm mnstrs.
cnmclly, ll th ntns cntn t wrstl wth th sss nvlvd
n trnsfrmng thmslvs frm mnly rrl, grcltrl ntns t ns w th
strng ndstrl nd srvc sctrs. Pltclly, ll stll ls strggl w th th tsk
f stblshng strng, cntrl gvrnmnts tht cn cntrl thnc, rlgs, nd
rgn vrtn nd prvd srvcs t th ntr ppltn. Dspt ths dffclts,
thr r ls pstv dvlpmnts. nd cntns t bnft frm th
nflw f wlth rnd by ndns tsd nd nd s mrgng s mjr tchnlgcl
cntr. nd, n Sr Lnk, n rly 2002 cs-fr hs ld t th prspct f
srs f pc ngttns n th nr ftr.
st s
st s s dfnd hr s th ntns f Jpn, Sth Kr, Nrth Kr, Chn,
Tw n, nd Mngl. t shld b ntd tht Tw n s prt f Chn lthgh th
Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn nd th Rpblc f Chn (Tw n) dffr vr whthr
t s prvnc r nt. Th nclsn f Chn n st s s nt ntrly ggrphclly
nd cltrlly vld, s prts f sthrn Chn cld b clssfd s Sthst
sn frm ggrphcl nd cltrl stndpnt, w hl wstrn Chn cld b clssfd
s Cntrl sn. Hw vr, thr s lng trdtn f clssfyng Chn s prt
f st s, nd tht s th pprch tkn hr. Lkw s, Mngl s smtms
clssfd n Cntrl s. s ntd bv, Sbr cn b cnsdrd s frmng Nrth
nd Nrthst s.
cnmc, pltcl, dlgcl, nd scl smlrty crss Chn, Kr (Nrth
nd Sth), nd Jpn s th rslt f svrl thsnd yrs f Chns nflnc (t
tms strng, t thr tms w k), whch hs crtd cnsdrbl smlrty n bs
f pr-xstng Jpns nd Krn cltrs nd cvlztns. Chn’s nflnc ws
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
grtst bfr th mdrn prd nd Chns cltr ths n sm wys frms th
cr f st sn cltr nd scty. t th sm tm, t mst b strssd tht Chns
cltrl lmnts mrgd w th xstng nd nw Krn nd Jpns ns n
wys tht prdcd th nq Jpns nd Krn cltrs nd cvlztns, whch
dsrv cnsdrtn n thr wn rght.
mng th mjr cltrl lmnts brght frm Chn wr Bddhsm nd Cnfcnsm,
th w rttn lngg, gvrnmnt brcrcy, vrs tchnqs f rc
grcltr, nd ptrlnl knshp systm bsd n ml dmnnc nd ml cntrl
f fmly rsrcs. ll f ths wr shpd vr th cntrs t ft wth xstng
r dvlpng frms n Kr nd Jpn. Fr xmpl, Bddhs m cxsts wth
Shnt n Jpn. n Kr, t cxsts wth th ndgns shmnstc rlgn. n
Chn nd Kr trdtnl flk rlgn rmns strng, w hl Jpn hs bn th
hm t dzns f nw ndgns rlgns vr th pst 150 yrs.
Dvrsty n th rgn hs bn lrgly prdct f cntnng ffrts by th
Jpns nd Krns t rsst Chns nflnc nd dvlp nd strss Jpns nd
Krn cltr nd cvlztn. n th tw ntth cntry dvrsty ws mnly pltcl
nd cnmc. Jpns nvsns nd cnqsts f prts f Chn nd ll f
Kr bgnnng n th lt nntnth cntry ld t hstl rltns tht hd nt
bn cmpltly vrcm n 2002.
n th pst–Wrld Wr r nd ftr, Tw n, Jpn, nd Sth Kr hv
bn clsly lld w th th ntd Stts nd th Wst; thy hv ll dvlpd pw rfl
ndstrl nd pstndstrl cnms. Drng th s m prd, Chn bc m
Cmmnst stt; sgnfcnt ts t th Wst nd cnmc dvlpmnt dd nt
bgn ntl th lt 1980s. Nrth Kr s ls Cmmnst stt; t lgs bhnd th
thr ntns n cnmc dvlpmnt nd n rcnt yrs hs nt bn bl t prdc
ngh fd t fd ts ppltn. n 2002 Chn w s th mrgng cnmc
pw r n th rgn, whl Tw n nd Sth Kr hld n nd Jpn shw d sgns
f srs nd lng-trm cnmc dcln, lthgh t r mnd th scnd-lrgst
(ftr th ntd Stts) cnmy n th w rld. Mngl, frd frm Svt rl, s
ttmptng t bld ts cnmy fllw ng cptlst mdl.
Pltclly, Chn r mns Cmmnst stt dspt sgnfcnt mvs tw rd
mrkt cptlsm, Nrth Kr s Cmmnst dcttrshp, Jpn dmcrcy, nd
Sth Kr nd Tw n n 1990s sm t hv bcm rltvly stbl dmcrcs
fllw ng prds f thrtrn rl. Sgnfcnt cntct mng th ntns s
mnly cnmc, s ffrts t frgng clsr pltcl ts rmn stlld vr pst
grvncs. Fr xmpl, n 2001, ppl n Chn nd Sth Kr prtstd pblcly
bt nw Jpns hgh schl hstry txtbk tht thy blvd dd nt
flly dscrb Jpns trcts cmmttd twrd Chns nd Krns bfr nd
drng Wrld Wr . Jpn hs rfsd t rvs th txtbk. Smlrly, tnsn r mns
btw n Mngl nd Chn vr Mngln frs bt Chns dsgns n
Mngln trrtry. nnr Mngl s prvnc f Chn.
Mjr sss wth rgnl nd brdr mplctns r th rnfctn f Tw n
nd Chn nd Nrth nd Sth Kr, nd thrt f w r shld rnfctn
ffrts g wry. thr mjr rgnl sss ncld nvrnmntl plltn, ncldng
r plltn frm Chn tht sprds st, nd plltn f th Yllw S,
Tw n Strt, nd Sth Chn S. thrd ss s cnmc dvlpmnt nd stblty,
nd th rl f ch ntn, nd th rgn s nt, n th grw ng glbl
cnmy. fnl mjr ss s th mrgnc f Chn s mjr w rld pltcl,
cnmc, nd mltry pwr t th xpns f Tw n, Sth Kr, nd Jpn, nd
th cnsqncs fr rgnl pltcl rltns nd stblty.
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
xxx NCYCLPD F MDRN S
vrvw
s th bv srvy ndcts, s s vrd nd dynmc cnstrct. T sm xtnt
th ntn f s, s wll s rgns wthn s, r rtfcl cnstrcts mpsd
by tsd bsrvrs t prvd sm strctr t plc nd sbjct mttr
tht mght thrws b ncmprhnsbl. Th ntns f s hv rch nd dp
psts tht cntn t nfrm nd shp th prsnt—nd tht ply sgnfcnt rl
n rltns w th thr ntns nd rgns. Th ntns f s ls fc cnsdrbl
sss—sm nq t th rgn, thrs shrd by ntns rnd th wrld—
s w ll s nrms ptntl fr ftr grwth nd dvlpmnt. W xpct tht
th nxt dtn f ths ncyclpd w ll prtry vry dffrnt s thn ds ths
n, bt stll n s tht s n mny w ys n hrmny w th ts psts.
Dvd Lvnsn ( wth cntrbtns frm Vrgn ksn, dwrd Bchmp, nthny
nd Rbcc Bchl, Lnsn Chng, Grld Fry, Brc Fltn, nd Pl Hckngs)
S’S RGNS ND NTNS
Rgnl 9Mps
_
_
_
_
_
rl
S
Cspn
S
Lk
Blkhsh
Syr Dr’y
m Dr’y
stn Smy
lmty
Bshkk
Tshknt
sh
Dshnb
Bkhr
Mry
shgbt
Smrqnd
Kz khs tn
Rs s
Ch n
Kyrgyzstn
Tjkstn
Trkmnstn
r n
fghnstn
Pkstn
nd
z b k s tn
N
0
0
250 500 Mls
250 500 Klmtrs
Cntrl s
xxxv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
RGNL MPS
_
_
_
_
_
Hkkd
Hnsh
Shkk
Kysh
knw
STH
CHN
S
ST
CHN
S
S
F
JPN
NRTH
PCFC
CN
Chng Rvr
Hng Rvr
rmq
Lhs
lnbtr
Bjng
X’n
Knmng
Chngd
Nnnng Gngzh
Hng Kng
Mc
Tp
Shngh
Sl
P’yngyng
sk
Tky
Kzkhstn
Rs s
Ch n
Tw n
Sth
Kr
Nrth
Kr
M ng l
Kyrgyzstn
Pkstn
nd
Ls
Vtnm
Mynmr
Bhtn
J pn
N p l
Tjkstn
N
0
0
400 800 Mls
400 800 Klmtrs
Chn nd
st s
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xxxv
RGNL MPS
_
_
_
__
_
RBN
S
NDN CN
By f
Bngl
Lkshdwp
slnds
ndmn
slnds
Ncbr
slnds
hmdbd
Nw Dlh
Hydrbd
Bnglr
Mmb
Mdrs
Jffn
Clmb
Ml
Clctt
Dhk
Thmph
Kthmnd
nd
Ch n
N pl
Bhtn
Bngldsh
My n m r
Pk s tn
Sr
Lnk
Mldvs
N
0
0
200 400 Mls
200 400 Klmtrs
Sth s
RGNL MPS
_
_
_
_
_
_ STH
CHN
S
Strt f Mlcc
Slt Krmt
Slt Snd
BND
S
MLCC
S
FLRS S
RFR
S
CLBS
S
SL S
JV S
Lzn Strt
Glf
f
Thlnd
Mkssr Strt
Lzn
Mndn
Mndr
Smr
Pny
Plwn
B rn
Tmr
Flrs
Smb
Bl
Mdr
Smbw
Lmbk
Jv
Blltn
Pl
Bngk
Kpln
Ntn
Smtr
r n
J y
Crm
Br
Slws
Hlmhr
Ngrs
Prcl
slnds
Bbyn
slnds
Sprtly
slnds
Bnd
ch
Mdn Kl Lmpr
Pdng
Jkrt
Bndng
Dl
Zmbng
Bndr Sr
Bgw n
Dv
Mnl
Phlppns
st Tmr
Brn
Sngpr
Mlys
Mlys
Thlnd
Cmbd
Vtnm
Pp
Nw
Gn
nd n s
N
0
0
300 600 Mls
300 600 Klmtrs
Sthst
s—nslr
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xxxv
RGNL MPS
_
_
_
_
_
Glf f
Tnkn
Glf f
Thlnd
STH
CHN
S
NDMN
S
rrwddy Rvr
Mkng Rvr
Phkt
Bngkk
Phnm
Pnh
H Ch
Mnh Cty
Chng Vntn
M
Yngn
Mndly
Hn
Hphng
nd
Ch n
My n m r
Th l n d
L s
Vtnm
Cmbd
Mlys
N
0
0
200 400 Mls
200 400 Klmtrs
Sthst
s—Mnlnd
RGNL MPS
_
_
_
_
__
Cspn
S
Glf f
mn
RBN
S
Blck S
MDTRRNN
S
gn S
Prsn Glf
nds
Tgrs
phrts
Strt f
Hrmz
Thrn
nkr
Ncs
stnbl
dn
Msl
Tbrz
bdn
Bghdd
l Bsrh
rzrm
Hrt
Kbl
Kndhr
slmbd
Lhr
Krch
Qtt
Krmn
Shrz
Bndr bbs
Mshhd
r n
Tjkstn
rq
Syr
Jrdn
Tr k y
Cyprs
Blgr
Grc
srl
Lbnn
rmn zrbjn
Grg
Rs s
S d r b
Kw t
Qtr
ntd rb
mrts
mn
mn
Tr k m n s tn
fghnstn
Pk s tn
nd
Ch n
zb k st n
N
0
0
250 500 Mls
250 500 Klmtrs
Wst nd
Sthw st s
S
sn Gms
Brd Gms
Chns Nw Yr
Jd
Kbdd
Kts nd Kt Flyng
Mntnrng
lympcs
Strytllng
sn Dvlpmnt Bnk
sn cnmc Crss f 1997
s-Pcfc cnmc Cprtn Frm
tmbl ndstry
Bgr Dclrtn
Drg Trd
xprt-Ld Dvlpmnt
Gldn Crscnt
Hgh- Tchnlgy ndstry
nfrmtn Tchnlgy ndstry
ntllctl Prprty
slmc Bnkng
Mnl ctn Pln
Msrmnt Systms
sk ctn Pln
Shngh Cprtn rgnztn
Slk Rd
Spc Trd
Sstnblty
Tn ndstry
Trsm
Wrld Bnk n s
r Plltn
Bmb
Bffl, Wtr
Cml, Bctrn
Cspn S
Chckn
Cr mrnt
Dfrsttn
Dck nd Gs, Dmstctd
rthqks
ndngrd Spcs
Gt
Mngrvs
Mnsns
pm
Pcfc cn
Pcfc Rm
Pg
Rhncrs, stc
Rc nd Rc grcltr
Sl Lss
Sth Chn S
Srkhb Rvr
Tgr
Txc-Wst Dspsl
Typhns
Vlcns
Wtr sss
Crrptn
ntrntnl Rltns
frc-s Rltns
strl-s Rltns
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xxxx
Rdr’s G9d
xl NCYCLPD F MDRN S
S (cntnd)
ntrntnl Rltns (cntnd)
rp-s Rltns
ntrntnl Mntry Fnd
Lnd Mns
Nw Zlnd-s Rltns
Nclr rms
ntd Ntns
Wrld Wr
Wrld Wr
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
ltc Lnggs
strstc Lnggs
nglsh n s
Hmng- Mn Lnggs
nd-rpn Lnggs
Lngg Prfctn
Md
Slf-Cnsrshp
Sntc Lnggs
Tbt-Br mn Lnggs
Trkc Lnggs
rlc Lnggs
Ppls, Cltrs, nd Scty
Frtlty
Hmsxlty
Nw Rch
rntlsm
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
sn-Chrstn Rlgs Dlg
Brk
Mslm Snts
Rlgs Slf-Mrtfctn
Shmnsm
Shr_
Zrstrnsm
Scnc,Tchnlgy, nd Hlth
DS
Dss, Trpcl
Trrc rrgtn
CNTRL S
lpmsh
rchtctrl Dcrtn—Cntrl s
rchtctr—Cntrl s
Bzksh
Crpts—Cntr l s
Chgty
Csn—Cntrl s
Dnc—Cntrl s
Dstn, Tr kc
Dmbr
dg
Fltng—Cntrl s
Fn rts—Cntrl s
Flklr—Cntrl s
Grkt t
Krghl
Ltrtr—Cntrl s
Mnrt
Msc—Cntrl s
Nv’, Mr’ l Shr
Tl Wrk—Cntrl s
Wdw rkng—Cntrl s
Kzkhstn
zv, Mkhtr
Dylpz
Dltv, Mrzhqyp
Klmknv, Bkhrzhr
Kbyz
Knnbv, b
Mln, Bmbt
Mkhmbt tmsv
Sflln, Sdks
Tmnv, st
Vlkhnv, Chkn
tmtv, Chngs
Mns pc
Tjkstn
Bn Bng F
Trkmnstn
Kl, Mktm
zbkstn
bdlrf Ftrt
bdllh Qs
Mmdl Mhmdv
grcltr—Cntrl s
Crvns
nrgy—Cntrl s
l nd Mnrl ndstrs—Cntrl s
Kzkhstn
Kzkhstn—cnmc Systm
Kyrgyzstn
Kyrgyzstn—cnmc Systm
Tjkstn
Tjkstn—cnmc Systm
Trkmnstn
Trkmnstn—cnmc Systm
zbkstn
zbkstn—cnmc Systm
dctn
Mdrshs
Kzkhstn
ltynsrn, brhm
Kzkhstn—dctn Systm
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xl
Kyrgyzstn
Kyrgyzstn—dctn Systm
Tjkstn
Tjkstn—dctn Systm
Trkmnstn
Trkmnstn—dctn Systm
zbkstn
lshr Nvy Smrknd Stt nvrsty
zbkstn—dctn Systm
lty Mntns
rl S
Bctr
Blkhsh, Lk
Cml, rvn Dr mdry
Frgn Vlly
Hrs, khl-tk
Hrs, Krbr
Hrs, Lk
Kr-Km Dsrt
Khw rzm
Lprd, Snw
Mrgb Rvr
Pmr Rng
Prcl slnds
Rdctv Wst nd Cntmntn—
Cntrl s
Shp, Krkl
Shp, Mrc Pl
Syr Dr’y
Tdzhn Rvr
Tbl Rvr
Trns l
Tr Lw lnd
Trgrt Pss
styrt Plt
Zrfshn Rvr
Kzkhstn
rtysh Rvr
shm Rvr
Kzkh plnds
Mngyshlk Pnnsl
Trgy Plt
Tjkstn
Kfrngn Rvr
Srz Lk
Trkmnstn
Grbl Plt
Bsmch Mv mnt
Cmmns m—Cntrl s
Grt Gm
Rssfctn nd Svtztn—Cntrl s
Tmr
Trbs nd Trbl Fdrtns—Cntrl s
rgnch
Kzkhstn
lmty
stn
Bkkhnv, lkhn
Kzkhstn—Pltcl Systm
Knv, Dnmkhmd
Nzrbv, Nrsltn
rl
Ptrpvlvsk
Sryshghn
Smpltnsk Mv mnt
Srln, Mkhmmdzhn
Slmnv, lzhs
Kyrgyzstn
kv, skr
kskl
Bshkk
Krmnjn Dtk
Kyrgyzstn—Pltcl Systm
sh
sblv, Trdkn sblvch
Tjkstn
Dshnb
Gfrv, Bbjn Gfrvch
slmc Rnssnc Prty—Tjkstn
Khrg
Khjnd
Klb
Nbv, Rkhmn
Qrghntpp
Rkhmnv, mml
Tjkstn—Pltcl Systm
Tjkstn Cvl Wr
Trkmnstn
shgbt
Mry
Nyzv, Sprmrt
Trkmnbt
Trkmnstn—Pltcl Systm
zbkstn
Bkhr
Glstn
Krklpkstn
Krmv, slm
Krsh
Mhll
Nks
Rshdv, Shrf Rshdvch
Smrqnd
Tshknt
Tr mz
zbkstn—Pltcl Systm
RDR’S GD
xl NCYCLPD F MDRN S
CNTRL S (cntnd)
Hstry nd Prfl
Bkhr, Khnt f
Cntrl s—rly Mdvl Prd
Cntrl s—Lt Mdvl nd rly Mdrn
Cntrl s—Mdrn
Khv, Khnt f
Plnthrplgy—Cntrl s
Qqn, Khnt f
Kzkhstn
Kzkhstn—Hstry
Kzkhstn—Prfl
Kyrgyzstn
Kyrgyzstn—Hstry
Kyrgyzstn—Prfl
Tjkstn
Tjkstn—Hstry
Tjkstn—Prfl
Trkmnstn
Trkmnstn—Hstry
Trkmnstn—Prfl
zbkstn
zbkstn—Hstry
zbkstn—Prfl
ntrntnl Rltns
Cntrl s—Hmn Rghts
Cntrl s-Chn Rltns
Cntrl sn Rgnlsm
Cntrl s-Rss Rltns
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
Cntrl sn Lnggs
Frs-Tjk
Md—Cntr l s
Kzkhstn
Qp
Btrsynv, khmt
Kzk
Lnnshl Zhs
Dngns
Grmns n Cntrl s
Klym
Kshlk
Krns n Cntrl s
Mrrg nd Fmly—Cntrl s
Nmdc Pstrlsm—Cntrl s
Pmr Ppls
Rssns n Cntrl s
Wstrnztn—Cntrl s
Wmn n Cntrl s
Yrt
Kzkhstn
Kzkhs
Kyrgyzstn
Clthng, Trdtnl—Kyrgyzstn
Kyrgyz
Tjkstn
Clthng, Trdtnl—Tjkstn
Tjks
Trkmnstn
Clthng, Trdtnl—Trkmnstn
Trkmn
zbkstn
Clthng, Trdtnl—zbkstn
Krklpks
zbks
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
Bddhsm—Cntr l s
Bkhrn Jw s
Chrstnty—Cntrl s
slm—Cntrl s
sml Scts—Cntrl s
Jddsm
Mnrt
Mslm Rlgs Brd f Cntrl s
Nqshbndy
rq Wtr Systm
bn Sn
Kr-Km Cnl
Krz rrgtn Systm
Mdcn, Trdtnl—Cntrl s
ST S
Chn
ng L
rchtctr—Chn
rchtctr, Vrnclr—Chn
B Jn
Bjng pr
Brds nd Brd Cgs
Cllgrphy—Chn
C Xqn
Chn Kg
Chc
C
Cnm—Chn
Clsnn
C Jn
Csn—Chn
Dz Rck Crvngs
Dng Lng
Drgn Bt Fstvl
Dr m—Chn
DF
Fv Clsscs
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xl
F Bsh
G Xngjn
Grdnng—Chn
Gnsng
Gng L
G Mr
Hng l mng
Hng Shn
Hmr n Chns Hstry
Hngry Ghst Fstvl
mprl Plc
ntrntnl Lbr Dy—Chn
Jn png m
L Sh
LB
Ltrtr—Chn
Lngmn Grtts
L Xn
M Lnfng
Md-tmn Fstvl
Mg Cvs
Msc—Chn
Ntnl Dy—Chn
N Shtng
Pntng—Chn
Ptry—Chn
Q Bsh
Qgng
Qn Tmb
Qngmng
Q Jn
Qn Tngsh
Shdw Plys nd Ppptry
Shn Cngw n
Sh
Shjng
Scl Rlsm—Chn
Sprts—Chn
Sprng Fstvl—Chn
Smmr Plc
T Ch
T—Chn
Tmpl f Hvn
Thrtn Mng Tmbs
Tn Hn
Tf
Tw lv Mqm
Wng Ytng
W Chngsh
Wsh
Xq
X Bhng
X Zhm
Zhng Ym
Dnc, Mdrn— st s
Lcqrwr
Msks—st s
Prcln—st s
Jpn
kd
nd Td
nm
Mtsr
rt szk
rchtctr—Jpn
rchtctr—Mdrn Jpn
Bsbll—Jpn
Bsh
Bnt
Bw
Bn Mtsr
Bns
Bnjng
Bnrk
Cllgrphy—Jpn
Cr mcs—Jpn
Chldrn’s Dy—Jpn
Chgn
Cnm—Jpn
Cnm, Cntmprry—Jpn
Csn—Jpn
Dz sm
Dr m—Jpn
dgw Rmp
mkmn
nch Fmk
nd Shsk
t Jn
Fg
Fjd Shz
Fjsw Tk
Fjt Tsghr
Fkch Gn’chr
Fkzw Ykch
Fnksh Gchn
Ftbt, Shm
Gsh
Gn Mtsr
Hk
Hkt Mtsr
Hysh
Hn Mtsr
Hrtsk Rch
d
tN
Jd
Jjts
Kbk
RDR’S GD
xlv NCY CLPD F MDRN S
ST S (cntnd)
rts, Ltrtr, nd Rcrtn (cntnd)
Jpn (cntnd)
Krk
Krt
Kw bt Ysnr
Knd
Kt
Kt
Krkw Ksh
Ltrtr—Jpn
Mng
Mr g
Mrsk Shkb
Msc—Jpn
Msc, Rykyn
Ngt
Nts m Ssk
Nhng
Nh-Kygn
Knzbr
h Sdhr
rgm
Pchnk
Pntng—Jpn
Ptry—Jpn
Shkhch
Shmsn
Shmzk Tsn
Sprts—Jpn
Tng Knz
Tnzk Jn’chr
Ttsn Kng
T Cr mny
Thss
Thr mprl Rgl—Jpn
t
Yg
Krs
rchtctr—Kr
Cllgrphy—Kr
Cr mcs—Kr
Chjn Nr
Ch’ Nm-sn
Ch’sk
Csn—Kr
Dnc—Kr
Dnc Drm, Msk—Kr
Dr m—Kr
Hnshk
Hw ng Sn-wn
Km Myng-sn
Km Sw l
Ltrtr—Kr
Msc—Kr
Pk, Nm Jn
Pntng—Kr
Pk Kyng-r
P’nsr
Ppr Crfts nd rts—Kr
Ptry—Kr
Pjg
Shn Smdng
S Chngj
Sl
Sttl
Sprts—Kr
Ssrm
T Kw n D
Tnch’ng
Tn
Y Ky-b
Y Mn-yl
Yn Sn-d
Mngl
Bh
Csn—Mngl
Dmdnsrn, Tsndyn
Gsr Khn
Khrrkh
Ntsgdr, Dshdrjyn
Chn
grcltr—Chn
grcltrl Cllctvztn—Chn
Chn—cnmc Systm
Dfns ndstry—Chn
Dvlpmnt Zns—Chn
nrgy ndstry—Chn
Fshng ndstry—Chn
Hshld Rspnsblty Systm—Chn
Mchnry nd qpmnt ndstry—Chn
Prvtztn—Chn
Rrl Wr krs, Srpls—Chn
Slt Tx
Shngh Pdng Nw r
Shnzhn Spcl cnmc Zn
Sth Mnchr Rlwy
Spcl cnmc Zns—Chn
Tw n cnmc Mrcl
Tw n nvstmnt n s
Ty ndstry—Chn
Trnsprttn Systm—Chn
Dprtmnt Strs—st s
Txtl nd Clthng ndstry—st s
Jpn
Dnch
Dnk Rrn
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xlv
cnmc Plnnng gncy
cnmc Stblztn Prgr m
lctrncs ndstry—Jpn
Fr mr’s Mv mnt
Fnncl Crss f 1927
Fshng ndstry—Jpn
Frkw chb
Jpn—cnmc Systm
Jpn—Mny
Jpns Fr ms brd
Jpns Frgn nvstmnts
Jpns ntrntnl Cprtn gncy
Kw sk
Nkkys
vrss cnmc Cprtn Fnd
Qlty Crcls
Rng Systm
Stt
Shbsw ch
Shnt
Whlng—Jpn
Krs
Chbl
Fshng ndstry—Kr
Fd Crss—Nrth Kr
Nrth nd Sth Krn cnmc Vntrs
Nrth Kr—cnmc Systm
Sth Kr—cnmc Systm
Stl ndstry—Kr
Mngl
Cshmr ndstry
Frst ndstry—Mngl
Mngl—cnmc Systm
Trns-Mngln Rlw y
dctn
Chn
cdm Snc
Chn—dctn Systm
H Sh
Ntnl Tw n nvrsty
Pkng nvrsty
Tw n—dctn Systm
Jpn
stc Scty f Jpn
Cr m Schls
Dgk
bn Dnj
Gkrk Shk
ng Sbr
mprl Rscrpt n dctn
Jpn—dctn Systm
Kyk Mm
Ntb nz
Shg Shgtk
Krs
Kr nsttt f Scnc nd Tchnlgy
Nrth Kr—dctn Systm
Sl Ntnl nvrsty
Sth Kr—dctn Systm
Mngl
Mngl—dctn Systm
Sbr
Yllw S
Chn
Brmptr Rvr
Cthy Tr
Chng Rvr
st Chn S
m, Mnt
Fmn—Chn
Grtr Xng’n Rng
Hngdn Rngs
Hng Rvr
Hng Shn
Hnglngs
Jzhg
Knln Mntns
L, Mnt
Pnd
Qnlng Rng
T Shn
Tw n Strt
Tklmkn Dsrt
Tr m Bsn
Tn Shn
Wdng Shn
Wlngyn
Wy, Mnt
Yk
Jpn
mm slnds
Chrysnthmm
Chb
Chgk
trf slnd
Fj, Mnt
Hkkd
Hnsh
rmtjm slnd
Kns Rgn
Knt Rgn
Knk Rgn
Knshr slnd
Kysh
Sd slnd
Stch Rgn
Shkk
RDR’S GD
ST S (cntnd)
Ggrphy nd th Ntrl Wrld (cntnd)
Jpn (cntnd)
Thk Rgn
Tkmr Nclr Dsstr
Tsshm slnd
Ykshm slnd
Krs
mnk Rvr
Hn Rvr
Km Plt
Kmkng, Mnt
Kr By
Kr Strt
Km Rvr
Nktng Rvr nd Dlt
Nngnm Rng
T’bk Mntns
Tdng Rvr
Tmn Rvr
Mngl
Gb Dsrt
Hng Mntns
Hnt Mntns
Hrs, Przw lsk’s
Chn
nh
Bjng
Cdr Systm—Chn
Chn Dx
Chn Sh-bn
Chn Yn
Chngd
Chngd
Chng K-shk
Chlng
Chn—Pltcl Systm
Chns Cvl Wr f 1945–1949
Chns Cmmnst Prty
Chngqng
C X, mprss Dw gr
Cvl-Srvc xmntn Systm—Chn
Cmmns m—Chn
Crrptn—Chn
Cltr l Rvltn—Chn
Dng Xpng
Fjn
Gng f Fr
Gns
Grt Lp Frw rd
Gngdng
Gngx
Gngzh
Gzh
Gmndng
Hnn
Hngzh
Hrbn
Hb
Hlngjng
Hnn
Hng Kng
H Jnt
H Ybng
Hb
Hnn
Hndrd Dys Rfrm
Hndrd Flw rs Cmpgn
Jng Z mn
Jngs
Jngx
Jln
Kng Yw
K-hsng
Kng Xngx
L Tng-h
Lhs
L Hngzhng
L Png
Lng Qch
Lnng
Ln B
L Shq
Lng Mrch
Mc
Mnchr
Mnchrn ncdnt
M Zdng
My Frth Mv mnt
Nnjng
N Mnggl
Nngx
Nrthrn xpdtn
Ppl’s Lbrtn r my
Pltcl Prtcptn, nffcl—Chn
Qngh
Qmy nd Mts
Rd Grd rgnztns
Rpblcn Rvltn f 1911
Slf-Strngthnng Mvmnt
Shnx
Shndng
Shngh
Shnx
Schn
Sclst Sprtl Cvlztn—Chn
Sng Zw n
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xlv
Sn Yt-sn
Szh
Tnn
Tp
Tpng Rblln
Tw n—Pltcl Systm
Thght Wrk—Chn
Thr nd Fv nts Cmpgns
Tnnmn Sqr
Tnjn
Tbt
Tbtn prsng
Wng Jngw
Wht Trrr
W Ztn
X’n
X’n ncdnt
Xnjng
Yn, Y.C. Jms
Yn Shk
Ynnn
Zng Gfn
Zhng Zhdng
Zh Zyng
Zhjng
Zh nl
Zh D
Zh Rngj
Z Zngtng
Jpn
bs
ch
kt
mr
rk Sd
m Shnrky Scndl
Bb Tts
Brk Lbrtn Lg
Chb
Ctzn’s Mvmnt
Cnstttn, Pstwr—Jpn
Cnstttnl Crss f 1881
Dmcrtc Sclst Prty—Jpn
d Sbr
hm
nmt Tkk
Fkd Hdk
Fkd Tk
Fk
Fkmt Kz
Fkk
Fkshm
Gf
Gt Shnp
Gmm
Hr Tksh
Hty m chr
Hgshkn Nrhk
Hrht
Hrshm
Hyg
brk
chkw Fs
kd Hyt
shhr Shntr
shkw
wt
Jpn—Pltcl Systm
Jpn Cmmnst Prty
Jpn Sclst Prty
Kgw
Kgshm
Kngw
Knn Sg
Kt Tkk
Ksh Nbsk
Kch
Kdm Ysh
Kmt
Kn Fmmr
Kmmt
Kyt
Lbrl Dmcrtc Prty—Jpn
Lckhd Scndl
Mrym Ms
M
Mnb Ttskch
Myg
Myzk
Mr rnr
Ngn
Ngsk
Nksn Yshr
Nr
Ngt
gswr
t
kym
knw
sk
Rcrt Scndl
Sg
Snj Knmch
Stm
Sppr
Ssgw Rych
St sk
RDR’S GD
ST S (cntnd)
Gvrnmnt, Pltcs, nd Lw (cntnd)
Jpn (cntnd)
Snd
Shg
Shmn
Shpbldng Scndl
Shzk
Shw Dnk Scndl
Smns ncdnt
Tnk Gch
Txtbk Scndl
Tchg
Tj Hdk
Tkshm
Tky
Tttr
Tym
Wky m
Ymgt
Ymgt rtm
Ymgch
Ymmt srk
Ymnsh
Yshd Shgr
Yshd Shn
Krs
prl 19 Rvltn—Kr
Chgng Prvnc
Chj Prvnc
Ch’ngjn
Chn D Hw n
Cmmns m—Nrth Kr
Crrptn—Kr
Dmcrtztn—Sth Kr
Hj
Hmhng
Hn Yng-n
nchn
Jch
Ksng
Kngw n Prvnc
Km D Jng
Km l Sng
Km Jng l
Km P-shk
Km Yng-sm
Km Y-sn
Kw ngj
Kw ngj prsng
Kyngg Prvnc
Mrch Frst ndpndnc Mv mnt
Nmp’
Nrth Chll Prvnc
Nrth Ch’ngch’ng Prvnc
Nrth Hmgyng Prvnc
Nrth Hw ngh Prvnc
Nrth Kr—Pltcl Systm
Nrth Kyngsng Prvnc
Nrth P’yngn Prvnc
Pr k Chng H
Psn
Pyngyng
Rh, Syngmn
Rh T W
Sdj
Sjng, Kng
Sl
Snj
Sth Chll Prvnc
Sth Ch’ngch’ng Prvnc
Sth Hmgyng Prvnc
Sth Hw ngh Prvnc
Sth Kr—Pltcl Systm
Sth Kyngsng Prvnc
Sth P’yngn Prvnc
Tg
Tjn
Thr Rvltns Mv mnt
lch Mndk
Wng Kn
Ynggng Prvnc
Y H-ng
Y Sng-gy
Y T’-yng
Y Kw n Sn
Yshn
Mngl
mg
Btmnkh, Jmbyn
Chyblsn, Hrlgyn
Chr mqn, Nyn
Drhn
rdnt
Gnghs Khn
Gldn Hrd
Grrgch, Jgdrdmdyn
Krkrm
Khbl Khn
Mngl—Pltcl Systm
Mngln Scl Dmcrtc Prty
Nrntstsrlt, Jnlvyn
chrbt, Pnslmgyn
Skhbtr, Dmdny
Tsdnbl, Y mjgyn
lnbtr
ntd Prty f Mngl
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S xlx
Hstry nd Prfl
st s
Plnthrplgy—st s
Chn
Chn—Prfl
Hn Dynsty
Hngcn nd Xd
Jrchn Jn Dynsty
Ljng, ld Tw n f
Mng Dynsty
Pngy, ncnt Cty f
Qn Dynsty
Qng Dynsty
Rpblcn Chn
Shng Dynsty
Sxtn Kngdms
Sng Dynsty
S Dynsty
Tw n—Prfl
Tw n, Mdrn
Tng Dynsty
Wrrng Stts Prd—Chn
Yn Dynsty
Zh Dynsty
Jpn
Chsh xpdtns
Hn Prd
Hs Prd
Jpn—Prfl
Jmn Prd
Kmkr Prd
Mj Prd
Mr mch Prd
Nr Prd
Shw Prd
Tsh Prd
Tkgw Prd
Yy Prd
Krs
Chsn Kngdm
Kr—Hstry
Kry Kngdm
Nrth Kr—Prfl
Prh Kngdm
Sth Kr—Prfl
Thr Kngdms Prd
nfd Shll Kngdm
Mngl
Mngl mpr
Mngl—Hstry
Mngl—Prfl
ntrntnl Rltns
Chns nflnc n st s
ntd Frnt Strtgy
Chn
Bxr Rblln
Cntrl s-Chn Rltns
Chn—Hmn Rghts
Chn-nd Rltns
Chn-Jpn Pc nd Frndshp Trty
Chn-Jpn Rltns
Chn-Kr Rltns
Chn- Rss Rltns
Chn- Tw n Rltns
Chn-ntd Stts Rltns
Chn-Vtnm Rltns
Chns nflnc n st s
Chns nflnc n Sthst s
Hrt, Rbrt
Jpn-Tw n Rltns
Mngl-Chn-Rss Rltns
Nnjng Msscr
pn Dr Plcy
pm Wr
Sn-Frnch Wr
Sprtly slnds Dspt
Tw n—Hmn Rghts
Tw n-ntd Stts Rltns
Tbt—mg n th Mdrn Wst
Jpn
Chn-Jpn Pc nd Frndshp Trty
Chn-Jpn Rltns
Cmfrt Wmn
Jpn—Hmn Rghts
Jpn-frc Rltns
Jpn-Frnc Rltns
Jpn-Gr mny Rltns
Jpn-Kr Rltns
Jpn-Ltn mrc Rltns
Jpn- Pcfc slnds Rltns
Jpn- Phlppns Rltns
Jpn-Rss Rltns
Jpn-Tw n Rltns
Jpn–ntd Kngdm Rltns
Jpn–ntd Stts Rltns
Jpns xpnsn
Nxn Shck
Nrthrn Trrtrs
Nclr llrgy
Plz ccrd
Rss-Jpns Wr
Sn Frncsc Pc Trty
Sn-Jpns Cnflct, Scnd
Sn-Jpns Wr
Stts f Frcs grmnt
ntd Stts Mltry Bss—Jpn
ntd Stts-Jpn Scrty Trty
Yskn Shrn Cntrvrsy
RDR’S GD
l NCY CLPD F MDRN S
ST S (cntnd)
Hstry nd Prfl (cntnd)
Krs
Chn-Kr Rltns
Jpn-Kr Rltns
Kr-Jpn Trty f 1965
Krn Wr
Nrth Kr—Hmn Rghts
Nrth Kr-Sth Kr Rltns
Nrth Kr-ntd Stts Rltns
Sth Kr—Hmn Rghts
Sth Kr-rpn nn Rltns
Sth Kr-ntd Stts Rltns
Mngl
Mngl—Hmn Rghts
Mngl-Chn-Rss Rltns
Mngl-Svt nn Rltns
Pl, Mrc
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
Chn
Chns, Clsscl
D Qng
Hkk Lnggs
Mndrn
Md—Chn
Mn
Rmnztn Systms, Chns
Sn-Tbtn Lnggs
W
Xng
Y
Jpn
Fmnn Lngg
Jpns Lngg
Mts mt Shghr
Md—Jpn
Krs
Hngl Scrpt
Krn Lngg
Md—Sth Kr
Rmnztn Systms, Krn
Mngl
Khlkh
Mngln Lnggs
Tngs Lnggs
Mrrg nd Fmly—st s
Wstrnztn—st s
Chn
brgnl Ppls—Tw n
Chn—ntrnl Mgrtn
Chn—Ppltn Rsttlmnt
Chns, vrss
Clthng, Trdtnl—Chn
Clthng, Trdtnl—Hng Kng
Clthng, Trdtnl—Tw n
Clthng, Trdtnl—Tbt
Crtyrds
Ft Bndng
Gnx
Hkk
Hn
Hmng
H
Mnch
Mrrg nd Fmly—Chn
M—Chn
Ms
Mslm Ppls n Chn
Ntnl Mnrts—Chn
Qngk
Sngl- Chld Phnmnn—Chn
Scl ssctns—Chn
Scl Strtfctn—Chn
Tbtns
Tj
ghrs
Wmn n Chn
Y
Y
Zhng
Jpn
gng Ppltn—Jpn
n
Brkmn
Chns n Jpn
Clthng, Trdtnl—Jpn
jm
Krns n Jpn
Scl Rltns—Jpn
Wmn n Jpn
Krs
Ch’nmn
Clthng, Trdtnl—Kr
Krns
Krns, vrss
Ky
Nb
Wmn n Kr
Yngbn
Mngl
Clthng, Trdtnl—Mngl
Mngls
Rssns n Mngl
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
ncstr Wrshp—st s
Zdc Systm—st s
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S l
Chn
nlcts
thsm, ffcl—Chn
Bddhsm—Chn
Bddhsm, Chn
Bddhsm—Tbt
Bddhsm, Pr Lnd
Br f Rlgs ffrs
Chrstnty—Chn
Cnfcn thcs
Cnfcnsm—Chn
Cnfcs
Clt f Mtry
Dl Lm
Fln Gng
Fng Sh
Fv Phss
Fr Bks
Jdsm—Chn
Lz
Mrxsm-Lnns m-M Zdng Thght
Mncs
Mz
N- Cnfcnsm
Ptl Plc
Rlgn, Flk—Chn
Rcc, Mtt
Tsm
Xnz
Zh X
Jpn
tst Shrn
Bddhsm—Jpn
Chrstnty—Jpn
Cnfcnsm—Jpn
Hysh Rzn
Hnn
kky
s Shrn
wshmz Hchmn Shrn
zm Shrn
Kk
Mtr Nrng
Nchrn
Nshd Ktr
Rlgn, Flk—Jpn
Rlgns, Nw —Jpn
Sch
Shnrn
Shnt
Szk Dsts Ttr
Tw nty-Sx Mrtyrs
chmr Knz
Ymt Dmsh
Yskn Shrn
Krs
Bddhsm—Kr
Ch’ndgy
Chrstnty—Kr
Cnfcnsm—Kr
Rlgns, Nw —Kr
Ssh Cstms
Tjnggy
Tn’gn Myth
Tsm—Kr
Tnghk
nfctn Chrch
Y
Mngl
Bgd Khn
Bddhsm—Mngl
Gndn Lmsry
slm—Mngl
Shmnsm—Mngl
Clndrs—st s
Chn
bcs
cpnctr
Djngyn
Grnd Cnl
Grt Wll
Gnpw dr nd Rcktry
Jnk
L Shzhn
Mgnts m
Mssg—Chn
Mdcn, Trdtnl—Chn
Mxbstn
Ndhm, Jsph
Prntng nd Ppr mkng
Scnc, Trdtnl—Chn
Srcltr—Chn
Thr Grgs Dm Prjct
X Gngq
Krs
Scnc Tw ns—Kr
STH S
Chtr/rdhchtr/Chtrbhsh
Cnvync rts
Crckt
Csn—Sth s
Dr m—Sth s
Frd, Khw j Ghlm
ndg
slm, Kz Nzrl
RDR’S GD
l NCY CLPD F MDRN S
STH S (cntnd)
rts, Ltrtr, nd Rcrtn (cntnd)
Jtr
Km Str
Kplng, Jsph Rdyrd
Ltrtr, Bngl
Ltrtr, Snskrt
Ltrtr, Tml
Mhbhrt
Mnt, Sdt Hsn
Nr Jhn
Pntng—Sth s
Prsn Mntr Pntng
Rg
Rmyn
Rbb
Srng
Srd
Sclptr—Sth s
Shh, Lln
Shhn
Vn
Bngldsh
Dnc—Bngldsh
Msc—Bngldsh
Bhtn
Txtls—Bhtn
nd
nnd, Mlk Rj
rchtctr—nd
Bchchn, mtbh
Chttrj, Bnkm Chndr
Chdhr, Nrd Chndr
Chght, s mt
Cnm—nd
Dnc—nd
Dw l
Dr m—nd
Frstr, . M.
Ghlb, Mrz sdllh Khn
Hl
Klds
Khn, Vlyt
Khsr, mr
Kmr, Dlp
Ltrtr—nd
Mngshkr, Lt
Msc—nd
Msc, Dvtnl—nd
Nryn, R.K.
Ntk
Ptry—nd
Pr krn
Pr mchnd
Rhmn, .R.
R, Rj
Rs
Ry, Styjt
Sprts—nd
Tj Mhl
Sr Lnk
Cmrsw my, nnd Kntsh
Dnc, Kndyn
Ltrtr, Snhls
grcltr—Sth s
Brtsh st nd Cmpny
Frnch st nd Cmpny
Hw kns, Wllm
Nmdc Pstrlsm—Sth s
T—Sth s
Bngldsh
Bngldsh—cnmc Systm
Grmn Bnk
nd
grcltr—Sth s
Brtsh st nd Cmpny
Frnch st nd Cmpny
Hw kns, Wllm
nd—cnmc Systm
Nmdc Pstrlsm—Sth s
Rmttncs
Slt Tx
T—Sth s
Npl
Npl—cnmc Systm
Sr Lnk
Sr Lnk—cnmc Systm
dctn
Pnn
Syyd, hmd Khn
Bngldsh
Bngldsh—dctn Systm
nd
nd—dctn Systm
Npl
Npl—dctn Systm
Sr Lnk
Sr Lnk—dctn Systm
ndmn S
By f Bngl
Brmptr Rvr
Bstrd, Hbr
Chgs rchplg
lphnt, sn
Grn Rvltn—Sth s
Hmly Rng
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S l
ndn cn
ndn Sbcntnnt
nd-Gngtc Pln
Jhlm Rvr
Jt
K2, Mnt
Kngchnjng, Mnt
Kvr Rvr
Kstn Rvr
Mngs
Pnjb
Rnn slnd
Sndrbhns
Tr
nd
b, Mnt
ndmn nd Ncbr slnds
Bhpl
Chnb Rvr
Dkkn
strn Ghts
Gngs Rvr
Gdvr Rvr
Hnd Ksh
Jmn Rvr
Ln, stc
Mhnd Rvr
Nr md Dm Cntrvrsy
Nr md Rvr
Rnn f Kchchh
Stpr Rng
Stlj Rvr
Thr Dsrt
Tngbhdr Rvr
Vndhy Mntns
Wstrn Ghts
Zb
Npl
vrst, Mnt
Kthmnd Vlly
Bhdr Shh
Brl Fmly
Clmb Pln
Hstngs, Wrrn
Hmyn
bn l-Qs m, Mhmmd
Jhngr
Mrxsm—Sth s
Prs
Rzy
Ry, Rmmhn
Shh Jhn
Sngh, J
Tt Fmly
Tp Sltn
Bngldsh
w m Lg
Bngldsh—Pltcl Systm
Bngldsh Ntnlst Prty
Chttgng
Dhk
rshd, H.M.
Hsn Wjd, Shkh
Jty Prty
Rhmn, Mjbr
Rhmn, Zr
Z, Khld
Bhtn
Thmph
Wngchck, Kng Jgm Sngy
nd
fzl Khn
grtl
gr
hmdbd
jnt
jdhy
kbr
l Jnhr, Mhmd
llhbd
mbdkr, B.R.
mrtsr
ndhr Prdsh
rnchl Prdsh
sk
ssm
rngbd
rngzb
wdh
zd, b’l-Klm
Bbr
Bnglr
Bngl, Wst
Bntnck, Wllm Cvndsh
Bhsl, Shvj
Bhbnshw r
Bhr
Bdh Gy
Bs, Sbhs Chndr
Clctt
Clct
Cnnng, Chrls Jhn
Chndgrh
Chhttsgrh
Cmbtr
Cnstttn—nd
RDR’S GD
lv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
STH S (cntnd)
nd (cntnd)
Crngnr
Crzn, Grg Nthnl
Ddr nd Ngr Hvl nn Trrtry
Dmn nd D nn Trrtry
Drjlng
Dhr Dn
Dlh nn Trrtry
Dv, Phln
Fzl, b’l
Gndh, ndr
Gndh, Mhnds K.
Gngtk
G
Gds, Nthr m Vnyk
Gjrt
Gw ht
Hdr, l Khn
Hrs
Hryn
Hmchl Prdsh
Hnd Lw
Hnd Ntnlsm
Hydrbd
mphl
nd—Pltcl Systm
ndr
Jpr
Jmm nd Kshmr
Jhrkhnd
Jdhpr
Knpr
Krntk
Ktly
Krl
Khlft Mv mnt
Khm
Ldkh
Lkshdw p
Lxmb
Lh
Lcknw
Mcly, Thms B.
Mdhy Prdsh
Mdrs
Mdr
Mhrshtr
Mnglr
Mnpr
Mthr
Mghly
Mzrm
Mntg- Chlmsfrd Rfrms
Mrly- Mnt Rfrms
Mmb
Mslm Lg
Mysr
Nglnd
Nhr, Jw hrll
Nhr, Mtll
Nlgr Dstrct
tcmnd
rss
Ptn
Pndchrry
Pn
Pr
Rpr
Rjgplchr, Chkrvrt
Rjsthn
Rjkt
Rmchndrn, Mrdr Gplmnn
Srnth
Stygrh
Shllng
Skkm
Sml
Sndh Fmly
Srngr
Tml Nd
Thnjvr
Trpr
Trvndrm
ttr Prdsh
ttrnchl
Vrns
Vshkptnm
Npl
Kthmnd
Npl—Pltcl Systm
Rn
Sr Lnk
Bndrnk, Sr mv Rtw tt Ds
Bndrnk, Slmn Wst Rdgw y Dz
Clmb
Jffn
Kndy
Plnnrv
Sr Lnk—Pltcl Systm
Trncml
Hstry nd Prfl
Brtsh ndn mpr
Chr
Chl
Dgr Dynsty
Gpt mpr
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lv
Hrpp
Hlkrs
Mryn mpr
Mghl mpr
Plnthrplgy—Sth s
Pndy
Sth s—Hstry
Vjyngr mpr
Bngldsh
Bngldsh—Hstry
Bngldsh—Prfl
Bhtn
Bhtn—Hstry
Bhtn—Prfl
nd
ngl- Mysr Wrs
nd—Mdvl Prd
nd—Prfl
Mtny, ndn
Qt nd Mv mnt
Mldvs
Mldvs—Hstry
Mldvs—Prfl
Mrts
Mrts—Prfl
Npl
Npl—Hstry
Npl—Prfl
Sr Lnk
Sr Lnk—Hstry
Sr Lnk—Prfl
ntrntnl Rltns
Bngldsh
Bngldsh-nd Rltns
Bngldsh- Pkstn Rltns
nd
Bngldsh-nd Rltns
Chn-nd Rltns
nd—Hmn Rghts
nd-Mynmr Rltns
nd-Pkstn Rltns
nd-Sthst s Rltns
nd-Sr Lnk Rltns
nd-ntd Kngdm Rltns
nd-ntd Stts Rltns
Sr Lnk
nd-Sr Lnk Rltns
Sr Lnk—Hmn Rghts
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
Bngl Lngg
Drvdn Lnggs
nd-ryn Lnggs
Md—Sth s
Mnd Lnggs
nd
Hnd-rd
Snskrt
Tml Lngg
Sr Lnk
Snhl
Bngls
thnc Cnflct—Sth s
Gm, Vsc d
sml Scts—Sth s
Mrrg nd Fmly—Sth s
Ngs
Pnjb
Rfgs—Sth s
Sth sns, vrss
Wstrnztn—Sth s
Wmn n Sth s
Bhtn
Bhtns
Clthng, Trdtnl—Bhtn
nd
ngl-ndns
ryn
ssms
Bhl
Brhmn
Cst
Clthng, Trdtnl—nd
Gr
Gnd
Gjrt
Hll Trbs f nd
Khs
rys
Phr
Pndt
Prs
Prpttcs
Rjpt
Snskrtztn
Sntl
St
Tmls
Tlg
ntchblty
Sr Lnk
Snhls
Vdd
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
Bddhsm—Sth s
Chshty
Chrstnty—Sth s
RDR’S GD
lv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
STH S (cntnd)
Rlgn nd Phlsphy (cntnd)
slm—Sth s
Jns, Wllm
Jdsm—Sth s
Khw j M’n l- Dn Chsht
Nrbkhshy
Plgr mg—Sth s
Snkr
Sddhrth Gtm
Sfsm—Sth s
Vvknnd, Sw m
Wl llh, Shh
Bhtn
Bhtn—Rlgn
nd
Blvtsky, Hln Ptrvn
Bhkt
Dv, Nnk Gr
Hnd Phlsphy
Hnd Vls
Hnds m—nd
Jnsm
Jsts— nd
Lngyt
Ngrjn
Nz m d-dn w ly
Pssssn
Rmkrshn
Rmnj
S Bb, Sty
Skhs m
Tgr, Rbndrnth
Trs, Mthr
pnshds
Clndrs—Sth s
Clmtlgy—Sth s
nd
Mdcn, yrvdc
Mdcn, nn
STHST S
rchtctr—Sthst s
Btk
Cckfghtng
Dr m—Sthst s
Hr Ry Ps
Kn Btk
Kn Sngkt
Mnd
Spk Tkrw
Thps m
Cmbd
ngkr Wt
Ltrtr, Khmr
ndns
rj
Bl Brng- Rngd
Blns Snghyng
Bdy
Brbdr
Csn—ndns
Dnc—Bl
Gmbng Kr mng
Gmbh
Gmln
Hkyt mr Hmz
Ldrk
Msks, Jvns
Msc—ndns
Nr, rfn C.
Pr mdy nnt Tr
Ps
Rnd
Rndr, W.S.
Rntrn, Nn
Sndwr
Wyng Bbr
Wyng Glk
Wyng Klt
Wyng Tpng
Wyng Wng
Wjy, Pt
Ls
kt Dyng
Lng Prbng
Msc, Flk—Ls
Plm-Lf Mnscrpts
Txtls—Ls
Tht Lng Fstvl
Wt Xng Khn
Mlys
Bngsw n
Chng F Mng
Chh Thn Tng
Csn—Mlys
Dnc—Mlys
Dkr Brt
Gw Dyk
Jky
Jt, Krshn
Lb Syng
Lm, Shrly
Mk Yng
Mnm, K.S.
Mnr
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lv
Pst Mn
Ptrns Tw rs
Sngkt
Trn syk
Trn Prtgs
Ty H Kt
Mynmr
Brms rts
Ltrtr—Mynmr
Mndly Plc
Pgds, Brms
Phlppns
rns
Bgnbnt, Frnnd
Blsng
Bltzr, Frncsc
Blsn, Cr ls
Csn—Phlppns
Grrr, Frnnd M.
Ltrtr—Phlppns
Ln Y Nvc, Jn
Ptry—Phlppns
Thlnd
Bdylnkrn
Csn—Thlnd
Dmkng, kt
Dkm St
Dr m—Thlnd
mrld Bddh
Fsh Fghtng
Khn Chng, Khn Phn
Ltrtr—Thlnd
Lngbt Rcng
My Th
Nrt
Phms k, Cht
Rmkn
Sbrph
St Kr mrht
Vtnm
D
Csn—Vtnm
D Vt S Ky
Dn Th Dm
H Xn Hng
Hng Ngc Phch
Ht, Dn Vt
Kh Hng
Lnh Nht
Ltrtr—Vtnm
Ngyn D
Ngyn Th G
pr—Vtnm
Plw ng Rtl—Vtnm
Ptry—Vtnm
Ppptry, Wtr
Tt
Trn D
Trng Vnh Ky
T Lc Vn Dn
Wndrng Sls
grcltr—Sthst s
Brm- Thlnd Rlwy
Fshng ndstry—Sthst s
Frst ndstry—Sthst s
Gldn Trngl
H Ch Mnh Trl
Rbbr ndstry
Cmbd
Cmbd—cnmc Systm
ndns
ndns—cnmc Systm
Mnfctrng ndstry—ndns
Rplt
Ls
Chntnkn m
Ls—cnmc Systm
Mttphp Brdg
Mlys
Mlys—cnmc Systm
Mnfctrng ndstry—Mlys
Mnrl ndstry—Mlys
Nw cnmc Plcy—Mlys
Rbbr ndstry—Mlys
Tmbr ndstry—Mlys
Mynmr
Brm Rd
Mynmr—cnmc Systm
Phlppns
Mnfctrng ndstry—Phlppns
Pn- Phlppn Hghwy
Phlppns—cnmc Systm
Sk
Sngpr
Bnkng nd Fnnc ndstry—Sngpr
Sngpr—cnmc Systm
Thlnd
Thlnd—cnmc Systm
Thmpsn, Jm
Vtnm
DM
H Ch Mnh Trl
Mkng Prjct
Nw cnmc Zns
Vtnm—cnmc Systm
RDR’S GD
lv NCYCLPD F MDRN S
STHST S (cntnd)
dctn
Brn
nvrst Brn Drsslm
Cmbd
Cmbd—dctn Systm
Ryl nvrsty f Phnm Pnh
ndns
Bndng nsttt f Tchnlgy
Gdjh Md nvrsty
ndns—dctn Systm
nvrsty f ndns
Ls
Ls—dctn Systm
Ssvngvng nvrsty
Mlys
Mlys—dctn Systm
nvrst Sns Mlys
nvrsty f Mly
Mynmr
Mynmr—dctn Systm
Phlppns
Phlppns—dctn Systm
Sngpr
Nnyng Tchnlgcl nvrsty
Ntnl nvrsty f Sngpr
Sngpr—dctn Systm
Thlnd
Chllngkrn nvrsty
Thlnd—dctn Systm
Vtnm
Vtnm—dctn Systm
ndmn S
Bntng
Brn
Dngrk Rng
Grn Rvltn—Sthst s
Lprd, Cldd
Mngs
rngtn
Sn Br
Cmbd
Crdmn Mntns
lphnt Rng
Kmpng Sm By
Tnl Sp
ndns
Bbrs
Bl
Bnd S
Flrs S
Jv S
Kmd Drgn
Mlk
Ns Tnggr
Tmr S
Ls
Blvns Plt
Pln f Jrs
Mlys
Cmrn Hghlnds
Knbl, Mnt
Strt f Mlcc
Mynmr
rkn Ym Mntns
nl Lk Rgn
rrwddy Rvr nd Dlt
Slw n Rvr
Sttng Rvr
Phlppns
gn Rvr
Cgyn Rvr
Crbll Mntns
Clbs S
Crdllr Cntr l
Lzn Grp
Mgy
Mndn
Phlppn S
Srr Mdr
Sl rchplg
Vsyn slnds
Zmbls Mntns
Thlnd
Ch Phry Rvr nd Dlt
D nthnn
Glf f Thlnd
Khn Kn
Nkhn Rtchsm
Pnnslr Thlnd
Thr Pgds Pss
Vtnm
Cm Rnh By
Cntrl Hghlnds f Vtnm
Cn D slnds
H Lng By
H Dynsty Ctdl
Hn Km Lk
Krn Rvr nd Shtt l rb Rvr
Mkng Rvr nd Dlt
Rd Rvr nd Dlt
Tnkn Glf
lbqrq, fns d
Brtsh Mltry dmnstrtn
Dmr, Pl
Dtch st nd Cmpny
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lx
Rmsh
Wld, Frdrck
Brn
zhr, .M.
Bndr Sr Bgw n
Brk, Jms
Hssnl Blkh
Prt Rkyt Brn
Cmbd
Bddhst Lbrl Dmcrtc Prty—Cmbd
Cmbd—Cvl Wr f 1970-1975
Cmbd—Pltcl Systm
Cmbdn Ppl’s Prty
F Ngm
FNCNPC
Hng Smrn
Hn Sn
Jyvrmn
Jyvrmn V
Kh Smphn
Khmr Rg
Kllng Flds
Ln Nl
Phnm Pnh
Phnm Pnh vctn
Pl Pt
Rnrddh, Nrdm
Sm Rnsy
Shnk, Nrdm
st Tmr
Bl, Bshp Crls
Dl
Dl Msscr
Frtln
Gsm, Xnn
Rms-Hrt, Jsé
ndns
rlngg
mbn Msscr
Bndng
Btv
Bsch, Jhnns vn dn
Bd tm
Cn, Jn Ptrszn
Ckng
Dndls, Hr mn
Drl slm
thnc Clnl Plcy—ndns
Gjh Md
Grnd
Gstp ffr
Glkr
Hbb, B.J.
Hmngk Bw n X, Sr Sltn
Htt, Mhmmd
Hzbllh
ndns—Pltcl Prts
ndns—Pltcl Systm
ndnsn Dmcrtc Prty
ndnsn Rvltn
rn Jy
Jkrt
Jkrt Rts f My 1998
Jv
Klmntn
Mlk, dm
Mdn
Mgw t Skrnptr
Mltry, ndns
Mrdn, Lnrds Bnjmn
Nw rdr
ld rdr
Pncsl
Prt Kbngktn Bngs
Prt Prstn Pmbngnn
Rs, Mhmmd mn
Srkt slm
Sl
Splmn, Crnls
Shrt
Skrn
Slws
Smtr
Srby
Tmn Ssw
Trty f Gynt
mr, Tk
Whd, bdrrhmn
Ygykrt
Ls
Bk
Ch n
Cvl Wr f 1956–1975—Ls
Kysn Phmvhn
L Ppl’s Rvltnry Prty
Ls—Pltcl Systm
Lngnmth
Ptht L
Stththrt
Sphnvng, Prnc
Svnn Phm, Prnc
Vntn
Xybry
Mlys
bdl Rzk
b Bkr
nw r, brhm
Bdw , bdllh hmd
RDR’S GD
lx NCYCLPD F MDRN S
STHST S (cntnd)
Mlys (cntnd)
Bndhr
Brch, Jms W. W.
Bmptr
Clffrd, Hgh
Fdrl Trrtrs—Mlys
Fdrtn f Mlys
Hj, Rj
Hssn nn
skndr Md
Jhr
Kptn Cn
Kdh
Klntn
Kt Knbl
Kl Lmpr
Kchng
Lksmn
Lght, Frncs
Lm Chng
Mhthr Mhmd
Mhmd Shh
Mly Stts, nfdrtd
Mlyn Ppl’s nt-Jpns rmy
Mlyn nn
Mlys—Pltcl Systm
Mlysn Chns ssctn
Mnsr Shh
Mt Sllh Rblln
My 13 thnc Rts— Mlys
Mlk
Ngr Smbln
Nngkn, Stphn Klng
nn Bn Jfr
Phng
Pngkr Trty
Pnng
Pr k
Prls
Rffls, Thms Stmfrd
Rsdnt Systm
Rkngr
Sbh
Srw k
Strts Sttlmnts
Sw ttnhm, Frnk
Tn Sw Sn
Tmnggng
Tmplr, Grld
Trnggn
Wn hmd
Yp h Ly
Mynmr
ll Br m Stdnts Dmcrtc Frnt
nw rth
nt-Fscst Ppl’s Frdm Lg—Mynmr
ng Sn
ng Sn S Ky
Bssn
Brm ndpndnc rmy
Chn Stt
Cmmnst Prty f Brm
rrwddy Dvsn
Kchn ndpndnc rgnztn
Kchn Stt
Krn Ntnl nn
Krn Stt
Kyh Stt
Mgw Dvsn
Mndly
Mndly Dvsn
Mn Stt
Mng T r my
Mlmn
Mynmr—Pltcl Systm
Ntnl Lg fr Dmcrcy—Mynmr
Ntnl nty Prty—Mynmr
N Wn,
N,
Plng Stt Lbrtn Prty
P Ntnl rgnztn
Pg
Rkhn Stt
Sgng Dvsn
Shn Stt
Shn Stt r my
Stt Lw nd rdr Rstrtn Cncl—
Mynmr
Tnssrm Dvsn
Thkns
Thn Shw
Thnt,
nn Sldrty nd Dvlpmnt ssctn—
My
ntd W Stt Prty
Yngn
Yngn Dvsn
Phlppns
qn, Bngn
qn, Crzn
tnms Rgn f Mslm Mndn
Bg
Cb
Dv
strd, Jsph
Grc, Crls P.
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lx
Hk Rblln
Mcpgl, Dsdd
Mcrthr, Dgls
Mgsysy, Rmn
Mnl
Mrcs, Frdnnd
Mrcs, mld
Mr slmc Lbrtn Frnt
Mr Ntnl Lbrtn Frnt
Nr Msr
Ppl Pw r Mvmnt
Phlppns—Pltcl Systm
Rms, Fdl
Rzl, Jsé
Rml, Crls Pñ
rdnt, ndrs d
Zmbng
Sngpr
Brsn Ssls
Gh Chk Tng
Gh Kng Sw
Jyrtnm, Jsh Bnjmn
L Kn Yw
Lm Chn Sng
Mrshll, Dvd
Sngpr—Pltcl Systm
Sngpr Dmcrtc Prty
Wrkrs’ Prty—Sngpr
Thlnd
nnd Pnyrchn
Bngkk
Bhmpl dlydj
Chrt Th
Chvlt, Yngchydh
Chng M
Chn Lkp
Chllngkrn, Kng
kphp
Mnhttn ncdnt
Mngkt
Ntnl Pckpng Cncl—Thlnd
Ntn- Rlgn- Mnrch
ctbr 6 Crss—Thlnd
Phlng Dhr m Prty
Phkt
Phy Tksn
Pbl Snggrm
Prd Bnmyng
Rm Khmhng
Rm Tbd
Srt Thnrt
Stdnt prsng f 1973—Thlnd
Slk Svrks
Th Rvltn f 1932
Thlnd—Pltcl Prts
Thlnd—Pltcl Systm
Thksn Shnw tr
Thnm Kttkchrn
Trlk
ngphkrn Py
Vtnm
n Dng Vng
nh D Dy
rmy f th Rpblc f Vtnm
gst Rvltn
B Tr
Bc Sn prsng
BD
C L Thnh
Cmmns m—Vtnm
D Nng
Dlt
Dng Vn Mnh
Hphng
Hn
H Ch Mnh
H Ch Mnh Cty
H Tng M
Hn
H
Hynh Tn Pht
rn Trngl
Lc Lng Qn
L Dn
L Dc nh
L Dc Th
Ntnl Frnt fr th Lbrtn f Sth Vtnm
Ng Dnh Dm
Ng Dnh Nh
Ngyn C Ky
Ngyn Th Mnh Kh
Ngyn Vn Th
Nh, Mdm Ng Dnh
Ppl’s r my f Vtnm
Phn B Ch
Ph L Kh
Rvlt f th Shrt Hr
Rvltnry Yth Lg f Vtnm
Ty Sn Rblln
Trn Vn G
Trng Sstrs
Vtnm—Pltcl Systm
Vtnm Cmmnst Prty
V Ngyn Gp
V Vn Kt
Hstry nd Prfl
Brtsh n Sthst s
Dtch n Sthst s
RDR’S GD
lx NCYCLPD F MDRN S
STHST S (cntnd)
Hstry nd Prfl (cntnd)
Plnthrplgy—Sthst s
Prtgs n Sthst s
Srvjy
Brn
Brn—Pltcl Systm
Brn—Prfl
Cmbd
Cmbd—Hstry
Cmbd—Prfl
Khmr mpr
st Tmr
st Tmr—Prfl
ndns
ch Rblln
mngkrt
Brtsh-Dtch Wrs
Cnd f Jv
ndns—Hstry
ndns—Prfl
Jv Wr
Knfrnts
Mjpht
Mtr m
Nthrlnds st nds
Pdr Wr
Pklmn
Slndr
Ls
Ls—Hstry
Ls—Prfl
Mlys
ngl-Dtch Trty
Fdrtd Mly Stts
Mlys—Hstry
Mlys—Prfl
Mlk Sltnt
Wht Rjs
Mynmr
Mynmr—Hstry
Mynmr—Prfl
Pgn
Phlppns
Phlppns—Hstry
Phlppns—Prfl
Sngpr
Sngpr—Hstry
Sngpr—Prfl
Thlnd
ytthy, Kngdm f
Bn Chng
Skhth
Thlnd—Hstry
Thlnd—Prfl
Vtnm
Vtnm—Hstry
Vtnm—Prfl
ntrntnl Rltns
ssctn f Sth-st sn Ntns
Bl Smmt
Bndng Cnfrnc
Bngkk Dclrtn
Chns nflnc n Sthst s
Fv Pwr Dfnc rrngmnts
nd-Sthst s Rltns
ndchn Wr f 1940–1941
Prcy—Sthst s
Sthst s—Hmn Rghts
Sthst s Trty rgnztn
Trty f mty nd C-prtn f 1976
ZPFN
Cmbd
Cmbd-Ls Rltns
Cmbd-Vtnm Rltns
ntd Ntns Trnstnl thrty n Cmbd
st Tmr
ntd Ntns n st Tmr
ndns
ndns-Mlys Rltns
ndns–ntd Stts Rltns
rn Jy Cnqst
Vlksrd
Ls
Cmbd-Ls Rltns
Ls-Thlnd Rltns
Ls-Vtnm Rltns
Mlys
ndns-Mlys Rltns
Mlyn mrgncy
Mlys-rp Rltns
Sbh Dspt
Mynmr
nd-Mynmr Rltns
Mynmr—Frgn Rltns
Mynmr—Hmn Rghts
Phlppns
Jpn- Phlppns Rltns
Phlppns—Hmn Rghts
Phlppns–ntd Stts Rltns
Thlnd
Ls-Thlnd Rltns
Vtnm
Cmbd-Vtnm Rltns
Chn-Vtnm Rltns
Frnc-Vt Mnh Wr
Ls-Vtnm Rltns
Svt-Vtnms TFC
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lx
Vtnm Wr
Vtnm–ntd Stts Rltns
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
strnsn Lnggs
Mly-ndnsn Lnggs
Md—nslr Sthst s
Md—Mnlnd Sthst s
Mn-Khmr Lnggs
T-Kd Lnggs
ndns
Bhs ndns
Jvns
Mhmd, Gnw n
Tmp
Ls
L-T Lnggs
Mynmr
Brms
Phlppns
Phlppn Lnggs
Sngpr
Chns-Lngg Nwspprs—Sngpr
Strts Tms, Th
Thlnd
Sk
Vtnm
Ch Nm
Vtnms Lngg
dt
kh
Brn Ppls
Chns n Sthst s
Clthng, Trdtnl—Trbl Sthst s
thnc Rltns—Sthst s
Hmng
Khm
Mrrg nd Fmly—nslr Sthst s
Mrrg nd Fmly—Mnlnd Sthst s
Rfgs—Sthst s
Wstrnztn—Sthst s
Wmn n Sthst s
Cmbd
Clthng, Trdtnl—Cmbd
ndns
chns
Blns
Clthng, Trdtnl—ndns
Cstl Mlys
Mdrs
Prnkn
Prbm
Pryy
Sth sns n Sthst s
Sndns
Ls
Clthng, Trdtnl—Ls
Khmr
Mlys
Clthng, Trdtnl—Mlys
rng sl
Mynmr
Brmns
Chn
Chns n Mynmr
thnc Cnflct—Mynmr
Kchn
Krn
Mn
Rhngy
Shn
Phlppns
Gdprnthd—Phlppns
Thlnd
Clthng, Trdtnl—Thlnd
Mch Vrvdy
Th
Vtnm
Bt Ppl
Chns n Vtnm
Clthng, Trdtnl—Vtnm
Sn-Vtnms Cltr
Vtnm—ntrnl Mgrtn
Vtnms
Vtnms, vrss
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
Bs
Bddhsm, Thrvd—Sthst s
Chrstnty—Sthst s
slm—Mnlnd Sthst s
Mng
Pl Cnn
Prtstnt Fndmntlsm—Sthst s
Zkr
Brn
slm—Brn
ndns
bngn
Hsn, brhm
slm—ndns
Mhmmdyh
Nhdltl lm
Pr mbnn Hnd
Sntr
Ls
Prbng
Tht Lng
RDR’S GD
lxv NCY CLPD F MDRN S
STHST S (cntnd)
Rlgn nd Phlsphy (cntnd)
Mlys
ngktn Bl slm Mlys
slm—Mlys
Mynmr
Chrstnty—Mynmr
slm—Mynmr
Sprt Clts
Phlppns
Cthlcsm, Rmn—Phlppns
gls n Chrst
slm—Phlppns
Phlppn ndpndnt Chrch
Rz, Snt Lrnz
Sn, Jm
Thlnd
Bddhds, Bhkk
Dhmmyt Sct
Hnds m—Thlnd
Phr Pthm Chd
Vtnm
Bddhsm—Vtnm
CD
Cthlcsm, Rmn—Vtnm
HH
Thch Nht Hnh
Bdl
Clndrs—Sthst s
Gnpw dr nd Rcktry
STHWST S
lghz
Bht, Shh bdl Ltf
Jm, ‘bdrrhmn
Khshl Khn Khtk
Shh, Wrs
fghnstn
Csn—fghnstn
Pkstn
l Khn, Bd Ghlm
Bht Shh
Fz hmd Fz
Glg
Hr Rnjh Stry
qbl, Mhmmd
Mkl Hll
Nqsh, Jml
Nsrt Fth l Khn
Sbr Brthrs
Sdqn
fghnstn
fghnstn—cnmc Systm
Pkstn
Krkrm Hghwy
Pkstn—cnmc Systm
dctn
Pkstn
Pkstn—dctn Systm
Bdkhshn
Kbl Rvr
Krkrm Mntns
Khybr Pss
Rv Rvr
fghnstn
fghn Hnd
Dsht- Mrg
Hnz
Wkhn
Pkstn
zd Kshmr
Bltstn
Bln Pss
nds Rvr
nds Rvr Dlphn
Khnjrb Pss
Stlj Rvr
fghn, Jml d-dn
Blchstn
Dst Mhmmd
Txl
fghnstn
fghnstn—Pltcl Systm
mnllh
Bgrm
Bmn
Bn Ldn, s m
Dd, Mhmmd
Dw , bdl Hd
Dn Mhmmd, Mshk- lm
Ghzn
Hrt
Kbl
Mhmd f Ghzn
Mzr- Shrf
Mjhdn
mr, Mllh Mhmmd
Tlbn
Zhr Shh
Pkstn
bdllh, Mhmmd
nrkl
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lxv
yb Khn
Bhtt, Bnzr
Bhtt, Zlfqr l
Dvd, Clln
Hdd
slmbd
Jm_t--slm
Jnnh, Mhmmd l
Krch
Khn, bdl Ghffr
Lhr
Mhnj Dr
Mhjr Qw m Mv mnt
Mltn
Mshrrf, Prvz
Nrth-Wst Frntr Prvnc Srhd
Pkstn—Pltcl Systm
Pkstn Ppl’s Prty
Pshw r
Rhmt l, Chdr
Rhts Frt
Shw n
Snd
Z-l-Hq, Mhmmd
Hstry nd Prfl
fghnstn
fghnstn—Hstry
fghnstn—Prfl
Drrn
Pkstn
Fdrlly dmnstrd Trbl rs—Pkstn
Pkstn—Hstry
Pkstn—Prfl
ntrntnl Rltns
fghnstn
fghnstn—Hmn Rghts
Trty f Gndmk
Pkstn
Bngldsh- Pkstn Rltns
nd-Pkstn Rltns
Pkstn—Hmn Rghts
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
Psht
fghnstn
Dr
frd
Blch
Brh
Pshtn
Pshtnw l
Wzr
Clthng, Trdtnl—fghnstn
thnc Cnflct—fghnstn
Hzr
Pkstn
Sndh
Srk
Wmn n Pkstn
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
Bkhsh, Dt Gnj
slm—Sthwst s
Shh, Mhr l
Shhbz Qlndr Ll
Sfsm—Sthwst s
fghnstn
nsr, bdllh
Btb, Sf
Pkstn
Mw dd, b’l-’l
Mhjr
WST S
rchtctr—Wst s
rchtctr, slmc—Wst s
Cnm—Wst s
Msc—Wst s
Rdk
Shhnmh pc
Sprts—slmc s
Tw lvr Sh_sm
rn
Csn—rn
N-rz
Ltrtr, Prsn
rq
Csn—rq
Ptry—rq
Trky
Chldrn’s Dy—Trky
Csn—Trky
Gny, Ylmz
Ltrtr—Trky
Msc—Trky
Nsn, zz
Pmk, rhn
grcltr—Wst s
ndstry—Wst s
l ndstry—Wst s
rgnztn f Ptrlm xprtng Cntrs
rn
rn—cnmc Systm
rq
rq—cnmc Systm
Trky
ttsm—Tr ky
RDR’S GD
lxv NCY CLPD F MDRN S
WST S (cntnd)
(cntnd)
Trky—cnmc Systm
dctn
rn
rn—dctn Systm
rq
rq—dctn Systm
Trky
Trky—dctn Systm
Ccs
phrts Rvr
Sstn
Tgrs Rvr
rn
bkhz
m Dr’y
Dgstn
lbrz
Glf f mn
Prsn Glf
Zgrs Mntns
Trky
gn S
nt-Trs
rrt, Mnt
Blck S
Bsprs
Cppdc
Clcn Gts
Drdnlls
Gzntp
zmr
Kzl rmk Rvr
Mr mr, S f
Trss
Trs Mntns
Yslrmk Rvr
lpp
Krbg
Yrvn
rn
bdn
rdbl
zrbjn
Bkhtrn
Bndr bbs
Bzrgn, Mhd
Cnstttn, slmc—rn
sfhn
Frs
Hmdn
rn—Pltcl Systm
slmc Rvltn—rn
Kndhr
Krmn
Khmn, ytllh
Khrsn
Khzstn
Mshhd
Qm
Sn’
Shrt, l
Shrz
Tbrz
Thrn
Vlyt- Fqh
rq
l-Njf
Bghdd
Bsr
Hssn, Sddm
rq—Pltcl Systm
Krbl
Krkk
Msl
Slymny
Trky
dlt Prts
dn
fyn
msy
ntl
nkr
ntky
ntly
ttrk
Byr, Mhmt Cll
Bdrm
Brs
Cnstttn—Trky
Dmrl, Sly mn
Dmcrt Prty—Trky
Dyrbkr
drn
rzrm
Hld db dvr
Hkmt, Nzm
nn, Mstf smt
stnbl
znk
Krs
Ks
Kml, Ysr
Kny
RDR’S GD
NCYCLPD F MDRN S lxv
Kthy
Mndrs, dnn
Mrsn
Nrth Cyprs, Trksh Rpblc f
zl, Trgt
Prgmn
Rfh nd Fzlt Prts
Rpblcn Ppl’s Prty—Trky
Rz
Smsn
Srds
Snp
Svs
Tnz mt
Trbzn
Trky—Pltcl Systm
rf
Vn
Zngldk
Hstry nd Prfl
rn
rn—Hstry
rn—Prfl
Phlv Dynsty
Qjr Dynsty
rq
rq—Hstry
rq—Prfl
Trky
rchlgy—Trky
Byzntns
Httts
ttmn mpr
Trky—Prfl
Trky, Rpblc f
ntrntnl Rltns
bn Bttth
rn
rn—Hmn Rghts
rn-rq Rltns
rn-Rss Rltns
rn–ntd Stts Hstg Crss
rn–ntd Stts Rltns
rq
rn-rq Rltns
rq—Hmn Rghts
rq-Trky Rltns
Prsn Glf Wr
Trky
rpn nn nd Trky
rq-Trky Rltns
Nrth tlntc Trty rgnztn nd Trky
Trky—Hmn Rghts
Trky-Rss Rltns
Trky–ntd Stts Rltns
Lngg nd Cmmnctn
rbc
Md—Wst s
Prsn
rbs
rmnns
Krds
Mrrg nd Fmly—Wst s
Trks—Wst s
Wstrnztn—Wst s
Wmn n Wst s
rn
zrbjns
Bkhtr
Prspls
Prsns
rq
Clthng, Trdtnl—rq
Mrsh rbs
Trky
lbnns
Blgrns
Crcssns
Clthng, Trdtnl—Trky
Grks n Trky
Mlts
Ttrs
Rlgn nd Phlsphy
lv Mslms
Bh_
slm—Wst s
Jdsm—Wst s
Mslms, Sh_t
Mslms, Snn
rntl rthdx Chrch
Qdry
Snt Pl
rn
Bbsm
Trky
strn rthdx Chrch
Clndrs—Wst s
Krz rrgtn Systm
Mdcn, Trdtnl—Wst s
RDR’S GD
BCS mnl c mptng dvc sd n ncnt
Chn, th bcs (sn pn, r "cntng plt")
ws prbbly nvntd thr n ncnt tms. Th
wrd "bcs" hs ts rts n th Phncn tr m fr
flt srfc, nd ts Grk nd Rmn frms sd
flt srfcs wth grvs fr bds.
Th Chns bcs hs frm f thrtn wrs
hldng svn bds n ch wr; hrzntl dvdr
sprts th tp tw bds frm th bttm fv,
smtms rfrrd t s th "hvn" nd th "rth"
bds, rspctvly. Chns srcs shw wd s f
th dvc by 190 C, pplrztn drng th Sng
dynsty (960–1279), nd prntd nstrctns pprng
n th 1300s drng th Yn (1279–1368). By th
Mng dynsty (1368–1644), th Chns bcs hd
tkn n ts mdrn frm nd hd bc m n ntgr l
prt f bsnss nd fnncl ccntng. Ths bsc
cntng mchn sprd by th 1600s t Jpn nd
thn t strn Rss, w th smll mdfctns n th
nmbr f bds bv nd blw th dvdr.
n Chn, th bcs rplcd ppr-nd-pncl
mthmtcl clcltns; th bds srvd s mrkrs
rprsntng qntty, nd th bds’ pstn n
th vrtcl wrs rprsntd vl. sklld sr f
n bcs prfrmd ddtn, sbtrctn, mltplctn,
nd dvsn qckly nd sly, w th th ddtnl
dvntg f rqrng n lctrcty t prdc
rdt tht cnnt b lst r rsd wtht bng
mnlly chngd. Bcs f th trdtnl Chns
s f 16 s n mprtnt stndrd w ght, th Chns
bcs s prtclrly sfl fr clc ltns sng
bs nmbr systm f 2 nd 16.
mng strkprs nd smll bsnsss n Chn,
n bcs rmnd stndrd pc f ffc qpmnt
ntl th 1980s. vn tdy, shpkprs n Rss
smtms s bc t clclt cstmrs’ prchss.
gd-qlty bcs s gnrlly bt tw
ft wd by n ft tll nd md f strdy brss
wth hrdwd bds.
Mrgrt Snky
Frthr Rdng
Dlsn, Jss. (1968) Th bcs: Pckt Cmptr. Nw
Yrk: St. Mrtn’s Prss.
Mnnngr, Krl. (1992) Nmbr Wrds nd Nmbr Symbls:
Cltrl Hstry f Nmbrs. Trns. by Pl
Brnr. Nw Yrk: Dvr.
Plln, J. M. (1968) Th Hstry f th bcs. Lndn:
Htchnsn nd Cmpny.
BDN (1997 st. pp. 308,000). Th rnn
cty f bdn s lctd n th sthst crnr f th
cntry lng th st bnk f th Shtt l rb Rvr,
55 klmtrs frm th Prsn Glf. ts ppltn s
mnly Prsn, thgh w th cnsdrbl rb mnrty.
ccrdng t pplr blf th cty ws
fndd by mystc nmd _bbd n th ghth r
nnth cntry C. ts prxmty t th prt f Bsr
llw d t t dvlp qckly nt prsprs tw n,
bt t w s rdcd t n mpvrshd vllg ftr th
Mngl cnqsts f th thrtnth cntry. Th stblshmnt
f th Sfvd dynsty n 1501 prmsd
t brng stblty bt th ttmn cnqst f rq n
1534 nd th nsng ttmn-Sfvd cnflct prvntd
ny rnw d prsprty. t ws nt ntl 1847
tht th ttmns fnlly rcgnzd Prsn svrgnty
vr bdn. n 1909, fllw ng th dscvry
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 1
9
2 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
f l n th r, th ngl- Prsn l Cmpny
chs bdn s ts mn rfnry st. By 1956 bdn
hd bcm n f rn’s mjr cts, bstng th
wrld’s lrgst l rfnry nd bsy mrtm prt.
Drng th rn-rq Wr (1980–1988) th cty, lng
wth ts ndstrl nfrstrctr, ws cmpltly dstryd.
Rcnstrctn strtd mmdtly ftr th
wr nd sm l xprts hv rsmd.
Thbt bdllh
BNGN bngn (Jvns "rd") s trm
pplrzd by th nthrplgst Clffrd Grtz (b.
1926) t dscrb th rrl Jvns Mslms w hs
slm s blndd syncrtstclly w th ldr nmst nd
Hnd-Bddhst blfs. Th trm hs ntrd ndnsn
sg nd s nw cnsdrd pjrtv, mplyng
lxnss n blf. Th cmplx f blfs tht
Grtz dscrbd r nw mr cmmnly clld Kjw n
("Jvnsm"). bngn blf cntrs n sprts,
mgc, nd th cr mnl fst r slmtn. Mst sprts
r mlcs bngs w h ntrvn n hmn ffrs
n thr w n nttv, whrs mgc nvlvs
th drct cntrl f sprntrl frcs by srcrr
r dkn. Th sklls f dkn ncld trtng dss,
prvntng ccdnts r njry, cntrllng ntrl
phnmn, nd bth cstng nd lftng splls.
Th slmtn s fst ffrd t th mmdt ( ml)
cmmnty nd ccmpnd by ncns nd pryr t
mrk spcl ccsn, t plct th sprts, nd t
cnfr n prtcpnts nd thr fmls stt f bng
slmt, r hlthy nd clm. Grtz dstngshd
bngn blfs frm th s mlrly syncrtstc Jvns
rstcrtc pryy trdtn, bt mst bsrvrs nw
s th trm pryy t ndct rstcrtc stts nd
cltr n gnrl nd rgrd t s prt f th brdr
bngn r Kjw n ctgry.
Th bngn stnd n cntrst t th sntr, cnsdrd
mr ps Mslms, nd bth r rfrrd t
s lrn (strms) n Jvns scty. Thy bcm
n f th bss fr pltcl rgnztn ftr ndnsn
ndpndnc, th Prt Nsnl ndns
ntlly hvng strng bngn bs. Drng th
1950s, th Prt Kmns ndns w n ncrsng
bngn spprt, bcs th prty spsd th ntrsts
f th rrl pr. Mny bngn wr thrfr
mng th vctms f th nt-Cmmnst
msscrs f 1965–1966, n w hch prhps hlf mlln
ppl dd. rnclly, hwvr, Prsdnt
Shrt (b. 1921, rgnd 1967–1998) ws bngn n
pbrngng nd strngly spprtd bngn blfs n
hs rly yrs n ffc. bngn blf ws th rspnsblty
f th pwrfl Dprtmnt f dctn
nd Cltr nd n th rly 1980s c m cls t rcvng
rcgntn s "blf" dstnct frm "rlgn."
Snc 1950, th ndnsn stt hd prvdd mssv
spprt fr rlgn by cnstrctng plcs f
wrshp, mntnng slmc nvrsts, nd pyng
th slrs f rlgs ffcls. Th Dprtmnt f
Rlgn ws gnrlly dmntd by rthdx Mslms
wh rgrdd bngn blf s htrdx nd lx
nd thrfr nsrd tht n fnds wnt t bngn
prpss. pssg n th ndnsn cnstttn,
whch rfrs t rlgn nd blf s f thy wr sp-
BNGN
Th bdn Rfnry brns fllw ng n ttck t th strt f th rn-rq Wr n 1980. (FRNCS
D MLDR/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 3
rt phnmn, hwvr, gv th gvrnmnt
lgl bss fr rgrdng blf s prt f cltr nd
thrfr fr spprtng t thrgh th Dprtmnt
f dctn nd Cltr, n w hch bngn Jvns
tndd t b mr nflntl. Nvrthlss, frm th
lt 1980s, ffcl spprt fr bngn prctc w knd
s Shrt’s Nw rdr bgn t cltvt rthdx
slm.
Trdtnlly, bngn blf ws nt t ll rgnzd,
bt frm th lt clnl prd frml rgnztns
bgn t mrg, gnrlly cntrd n
mystcl prctc (kbtnn, "nnrnss"). Th lrgst
f ths, ncldng Pngst nd Sbd, ls hv
fllw ng tsd Jv.
Rbrt Crbb
S ls: slm—ndns
Frthr Rdng
Btty, ndrw . (1999) Vrts f Jvns Rlgn: n nthrplgcl
ccnt. Cmbrdg, .K.: Cmbrdg nvrsty
Prss.
Grtz, Clffrd. (1960) Th Rlgn f Jv. Glnc, NY:
Fr Prss.
BDLRF FTRT (1886–1938), Bkhrn
wrtr, dctr, scl ctvst. bdlrf Ftrt ws
brn n 1886 n th mrt f Bkhr t mrchnt
fmly, nd lttl s knw n f hs rly yrs. s yng
stdnt h ttndd th Mr- rb mdrsh (slmc
schl) ntl 1909, w hn h rcvd schlrshp t
cntn hs dctn n Cnstntnpl. H spnt
fv yrs thr nd trvld brdly thrght th
ttmn mpr, rn, nd Xnjng, Chn. n 1911,
h pblshd hs w ll-knw n nd pplr Bynt-
syyh- hnd (Tls f n ndn Trvlr) n Prsn.
t w s pblshd n Smrqnd n Rssn n 1914. Th
nvl dnncs Bkhr’s pvrty-rddn cndtns
nd th crrpt prctcs f mny slmc clrcs nd
tchrs. t chllngs th mrt’s scl rdr, w hch
ws cmmn thm n hs prfssnl nd scl ctvts.
n 1917, Ftrt w s lctd scrtry f th
jddst- (nw mthd) nflncd Yng Bkhrn
Prty, w hch szd pwr n Bkhr drng th Rssn
Cvl Wr. Fllw ng th Blshvk vctry, h bcm
th mnstr fr dctn n th nw ly
stblshd Svt rpblc. H s crdtd w th rvsng
th dctnl systm nd hlpng t stblsh
rpn-styl nvrsty n Tshknt, zbkstn. n
1923, h ws rmvd frm ffc ftr bng ccsd
f brgs ntnlsm. H w s rrstd n 1938 nd
xctd drng th Stlnst prty prgs.
Stvn Sbl
Frthr Rdng
llwrth, dw rd. (1990) Th Mdrn zbks frm th Frtnth
Cntry t th Prsnt: Cltrl Hstry. Stnfrd,
C: Hvr nstttn.
Crrr d’ncss, Hln. (1988) slm nd th Rssn
mpr: Rfrm nd Rvltn n Cntrl s. Brkly
nd Ls ngls: nvrsty f Clfrn Prss.
Khld, db. (1998) Th Pltcs f Mslm Cltrl Rfrm:
Jddsm n Cntrl s. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty
f Clfrn Prss.
BDL RZK (1922–1976), Scnd pr m mnstr
f Mlys. bdl Rzk bn Dt’ Hssn,
scnd prm mnstr f Mlys (1970–1976), ffctd
mjr plcy chngs wth lng-trm mplctns
fr th mltthnc ppltn nd th ntn.
Brn n 11 Mrch 1922 n Pkn, Phng, h ws
dctd t th Mly Cllg, Kl Kngsr, nd
Rffls Cllg, Sngpr. Drng th Jpns ccptn
(1941–1945), h jnd th nt-Jpns
Mly Rsstnc Mv mnt (Wtnh). n schlrshp,
h rd lw t Lncln’s nn, nglnd, nd
ws clld t th br n 1950. H mrrd Hjh Rhh
n 4 Sptmbr 1952 n Jhr.
bdl Rzk blvd tht pvrty nd sccnmc
mblncs mng Mlys’s mltthnc ppltn
cld b llvtd thrgh rrl dvlpmnt
nd dctn. H w s nstrmntl n stblshng
sch gncs s th Fdrl Lnd Dvlpmnt thrty
(FLD), Mlyn ndstrl Dvlpmnt
Fnnc (MDF), nd Cncl f ndgns Ppl’s
Trst (Mjls mnh Rkyt, MR). n 1956 h
chrd cmmtt w hs rcmmndtns (Rzk
Rprt) frmd th bss f Mlys’s dctn plcy.
Drng hs pr mrshp, h rshpd Mlys’s
sccnmc lndscp thrgh th Nw cnmc
Plcy (NP) md t rdctng pvrty nd rstrctrng
scty by fcsng n rrl dvlpmnt
nd dctn.
H plyd pvtl rl n rstblshng pblc rdr
nd th rsmptn f prlmntry rl (1971)
n th ftrmth f th 13 My 1969 rcl trbls.
H xpndd th llnc Prty t frm lrgr cltn,
th Ntnl Frnt (Brsn Nsnl). Drng
th md-1970s, h fcd rsrgnc f Cmmnst
ctvts n th pnnsl nd scssnst tndncs
n Sbh.
BDL RZK
4 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
bdl Rzk ws clsly nvlvd n th frmtn
f Mlys (1963) nd n th rcncltn w th ndns
fllw ng Knfrnts (th Cnfrnttn,
1966). H rgd fr rgnl cnmc cprtn
tht sbsqntly ld t th frmtn f th ssctn
f Sthst sn Ntns (SN) n 1967. H
prpsd th cncpt fr Zn f Pc, Frdm,
nd Ntrlty (Z PFN) n Sthst s (dptd
n 1971) nd dvctd nnlgnd stnc fr Mlys
nd stblshd rltns w th sclst cntrs.
Kt Gn
Frthr Rdng
Mns, Grdn P. (1976) Mlysn Pltcs. 2d d. Lndn:
Hddr & Stghtn.
Prdh bd, Smd. (1998) Tn bdl Rzk. Phnmnn
n Mlysn Pltcs: Pltcl Bgrphy. Kl
Lmpr, Mlys: fflnt Mstr.
Shw , Wllm. (1976) Tn bdl Rzk: Hs Lf nd Tms.
Kl Lmpr, Mlys: Lngmn Mlys.
Wn Hshm. (1983) Rc Rltns n Mlys. Kl
Lmpr, Mlys: Hnmnn dctnl Bks
(s).
BDLLH, MHMMD (1905–1982),
Kshmr ntnlst ldr nd sttsmn. Brn n
Sr, Srngr Dstrct, Kshmr, n fmly f shwl
mrchnts, Shkh Mhmmd bdllh w s dctd
n Lhr nd lgrh nd rnd Mstr’s dgr
n physcs n 1930. H bc m cntrl fgr n
Kshmr pltcs, vn thgh fr mch f hs pltcl
lf h ws n prsn r ndr hs rrst n tcmnd,
n sth nd. n 1931 h w s rrstd fr
th frst tm fr hs rl n th ndn ndpndnc
mv mnt.
ftr th 15 gst 1947 prttn stblshng th
sprt stts f nd nd Pkstn, th Hnd mhrj
f Kshmr w ntd hs kngdm t r mn tnms
f bth ntns, bt n 20 ctbr 1947
Pkstn mlt, w th gvrnmnt bckng, ccpd
w strn sctr f Kshmr tht hs bn knw n vr
snc s zd Kshmr (Fr Kshmr). n rspns,
th mhrj rgntly rqstd spprt frm nd,
ctng n th dvc f Shkh bdllh.
BDLLH, MHMMD
Pr m Mnstr bdl Rzk n Kl Lmpr n 1968.
(BTTMNN/CRBS)
Shk Mhmmd bdllh n Kshmr, c. 1950. (BRDLY
SMTH/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 5
Th mhrj xctd th nstrmnt f ccssn
t th ndn nn, nd thrpn, nd rshd
rbrn trps t scr Srngr, Kshmr’s cptl.
Shkh bdllh w s sgntry t th ndn cnstttn
nd nvr dvctd th scssn f Kshmr
t Pkstn. n Jnry 1948 th .N. Scrty Cncl,
cnvnd t th rqst f nd, mpsd csfr
n th rgn. Ths, Kshmr bcm pw n n
rgnl pw r pltcs. Sn bdllh ws ldng
strggl t st th mhrj f Kshmr w h, nlk
th mjrty f Kshmrs, ws nt Mslm. Bt n
1953, h ws dsmssd s prm mnstr bcs f
Pndt Nhr’s sspcn tht bdllh w ntd ndpndnc
fr Kshmr. H ws kpt ndr hs rrst
n nd, bt ws fnlly rlsd n 1964. bdllh,
clld th Ln f Kshmr by Mslms nd thrs,
bcm chf mnstr f th ndn stt f Jmm
nd Kshmr n 1975 nd hld tht pstn ntl hs
dth.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Bzz, Pr m Nth. (1954) Hstry f th Strggl fr Frdm
n Kshmr: Cltrl nd Pltcl, frm th rlst Tms
t th Prsnt Dy. Nw Dlh: Pmpsh Pblctns.
BDLLH QS (1894–1938), Mstr f
zbk ltrtr. bdllh Qs prdcd mny f
th frst mdrn ndgns plys, strs, nd nvls
f Cntrl s nd hd mjr rl n stblshng
th gnr f th nvl n mdrn zbk ltrtr. Hs
wrks, pblshd btwn 1913 nd 1923, rflct th
chngng crcmstncs f zbk lf ndr th lt
czrst nd rly Svt rgms.
ntlly ttrctd t th Trn scty ( chvnstc
d f sprpltcl nty f th Trkc lngg–
spkng ntns) s rfrmr, h ltr bcm
nvlvd n prmtng th rvltnry cs f th
Blshvks, s rflctd n hs stry tm v Blshvk
(My Fthr nd th Blshvk, 1922). Qs cm t
prmnnc w th th pblctn f tgn Knlr (Pst
Dys, 1923), crdtd s th frst zbk hstrcl
nvl, s ntnlst w rk, nd s n ttck n trdtnl
zbk tttds. Hs scnd nvl, Mhrdbn
Chyn (Th Scrpn frm th Mhrb), ls rcvd
cclm. Qs dd n Stln’s prgs f th 1930s,
bt gnd psthms rcgntn n 1956, nd snc
zbk ndpndnc h hs bn rcgnzd s mrtyrd
ntnlst.
Lnrd . Stn
Frthr Rdng
Mrphy, Chrstphr. (1992) "bdllh Qdry nd th
Blshvks: Fr m Rfrm t Rvltn." n Mslms n
Cntrl s, dtd by J-nn Grss. Drhm, NC:
Dk nvrsty Prss, 269–270.
B S (1865–1949), Fthr f Jpns sclsm.
ntv f Fkk Prfctr nd grdt f
Jpn’s frst mprtnt Chrstn nvrsty, Dshsh,
b s spnt hs crr dvctng pcfsm, Chrstnty,
nd lbr rghts. Fllw ng n rly stnt s
mnstr nd tm f stdy t Hrtfrd Schl f
Thlgy n Cnnctct, b jnd th Wsd
nvrsty fclty n 1899, pst h w ld hld fr
mst f hs rmnng lf.
mdrt sclst, b hlpd lnch Jpn’s
mst mprtnt sclst prts nd rgnztns.
n 1901, h ws crtr f Jpn’s frst sclst
prty, th shrt-lvd Sclst Dmcrts; n ltr
yrs, h hlpd fnd th Sclst Ppl’s Prty
(1928), th Sclst Msss Prty (1932), nd th
Ntnlst Lbr Prty (1940). H ws lctd t
th Dt n 1928 nd cntnd t w n n sccssv
lctns, ntl h rsgnd n 1940, n ppstn t
Jpn’s grw ng mltrs m.
Thgh lckng brllnt prsnlty (h clld
hmslf "tlty mn," drw ng n th lngg f
bsbll, w hch h lvd pssntly), b ws dmrd
by spprtrs fr th dggd cnsstncy f hs
dls nd dmnd by mr rdcl lftsts s t mdrt
nd prgmtc. Hs nsstnt ntmltrst stnc
md hm trgt f th rght w ng, nd n 1938, h
ws nrly ssssntd. ftr Wrld Wr , h srvd
s n dvsr t th Jpn Sclst Prty.
Jms L. Hffmn
Frthr Rdng
Pw ls, Cyrl. (1978) "b s: Th tlty Mn." n Pcfsm
n Jpn. Kyt, Jpn: Mnrv Prss.
BM. S ngktn Bl slm Mlys.
BKHZ smtnms rpblc n nrthw strn
Grg, bkhz brdrs Rss t th
nrth, lng rdg f pks n th Ccss
Mntns; th nrthstrn cst f th Blck S
dfns ts sthrn bndry. Wth sm rvr vllys
nd fw lks brkng th trrn, ts stp nrthrn
slps rn frm glcrs t pstrs, t mxd frsts,
BKHZ
6 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
nd vntlly t lng, nrrw strp f frtl cstlnd.
Bcs bkhz hs sbtrpcl clmt lng
ts cstl slps nd lw lnds, ts frms hv lng
bn knw n fr thr bndnt ylds f t, ctrs
frt, tbcc, grps, nd thr crps. Th cptl s
th prt f Skhm, rctd n th grnds f frmr
Grk clny.
Th bkhz rgn hs bn th st f hmn sttlmnt
snc prhstrc tms. Sm f th frst
rcrdd hstrs f th rgn nvlv th Clchs
stt f th frst mllnnm BC; Grc cnqrd
t n pprxmtly 100 BC. n ltr prds, bth th
Rmns nd Byzntns spprtd trdng psts nd
grrsns n bkhz n rdr t mntn cntrl vr
th Blck S. Th frst bkhz kngdm w s stblshd
n th ghth cntry C; ltr mnfsttn
f ths stt mrgd w th Grgn kngdm n th
lvnth cntry. Th rgn fll t Mngl-Tr kc
nvsns n th thrtnth cntry, nd th ttmn
Trks clmd bkhz n th sxtnth cntry. Th
Rssns szd t n th rly nntnth cntry.
Wth th rs f th Svt nn, nd thrght
mst f th Svt prd, bkhz w s dsgntd n
tnms Svt Sclst Rpblc w thn th rpblc
f Grg. Th cnsldtn f Rssn—nd
ltr Svt nd Grgn—cntrl vr th rgn ld
t th mgrtn f thnc bkhzns, mstly t
Trky. Svt rstrctns n bkhz thnlngstc
xprssn nd nstttns wr prtclrly svr
ndr Stln nd th Cmmnst Prty.
thnc bkhz—ftn rfrrng t thmslvs s
ps, r vrtns thrf—r gnrlly rgrdd
s dscndnts f ths ppls w h hd ntrd th
rgn by th frst cntry C. mgs f trdtnl
bkhzns dpct ppl w th grt lngvty wh
r ssctd wth cttl hsbndry lng th slps
nd grcltr n th lw lnds. bt hlf r rthdx
Chrstns; Snn Mslms cmprs th thr
hlf. Th bkhz lngg s prt f th Nrthw st
grp f Ccsn lnggs nd, dspt prds f
svr spprssn ndr th Svts, mntns bth
wrttn nd ltrry trdtns. ccrdng t th 1990
cnss, bkhz hd ppltn f lmst 550,000;
f ths fwr thn 20 prcnt wr thnc bkhz.
Th mjrty wr Grgn—lmst 50 prcnt—
wth rmnns, Rssns nd krnns, nd sm
smllr grps cnstttng th rmnng 30 prcnt.
n th md-1990s, hw vr, lrg nmbrs f nn-
bkhz ppls lft md r md cnflct.
Dspt thr mnrty stts, bkhzns wr prtclrly
ctv n prmtng thr thnlngstc nd
pltcl rghts n th ltr yrs f th Svt nn,
nd snc ts cllps. n 1978, th bkhzns prpsd
pttn fr scssn, nd n 1990 th bkhzn
Sprm Svt dclrd ndpndnc—
nvsnng fdrtn w th Grg rthr thn
sbrdnt stt n lrgr Grgn rpblc. n
1992, mltry cnflcts btwn th bkhz nd Grg
nsd. Snc 1994, rltv pc hs bn mpsd
by Rss, ccrdng t trms tht crtcs vw
s fvrng Rss, Grg, nd th Cmmnw lth
f ndpndnt Stts (CS). Hwvr, hvng bn
frcd t ccpt pc ndr th thrt f Rssn
frc nd trd snctns mpsd by th CS, th rsltn
t th prblm f bkhz tnmy nd svrgnty
r fr frm rslvd.
Kyl T. vrd
Frthr Rdng
Bnt, Sl. (1974) bkhsns: Th Lng-Lvng Ppl f th
Ccss. Nw Yrk: Hlt, Rnhrt, nd Wnstn.
Hw tt, B. Grg. (1993) "bkhz: Prblm f dntty
nd w nrshp." Cntrl sn Srvy 12, 3: 267–323.
Sldr, Drrll. (1985) "Crss nd Rspns n Svt Ntnlty
Plcy: Th Cs f bkhz." Cntrl sn
Srvy 4, 4: 51–68.
BRGNL PPLS—TWN Th
brgnl ppl f Tw n r th slnd’s nn-
Chns ndgns nhbtnts. Thr cltrs nd
lnggs r strnsn nd ncld th ldst
lnggs f th strnsn fmly. rchlgcl
vdnc sggsts tht thr ncstrs cm frm th
sn mnlnd t lst 6,000 yrs g nd thn bc m
th src f th mgrtns sth nt th Pcfc
nd nslr Sthst s. t pprs tht ltr
mgrtn nrthw rd frm th Phlppns brght
nw grps bck t sthrn Tw n. Th tw nty-tw
brgnl lnggs nd cltrs n Tw n, f whch
tn r stll lvng, r mjr nthrplgcl src
fr rsrch nt strnsn rgns.
Hstry
brgnl ppls wr th nly nhbtnts f
Tw n ntl 1624, w hn th Dtch stblshd
clny nd Chns mgrtn bgn. Tdy, th r mnng
tn brgnl "trbs" nmbr s m 400,000
ppl, r 1.8 prcnt f Tw n’s ppltn. By th
rly tw ntth cntry, lmst ll th plns brgns
(Pngpz) wr snczd nd hd ntrmrrd
nt Chns sttlr scty. Whl thr s Pngp
thnc rvvl tdy, thr rl dscndnts r th
Hkkn-spkng Tw ns, mst f whm hv
Pngp s w ll s Chns ncstrs. Th tn grps
BRGNL PPLS—TWN
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 7
nhbtng th mntns nd strn cst srvvd n
prt bcs f ggrph, nd n prt bcs thy
wr frd s "svgs" nd hdhntrs. brgnl
ppl wr clld Mntn Ppl (Shndrn,
Shnb) ntl th "Rtrn r Nm" mv mnt rsltd
n th ffcl dptn f th trm "Tw n
brgnl Ppl" (Ynzhmnz) n 1994.
Rltns btw n th sttlr scty nd mntn
brgns wr shpd by trd nd Chns dfnsv
ln lng th mntn frng ntl th 1860s,
whn xprt dmnd fr t nd cmphr ld th sttlrs
t psh nt th mntns, spclly n nrthrn
Tw n. brgnl rsstnc nd sttlr rprsls
chrctrzd gnrtn f sprdc wrfr n th
nrth, w hch ndd nly wth th mpstn ftr
1895 f strng dfns ln by th nw Jpns
rlrs f Tw n. Thy sprtd mntn brgnl
rs frm th rst f Tw n, frbddng Chns
sttlmnt nd ny nn-Jpns cltrl nflnc n
thm. ltmtly, ths clnl cntrl strtgy cntrbtd
t th prsrvtn f brgnl trrtry nd
cltr. Th mpstn f hrsh Jpns plc dmnstrtn
ws rsstd mst strngly by th Tyl
trb. t tk fv-yr mltry cmpgn (1910–
1914) n w hch thsnds f lvs wr lst bfr th
Tyl wr cnqrd. n 1930 thr ws fnl prsng,
th Wsh ncdnt, n cntrl Tw n. Th
Jpns mvd vllgs t f th dp mntns,
ntrdcd rc grcltr nd csh cnmy, nd dctd
gnrtn f brgnl lt, w hl dstryng
mch trdtnl brgnl scl strctr.
brgnl cltr tdy s dply mrkd by Jpns
cstm nd lngg.
mprtnc f Chrchs n Mdrn Prd
ftr 1945, th Rpblc f Tw n (ndr th Chns
Ntnlsts) cntnd mst Jpns plcs,
bt th gvrnmnt pnd th mntns t Chns
sttlmnt nd Chrstn vnglsm. Plcs f grcltrl
dvlpmnt, nfrcmnt f Mndrn Chns
dctn, spprssn f brgnl lnggs,
nd pltczd sncztn n th 1950s wr md t
ssmltng th brgnl ppl. ttmpts by sm
mng th brgnl lt t pps ths plcs
wr qckly crshd, ntbly w th th xctn f
svrl ldrs f th "Frmsn Ntnl Slvtn llnc"
n 1954. Mst lcl ldrs jnd th Gmndng
Ntnlst Prty (GMD) nd lrnd hw t
wn lctns n th thrty Mntn Tw nshps, lw lvl
nts f slf-gvrnmnt tht srv s cndts fr
ptrng nd crrptn. Mch brgnl rsrv
lnd, hld n trst snc Jpns dys by th stt fr
brgnl srs, fll nt Chns hnds. brgnl scty
bcm tr mntd by pvrty, lchlsm, scd,
nd fmly brkdw n. Th brgnl ppl bc m
srcs f chp lbr n cnstrctn, mnng,
fctrs, nd fshng. Ths prblms prsst dspt
mprv mnts n th brgnl ppl’s sttn.
Th chrchs bcm th bss f brgnl cltrl
prsstnc nd thnc rvvl. Prsbytrn nd
Cthlc vnglsm rsltd n bt 70 prcnt f
th brgnl ppl bcmng Chrstn by 1960.
Chrstnty s ftn sn n Tw n s mrk f brgnl
dntty. spclly mng Prsbytrns, ldrshp
by brgnl clrgy, s f brgnl lngg
n w rshp, nd nclsn f trdtnl frms f scl
cprtn n chrch rgnztn mnt tht th
chrchs bcm th nly tnms brgnl
ppl’s rgnztns tsd stt cntrl tht ffrmd
nd prpttd brgnl dntty.
Fr m th md-1970s n, chrsmtc mvmnt rvtlzd
th brgnl Prsbytrn chrchs, nd hmn-
rghts ds cmbnd w th bblcl mgs f th
chsn ppl nd th prmsd lnd, brngng lmnts
f brgnl ntnlsm nt vrydy rlgs
prctc. Pltclly, mst brgnl pltcns rmnd
lyl mmbrs f th Gmndng. n th rly
1980s, w dsprd ppstn t thrtrn GMD
rl bgn t gthr strngth n Tw n. fw dctd
yths bgn t chllng GMD cntrl f th
brgnl ppl nd n 1984 fndd th llnc f
Tw n brgns (T), w th spprt frm th Prsbytrn
Chrch. brgnl chrchs wr lrdy nggd
n cmpgn t gn lnd rghts frm th stt,
nd, w th th T, bgn t b vrtly crtcl f stt
plcs. n 1987 svrl hghly pblczd lcl prtsts
nsd vr lnd sss, n w hch Prsbytrn clrgy
plyd ldng rls. n 1988 ths clscd nt th
"Rtrn r Lnd" mv mnt nd mss brgnl
dmnstrtn n Tp n 25 gst 1988.
brgnl Rghts Mvmnts nd
Cntmprry Plcs
Th Rtrn r Lnd mv mnt rsltd n nly
bt 13,000 hctrs f lnd bng rlsd, bt t
rsd th prfl f brgnl sss n th md nd
mng Tw n’s pltcl lt. brgnl pltcns,
frmrly GMD prty hcks, sght t td n nthr
n fghtng fr lng-dnd rghts. Ntv lngg
nd slf-gvrnmnt bc m pplr scl
css. Ths wr nshrnd n cnstttnl rvsns
btw n 1992 nd 1997:
Th Stt ffrms cltrl plrlsm nd shll ctvly
prsrv nd fstr th dvlpmnt f brgnl lnggs
nd cltr.
BRGNL PPLS—TWN
8 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Th stt shll, n ccrdnc w th th w ll f th thnc
grps, sfgrd th stts nd pltcl prtcptn
f th brgns. Th stt shll ls grnt
nd prvd ssstnc nd ncrgmnt fr brgnl
dctn, cltr, mdcl cr, cnmc ctvty,
lnd nd scl w lfr, msrs fr whch . . .
shll b stblshd by lw .
(Rpblc f Chn Cnstttn, ddtnl rtcl 10)
cbnt-lvl Cncl f brgnl ffrs ws
stblshd n 1996, bt t hs n dmnstrtv thrty.
Nnthlss, th lrg fndng nd plcy cnslttn
rl t hs bn gvn hs cntrbtd t n
brgnl rnssnc s w ll s t th dvlpmnt
f mny lcl nd ntnl nngvrnmntl nttvs.
n th 1990s brgnl ppls bcm ky symbls
f th nw mltcltrl Tw n, symblzd by
th mjr rl thy plyd n th ngrtn f Prsdnt
Chn Shbn (b. 1950) n My 2000. Chn ppntd
n f th ldrs f th brgnl rghts
mv mnt, Prsbytrn mnstr, t hd th Cncl
f brgnl ffrs nd md clsss n ntv lnggs
prt f th rglr schl crrclm. f
prpsls t stblsh brgnl tnms rs r
rlzd, Tw n’s brgnl ppls w ll nt nly b
th mst cnmclly nd sclly dvntgd n s
(ntw thstndng mny cntnng scl prblms),
bt w ll ls b pltcl mdl fr trnstn frm
th thnc mrgns t th pltcl cntr.
Mchl Stntn
Frthr Rdng
Bllw d, Ptr. (1991) "Th strnsn Dsprsl nd
th rgn f Lnggs," Scntfc mrcn 191 (Jly):
88–93.
Chn, Ch-l. (1968) Mtrl Cltr f th Frmsn brgns.
Tp, Tw n: Tw n Prvncl Msm.
L Kng-ch, Chng Kw ng-chh, rthr P. Wlf, nd
lxndr Chn-chn Yn, ds.(1989) nthrplgcl
Stds f th Twn r: ccmplshmnts nd Prspcts.
Tp, Tw n: Ntnl Tw n nvrsty.
Rpblc f Chn Gvrnmnt nfrmtn ffc. (2000)
"Tw n’s ndgns Ppls," Rpblc f Chn Yrbk
2000. Tp, Tw n: 29–36.
Rbnstn, Mrry, d. (1999) Twn: Nw Hstry. r mnk,
NY: M. . Shrp.
Shphrd, Jhn Rbrt. (1993) Sttcrft nd Pltcl cnmy
n th Twn Frntr 1600–1800. Stnfrd, C:
Stnfrd P.
Stntn, Mchl. (1995) "Rtrn r Lnd: Cntrhgmnc
Prsbytrn brgnlty n Tw n." M..
thss. Yrk nvrsty, Trnt, Cnd.
———. (1995) "Tw n brgns n th N: ntrntnl
nd Dmstc mplctns," st s Frm 4 (Fll):
63–79.
B BKR (1843?–1895), sltn f Jhr. Rgrdd
s th fthr f mdrn Jhr, b Bkr
(rgnd 1862–1895) prsdd vr th mrgnc f
frly prsprs brcrtc stt n Mly w th
vbrnt cmmrcl grcltrl sctr. Drng th lst
qrtr f th nntnth cntry, Jhr ws th nly
ndpndnt pnnslr Mly stt; ll th thrs
wr dmntd by frgn pwrs, ncldng th
Brtsh. b Bkr cltvtd cls ts wth th
Brtsh. Thrgh hs nflnc, th Brtsh wr bl
t mps ndrct rl n th Sr Mnnt Cnfdrcy
(prsnt-dy Ngr Smbln, stt n th Fdrtn
f Mlys) nd Phng ( ls stt n th
Fdrtn f Mlys) n th lt 1880s. Th Brtsh
snctnd hs nnxtn f Mr, Mly prncplty
nmnlly ndr th kngdm f Jhr, fllw ng
th dth f Sltn l skndr Shh f Mr
(rgnd 1855–1877).
b Bkr tmnvrd th gvrnr f th
Strts Sttlmnts, Sr Frdrck Wld (gvrnd
1880–1887), by sgnng trty n 1885 w th Brtn,
bypssng Wld nd th Brtsh Clnl ffc.
Thrby b Bkr ws rcgnzd s sltn nd n
ndpndnt rlr. H stblshd th Jhr dvsry
Brd, qs-dplmtc rprsnttn, n Lndn.
b Bkr pr mlgtd w rttn cnstttn n
1894, cd f lw s, nd brcrtc frm f dmnstrtn.
Rds, schls, nd hsptls w r blt.
rpns wr nggd s lgl nd tchncl dvsrs
t th gvrnmnt. Th cnmy w s dvlpd
n prtnrshp w th Chns nd rpn ntrprnrs
nd fnncrs. Hvng ld n xtrvgnt
lfstyl wth xpnsv nglphl tsts nd hbts,
h dd n 1895, bqthng t hs sn nd sccssr
brhm hs kngdm, n mpty ryl prs, nd
hfty dbt.
Kt Gn
Frthr Rdng
Gllck, J. M. (1992) Rlrs nd Rsdnts: nflnc nd Pwr
n th Mly Stts, 1870–1920. Kl Lmpr, Mlys:
xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Th, nc. (1969) Brtsh Plcy n th Mly Pnnsl,
1880–1910, Vl. : Th Sthrn nd Cntrl Stts. Kl
Lmpr, Mlys: nvrsty f Mly Prss.
Trck, C. (1978) Prnc f Prts: Th Tmnggngs nd th
Dvlpmnt f Jhr nd Sngpr, 1784–1885. Sngpr:
Sngpr nvrsty Prss.
B, MNT Mnt b (1,722 mtrs) frms
n sltd spr f th rvll Rng, n sthrn
B BKR
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 9
Rjsthn Stt f nrthwst nd. t rss lk prcpts
grnt slnd frm th srrndng plns.
Th mntn s scrd t th Jns w h cll th plc
Dlw r; svrl f ts pks r cvrd wth mlttd
f rchtctrlly sprb Jn tmpls dtng
frm th lvnth thrgh thrtnth cntrs s w ll
s thr shrns nd tmbs. Th strctrs r th
bst xmpls f Jn rlgs rchtctr nd stnd
t bcs thy r blt f w ht mrbl. T th
Jns, Dlwr s n mprtnt plgr mg dstntn.
frt fv klmtrs frm Dlw r srvd s hdqrtrs
f th lcl Pr mr chfs (nnth t
lvnth cntrs), nd cntns tw Jn tmpls f
th sm prd.
mng th mst mprtnt tmpls n Mnt b
r n blt drng 1197–1247 nd r mrkbl fr
th dlccy f ts mrbl crvngs; nd nthr, blt
crc 1032 C, s n f th ldst knw n Jn bldngs
nd s dvtd t th gd Prsvnth.
Thr s ls hll-sttn r sntrm n th
mntn, t bt 1,200 mtrs lvtn. Clld
Mnt b (1991 ppltn 15,547), t w s rgnlly
cnstrctd fr th cnvnnc f rpns skng
t scp th ht smmr w thr. Th tmprtr
rngs frm 70 t 90° F, nvr httr; nnl rnfll
s bt 68 nchs. Th tw n hs chrch, clb, hsptl,
smll rtfcl lk, nd schl rgnlly blt
fr th chldrn f Brtsh sldrs, s wll s scnc
rdwys nd brdl pths.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Dvs, Phlp, nd Grg Mchll. (1989). "Mnt b."
n Th Pngn Gd t th Mnmnts f nd: Bddhst,
Jn, Hnd. 2 vls. Nw Yrk: Vkng Pngn, 273–276.
CDM SNC cdm Snc, fndd
n Nnjng n 1928, s th mst prmnnt cdmc
nstttn n th Rpblc f Chn (RC). lthgh
t s ffltd drctly t th RC Prsdntl ffc,
cdm Snc, w hch s lctd n Tp, njys ndpndnc
nd tnmy n frmltng ts w n rsrch
gnd. ts mjr tsks r t cndct cdmc
rsrch n scncs, hmnts, nd scl scncs,
s w ll s t prvd gdnc, crdntn, nd ncntvs
t rsng cdmc stndrds n Tw n. n
ntrntnl grdt schl t trn ftr schlrs
s crrntly ndr prprtn; t w ll rcrt fv t
tn grdt stdnts vry yr frm 2002 fr ch
f ts lvn Ph.D. prgrms.
cdm Snc hs md tr mnds prgrss n
rcnt yrs. n ncrsng nmbr f rsrch pprs
wrttn by ts fclty, whch nmbrd 1,150 n 2001,
r pprng n w ll-knw n ntrntnl jrnls.
Sm jrnls, pblshd by cdm Snc tslf,
sch s Zlgcl Stds nd Sttstcl Snc, hv rcvd
ntrntnl rcgntn. cdm Snc
plys mjr rl n th fld f Chns stds. Fr
xmpl, th rchlgcl fndngs by rsrchrs t
th nsttt f Hstry nd Phllgy hv, n cmbntn
wth wrttn dcmnts, ld t vrtl
rwrtng f ncnt Chns hstry, pshng bck th
spn f Chns hstry by mny cntrs.
Th crrnt prsdnt f cdm Snc s Dr.
Yn-tsh L, 1986 Nbl lrt n chmstry.
Th cnvctn crrntly cnssts f 199 mmbrs
(cdmcns), whch nclds fv thnc Chns
Nbl lrts.
Chng J-t
CH RBLLN (1873–1903). Dspt th
Dtch rrvl n ndns n th svntnth cntry,
xpnsn nt ch dd nt ccr ntl th nd f
th nntnth cntry. Th ppl f ch frcly
rsstd Dtch ncrchmnt n thr trrtry n
nrthrn Smtr. Whl ch’s ndpndnc ws
grntd by th 1824 ngl- Dtch Trty f Lndn,
n 1858 th Dtch gnd ccss t st cst
prts n n grmnt w th th sltn f Sk. Th
sltn f ch sw ths s thrt nd sght t frg
llncs w th xtrnl pw rs, prtclrly Trky. n
trn th Dtch nd th Brtsh frgd n llnc ndr
trty n 1871, w hch llw d th Nthrlnds
t lnch thr 1873 nvsn. ftr dsstrs ntl
fry n 1873, th Dtch vntlly cptrd th
sltn’s plc n Bnd ch n 1874, bt ths fld
t nd rsstnc. Trdtnl vllg rlrs rgnzd
sstnd rblln n w hch prst strn f slm,
ntbl mng chns, ws sd s rllyng pnt
t pps th Dtch kfr ("nnblvrs"). Th dstrctn
f th ch sltnt sw slmc ldrs ssm
cntrl f th rsstnc, th mst prmnnt
f whm w s Tngk Ck d Tr (1836–1891). Th
Dtch wr bl t brk th rsstnc thrgh th
s f lcl sympthzrs, nd trps frm cprtv
ndnsn thnc grps. Th fghtng, w hch
lstd ntl rnd 1903, prvd cstly t th Nthrlnds.
Bt rsstnc cntnd thrght Dtch
rl n w ht ws th mst trblsm prt f ndns,
vn ftr th ffcl nd f th cnflct. Ths
rsstnc cntnd nt th stblshmnt f th
CH RBLLN
10 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Rpblc f ndns, whn grrll lmnts cntnd
t psh thr dmnds fr ndpndnc.
nthny L. Smth
Frthr Rdng
Rcklfs, M. C. (1993) Hstry f Mdrn ndns Snc
c.1300. Lndn: Th McMlln Prss Ltd.
Trlng, Nchls. (1966) Cncs Hstry f Sthst s.
Sngpr: Dnld Mr Prss Ltd.
Tt, D. J. M. (1971) Th Mkng f Mdrn Sth-st s:
Th rpn Cnqst. Lndn: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
CHNS Fr mlln ppl lv n ch
(prnncd h-chy) n nrthwstrn Smtr, ndns,
nd cnsdr thmslvs dstnct frm thr
ppls f ndns. Nnty prcnt f thm r thnclly
chns nd lv n th lw lnds, w hl th
mnrty Gj lv n th hghlnds..
n 500 C, th chns w r Bddhst, bt whn
Mrc Pl vstd n th thrtnth cntry thy hd
lrdy cnvrtd t slm. Th 1824 ngl- Dtch
grmnt plcd thm ndr th Dtch sphr f nflnc,
bt thy rsstd nd wr nvr cmpltly
sbjgtd. Cnsqntly, mny chns rjct ndns’s
clm t svrgnty vr th trrtry.
Gvn th stts f n tnms ndnsn
prvnc n 1949, ch’s mlgmtn w th Nrth
Smtr prvnc n 1950 prvkd brf rblln
n 1953. n 1956, ch w s md spcl prvnc,
dmnstrtvly ql w th thr prvncs, t qt
dscntnt, thgh ths ctn mpld rngng n th
prms f tnmy.
ch’s ntrl gs, ptrlm, nd thr ntrl rsrcs
xpltd by frgn nd ndnsn cmpns
ppr nt t bnft th chns, wh r prr thn
rsdnts f rsrc-pr Jv, whr th ndnsn
gvrnmnt s cntrd. w rnss f cnmc xplttn
fds spprt fr ndpndnc mng th
chns, wh r sch dvt Mslms tht thy w nt
th slmc lgl cd ppld n th prvnc.
n th lt 1970s, w hn spprt fr th Fr ch
Mv mnt (GM) w s cntrd n nly n dstrct,
ndns trd t spprss dssnt, nd sm chns
wr dprtd. Rsstnc sbsdd ntl 1989, w hn
sm Lbyn-trnd grrlls rtrnd t ch nd
bgn ttckng ndnsn sldrs nd nn-chns
mgrnts, prvkng mltry vrrctn. Frm 1990
t 1998, ndnsn cntrnsrgncy prtns vrtlly
plcd th prvnc ndr mrtl lw .
ftr Shrt (b. 1921) rsgnd s ndnsn prsdnt
n 1998, mny chns rtrnd frm Mlys
nd sm frm Lby. Prtl w thdrw l f th mltry
ws rdrd, bt trps wr stnd s thy prdd
drng 31 gst crmny mrkng th
wthdrwl, prvkng brtl mltry rtltn.
n Jnry 1999, n ch stdnt cngrss prpsd
rfrndm n ndpndnc. bdrrhmn Whd
(b. 1940), lctd ndnsn prsdnt n ctbr
1999, t frst ndctd pprvl. Whn th ndnsn
gvrnmnt ltr dclrd ppstn t rfrndm,
GM rgnzd spprt nd ttckd symbls f ndnsn
thrty. Scrty frcs, rdrd t rrst
rngldrs, nstd prptrtd wdsprd trcts,
prmptng mdrt chns t spprt ndpndnc.
Th tc m f th strggl rmns ncrtn.
Mchl Hs
Frthr Rdng
Hmn Rghts Wtch. (1999) ndns: Why ch s xpldng.
Nw Yrk: Hmn Rghts Wtch Prss.
CHNS
n ndnsn w mn prtsts th gvrnmnt rprssn f
th ch rblln tsd th ntd Ntns ffc n Jkrt
n 7 gst 2001. (RTRS NWMD NC./CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 11
Smth, Hlly S. (1998) ch: rt nd Cltr. Nw Yrk: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
CPNCTR cpnctr s n ncnt
trtmnt tchnq stll rtnly sd n trdtnl
Chns mdcn nd ls n Wstrn mdcn. Th
Hngd N Jng (Cnn f Mdcn), cmpld btw n
475 BC nd 23 C, s th rlst xtnt mdcl
bk n w hch cpnctr s dscrbd. n f
ts cmpnnts, Lng Sh ( Cnn f cpnctr), dscrbs
nn nstrmnts, sm f w hch r stll n s.
Tchnqs fr mkng bmb ndls nd fr cstng
brnz ndls dvlpd drng th Shng dynsty
(1766–1045 BC). Drng th Sng dynsty
(960–1267 C), th Jrchn Jn dynsty (1126–1234
C), nd th Yn dynsty (1267–1368 C), cpnctr
dvlpd w dly n Chn. Hwvr, drng th
Qng dynsty (1644–1912) th prctc ws bnnd
frm gnrl s by dcr bcs t ws prcvd
s stbl fr pplctn t th mprr. lthgh
bnnd, cpnctr cntnd t flrsh n lcl s.
lthgh cpnctr hd bn pplr mng th
Chns- mrcn cmmnty fr vr n hndrd
yrs, nn-Chns mrcns bcm mr w r f
cpnctr ftr Prsdnt Rchrd Nxn’s 1972
vst t Chn.
n ndrstndng f th hlng rt f cpnctr
rqrs fmlrty w th th cncpts f chnnls nd
clltrls. n Chns mdcn, chnnls r th mn
trnks rnnng lngthws thrgh th bdy, nd clltrls
r thr cnnctng brnchs. Tgthr thy
cnnct th sprfcl, ntrr, ppr, nd lw r prtns
f th hmn bdy. Q (lf nrgy) flw s thrgh
th chnnls. Th tw lv rglr chnnls ncld th
thr yn chnnls f ch hnd nd ft nd th thr
yng chnnls f ch hnd nd ft. Yn nd yng r
th tw bsc, cmplmntry prncpls f whch ll
phnmn prtk: w tnss, ntrvrsn, nd cldnss
r yn chrctrstcs, fr xmpl, nd drynss,
xtrvrsn, nd ht r yng chrctrstcs. Th
ght xtr chnnls r th d chnnl, th rn chnnl,
th chng chnnl, th d chnnl, th ynq
chnnl, th yngq chnnl, th ynw chnnl, nd
th yngw chnnl.
Th cpnctr pnts r cpnts r dstrbtd
lng th chnnls nd clltrls. Th 361 chnnl
pnts nd 231 cmmn pnts r nmd n
Chns nd ls r nmd sng th Rmn lphbtcl
nd Wstrn nmrcl systm. Fr xmpl,
th ftn-sd cpnt zsnl, whch s lng th
chnnl cnnctng th stmch t th ft, s ntrntnlly
nmd "S-36." cpnctr ndls r nsrtd
t th pnts, nd thr stmltn rlss
blckd q, w hch n trn lds t hlng.
n Chn cpnctr s sd t trt dsss n
nrly vry brnch f mdcn, w hthr t s crdlgy
r dntstry, nfcts dsss, r bsttrcs.
Rspndng t rsrch, cpnctr tchnqs hv
mbrcd sch nw tchnlgs s lsr nd lctrcl
stmltn. n Chns hsptls tht prvd
cpnctr srvcs, th cpnctr sctn s lw ys
clld th dprtmnt f cpnctr nd mxbstn
(mxbstn s th brnng f mdcnl
sbstncs, slly hrbs, n th cpnts fr thrptc
ffct). lthgh th prdmnnt trtmnt n
th dprtmnt s cpnctr, mxbstn plys n
mprtnt rl. vn s Wstrn mdcn bcms
mr c mmn n Chn n th tw nty-frst cntry,
cpnctr cntns t b sd, spclly n hsptls
tht rly n trdtnl mdcn nd ls ths
tht cmbn trdtnl nd Wstrn pprchs.
B-xng Chn nd Gré Lcmpt
CPNCTR
w mn rcvs cpnctr trtmnt frm Chns
physcn t hsptl n Bjng n 1989. ( DVD & PTR
TRNLY/CRBS)
12 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Frthr Rdng
cdmy f Trdtnl Chns Mdcn. (1978) n tln
f Chns cpnctr. Mntry Prk, C: Chn’s
Crprtn.
Cprtv Grp f Shndng Mdcl Cllg nd Shndng
Cllg f Trdtnl Chns Mdcn. (1982)
ntmcl tls f Chns cpnctr Pnts. Jnn,
Chn: Shndng Scnc nd Tchnlgy Prss.
Gng Jnyng nd S Zhhng. (1991) Prctcl Trdtnl
Chns Mdcn nd Phrmclgy: cpnctr nd Mxbstn.
Bjng: Nw Wrld Prss.
Zhng nqn. (1990) Chns cpnctr nd Mxbstn.
Shngh, Chn: Pblshng Hs f th Shngh Cllg
f Trdtnl Chns Mdcn.
DLT PRTS Th dlt Prts, r Jstc
Prty (JP; 1961–1980), w s pltcl prty
fndd n 1961 n Trky by th lw r chlns f
th Dmcrt Prt (Dmcrt Prty [DP]). Th DP
hd bn dsslvd by th mltry jnt tht stgd
th 1960 cp. Th JP’s frst ldr, Rgp Gmspl
(1897–1964), w s chf f th Gnrl Stff nd
ws mng th 5,000 ffcrs nvlntrly rtrd by
th jnt t rjvnt th r md frcs n gst
1960 (th "mns" cs). n 1964, fllw ng th dth
f Gmspl, Slymn Dmrl (1924–) ws lctd
th scnd ldr f th prty nd ccpd ths pstn
ntl th 1980 mltry jnt bnnd th prty.
Th JP’s dlgy ccrdd th prvt sctr n
mprtnt rl n cnmc dvlpmnt nd mphszd
scl jstc, rpd cnmc dvlpmnt, nd
rlgs tlrnc. Th prty rprsntd th nw ly
mrgng pltcl lt md p f ndstrlsts, smll
ntrprnrs, rtsns, mrchnts, nd prfssnls
wh hd nt bn gvn ngh rprsnttn by th
cntrl rgnztn f th ld DP.
Th JP ws nt nfrm bdy. Th prty’s ccs
ncldd, n ddtn t lbrl lmnts, rlgs
grps, xtrm rghtsts, nd dvt spprtrs f th
frmr DP. Th mxd cmpstn ld t tw mjr
splts. Th frst ndd wth th dsmssl f th ntnlst-
fndmntlst grp frm th prty n 1967.
Th scnd cm n Dc mbr 1970, w hn svntytw
mmbrs f prlmnt nd sntrs rsgnd
frm th prty nd fndd th Dmcrtk Prty
(Dmcrtc Prty).
Th prty’s dptn f n mprt-sbstttn plcy
cclrtd th xpnsn f cptlst cnmy
t th xpns f smll mrchnts nd rtsns, w h
wthdrw spprt nd mvd twrd smll rght-w ng
prts prmsng mr ntnlst cnmy. Slw ng
cnmc grw th, nfltn, nd lbr-rltd cnflcts
cld rltns btw n th prty nd th
prvt sctr. Th prty’s rltnshp w th th mltry
nd brcrts, n th thr hnd, ws lw ys
trblsm.
Th JP ws n gvrnmnt fr hlf f ts tw nty
yrs f xstnc, srvng s cltn prtnr (Nvmbr
1961–Jn 1962, Fbrry–ctbr 1965,
Mrch 1975–Jn 1977 [. Ntnlst Frnt], Jly
1977–Jnry 1978 [. Ntnlst Frnt]), s th
mjrty gvrnmnt (ctbr 1965–ctbr 1969,
Nv mbr 1969–Fbrry 1970, Mrch 1970–Mrch
1971), nd s mnrty gvrnmnt (ctbr
1979–Sptmbr 1980). ftr th 1980 mltry ntrvntn,
t w s dsslvd, nd ts ldrs wr bnnd
frm pltcl ctvts.
yl H. Klc
Frthr Rdng
Hpr, Mtn, nd Jcb M. Lnd, ds. (1991) Pltcl
Prts nd Dmcrcy n Trky. Lndn: Trs.
DN (2000 st. pp. 1.1 mlln). Th ffthlrgst
cty f Trky, dn s lctd t th cnflnc
f th Syhn nd Cyhn Rvrs n th rch
grcltrl pln f Ckrv n sthstrn ntl.
dn hs chngd hnds ftn. n 1516 th ttmn
sltn Slm (1468–1520) tk pssssn f
th cty drng hs cmpgn gnst th Mmlks. Th
ttmns lft th dmnstrtn f ths nw ly cnqrd
trrtry t lcl vssls fr sm yrs, bt n
1608 th trrtry bcm prvnc f th ttmn
mpr. n 1833 dn ws cdd n th Trty f Kthy
t Mhmmd l Psh (r Mhmt l Ps,
1769–1849), rbl ttmn ffcr wh hd sccdd
n crtng mr r lss ndpndnt dynsty
n gypt.
Th ttmn mpr rcvrd dn wth th
Lndn Cnvntn f 1840, nd th cty gn bcm
prvncl cptl n 1867. Th cty’s mprtnc s
n grcltrl trdng cntr drmtclly ncrsd
drng th mrcn Cvl Wr (1861–1865), w hn
dn bnftd frm th sddn shrtg f cttn n
th ntrntnl mrkt. s msr f ths ncrsng
mprtnc, rlrd cnnctng dn t th
Mdtrrnn prt f Mrsn w s blt n 1886, nd
ths ln w s ltr ncldd n th Bghdd Rlw y.
n 1909, dn ws th st f shrt-lvd rmnn
prsng tht ws brtlly spprssd. Th
Frnch ccpd th cty n 1919, fllw ng th 1918
dft f th ttmn mpr n Wrld Wr . nw llng
t nvst th mn nd mnys ncssry t
DLT PRTS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 13
mntn ths ccptn, hwvr, Frnc cdd th
trrtry t th Trksh Ntnlst frcs n 1922 t
th Trty f nkr.
dn mntns ts mprtnc s n grcltrl
cntr, nd cttn cntns t b sgnfcnt lcl
crp. thr mprtnt crps ncld rngs, lmns,
rc, nd ssm. Drng th Trksh Rpblc, grcltrlly
rltd ndstrs sch s txtl nd vgtbl
l prdctn ls ssmd ncrsng
mprtnc. dn s hm t Ckrv nvrsty,
fndd n 1973. Ysr Kml (b. 1922), rgbly th
mst fms thr f Rpblcn Trky, w s brn
hr nd bsd mny f hs wrks n th Trksh nd
Krdsh flktls f th srrndng cntrysd.
Hwrd ssnstt
Frthr Rdng
Crss, Tn M., nd Gry Lsr. (2000) Brf Hstry f
nkr. Vcvll, C: ndn Frd Prss.
DT dt rfrs t th w d rng f lcl cstmry
rgms chrctrzng th dvrsty f thnc
grpngs nd lcl cmmnts crss th Mly-
ndnsn rchplg. Vrsly trnsltd s "cstm,"
"trdtn," "prctc," nd "rl," th cncpt
cnvys sns f th lcl rdr f thngs—bqthd
nd vldtd by ncstrs, mntnd nd
dptd by thr dscndnts. dt typclly rdrs
prprty rghts, mrrg nd nhrtnc prctcs, rsrc
ccss, nd lcl gvrnnc. Trnsgrssns f
dt prscrptns r prhbtns my rslt n scl
r sprntrl rtrbtn; hnc th rgltry spct
f dt gs bynd trdtn r cnvntn nd
nvks lgl dmnsn. Bt dt hs brdr cnnttns
thn Wstrn cncpts f thr cstm r
lw cnvy: t ls mplcts prprty nd cmmnlty
nd ppls t prtclr mrl styls nd mdls
f scl cnsnss. dt rltnshps typclly
ncmpss scl bhvr, rtl rspnsblts, rcprcl
rltns, nd cllctv blgtns, s w ll s
thr dts nd prvlgs f mmbrshp n cmmnty
r knshp grp. Crtclly mprtnt r th
ncstrl nd cmmnl snctns tht mk lw nd
cstm lvng rlgs nd scl prctcs.
f rbc drvtn, th trm dt ntrd Mly,
th trdng lngg f th rgn, nd c m t ncmpss
nmrs nlgs cncpts n ndgns
lnggs: drst (ncnt cstm) n Blns, d ntt
(th cstms f th ldrs) mng Kl spkrs
n Slws, nd dt prpth (mtrlnl cstmry
lw ) fr th Mnngkb ppls f Smtr (ndns)
nd Ngr Smbln ( Mlys), fr xmpl.
Th lng hstry f cntct wth xtrnl rlgs
nd lgl systms—ndc snc th frth cntry, slmc
snc th frtnth cntry, nd rpn
snc th sxtnth cntry—thrgh trd nd clnztn
rsltd n fsn f dt wth cmptbl
spcts f ths mprtd trdtns. Bt s th Dtch
dt schlr Crnls Vn Vllnhvn (1874–1933)
rgd, t s th ndgns systm tht prvls n th
pplr lgl cnscsnss.
Whl n n sns rprsntng hmgns st
f prncpls, th cncpt f dt nvrthlss vks
th dsprt mnngs nd sgnfcnt dntts ssctd
wth "th lcl" crss ndns. Strtchng
frm vry spcfc thnc, cmmnty, r kn grp
rfrnts—fr xmpl, dt Mnngkb (n thnc
grp), r dt Ds Tngnn ( prtclr vllg)—
t brd, gnrc ntn f pn–Mly-ndnsn
cltrl sbstrtm tht prdtd nd fsd w th th
rlgs trdtns f Hndsm nd slm, th ntn
f dt s fndmntlly cncrnd w th th rcprcl
rghts f ndvdls nd thr rspnsblts t
thr cmmnty nd th ncstrs tht nsr th
cmmnty’s cllctv w ll-bng.
Th Ldn dtrcht Schl
dt lw bcm mjr dscpln f Dtch clnl
lgl stds. Bldng n th rlr wrtngs f
G. . Wlkn, Wllm Mrsdn, nd Stmfrd Rffls,
th dtrcht (ltrlly "dt Lw ") Schl ws
pnrd by Crnls Vn Vllnhvn ftr hs 1901
ppntmnt t th prfssrshp f Cnstttnl
Lw nd dmnstrtn t th nvrsty f Ldn.
Vn Vllnhvn ndrstd dt t b fndd
n mr r lss tnms "jrl cmmnts" rgnzd
lng knshp r trrtrl lns. Bt dt thrty
cld ls b vstd n vlntry ssctns
tht mght b sbsts f cmmnts t n nd f
th spctrm r, t th thr nd, clmd by hrrchclly
strctrd prncplts tht ncrprtd dt
cmmnts r kn grps, w hch rtnd vrs dgrs
f tnmy.
Vn Vllnhvn rgd tht t ws npprprt
t dvrc lgl nstttns frm thr lmnts f
pplr cltr. Th mbdddnss f dt n lcl nstttns
nd blfs md t mpssbl t drw clr
dstnctn btw n dt s thr cstm r lw . Rls
r cstms tht mght thrw s b rgrdd mrly
s tqtt rprsnt snsblty t cmmnty hrmny
nd ncstrl blgtn tht ntgrts scl,
rlgs, nd lgl dmnsns f vrydy lf. n
cdfctn f cstmry lw , th Nnty-Nn Lw s
DT
14 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
f Prk (trnsltd n Hkr 1978), fr xmpl, nclds
sctns n bsv lngg, crmnl
bthng, pymnts t th crtkr f vllg sprts,
nd th kpng f lphnts.
Cstmry snctns my b ppld bcs f th
flr t prfrm cmmnl blgtns r crry t
vllg clnsng rtls, th mssn f cmplsry
cntrbtns t fst, th fllng f trs wtht
prmssn, r th trnsgrssn f rls n prhbtd
mrrgs. Snctns mght rqr frml xplsn
frm th dt cmmnty, r thy rmn mplct n
cmmn ndrstndngs tht th flr t bsrv
prpr scl rltnshps, cndct rtls, r rcprct
pprprtly w ld brng ncstrl dsfvr
nd msfrtn. Vn Vllnhvn nd hs stdnts
rcgnzd ths cltrlly dfnd nrms nd rls
tht rglt vrydy lf s lgtmt frms f lw ,
whch xst lngsd cdfd rgltns mpsd by
frml nstttns f thrty.
Th Dtch thrts pblshd vlms f dt
lw dcmnts s prt f thr clnzng prjct.
Ths dtrchtbndls (dt Lw Cllctns), ncldng
nvntrs f lcl dt prctcs, cdfctns
f rls nd pnlts, nd rcrds f dspts
nd crt css, wr cllctd nnlly frm dffrnt
prts f th rchplg btw n 1911 nd 1955.
Fr th Ldn Schl, ths vlmns mtrls
dmnstrtd th mprtnc f ndgns cstmry
lw nd th ptntl fr cdfyng t. Th hghly
lclzd nd htrgns srcs fr ntrprtng
dt, hw vr, mk gnrlztn dffclt.
dt my pply prmrly t grps rgnzd by
knshp r t trrtrl cmmnty n w hch knshp
s nt mprtnt. t my prvlg nhrtnc thrgh
ml (s mng th Blns nd Btk) r fml lns
(s mng th Mnngkb), r t my stplt ql
nhrtnc frm bth prnts, s n th mst prvlnt
bltrl knshp rrngmnt n Sthst s.
nsfr s th dvrsty f dt rgms cn b sd
t shr ndrlyng pttrns r prncpls, prgmtc
tlrnc fr—r t lst rcgntn f—lcl vrtn
s prhps frmst mng thm. Dffrnt blfs,
prhbtns, blgtns, prrgtvs, rtl
prctcs, nd clthng nd hsng styls my b prscrbd
r jstfd s lcl dt. Crtn spcts f dt
prctc my b prvlgd s cntrl t grp dntty—
fr nstnc, mtrlnl dscnt mng th Mnngkb,
rtl srvc blgtn (yhn) mng
th Blns, r th rnggn dcsn-mkng frm
mng th Kr Btk—n crtn prd, lcl, r
cntxt nd rmn w tht mphss n nthr. s
th Blns dg Ds kl ptr (ccrdng t "plc,
tm, nd crcmstnc") ndcts, dt s pn t sttnl
ntrprttn nd rvsn.
Vn Vllnhvn lknd vrtn n lcl dt t
dlcts f cmmn lngg, n w hch n ndrlyng
grmmr cld b rvld by schlrly nlyss.
Th stds crrd t by th Ldn Schl ssrt
tht cmmn ndrlyng ftrs cld b dntfd
bnth th srfc dvrsty. dt strsss lcl tnmy,
rcgnzng nd lgtmzng vrtn frm
n scl grp t th thr, nd xhbts flxblty
vr tm. dt s grd tw rd mntnng hr mns
rltns; bcs lcl cnstrctns f dt r
ctly ttnd t rcprcl rltns n prst f scl
cnsnnc, blnc nd qvlnc hv grt
rsnnc n ts rhtrcl nd rtl xprssn. Nvrthlss,
n mst f th cltrs f th rchplg,
dt ls ccmmdts hrrchc scl strctrs
tht grnt dgrs f prcdnc nd prrgtv t
fndng ncstrs r rstcrtc lngs. Cmmnl
ntrst thrtclly tks prrty vr ndvdl
ntrst; cnsqntly th dt ths s grd twrd
cnsnsl dlbrtn nd mtl d. Lcl dt s
mr ftn thn nt ncdfd, tkng ts scl frc
frm th cllctv mmry nd ncstrl bnds f
cmmnty mmbrs, s ntrprtd thrgh th wsdm
nd sprtl pw rs f dt spclsts. dt thrty
tnds t b dffs, vstd vrsly n
crprt mmbrshp, vllg ldrs, nd rlrs, bt
t s sbjct t th ntrvntn f sprntrl
frcs—spcs r mns vnts sgnfyng th
fvr r dsstsfctn f ncstrs nd lcl grdn
sprts. Th pw r nd knw ldg f th sprt dmn
r ftn xrcsd by nsprd r chrsmtc prcttnrs
prtng tsd frml lns f thrty.
Cntrvrss: f Rghts nd dntts
Mst f th cntrvrss srrndng dt n cdmc
ltrtr, pltcl crcls, nd pplr dbts
mng th rgnl cltrs f ndns cntr n ts
rlvnc t mdrnty, ts rltnshp t rthdx
rlgns, nd ts mplctns fr prprty, stts, nd
gndr.
Gndr, Rlgn, nd Mdrnty Cnflcts nd ccmmdtns
mng dt, cptlst mdrnty, nd
slmc rvvl mv mnts hv bn f spcl ntrst
t schlrs f gndr nd rlgn. dt typclly
rcgnzs w mn’s rght t ntt dvrc nd, n
th prdmnntly bltrl knshp systms f th
rchplg, t ql nhrtnc rghts nd n ql
shr n prprty cqrd drng mrrg.
Mtrlnl cstmry lw (dt prpth) mng th
Mnngkb ppl f Wst Smtr n ndns
DT
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 15
nd Ngr Smbln n Wst Mlys hs rcvd
cnsdrbl ttntn bcs f th lng-stndng ccmmdtn
f slm t w mn’s cstmry nhrtnc
rghts. ndr mtrlnl dt, ncstrl prprty
psss thrgh th fml ln, w hrs slmc lw frmlly
gvs w mn th rght t n-thrd shr f
fmly prprty, cmprd t tw -thrds fr ml dscndnts.
Th dffrnc btw n Mnngkb dt
nd slmc lw ws trdtnlly rslv d thrgh
dstnctn btw n ncstrl prprty (hrt psk),
trnsmttd frm mthrs t dghtrs, nd ndvdlly
cqrd prprty (hrt pncrn), w hch my b
dspsd f ccrdng t th wshs f th wnr.
lthgh th Mnngkb gnrlly rgrd slm
nd dt s mtlly rnfrcng spcts f thr dntty,
mdrnst pltcl mv mnts n Wst Smtr
chllngd dt-bsd rltns, prtclrly w mn’s
prprty rghts ndr dt, wtht sbstntvly ltrng
dt nhrtnc prctc. n Mly, drng
wht bcm knw n s th dt crss f 1951, w hn
brnch f th ntd Mly Ntnl rgnztn
mtd prpsl t blsh mtrlnl nhrtnc
n Ngr Smbln, w mn mntd sccssfl
cmpgn thrtnng prpnnts w th dvrc.
ndvdlly cqrd prprty stll tnds t b cnvrtd
vr gnrtns t ncstrl prprty. Th
cntnty f ths prctc, dspt th ndvdlztn
nd cmmrclztn f prprty nd thr spcts
f scl lf, ttsts t th rslnc f
Mnngkb dt nd th cntnd sgnfcnc f
th cltrl dntts nd scl ts t ndrpns. Nvrthlss,
wdr scl chng thrgh rbnztn,
ndstrlztn, nd th cmmrclztn f grcltr
(w hch ccmpnd th grn-rvltn ntnsfctn
f rc prdctn) hs ltrd th
cmplx cnstlltn f scl rltns nd cltrl
blfs tht cnnctd lnd, ncstrs, nd fml mdtn
n rtl nd fmly ffrs. Ths frcs hv
tndd t mrgnlz th cltrl vls nd scl rltns
f ths nc prdmnntly grrn scts,
wth cnsqncs fr th pstn f w mn.
Whl th dt rrngmnts f th prdmnntly
bltrl r mtrlnl cltrs f th rchplg spprt
rltvly gltrn gndr rltns, fr w mn
n ptrlnl systms, sch s th Blns nd Btk,
th ppst s tr. Fr xmpl, Bl Hnd thrts
btnd xmptn frm dvrc nd nhrtnc
prvsns f th 1974 Mrrg Lw tht stplt
ql dvsn f prprty n th grnds f ptrlnl
dt. Nvrthlss, nthrplgsts fnd ndrlyng
bltrl prncpls crss th cltrs f Sthst
s tht mdrt frmlly lnl prctcs.
Prprty Rghts nd Mdrnty Snc th clnl
prd, th qstn f ffcl rcgntn f dt
prprty rghts hs bn mng th mst vxng f
pltcl nd cnmc sss. Wth rspct t lnd nd
rsrcs, dt s td t cncpts f trrtrlty nd
cmmnty rghts f llctn, gnrlly rfrrd t
s hk lyt ("trrtrl rght"). Ths ncld cmmnl
ccss r cstmrly llctd rghts t rsdntl
lnds, cltvtd flds, ncltvtd frsts,
nd grzng nd fllw rs.
Th rlgs, scl, nd cnmc dmnsns f
dt mk prprty rghts nd rsrc ccss mr
cmplx thn ndvdl prvt-prprty rghts ndr
Wstrn lw . Snc th ndvdl’s rghts t lnd nd
rsrcs r n vryng dgrs dfnd nd vldtd
by cmmnty r grp mmbrshp, t s mpssbl
t drw clr dstnctns btwn prvt nd cmmn
prprty. Mgrtn r xplsn frm th cmmnty
cld mn th lss f rghts t crprtly
hld lnd. n Bl, fr xmpl, sm f th ldst c mmnts
rtn strct rgltns n lnd lntn.
Tngnn vllg ds nt pr mt th prchs r sl
f vllg lnd, mst f whch s cmmnlly w nd,
nd srs trnsgrssns f dt rls, r mrrg t
smn frm tsd th vllg, rslt n lss f
rghts t cmmnl prprty.
ndr dt rgltns, tsd grps rqr prmssn
nd slly py "rcgntn fs" fr rsrc
ccss rghts t dt cmmnty trrtry. Smllrscl
pymnts my ls b rqrd f mmbrs
thmslvs n cknw ldgmnt f vrrchng grp
rghts. dt typclly lmts ndvdl prprty rghts
t lnd tht cn b ffctvly wrkd by mmbr
hshlds. Cmmnts, cstdns, r ndvdl
hldrs f dt lnd trdtnlly hv rtl blgtns
t ncstrs nd grdn sprts tht vldt
thr prprty rghts.
Wth cltrl, scl, nd cnmc lnks s ntmtly
cnnctd, dt lnd hs bn w dly rgrdd
s nlnbl frm th c mmnty r dscnt grp.
Ths spct f dt hs nt st cmfrtbly wth ntnl
lnd lw s, whch n bth Mlys nd ndns
gv grt w ght t frms f prvt-prprty
rghts nhrtd frm th Wstrn lgl trdtn.
Lnd nt ffclly rgstrd ndr frml lw ws
sbjct t pprprtn by th stt.
Th Dtch clnl Dmn Dclrtn rrgtd
t th stt ll lnd fr w hch lglly rcgnzd prprty
rghts cld nt b prvd. Ths prncpl bcm
th sbjct f schlrly cntrvrsy btwn th Ldn
Schl, w hch sght t dfnd dt rghts s lgl
rghts t lnd, nd th c mptng Schl f Lw nd
DT
16 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
dmnstrtn t trcht. Th lttr rfsd dt th
stts f lw , rgng tht dt-bsd rghts wr n mpdmnt
t mdrnztn nd dvlpmnt. Th
prms f th Dmn Dclrtn ws ltr ncrprtd
nt th ndnsn cnstttn nd sbsqnt
ntnl lnd nd rsrc lw s, mrgnlzng th tkn
cknw ldgmnts f dt n th sm lgsltn.
n prctc, lcl clms t ncltvtd rs ndr
hk lyt wr dsrgrdd r grntd nly rsdl
rcgntn ndr clnl nd pstclnl rgms.
Lnd nd rsrc rghts ssrtd ndr dt wr
vrrddn by th stt whnvr thy cmptd w th
ltrntv lnd ss. Wdsprd xprprtn f
dt dmns fr ndstry, rsttlmnt, nd thr dvlpmnt
prjcts st th stg fr ltr, smtms
vlnt strggls vr lnd, rsrcs, nd cltrl
rghts.
Myths nd Rfrmtns
Fr ts crtcs, th dt lw prjct f th Ldn
Schl w s n dlst cnstrctn, whch xggrtd
th ntrnl chrnc nd ndrlyng cmmnlty f
dt rgms. Jl Khn (1993) nd Ptr Brns (1989)
crtqd th ntrdtnl rmntcs m f Dtch
schlrs nd dmnstrtrs wh sght prstn ndgns
lgl rchtyp. Clffrd Grtz rgd tht
th Dtch dt lw frmw rk rfd lvng, cltrlly
dfnd lgl snsblty, msrprsntng "n ndgns
sns f wht jstc s, scl cnsnnc,
n trms f n mprtd n f w ht rdr s,
Rchtsstt [stt lw ]" (Grtz 1983: 209).
Dbt mng cntmprry schlrs cntns t
rflct th rlr cnflc t btw n th Ldn nd
trcht schls, th frmr spprtng th prctcl nd
thcl grnds fr th rcgntn f dt s lw nd
th cs fr lgl plrlsm, th lttr rgrdng t s n
rtfcl nd npprprt pplctn f th cncpt f
lw , w hch hndrd th dvlpmnt f mdrn cdfd
lgl systm. Prlll pstns dlzng nd cntstng
th chrctr nd rl f dt rgms cntn
mng ndgns w rtrs cnfrntng qstns f
qlty, sstnblty, ntnlsm, nd mdrnty. s
nvrnmntl cncrns bcm lnkd t ndgnsrghts
sss, dt rgltn f ntrl rsrcs hs bcm
th fcs f smlr dbt.
Cntrvrss bt th plc f dt n th lvs f
th ppls f th rchplg nd ts lgl vblty n
Mlys nd ndns hv nt btd. ndd, th lclztn
prcsss ccmpnyng glblztn plc
dt t th cntr f mch f th dscrs ssctd
wth sss f ndgns rghts, lcl mngmnt f
rsrcs, nd dcntrlzd gvrnnc. n ndns,
th rfrm mv mnt tht ndd th Shrt rgm
n 1998 spw nd n llnc f dt cmmnts spprtd
by nngvrnmntl rgnztns nd md t
rssrtng th rghts f lcl ndgns mnrts.
Th llnc f dt Cmmnts f th rchplg
ws frmd n 1999 t prss fr rvsn f lnd, rsrc,
nd gvrnnc lgsltn nd t gn fll
rcgntn f dt nstttns, prprty, nd cltrl
rghts. Rgnl-tnmy plcs hv bn dvlpd
n rspns t slf -dtrmntn dmnds nd t
th ntrthnc cnflcts prtly gnrtd by dcds f
mrgnlztn f dt rgms ndr th spcs f
gvrnmnt dvlpmnt plcs.
Whl dbt vr th cntmprry rlvnc f
dt cntns n schlrly nd plcy-mkng crcls,
vdnc f th cntnty f dt prctcs rvls n
nnr dynmc f mnngs nd vls tht dmnd
rcgntn. Ths mnngs nd vls tk nw
frms s lcl rgms bcm lnkd t glbl mv mnts
fcsd n th rghts f ndgns mnrts.
Th pltcztn f dt hs ld t mr crystllzd
nd smtms mr rgdly dfnd cncptns f
dt, rfrmd nd rcnstttd s fcs f pltcl
dmnds. s Ml Stvns (1996) sys f mtrlny
n Ngr Smbln, dt, fr sgnfcnt nmbrs
mng th ppltns f Mlys nd ndns, s
n "trdtnl rlc." crss th Mly-ndnsn
rchplg, dt rmns vtl frc, smtms
dffs, smtms xplct sclgl snsblty, nd
grnd fr cntsttn nd fr dfnng cmmn
dntty nd ntrst.
Crl Wrrn
Frthr Rdng
ccl, Grg. (2002) "R- mpwrng th ‘rt f th ldrs’:
Th Rvtlztn f dt mng th T Lnd f
Cntrl Slw s nd thrght Cntmprry ndns."
n Bynd Jkrt: Rgnl tnmy nd Lcl
Scts n ndns, dtd by Mnk Sk. dld,
strl: Crwfrd Hs.
dtrchtbndls. (1910–1955) Vls. 1–45. Th Hg,
Nthrlnds: Mrtns Njhff.
Bnd-Bckmn, Frnz vn. (1979) Prprty n Scl Cntnty.
Th Hg, Nthrlnds: Mrtns Njhff.
———, Kbt vn Bnd-Bckmn, nd J. Hkm, ds.
(1997) Ntrl Rsrcs, nvrnmnt, nd Lgl Plrlsm.
Th Hg, Nthrlnds: Mrtns Njhff.
Bnd-Bckmn, Kbt vn. (1984) Th Brkn Strwys t
Cnsnss: Vllg Jstc nd Stt Crts n Mnngkb.
Drdrcht, Nthrlnds: Frs.
Brns, Ptr. (1989) "Th Myth f dt." Jrnl f Lgl
Plrlsm 28: 1–127.
Grtz, Clffrd. (1983) "Lcl Knw ldg: Fct nd Lw
n Cmprtv Prspctv." n Lcl Knwldg, by Clffrd
Grtz. Nw Yrk: Bsc Bks, 167–234.
DT
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 17
Hllmn, Jhn Frdrck, d. (1981) Vn Vllnhvn n
ndnsn dt Lw. Th Hg, Nthrlnds: Mrtns
Njhff.
Hkr, Mchl. (1978) dt Lws n Mdrn ndns.
Kl Lmpr, Mlys: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
———. (1970) Rdngs n Mly dt Lws. Sngpr: Sngpr
nvrsty Prss.
Jssln d Jng, Jn Ptrs Bnjmn. (1948) Cstmry
Lw, Cnfsng Fctn. Knnkljk nsttt vr d
Trpn, 80; Mddlng fdlng Vlknknd, 29. mstrdm:
ndsch nsttt.
Khn, Jl. (1993) Cnstttng th Mnngkb: Psnts,
Cltr, nd Mdrnty n Clnl ndns. xfrd: Brg.
Ksn, Mhmmd. (1971) ntrdctn nt ndnsn dt
Lw. Njmgn, Nthrlnds: Kthlk nvrstt.
L, Tn Mrry. (2000) "rtcltng ndgns dntty
n ndns: Rsrc Pltcs nd th Trbl Slt."
Cmprtv Stds n Scty nd Hstry 42, 1: 149–179.
Pnnll, Sndr. (1997) "Mngng th Dscrs f Rsrc
Mngmnt: th Cs f Ss frm ‘Sthst’
Mlk, ndns." cn 67: 289–307.
Slts, Hr mn, nd Krn Prtr. (1992) Trdtnl Dcsn-
Mkng nd Lw. Ygykrt, ndns: Gdjh
Md nvrsty Prss.
Stvns, Ml. (1996) Sxl Pltcs nd Scl Chng n Rrl
Mlys. Snt Lnrds, strl: lln nd nw n.
Tr Hr, Brnrd. (1948) dt Lw n ndns. Nw Yrk:
nsttt f Pcfc Rltns.
Wrrn, Crl. (1993) dt nd Dns: Blns Cmmnts
n th ndnsn Stt. Kl Lmpr, Mlys: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
———, nd Jhn Mc Crthy. (2002) "Cstmry Rgms
nd Cllctv Gds n th Chngng Pltcl Cnstlltn
f ndns." n Shpng Cmmn Ftrs,
dtd by Slly Srgsn. Lndn: Rtldg, 75–101.
Zrnr, Chrls. (1994) "Thrgh Grn Lns: Th Cnstrctn
f Cstmry nvrnmntl Lw nd Cmmnty
n ndns’s Mlk slnds." Lw & Scty
Rvw 28, 5: 1079–1122.
GN S Th gn S s lctd btw n
th csts f Grc nd Trky nd th slnds f
Crt nd Rhds. ts cvrs n r f 210 sqr
klmtrs; ts mx mm dpth s 3,543 mtrs, fnd
t th st f Crt. Mr thn tw thsnd slnds
f vryng szs, mst f whch blng t Grc, r
scttrd thrght th gn. Sm, sch s Lsbs,
Chs, Rhds, nd Crt, r f sbstntl sz
nd sstn sgnfcnt ppltns. Mny slnds nd
slts, hwvr, r t smll nd brrn t sstn hmn
hbttn.
Th prvlng w nds n th gn S r
nrthrly, dry, nd rltvly cld. Drng th mld
wntr ssn, ths ltrnt wth mldr nrthwstrly
wnds. s wth mch f th Mdtrrnn, th
gn s cnsdrd t b pr n rsrcs. Th flw
f cldr nd lss sln w tr frm th Blck S
thrgh th Trksh strts (th Bsprs nd th Drdnlls)
nd th S f Mr mr tnds t cl th
wtr tmprtrs nd rdc th hgh slnty f th
gn S. Ths flw f wtr nd th fsh tht mgrt
frm th Blck S thrgh th Tr ksh strts
hv hd pstv ffct n th fsh rsrcs f th
gn. n th thr hnd, th gn hs bn dvrsly
ffctd by th ncrsng lvls f plltn n
th Blck S s w ll s n thr djnng ss. n th
gn, llgl dmpng f wst mtrls by bth
Grk nd Trksh ndstrs hs cntrbtd t th
plltn, w th hrmfl ffcts n mrn rsrcs.
ncrsd shppng frm prts n th Blck S nd
th prspct f cnsdrbly hghr tnkr trffc crryng
Cspn nd Cntrl sn l thrgh th
gn hv gnrtd frs n Grc nd Trky,
s w ll s mng nvrnmntlsts, f stll mr ct
thrts t th csystm nd clnlnss f th gn.
Mdst dpsts f ptrlm hv bn dscvrd
nd xpltd ff th cst f th slnd f Thsss,
GN S
Slbts n th hrbr f Bdrm, Trky, n th gn S.
(NK WHLR/CRBS)
18 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
nd sm xprts hv prdctd mr xtnsv dscvrs
lsw hr n th gn. Hw vr, dspts
btw n Grc nd Trky vr th lmts f trrtrl
ss nd svrgn rghts vr th cntnntl
shlf hv prvntd xplrtns fr l nd gs n
mch f th s tht rmns tsd th sx-ml trrtrl
ss tht bth cntrs mntn n th
gn. Th sttlmnt f dsptd mrtm sss
rltd t th cntnntl shlf nd trrtrl s nttlmnt
f th tw nghbrs wll pn th dr t
grtr xplrtn ctvty fr l nd gs n th
gn. N lss mprtnt, mprvd rltns btw n
Grc nd Trky w ll yld grtr cprtn
t hlp rslv th ncrsngly srs thrts t
th nvrnmnt f th gn.
Tzn Bhchl
Frthr Rdng
Krts, Thdr C., d. (1997) Grc nd th Lw f th
S. Th Hg, Nthrlnds: Klw r Lw ntrntnl.
ztrk, Byrm, d. (2000) Th gn S: Prcdngs f th
ntrntnl Sympsm n th gn S. stnbl,
Trky: Trksh Mrn Rsrch Fndtn.
FGHN HND Th fghn hnd s tll,
slndr hntng dg (Cns fmlrs) wth lng, strng
lgs, hvy, slky ct (lthgh thr r shrt-hrd
vrts f fghns), nd typclly lng rs. n dlt
stnds bt 70 cntmtrs t shldrs nd w ghs
bt 27 klgrms. Blngng t th hnd grp,
fghn hnds r sppsdly rltd t gryhnds.
fghn hnds rgntd n th Mddl st nd
wr sd fr hntng n mntns rgns f
nrthrn fghnstn. Sm hv sggstd tht th
brd ws knw n n ncnt gypt s rly s th thrd
mllnnm BC; th gyptns crtnly hd sm srt
f hnd t n rly dt. fghns cm t nglnd
wth Brtsh sldrs wh brght thm bck frm th
nd-fghnstn r n th lt nntnth cntry;
th brd rchd th ntd Stts n th rly 1930s.
Th fghn dg’s glty n cvrng dffclt trrn
md t stbl cmpnn fr mntndw llng
hntrs mntd n hrsbck. n fghn’s
lng lgs llw t t mv w th grt spd n chrctrstc,
rchrs-lk gllp. Lk ll sght hnds,
sch s th Brz r Rssn w lf hnd, th w hppt,
nd th gryhnd, th fghn crss by sght
rthr thn by smll; ths ts swftnss lts t kp pc
wth nd rn dwn fst-mvng gm, nd ts glty
nbls t t fllw ts pry’s vsv ctns. Tdy
fghns r prmrly cmpnn dgs nd shw dgs
rthr thn hntrs, stmd fr thr stylsh lns
nd btfl, trlss mvmnt n ll Wstrn cntrs,
whr fghn ppps cmmnd hgh prc.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Fgl, Brc (1995) ncyclpd f th Dg. Nw Yrk: DK
Pblshng.
FGHN, JML D-DN (1838/39–1896/
97), slmc thrst nd ctvst. Jml d-dn l-
fghn (th "l" s ftn drppd) ws cntrvrsl
nd sgnfcnt nflnc n th slmc w rld
drng th lst hlf f th nntnth cntry. Hs nflnc
cntns thrgh hs wrtngs, whch strss
nt-mprls m, ntnlsm, nd Pn-slms m.
lthgh h clmd tht h ws brn n
fghnstn, svrl dcmnts ndct tht h w s
ctlly brn n rn nd rsd s Sh_t Mslm.
Hs ssrtn f fghn nd Snn slm brth w s
prbbly md t vd dscrmntn by, nd lw r
stts mng, Snn Mslms, w h cnsttt bt
90 prcnt f th wrld’s Mslms. vdnc sggsts
tht h rcvd rly dctn n rn nd hghr dctn
t Sh_t shrn cts n rq. Hs pprs ndct
tht h stdd w th grt ntrst th nnvtv
schl f Sh_ slm clld Shkh, w hch ws
fndd n th wrtngs f Shkh hmd l-s_
(1752–1826). H thn sttld n nd w hr h pprntly
dvlpd hs lflng htrd f th Brtsh
nd thr clnl systm. Fr m nd h trvld t
Mcc nd vntlly rrvd n fghnstn v rn.
n fghnstn, h srvd s cnsl t th mr
ntl hs nt-Brtsh pnns cst hm hs pstn nd
ld t hs xplsn w hn pr-Brtsh mr cm t
pw r n 1868. H vntlly sttld n stnbl nd
bcm ctv n dctnl crcls. n srs f cntrvrsl
nvrsty lctrs, h rgd tht phlsphy
nd prphcs wr crfts, sklls tht cld b
dvlpd nd lrnd. Ths vw ws sn s hrtcl
by th rlgs thrts nd ld t hs xplsn
frm stnbl. H lvd nd tght n Cr ntl
1879, w hr h ncrgd hs fllw rs t rplc
th gyptn ldr sm_l w th hs cnddt, Twfq.
Twfq dd cm t pw r, bt nly wth Brtsh
nd Frnch spprt, nd Jml d-dn fghn’s nt-
Brtsh rhtrc gn ld t hs xplsn. H mvd
bck t nd nd sttld n th Mslm stt f Hydrbd,
whr h wrt hs mst nflntl w rk n
ntnlsm, Th Rfttn f th Mtrlsts. n 1883
h mvd t Prs, w hr h ws jnd by dscpl
FGHN HND
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 19
frm Cr, Mhmmd bdh. Tgthr thy pt
t fr Mslm nw sppr, l-rw l-Wthq
(Th Fr mst Bnd), w hch tk strng Pn-slmst
nd nt-Brtsh pstns. t ws shrt-lvd bt vry
nflntl.
ftr th clsng f th nwsppr, Jml d-dn
fghn ws n th mv gn. n Brtn h ws nvlvd
n plt t nd Brtsh nflnc n gypt; n
rn nd Rss h trd t n vl t strt w r btwn
Rss nd Brtn. n rn h spk t gnst
th shh’s cnmc cncssns t rp, whch
csd hm t b xld t rq. n n nvttn frm
th ttmn sltn, h mvd t stnbl, w hr h
ws vntlly bnnd frm lctrng nd pblshng.
t s blvd tht h ncrgd n f hs dscpls
t ssssnt th shh f rn, Nsr l-Dn Shh. H
dd f cncr n 1897, lthgh r mr prssts tht
th sltn hd hm psnd.
Hmn . Sdr
Frthr Rdng
dmc, Ldw g W. (1997) Hstrcl Dctnry f fghnstn.
2d d. Lnhm, MD: Scrcrw Prss.
dw rds, Dvd B. (1996) Hrs f th g: Mrl Flt Lns
n th fghn Frntr. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty
f Clfrn Prss.
Hyns, Jff, d. (1999) Rlgn, Glblztn, nd Pltcl
Cltr n th Thrd Wrld. Nw Yrk: St. Mrtn’s Prss.
Mw sll, hmd. (1999) Hstrcl Dctnry f slmc Fndmntlst
Mvmnts n th rb Wrld, rn, nd Trky.
Lnhm, MD: Scrcrw Prss.
FGHNSTN—PRFL (2001 st. pp.
26.8 mlln). fghnstn (Lnd f th fghns),
frmrly th Rpblc f fghnstn (clld Jmhry
fghnstn n Dr Prsn, D fghnstn
Jmhwryt n Psht), hs ndrgn drmtc scpltcl
chngs drng th pst 150 yrs nd prtclrly
snc 1989. s crssrds f rsn
cmmrc fr nrly fr mllnn, t hs bn cndt
fr nvdrs frm st nd wst nd rcpnt
f mjr rlgs dlgs, ncldng Bddhsm nd
slm. Hnc, fghnstn s thnclly nd lngstclly
dvrs, msc f cltrs nd lnggs, spclly
n th nrth. n 2001, th slf-prclmd
Tlbn gvrnmnt, w hch t n tm cntrlld 90
prcnt f th ntn, rfrrd t th cntry s th
slmc mrt f fghnstn, whrs th Nrthrn
llnc, th mbrll grpng f nt-Tlbn
frcs, fght fr th slmc Stt f fghnstn
(Dw lt- slm-y fghnstn n Dr Prsn).
Lctn, Ggrphy, nd clgy
fghnstn s lndlckd Cntrl sn ntn
bndd n th nrth by thr frmr Svt rpblcs—
nw mmbrs f th Cmmnw lth f ndpndnt
Stts (Trkmnstn, zbkstn, nd
Tjkstn)—n th nrthst by th Ppl’s Rpblc
f Chn, n th st nd sth by Pkstn, nd n
th w st by rn. fghnstn’s crrnt bndrs wr
stblshd drng th lt nntnth cntry n th
cntxt f th "Grt Gm," rvlry btw n th
Brtsh thn ccpyng nd n th sn sbcntnnt
FGHNSTN—PRFL
ftr mr thn tw nty yrs f wr nd cvl dsrdr, mch f fghnstn n 2002 s n rns.
Ths dmgd bldngs ln mn strt n th cptl cty f Kbl. (BC/CRBS)
20 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
nd th Rssns n Cntr l s; fghnstn ws
clld th "Nrthw st Frntr" by th Brtsh. Th
brdrs f fghnstn wth ts sx nghbrs cvr
6,529 klmtrs.
Th ntn cvrs 647,500 sqr klmtrs—pprxmtly
th sz f Txs r th ntd Kngdm—
nd hs shp smlr t clnchd rght fst
wth th thmb xtndd t th nrthst, th nrrw
Wkhn Crrdr ldng t Chn. Mjr physcl
ftrs ncld th m Dr_y (th ncnt xs)
Rvr, frmng mch f th nrthrn ntrntnl
brdr; th stpps, th Trkstn Plns n th nrth;
mntns cntr nd nrthst dmntd by th
Hnd Ksh mntn rng (th wstrn xtnsn
f th Hmlys) nd th Pmrs; th Sstn Bsn
wth plns n th sthwst, thrgh whch flw s th
Hlmnd Rvr; nd dsrts (Dsht- Mrg) t th
fr wst nd sth (Rgstn). xcpt fr th m
Dr_y, w hch flw s wstwrd nt th Cspn S,
nd th Kbl Rvr, w hch flw s stwrd nd jns
th nds, th thr rvrs nd n nlnd ss, sw mps,
r slt flts.
Th nrthrn plns r mjr grcltrl rgn,
ccntng fr 80 prcnt f th grn crps;
FGHNSTN—PRFL
FGHNSTN
Cntry nm: slmc Stt f fghnstn, slmc mrt f fghnstn
r: 647,500 sq km
Ppltn: 26,813,057 (Jly 2001 st.)
Ppltn grwth rt: 3.48% (2001 st.)
Brth rt: 41.42 brths/1,000 ppltn (2001 st.)
Dth rt: 17.72 dths/1,000 ppltn (2001 st.)
Nt mgrtn rt: 11.11 mgrnt(s)/1,000 ppltn (2001 st.)
Sx rt—ttl ppltn: 1.06 ml(s)/fml (2001 st.)
nfnt mrtlty rt: 147.02 dths/1,000 lv brths (2001 st.)
Lf xpctncy t brth—ttl ppltn: 46.24 yrs, ml: 46.97 yrs, fml:
45.47 yrs (2001 st.)
Mjr rlgns: Snn slm, Sh_ slm
Mjr lnggs: Psht, Dr, Trkc lnggs
Ltrcy—ttl ppltn: 31.5%, ml: 47.2%, fml: 15% (1999 st.)
Gvrnmnt typ: n fnctnng cntrl gvrnmnt, dmnstrd by fctns
Cptl: Kbl
dmnstrtv dvsns: 32 prvncs
ndpndnc: 19 gst 1919 (frm .K. cntrl vr fghn frgn ffrs)
Ntnl hldy: ndpndnc Dy, 19 gst (1919)
Sffrg: n nfrmtn
GDP—rl grwth rt: n nfrmtn
GDP—pr cpt (prchsng pwr prty): $800 (2000 st.)
Ppltn blw pvrty ln: n nfrmtn
xprts: $80 mlln (1996 st.)
mprts: $150 mlln (1996 st.)
Crrncy: fghn (F)
Src: Cntrl ntllgnc gncy. (2001) Th Wrld Fctbk 2001.
Rtrvd 18 ctbr 2001 frm: http://www.c.gv/c/pblctns/fctbk.
"dmnstrtv Dvsns f Cntrs." (2001) n dmnstrtv Sbdvsns
f Cntrs, dtd by Gw llm Lw . Jffrsn, NC: Mc Frlnd & Cmpny.
Rtrvd 17 Fbrry 2002, frm: http://www.mndsprng.cm/~gw l/
sttds.html.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 21
th sthwstrn plt s dsrt nd smdsrt
xcpt fr th rrgtn grcltr ssctd wth
th Hlmnd Rvr; th cntrl hghlnds r dmntd
by th Hnd Ksh, w hch s trvrsd by nly
fw hgh mntn psss. Nrly hlf f th ttl
lnd r ls bv 2,000 mtrs; ths, mch f
fghnstn hs sbrctc mntn clmt w th
dry, cld w ntrs nd shrt, cl smmrs, w hrs
th smrd stpp lw lnds hv cld w ntrs nd
ht smmrs, nd th sthw st hs ht, rd, dsrt
clmt. nnl prcpttn vrs frm 75 mllmtrs
n th dsrt t 1,280 mllmtrs n th Hnd
Ksh. Th lvtn xtr ms r n th m Dr_y
(258 mtrs) nd t Nshk (7,485 mtrs). Clmt,
flr, nd fn vry w th lvtn, nd tmprtrs
rng grtly. grcltrl prdcts ncld w ht,
rc, frts, nts, nd vgtbls, lthgh nly 12 prcnt
f th lnd s rbl, w hrs 46 prcnt cnssts
f prmnnt pstrs, 37 prcnt dsrts, nd nly
3 prcnt frsts. fr-yr drght (1998–2001)
hs dcmtd th grcltrl lnds nd pstrs.
Mny spcs f th ndgns nml ppltn r
ndngrd d t hvy xplttn nd th rvgs
f twnty-thr yrs f ntrntnl (Svt-fghn)
nd cvl wrs.
Scpltcl Chrctrstcs
dmnstrtvly, th ntn hs thrty-tw vlyt
(prvncs): Bdkhshn, Bdghs, Bghln, Blkh,
Bmn, Frh, Fryb, Ghzn, Ghw r, Hlmnd,
Hrt, Jw zjn, Kbl, Kndhr, Kps, Khw st,
Knr, Kndz, Lghmn, Lw hr, Nngrhr, Nmrz,
Nrstn, rzgn, Pkt, Pktk, Prvn, Smngn,
Sr- Pl, Tkhr, Vrdk, nd Zbl (Zbl). Th
tw nwst r Khwst nd Nrstn. Thr hs nvr
bn n ffcl, cmprhnsv cnss, bt th ppltn
n 1998 ws stmtd by th ntd Ntns t
21.5 mlln, ncldng 2.5 mlln nmds, w hrs th
.S. Cntrl ntllgnc gncy (C) n 2001 prjctd
26.8 mlln, ncldng 3.2 mlln rfgs n
Pkstn, 1.9 mlln n rn, 300,000 n Trkmnstn,
FGHNSTN—PRFL
_
H nd K sh
Khybr Pss
Jllbd
Kndhr
Mzr- Shrf
Hrt
Kbl
frh
nmrz
hlmnd
kndhr
zbl
pktk
ghzn
rzgn
bmn
nngrhr
bdkhshn
bghln
tkhr
lw gr
smngn
jw zjn blkh
sr--pl
fryb
bdghs
hrt ghw r
p rvn
kbl
kps
kndz
vrdk
lgh- knr
mn
pkt
Trkmnstn
z b k stn T j k stn
rn
Chn
P k stn
N
0
0 100
100 200 Mls
200 Klmtrs
fghnstn
22 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
zbkstn, nd Tjkstn, nd 150,000 rsdng lsw hr.
Th lrgst cty s th cptl, Kbl (Kbl vlyt),
wth 1.4 mlln nhbtnts, lctd n th
stcntrl rgn; nxt r Kndhr (Kndhr vlyt),
wth 225,500, lctd n th sthw st; Mzr-
Shrf (Blkh vlyt), w th 185,000, lctd n th
nrthcntrl rgn; Hrt (Hrt vlyt), w th
175,000, lctd n th ppr nrthw st; nd Jllbd
(Nngrhr vlyt), w th 120,000, lctd st f Kbl.
.N. dt lst th mjr thnc grps s Pshtns
(54 prcnt f th ppltn), Tjks (cncntrtd
n th nrth, 27 prcnt), zbks (8 prcnt), nd Hzr
(7 prcnt). thrs ncld Kyrgyz, rbs,
Blchs, Trkmn, Nrstn, Chhr mk, Brh,
Skhs, nd Jw s. C dt lst Pshtns (38 prcnt),
Tjks (25 prcnt), Hzr (19 prcnt), nd zbks
(6 prcnt). Th Pshtn trbs, bth sdntry frmrs
nd nmdc pstrlsts, nhbt prncplly th
FGHNSTN—PRFL
FGHN NTNL CHRCTR
Whl xtrm nd strtypcl, ths 1908 prfl f th fghn, nnthlss,
ds prvd sm nsght nt th ntr f rltns n fghnstn, nd th
dffclts fcd by ny gvrnmnt n crtng ntnl nty— ky tsk n
2002.
s rc th fghns r hndsm nd thltc, ftn w th fr
cmplxn, th ftrs hghly qln. Thr stp s fll f rsltn,
thr brng prd nd pt t b rgh. nrd t bldshd
frm chldhd, thy r fmlr w th dth, dcs n
ttck, bt sly dscrgd by flr. Thy r trchrs nd
pssnt n rvng, whch thy w ll stsfy n th mst crl
mnnr, vn t cst f thr wn lvs. Nw hr s crm cmmttd
n sch trflng grnds, n spt f th svr mnnr n
whch crms r pnshd whn brght hm t ffndrs. Th
w mn hv hndsm ftrs f Jwsh cst, fr cmplxns,
smtms rsy, spclly n rly lf, thgh slly sllw .
Thy r rgdly scldd; bt n spt f ths, nd f th fct tht
dltry s lmst nvrbly pnshd by dth, ntrg s frqnt.
"Th prd f fghns," sys Bllw , "s mrkd ftr
f thr ntrl chrctr. Thy trnlly bst f thr dscnt
nd prw ss n rms nd thr ndpndnc. Thy dsps ll
thr rcs; nd vn mng thmslvs, ch mn cnsdrs hmslf
ql t, f nt bttr thn hs nghbr." Thy njy chrctr
fr lbrl hsptlty; gst nd strngrs r fd fr f
chrg n th vllg gst hss; nd by th lw f hnr knw n
s nnwt, th fghn s xpctd, t th scrfc f hs wn
lf nd prprty f ncssry, t shltr nd prtct nyn, vn
n nmy, w h n xtrmty my sk n sylm ndr hs rf.
Ths prtctn, hw vr, nly xtnds t th lmts f th
prmss; nd nc bynd ths, th hst my b th frst t njr
hs lt prtégé. Bdl, r rtltn, mst b xctd fr th
slghtst prsnl njry r nslt, r fr dmg t prprty.
Whr th vngr tks th lf f hs vctm n rtltn fr
th mrdr f n f hs rltvs, th ct s trmd kss.
Src: mprl Gzttr f nd: fghnstn nd Npl. (1908)
Clctt, nd: Sprntndnt f Gvrnmnt Prntng, 26–27.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 23
sthrn nd strn prts f fghnstn. Tjk
frmrs nd vllg crftsppl lv n Kbl nd
Bdkhshn vlyt t th nrthst nd n Hrt t
th fr wst.
Lnggs
Th ffcl lnggs f fghnstn ncld
Psht ( mr prcsly, Sthrn Psht) nd th Dr
dlct f Prsn (strn Frs r Dr). Th 2001
C dt lst Psht (35 prcnt); fghn Prsn r
Dr (50 prcnt); Trkc lnggs, pr mrly Trkmn
nd zbk (11 prcnt); nd thrty mnr lnggs.
Smmr nsttt f Lngstcs dt n 1996
lstd th nmbr f lnggs t frty-svn, thn ll
"lvng" (spkn) lnggs. Mny ndvdls, spclly
mn, r blngl nd trlngl, lthgh th
ffcts f wrfr hv ndbtdly ltrd th nmbrs
f mltlngl mls. Thrty f th frty-svn
lnggs r ndgns t fghnstn; fv drv
frm Pkstn nd fr frm Tjkstn.
pprxmtly 85 prcnt f th ppltn r
Snn Mslm ( Hnf schl), nd 14 prcnt r
Sh_t (prmrly n th nrth), w th th rmndr sml
Mslms, Hnds, Skhs, nd thrs. By 2001,
th Skh ppltn f fghnstn ws stmtd t
bt fv thsnd, nd th nmbr f Jw s hd
shrnk frm frty thsnd n 1989 t fwr thn
svn hndrd.
Chrls C. Klb
Frthr Rdng
llchn, F. Rymnd, nd Nr mn Hmmnd, ds. (1978)
Th rchlgy f fghnstn: Frm rlst Tms t th
Tmrd Prd. Lndn: cdmc Prss.
smv, Mkhmmd S., nd Clffrd . Bswrth, ds.
(1998) Th g f chvmnt, .D. 750 t th nd f th
Fftnth Cntry, Pt. 1: Th Hstrcl, Scl, nd cnmc
Sttng. Vl. 4 f Hstry f Cvlztns f Cntrl s.
Prs: NSC Pblctns.
Brdshr, Hnry S. (1999) fghn Cmmnsm nd Svt ntrvntn.
Nw Yrk: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Cntrl ntllgnc gncy. (2001) "fghnstn." n Th
C Wrld Fctbk 2001. Wshngtn, DC: Cntrl ntllgnc
gncy. Rtrvd 18 Jnry 2002, frm:
http://www.dc.gv/c/pblctns/fctbk.f.html
CntryWtch.cm. (2001) Cntry Rvw: fghnstn,
2001–2002. Rtrvd 18 Jnry 2002, frm: http://www
.cntrywtch.cm
Dn, hmd Hsn, nd Vdm Mkhlvch Mssn, ds.
(1992) Hstry f Cvlztns f Cntrl s, Vl. 1: Th
Dwn f Cvlztn: rlst Tms t 700 B.C. Prs: NSC
Pblctns.
Dpr, Ls. (1980) fghnstn. Rv. d. Prnctn, NJ:
Prnctn nvrsty Prss.
Grgrn, Vrtn. (1969) Th mrgnc f Mdrn fghnstn:
Pltcs f Rfrm nd Mdrnztn, 1880–1946.
Stnfrd, C: Stnfrd nvrsty Prss.
Hr mtt, Jns, Bsnt J. Pr, nd Ghlm F. tmnd,
ds. (1994) Hstry f Cvlztns f Cntrl s, Vl. 2:
Th Dvlpmnt f Sdntry nd Nmdc Cvlztns,
700 B.C. t .D. 250. Prs: NSC Pblctns.
Myr, Krl ., nd Shrn Blr Brysc. (1999) Trnmnt
f Shdws: Th Grt Gm nd th Rc fr mpr
n Cntrl s. Wshngtn, DC: Cntrpnt.
Nytrp, Rchrd F., nd Dnld M. Skns, ds. (1986)
fghnstn: Cntry Stdy. 5th d. Wshngtn, DC:
.S. Gvrnmnt Prntng ffc.
Smmr nsttt f Lngstcs. (2001) thnlg Rprt fr
fghnstn, 2001. Dlls, TX: SL ntrntnl. Rtrvd
18 Jnry 2002, frm: http://www.thnlg
.cm/shw _cntry.sp?nm=fghnstn
FGHNSTN—CNMC SYSTM
s f 2002, fghnstn ds nt hv vbl cnmc
systm. Th trdtnl cnmy, w hch ws
bsd mnly n sbsstnc grcltr nd nml
hsbndry nd w hch slly prvdd ngh fd
fr th fghn ppltn pls srpls fr trd, ws
ssntlly dstryd bgnnng n 1979 w th th Svt
nvsn nd wr, whch lstd ntl 1989. Th
cnmy sffrd frthr drng th cvl nrst f th
frst hlf f th 1990s nd thn rcvrd n sm rgns
drng Tlbn rl frm 1995 t 2001. Th
.S.-ld nvsn f 2001–2002 dmgd mch f
wht ws lf t f th cnmy nd nfrstrctr, nd
th Wrld Bnk cncldd tht fghnstn hd bcm
th prst ntn n th w rld. Th sttn
ws md wrs by drght tht bgn n 1999 nd
lmtd crp prdctn nd lvstck hrdng. t s
ls mprtnt t nt tht sttstcs rgrdng th
fghnstn cnmy fr th lst tw nty r s yrs
r ntrstwrthy.
Th yr 2002 mrkd th bgnnng f lrgscl
ntrntnl ffrt t rbld th fghnstn
cnmy nd nfrstrctr thrgh bllns f dllrs
f fnncl, mtrl, nd mngrl spprt. Th
frst mjr vnt w s th Tky Cnfrnc n 21–22
Jnry, cnvnd t ddrss th prblms f
fghnstn’s dvsttd cnmy.
fghnstn hs rltvly smll (stmtd t
18–20 mlln) rrl ppltn, mst f w hm lv n
smll vllgs. Th trdtnl cnmy s n ccrd
wth ths ppltn pttrn nd s bsd n mx f
frmng (w ht, brly, crn, nd frts r th mn
crps) nd hrdng (mnly shp nd gts nd ls
cttl, cmls, dnkys, nd hrss). Frmng nd
hrdng r lmtd by th rgh trrn nd dry clmt,
nd grcltr typclly rqrs rrgtn.
FGHNSTN—CNMC SYSTM
24 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Fr mng nd hrdng r dn mnly t spprt th
fmly, bt n gd yrs prr t 1979 srpls ws
smtms prdcd nd xprtd. Ths mjr sbsstnc
ctvts r spprtd by vllg-lvl w vng,
blcksmthng, nd gldsmthng nd cttg
ndstrs sch s crpt wvng. Prr t 1979, thr
cnmc ctvts ncldd smll mnfctrng
sctr (cmnt, crpts, txtls) nd frgn d, whch
spprtd gvrnmnt prgrms nd th dvlpmnt
f tchnlgy nd cmmnctn nfrstrctr tht
mnly srvd th cts. Frm 1979 n, mllns f
fghns fld t Pkstn nd thr ntns, nd r mttncs
thy snt t rltvs bck hm prvdd
nthr src f rvn.
Th tn-yr w r wth th Svts dstryd mny
rds nd rrgtn systms nd gvrnmnt prgrms
nd srvcs, rndrd lnd slss bcs f
lnd mns, nd csd svrl mlln t fl. Th
cvl wr fllw ng th Svt w thdrw l csd ddtnl
dmg, nd t ws nt ntl th Tlbn tk
cntrl nd vntlly rld 90 prcnt f th ntn
tht th cnmy bgn t rcvr. spclly n th
sth nd st, frmng nd hrdng mprvd t
lmtd xtnt, trd w th Pkstn ncrsd, nd ntrl
rsrcs sch s tmbr, prcs stns, nd
mrbl nd grnt wr hrvstd nd trdd. pm
frmng ls xpndd rpdly, nd fghnstn bcm
th lrgst spplr f llct pm ntl th Tlbn
bnnd pm prdctn n Jly 2000. pm
prdctn cntnd, hwvr, n th nrth, w hr t
ws n mprtnt src f ncm fr th Nrthrn
llnc, th mjr rvl f th Tlbn. Th drght
tht bgn n 1999 nd cntnd nt 2002 ndd th
grcltrl nd hrdng gns nd md sgnfcnt
prtn f th ppltn dpndnt n ntrntnl
d fr fd, shltr, nd hlth cr.
n 2002, s th ntrntnl c mmnty plns fr
th dvlpmnt f th fghn cnmy, t fcs
chllngng tsk. mng th mjr bstcls r th
bsnc f pltcl stblty; w k r nnfnctnng
cnmc nstttns sch s bnks, stt trsry,
nd cvl-srvc systm; crrptn n th dstrbtn
f ntrntnl d; n nvrnmnt nstd t frmng
n mny rgns; fw pssbl rds; n rlrd;
nd n ccss t th s. n th pstv sd r
lng trdtn f slf-sffcncy, ntrl gs nd l
rsrcs, nd th szbl ntrntnl ffrt.
Dvd Lvnsn
Frthr Rdng
hmd, kbr S. (1980) Pkhtn cnmy nd Scty: Trdtnl
Strctr nd cnmc Dvlpmnt n Trbl Scty.
Lndn: Rtldg nd Kgn Pl.
Dpr, Ls. (1980) fghnstn. Prnctn, NJ: Prnctn
nvrsty Prss.
FGHNSTN—HSTRY rchlgclly,
fghnstn’s prhstry dts t ffty thsnd
FGHNSTN—HSTRY
Th fghnstn cnmy s bsd prmrly n sbsstnc grcltr. Hr, frmr plw s fld
wth tm f xn. (CRLN PNN/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 25
yrs g nd nclds Mddl nd ppr Pllthc
sts (prtclrly n th nrthrn fthlls f th
Hnd Ksh) nd bndnt Brnz nd rn g sts
n th nrth, sth, nd st. Mdrn fghnstn,
lctd t th crssrds f Cntrl, Wst, nd
Sth s, ncrprts prtlly r whlly th
ncnt rgns f r, Bctr, Sgdn, rchs,
nd Drngn—prt f th chmnd mpr
(559–330 BC) nd mr rcntly th mpr f
lxndr f Mcdn nd hs Hllnc sccssrs
(c. 330 BC–150 C). Th trrtry ws ls prt f
th Prthn, Yh-chh/Tkhrn, Sk, nd
Kshn plts nd th Ssnd mpr (c. 224/228–
651 C) nd w s ncrprtd nt th lnds cnqrd
by th rb Mslms bt 700 C. Prtns f
fghnstn rmnd ndr th bbsd clpht
nt th nnth cntry nd thn ndr th tmprry
cntrl f srs f plts: th Smnds, Krts,
Ghznvds, Ghrds, Mngls, nd th Tmrds nd
sccssr stts.
n th sxtnth cntry, th Mghl mpr f nd
nd th Sfvds (Prsns) wr pltcl rvls wth
fghnstn s frntr ntl th mrgnc f th
ntv fghn Drrn dynsty. Ths dynsty bgn
rl n 1747 nd cntnd nmnlly ndr Pshtn
bdl thnc-grp rlrs ntl th Cmmnst cp
n 1978. fshr Prsn scpltcl nflnc bgn
n th 1720s nd r mnd nt th nntnth cntry,
whn fghnstn ws thrst nt th gpltcl
rn f Brtn vrss Rss (ntlly thrgh th
Brtsh st nd Cmpny) n th Grt Gm.
Thr ngl-fghn w rs (1838–1842, 1878–1879,
nd 1919) srvd t hlp stblsh fghn ndpndnc
n th tw ntth cntry ndr sccssn f
rlrs: bdr Rhmn Khn (1880–1901), Hbbllh
(1901–1919), Kng mnllh (1919–1929), Mhmmd
Ndr Shh (1929–1933), nd Mhmmd Zhr
Shh (1933–1973), w th rpblc bng stblshd
by Mhmmd Dd (1973–1978).
Th 1978 lftst cp ld t Svt mltry prsnc
ntl 1989, w hn th fghn slmc rsstnc
mv mnt (w th .S. nd Pkstn d) csd th
Svts t bndn th cnflct nd wthdrw 100,000
trps. Th mjhdn (fghn grrlls w h
fght gnst th Svts) wr cmpsd f mny
thnc fghns nd frgn wrrrs frm thrght
th slmc w rld (prtclrly Sd rb, Ymn,
nd Pkstn), w h bgn t fll t w th n nthr,
prcpttng ntrncn rbllns nd ttcks n
Kbl. Bgnnng n 1990, vlnt cvl cnflct
rgd. n n sd ws th Pshtn fndmntlst
Tlbn mlt, w th svnty thsnd sldrs, pltclly
ld by Mllh Mhmmd mr snc 1993,
wh hd spprtd th ntrntnl trrrst sm
bn Ldn snc 1995. n th thr sd w s th nt-
Tlbn Nrthrn llnc. Th frgl Nrthrn llnc,
whs fftn thsnd sldrs hd bn ld
by th chrsmtc hmd Shh Msd (n thnc
Tjk w h ssmbld Tjk, zbk, nd Sh_t Mslm
Hzr spprt), srvvd Msd’s ssssntn
n Sptmbr 2001. Th w r prcpttd crtcl
rfg prblm—prhps n-thrd f fghn nhbtnts
hd bn dsplcd by th tmn f 2001—
s th Tlbn, w h hd nc cntrlld 90 prcnt
f th ntn, fcd rnvgrtd Nrthrn llnc
dd by Wstrn pwrs skng t brng bn Ldn
t jstc fr th trrrst ttcks f 11 Sptmbr
2001. Th drght, dcmtd scpltcl nfrstrctr,
th dstrctn f cltrl ptrmny (lbrry
nd ms m cllctns nd rchlgcl
trsrs, sch s th Bddhs f Bmn), nd hlth
nd hmn rghts sss (prtclrly cncrnng
w mn nd mnrty grps) xcrbtd th mltry
nd pltcl scn.
Chrls C. Klb
Frthr Rdng
smv, Mkhmmd S., nd Clffrd . Bswrth, ds.
(1998) Th g f chvmnt, .D. 750 t th nd f th
Fftnth Cntry, Pt. 1: Th Hstrcl, Scl, nd cnmc
Sttng. Vl. 4 f Hstry f Cvlztns f Cntrl s.
Prs: NSC Pblctns.
Brdshr, Hnry S. (1999) fghn Cmmnsm nd Svt
ntrvntn. Nw Yrk: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Dn, hmd Hsn, nd Vdm Mkhlvch Mssn, ds.
(1992) Th Dwn f Cvlztn: rlst Tms t 700
B.C. Vl. 1 f Hstry f Cvlztns f Cntrl s. Prs:
NSC Pblctns.
Dpr, Ls. (1980) fghnstn. Rv. d. Prnctn, NJ:
Prnctn nvrsty Prss.
Hr mtt, Jns, Bsnt J. Pr, nd Ghlm F. tmnd,
ds. (1994) Th Dvlpmnt f Sdntry nd Nmdc
Cvlztns, 700 B.C. t .D. 250. Vl. 2 f Hstry f
Cvlztns f Cntrl s. Prs: NSC Pblctns.
FGHNSTN—HMN RGHTS Th
chs f vr tw dcds f wrfr hs lft
fghnstn wtht n nfrstrctr f ny knd
nd w tht hmn rghts. Hmn rghts sffrd
spclly ftr 1996, w hn th Tlbn, grp f
slmc fndmntlsts, cptrd Kbl nd rslvd
t mk fghnstn ccrd wth thr vsn
f pr slmc stt. Th mst flgrnt dprtrs
frm ntrntnl stndrds f hmn rghts wr
n th Tlbn’s trtmnt f w mn nd th svrty
wth whch th Tlbn pnshd crms.
FGHNSTN—HMN RGHTS
26 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Th Tlbn’s Trtmnt f Wmn
ftr cnsldtng pw r, n f th frst thngs
tht th Tlbn sw t ws th rmvl f w mn
frm ll scl nd pblc lf. Ths, w mn nd grls
wr nt llw d t wrk tsd th hm r vn
t vntr t nlss n th cmpny f cls ml
rltv nd thy wr prhbtd frm ttndng
schls r nvrsts. ll w mn w r frcd t wr
th brk, n ll-nvlpng grmnt tht c mpltly
hds th bdy, w th msh n frnt f th ys t llw
fr sng nd brthng. Ml dctrs cld nt
xmn fml ptnts nd fml dctrs cld nt
prctc, whch mnt tht w mn wr ssntlly dnd
ccss t mdrn hlth cr. Prscrptns fr
w mn rchd bsrd lvls, wth w mn nd grls
bng frbddn t wr wht scks r shs tht
md ny ns w hn thy wlkd. n shrt, w mn
hd t bcm nvsbl, nd w r vrtlly ndr
hs rrst.
Th pnshmnts mtd t n w mn fr trnsgrssng
ths lw s wr svr nd hrsh. lrg
nmbr f w mn w r stnd t dth fr w lkng
wth mn w h ws nt hsbnd. Thsnds f
w mn wr btn fr nt wrng prpr clthng.
Mny w mn w r pblcly xctd fr llgd sxl
mprprts. lrg prcntg f fghnstn’s
fml ppltn s w r wdws; ths w mn wr
frcd t bg n rdr t sbsst, snc ll w rk ws
dnd thm. Wmn wr sht t r btn f thy
vntrd t f th hs ln.
Bfr th Tlbn tk cntrl, w mn n
fghnstn wr vry prgrssv grp. n Kbl,
prr t 1996, 60 prcnt f th tchrs nd 50 prcnt
f th stdnts t Kbl nvrsty wr w mn;
70 prcnt f th schltchrs, 50 prcnt f th
gvrnmnt wrkrs, nd 40 prcnt f th dctrs
wr w mn. Ths, th Tlbn sddnly dsnfrnchsd
lrg sgmnt f th wrkfrc nd th ntllgnts.
Th Tlbn’s Trtmnt f Mn
Mn w r ls sbjctd t brtl trtmnt. vry
ml ws frcd t grw brd, wr trbn, nd
nvr shw hs rms r hs lgs. Fltng ths lw s
mnt pblc flggng r vn smmry xctn.
Mst mls f fftn yrs nd ldr wr frcd t
jn th Tlbn r my; ths w h rfsd wr sht,
lng w th thr fmls; thr w r rprts f ntr
vllgs bng mrdrd n ths fshn.
Pnshmnt f Crms
Svr pnshmnt ws mtd t t ths w hm
th Tlbn sw s hndrng thr prgrss twrd
prfct slmc stt. Ths, ths cnvctd f stlng
(mst f ths ppl stl fd) hd thr rght
hnds ct ff; ths vnts wr hld t th Kbl sccr
stdm, nd drw hg crw ds. Ths stdm w s
ls sd fr pblc xctns. Th rltvs f vctms
pblcly xctd cnvctd kllrs; th mthd
f dsptchng th crmnl ws by cttng f th
thrt. Ths cnvctd f hmsxlty wr plcd
gnst brck w ll, w hch ws thn knckd dw n by
tnk; ftr thrty mnts, th rbbl ws clrd;
ths tht cld b plld t lv wr xnrtd.
Fr dltry, mn wr gvn hndrd lshs n
pblc plc, w hl w mn w r stnd t dth.
Hmn-Rghts Prblms n th Pst-Tlbn r
Wth th tpplng f th Tlbn n 2001, nw
st f hmn-rghts prblms mrgd. Wmn stll
d nt hv fr ccss t hlth, dctn, nd prsnl
sfty; lftng f th vl hs nt bttrd thr
lt. Pst-Tlbn Kbl hs sn n nflx f rphns,
wh hv flckd t th cptl n srch f fd, clthng,
nd sm frm f scrty. n th Tlbn r,
strt chldrn n Kbl w r stmtd t 25,000; crrntly,
thr r vr 70,000, nd ths fgr s ncrsng
dly, snc ppl kp flckng t th
cptl, ll f thm drvn frm thr vllgs by xtrm
pvrty nd drght. n fct, mny prnts
FGHNSTN—HMN RGHTS
WMN’S RGHTS
N FGHNSTN
Wmn’s rghts w r mjr hmn rghts ss
n fghnstn drng th yrs f Tlbn
rl. Th fllw ng txt s frm flyr prdcd
by th fghnstn s vrywhr mvmnt fr
th 8 Mrch 2002 ntrntnl Wmn’s Dy.
n fghnstn w mn rskd thr lvs t
ttn bsc hmn rghts. Mny w mn’s rgnztns
wrkd pblcly nd prvtly, scrtly
dctng thsnds f grls nd
scrng hlthcr ndr th brtl Tlbn
rgm. Thy dvlpd dctnl pprtnts,
cndctd crss nd vctnl
trnng, nd pnd hsptls fr rfg
fghn w mn nd chldrn. Th fml
sprt ws strng nd frlss drng ths
hrrfc tms.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 27
bndn thr chldrn t th cty’s tw rphngs n
th hp tht ths fldglng nstttns w ll b bttr
bl t lk ftr thr chldrn, w hch sdly s nt
th cs. s wll, fml strt chldrn r rtnly
btn nd bsd, bcs th lrgr scty cnnt
ccpt fml w ndrng n hr wn.
ddng t ths ctlg f hmn msry r tw ddtnl
fctrs: thnc trml nd vrcs wrlrds.
fghnstn s lnd f mny ppl. Th
lrgst nd mst pw rfl grp s th Pshtns, w h
pplt th sthrn prtns f th cntry. Th
Tlbn w r thnclly Pshtn, nd thy systmtclly
sght t dstry thr trdtnl nms, sch
s th Prsn-spkng Tjks. Th Tlbn ndrtk
n thnc clnsng f srts, nd thr s mch
vdnc f mss mrdr, spclly n th Shml
Vlly, n th nrth f th cntry, w hch s th trdtnl
Tjk hmlnd. Th trnstnl gvrnmnt
f Hmd Krz hs sd tht t w ll stblsh trbnl
t try ndvdls fr wr crms nd crt
systm f cmpnstn fr th vctms. Hw vr,
sch prcdr w ll tk mny lng yrs, nd th
trnstnl gvrnmnt w ll b gn bfr th trbnl
cn b scrly stblshd.
Wrlrds t hv bcm svr hndcp fr
th cntry, n tht thy ftn hmpr th mv mnt
f rlf sppls frm n r t th nxt. Ths s n
ct prblm w hn fd nd mdcl sppls nd
t b dlvrd t rmt vllgs. t s ftn th cs
tht ntr trcklds f d mtrl smply dsppr.
Th fd nd sppls gvn n d by frgn cntrs
s ftn stln by ths wrlrds nd sld t
prft n th blck mrkt. Ths, th gnrl ppltn
s stll sffrng bcs f wdsprd thft by
ths n pw r.
xtrm pvrty nd hngr stll rl fghnstn.
Lf xpctncy s frty-sx; n t f fr chldrn
ds bfr rchng th g f fv; lmst 80 prcnt
f th ppltn s lltrt; nd ll rrl rs
( lrg prtn f th cntry) hv n ccss t
hlth cr, sf drnkng w tr, r lctrcty. lrg
prcntg f th frmlnd hs bn sw d wth lnd
mns, s frmrs r frd t vntr t nt thr
flds. s wll, yrs f drght hv trnd frmng
vllgs nt drd, dsrtd rns; rbn wrfr hs
dstryd fctrs, dms, nd rds; thr r n
bnks, n cmmrcl nfrstrctr, nd thrfr n
frgn nvstmnt. Th nly vbl csh crp vlbl
t mny frmrs s th pppy, w hch s cltvtd
fr pm. Th lnd s stll nstbl nd thr r
cntnd frs tht pwrfl wrlrds, mltry cmmndrs,
r Mslm xtrmsts my tppl th prsnt
gvrnmnt. n sch n tmsphr, hmn
rghts r f lttl cncrn n fghnstn. Th sttn
wll nly chng w hn msr f stblty s
stblshd n th lnd.
Nrml Dss
Frthr Rdng
lls, Dbrh. (2000) Wmn f th fghn Wr. Wstprt,
CT, nd Lndn: Prgr.
Gdsn, Lrry P. (2001) fghnstn’s ndlss Wr: Stt
Flr, Rgnl Pltcs nd th Rs f th Tlbn. Sttl,
W: nvrsty f Wshngtn Prss.
Grffn, Mchl. (2001) Rpng th Whrlwnd: Th Tlbn
Mvmnt n fghnstn. Lndn nd Strlng, V: Plt
Prss.
Mly, Wllm, d. (1998) Fndmntlsm Rbrn? fghnstn
nd th Tlbn. Nw Yrk: Nw Yrk nvrsty
Prss.
Rshd, hmd. (2000) Tlbn: Mltnt slm, l, nd Fndmntlsm
n Cntrl s. Nw Hvn, CT: Yl nvrsty
Prss.
Skn, Rs mry. (2002) Th Wmn f fghnstn ndr
th Tlbn. Jffrsn, NC: McFrlnd.
FGHNSTN—PLTCL SYSTM
Th pltcl hstry f fghnstn hs bn cntns
cmpttn fr pw r nd prvlg btw n
cntrl nd lcl ldrs, w th cntrl ldrs sng
crrt, stck, r cmbntn thrf n ttmpts t
gn cntrl f th rblls prvncs.
Mnrchc nd Lcl nstttns
fghnstn hs bn mnrchy thrght mst
ts hstry, frm 1747 t th 1973 cp. Th kngs,
wh hv lmst xclsvly bn f Pshtn rgn,
trdtnlly bsd thr rl n frgl trbl cnfdrtns
nd w r hvly dpndnt n cltvtng
th gdw ll f thr spprtrs. bdr Rhmn Khn
(rgnd 1880–1901) w s th frst rlr t ddrss ths
vlnrblty ctvly, by bldng n ndpndnt mltry
nd stblshng strng dmnstrtv nd jdcl
cntrl thrght th cntry. Cntrlly ths
systm hd n cbnt, nly n dtng dprtmnt
wth mndt t cntrl th brcrcy nd xpnd
th tx bs. Bcs th tx bs ws nt xpndd,
bdr Rhmn Khn’s rgm dpndd n
sbsds frm th Brtsh, w h cntrlld nghbrng
nd. Wth th Rssns t ts mmdt nrth,
fghnstn’s crrnt brdrs wr stblshd n th
1890s t mk th cntry bffr btwn th
Brtsh nd Rssn mprs. t th lcl lvl th
rgm sd systm f mddlmn ppntd by
thr cmmnts nd rcgnzd by th stt; thy
28 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
r clld rbb nd smtms mlk (bth mn "vllg
hdmn" n bth Psht nd Dr lnggs).
Th rbb rprsntd th stt vs-à-vs hs cmmnty
nd vc vrs, nd hd cnsdrbl frdm f
mnvr n rltn t bth.
Cnstttns nd Gvrnmnt Rfrms
Th cntry gt ts frst cnstttn n 1922, ndr
Kng mnllh (rgnd 1919–1929). t prvdd fr
cncl f stt, ncldng bth lctd nd ppntd
ffcls, nd prsdnt w h ws ls t b mmbr
f th cncl. Thr ws n prlmnt, bt thr ws
frmlzd rl fr th trdtnl ly jrg, cncl
f lcl ldrs, cnvnd t pprv mjr rfrms.
Hbbllh (rgnd 1901–1919) hd prvsly stblshd
th frst dctnl nstttns, nd mnllh
wnt n t nsttt n xtnsv ntwrk f
prmry schls n th 1920s. Th bsc phlsphy f
gvrnmnt, nsprd by dvlpmnts n th Wst,
ws tht mdrnztn hd t b sprhdd by th
lt nd tht dctn ws th prncpl nstrmnt.
Th rslts w r n dctd clss, lrgly bsd n th
TH PRMBL T TH
CNSTTTN F FGHNSTN, 1990
dptd 28–29 My 1990
n th nm f llh, th Bnfcnt, th Mrcfl
Th prdfl hstry f r blvd hmlnd, fghnstn, s nrchd,
wth th hrc strggl f r brv ppl fr ndpndnc,
ntnl nty, dmcrcy nd scl prgrss. t th
prsnt stg th stt f th rpblc f fghnstn s ctvly
crryng n th plcy f ntnl rcncltn rlyng n th
spprt f ntnl, pltcl nd ptrtc frcs.
Thrfr, kpng n mnd th hstrc chngs tht hv tkn
shp n r hmlnd nd n r cntmprry wrld, dhrng
t th prncpls f th scrd rlgn f slm, bdng by th ccptd
fghn trdtns nd rtls, rlyng pn th rlts f
th cntry’s hstry nd cltr, rspctng th vlbl hrtgs
f th cnstttnlst mv mnt nd n cnfrmty w th th chrtr
f th ntd Ntns nd th nvrsl dclrtn f hmn
rghts, nd fr th prps f: prsrvng th ndpndnc, dfndng
th trrtrl ntgrty nd strngthnng th ntnl
svrgnty; chvng cntrywd pc nd dpnng ntnl
nty; scrng jstc nd dmcrcy; sccnmc rcnstrctn
nd blncd grw th nd nhncng th ppl’s lvng stndrds;
prmtng th rl nd prstg f th cnt[r]y n th
ntrntnl rn; crtng fvrbl cndtns fr dtrmnng
th lgl stts f prmnnt ntrlty f fghnstn nd
ts dmltrztn; w , th rprsnttvs f th ppl f
fghnstn t th ly jrg, f twnty ght nd twnty nnth f
My, n thsnd nn hndrd nd nnty mndd s fllws
th cnstttn rtfd by th ly jrg f Nvmbr thrty, n
thsnd nn hndrd nd ghty svn w hch cmprsd thrtn
chptrs nd n hndrd nd frty nn rtcls.
Src: fghn-wb.cm. Rtrvd 8 Mrch 2002, frm:
http://www.fghn-w b.cm/hstry/cnst/cnst1990.html.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 29
cptl Kbl, w hs frtn ws whlly td t th
stt nd dpnng splt btw n stt nd scty.
Ndr Shh (rgnd 1929–1933) ntrdcd nw
pltcl rrngmnt w th bcmrl systm: n
lctd cncl nd cncl f ntbls. Prctclly,
prlmnts rmnd th lyl bckrs f thr gvrnmnt
ntl 1964, w hn Zhr Shh (b. 1914,
rgnd 1933–1973) nttd hs xprmnts n "nw
dmcrcy" nd prmlgtd nw cnstttn,
whch sggstd nw pltcl frdms ncldng
fr prss nd th rght t frm pltcl prts. Th
kng nvr sgnd th bll n pltcl prts nt lw .
Nnthlss, rng f pltcl prts mrgd,
rtd n th cty-bsd dctd strt.
Zhr Shh w s vrthrwn n 1973 by Dd Khn,
wh stblshd rpblc nd rld by rvltnry
cncl ntl 1977, w hn h crtd cnstttn tht
lgtmzd hs prsdncy. Dd ws rmvd by th
Cmmnst cp n prl 1978.
Th r f Cvl Wr
Th Ppl’s Dmcrtc Prty f fghnstn
(PDP), rltvly mrgnl grp n th v f th
cp, st t t mplmnt dr mtc rfrms. Th
rbbs wr thght t cnsttt fdl clss tht
hd t b rmvd. PDP fld bth t rlz tht
t dd nt hv th rsrcs t stblsh n ltrntv
systm t th lcl lvl, nd tht th xstng ntrmdrs
ftn njyd strng spprt n thr
cmmnts. Thrfr spntns rsstnc
mrgd thrght fghnstn s th PDP
mvd t mplmnt ts rfrms, ftn wth vlnt
mns. Drng th rl f th Cmmnsts (1978–
1992), fghnstn ws plgd by cvl w r, ntrntnlzd
by th drct nvlvmnt f th Svt
nn. n ths prd, thr w s n sgnfcnt mv
tw rd rprsnttv pltcl systm, lthgh th
"rcncltn plcy" frm 1986 nw rd mpld
crtn mvs t ccmmdt lrgr grps f th
ppltn.
n th sm prd vrs pltcl rrngmnts
dvlpd n rgns f th cntry nt cntrlld by
th gvrnmnt. t th lcl lvl th rbbs thr dvlpd
nt mltry fgrs r wr rplcd by rlgs
fgrs r by yng slmc rdcls, w h nt
nly njyd rlgs lgtmcy, bt w r ls prfrrd
by Pkstn, w hch ffctvly cntrlld th
dstrbtn f xtrnl spprt t th rsstnc. Lk
th trdtnl rbbs, th rsstnc ldrs mntnd
dlct blnc btw n thr lcl spprtrs nd
th pltcl prts, th lttr bng thr pr mry
src f mny nd rms.
Sn ftr th Svt nvsn (Dcmbr 1979),
Pkstn hd slctd svn prts tht wr t rprsnt
fghn rsstnc, ls knw n s th mjhdn
(slmc frdm fghtrs). ll hd fndtn n
thr rdcl r trdtnl slm. Lcl rsstnc
ldrs dpndd n rltns w th th rsstnc prts
fr srvvl. Svrl mjhdn prts stblshd
cls lnks t rdcl slmc grps tsd th cntry,
nd frm th rly 1980s, yng mn frm thr
Mslm ntns cm t fghnstn fr mltry trnng
nd cmbt xrcs. n f svrl ky prsns
ws sm bn Ldn, w h prt frm tkng prt n
cmbt srvd s n ntrmdry fr bth mny nd
nw rcrts.
n mny css, cncls (rbc, shr, r Psht,
jrg) wr stblshd bth t th cmmnty lvl nd
t hghr lvls, lrgly t crdnt th mltry ffrt
nd t tms ls t dl w th th w lfr f
th ppltn. Th shr nstttn tk n nw
fnctns thrght th cvl wr. Th shrs wr ncrsngly
sn by frgn d gncs s rprsnttvs
f th lcl cmmnts; thy ls mntnd n
mprtnt crdntng rl t vrs lvls w thn th
mjhdn drng th w r nd ftr ths prts tk
cntrl n Kbl n 1992. Th rsstnc prts stblshd
vrs gvrnmnts, n xl s w ll s n
pst-1992 Kbl, nn f w hch rlly fnctnd. T
Hmd Krz, w h ws ppntd ntrm ldr f fghnstn
n 5 Dc mbr 2001. ( FP/CRBS)
30 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
stblsh rprsnttv gvrnmnt, sm prts
sggstd mchnsms rngng frm lctns t ly
jrg, whl thrs rgd gnst ny sch mchnsm.
Th Tlbn r
Th mjhdn gvrnmnt, n pw r n Kbl frm
1992 t 1996, w s dvdd by wr btwn ts cnsttnt
prts. Ky plyrs n th gvrnmnt wr f
Tjk, zbk, nd Hzr rgn, w hrs thr ws
scnt rprsnttn f th Pshtn, th lrgst thnc
grp. Fr m 1994, th Tlbn ("rlgs stdnts")
mv mnt mrgd s nw pltcl ctr, rtd n
trdtnl rlgs ntw rks tht hd bn grtly xpndd
n bth fghnstn nd Pkstn thrght
th w r f th 1980s, rcrtng mnly mng th Pshtns.
Mny f th ldrs hd mjhdn bckgrnd;
thrws, th rcrts wr lrgly mn w h hd grw n
p drng th w r. Pblc dsppntmnt w th th xstng
gvrnmnt nd lrg-scl spprt frm Pkstn
wr ky fctrs n th Tlbn’s sccss. ftr th
cptr f Kbl n 1996, th Tlbn nstttd ts w n
nflxbl ntrprttn f shr_ (slmc lw ), nd tnsns
wth th ntrntnl cmmnty ntnsfd.
Grdlly, th Tlbn gvrnmnt blt rltns w th
sm bn Ldn nd hs l-Qd rgnztn, s w ll
s w th rmd ppstn mv mnts n plcs sch s
Chchny, Chn, nd zbkstn.
Th mv mnt grdlly rstblshd n dmnstrtv
systm mdld n prwr rrngmnts. t
th vllg lvl, th rl f th rbb ws rvtlzd
t th cst f th shr. ls th vllg mllhs rltd
t th Tlbn rgm, w hch ws strngly ntgrtd
wth th rlgs ntwrks. Hnc, th
Tlbn w r ftn w ll nfrmd bt lcl vnts
nd bcm dpt t tx cllctn. t th cntrl
lvl, th Tlbn dmnstrtn grdlly vlvd
frm bng brdly cnslttv t bng ncrsngly
dmntd by smll grp f mn, nd ltmtly
by n ndvdl, Mllh Mhmmd mr. By
1996, th Tlbn md t clr tht t cnsdrd tslf
rprsnttv f ll grps n th cntry, tht
Mllh mr cnstttd th ltmt thrty, nd
tht th cncpt f gnrl lctns ws gnst slm
nd ths t b rjctd.
Th Cllps f th Tlbn
pn lnkng sm bn Ldn t th ttck n
th .S. Pntgn nd th Wr ld Trd Cntr tw rs
n Nw Yrk Cty n 11 Sptmbr 2001, th
ntd Stts rptd ts dmnd fr th gvrnmnt
t hnd vr bn Ldn ncndtnlly, w hch
th Tlbn rfsd. Th ntd Stts lnchd ttcks
n th Tlbn n cllbrtn w th grps
frm th mjhdn, stll ntrntnlly cknw ldgd
s fghnstn’s lgtmt gvrnmnt. Th Tlbn
rgm fll n Dc mbr 2001, nd rprsnttvs f
dffrnt ppstn grps mt n Bnn t stblsh
trnstn pln. Th Bnn gr mnt rsltd n n
ntrm thrty w th sx-mnth mndt, w thn
whch ly jrg, fr th frst tm n hstry, s t
ppnt nw gvrnmnt.
Krstn Brg Hrpvkn
Frthr Rdng
Dpr, Ls. (1980) fghnstn. 2d d. Prnctn, NJ:
Prnctn nvrsty Prss.
Ghn, shrf. (1985) "fghnstn: dmnstrtn." n ncyclpd
rnc 1, dtd by hsn Yrshtr. Lndn:
Rtldg nd Kgn Pl, 558–564.
lsn, st. (1995) slm nd Pltcs n fghnstn. Rchmnd,
.K.: Crzn Prss.
Rshd, hmd. (2000) Tlbn: slm, l, nd th Nw Grt
Gm n Cntrl s. Lndn: . B. Trs.
Ry, lvr. (1986) slm nd Rsstnc n fghnstn. Cmbrdg,
.K.: Cmbrdg nvrsty Prss.
FGHNSTN’S NTRM
GVRNMNT
s f Mrch 2002, th ky fgrs n fghnstn’s
gvrnmnt r:
Hmd Krz, Chr mn— Pshtn nd frmr
dpty dfns mnstr nd ldr f th rsstnc
t th Tlbn n th sth.
Yns Qnn, ntrr Mnstr— Tjk nd
cls lly f ssssntd Nrthrn llnc
ldr hmd Shh Mssd.
Mhmmd Fhm, Dfns Mnstr— Tjk
nd frmr d t ssssntd Nrthrn llnc
ldr hmd Shh Mssd.
bdllh bdllh, Frgn Mnstr— Tjk nd
Pshtn phthlmlgst nd pblc spks mn
fr th Nrthrn llnc.
thr ldng fgrs wtht ffcl pstns n
th nw gvrnmnt r bdl Rshd Dstr m,
th zbk ldr n th nrth; s ml Khn, th
Tjk ldr n th w st, Hjj bdl Qdr, th
Pshtn gvrnr f th Jllbd rgn; nd
bdl Rsl Syyf, th Pshtn ldr f fndmntlst
fctn.
Src: Th Nw Yrk Tms
(24 Dc mbr 2001), B4.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 31
FRC–S RLTNS frc s th
wrld’s scnd lrgst cntnnt (ftr s); t nclds
cntnntl mss f 29.94 mlln sqr klmtrs
nd th grt cnc slnd f Mdgscr,
whch cvrs frthr 594,180 sqr klmtrs n
th w strn ndn cn. frc s ttchd t s
by thn strp f lnd frmng th wstrn brdr f
th Sn Pnnsl n gypt. Ths crrdr s nly 130
klmtrs n w dth, nd s mrkd tdy by th Sz
Cnl. Th Cp f Gd Hp ls sm ght thsnd
klmtrs t th sth f t.
Prhstry
Th mprtnc f frc fr sn prhstry cnnt
b xggrtd, fr t ws frm ths cntnnt tht
rly hmnds sprd nrthw rds nd stwrds t
pplt th sn cntnnt sm 1 mlln yrs g.
By pprxmtly 600,000 BC hmnds wr lvng n
th cvs f Zhkdn, jst tsd th mdrn cty
f Bjng. Ths hmnds wr f th spcs Hm
rcts ("Pkng Mn"). Thy sd rrglrly shpd
stn tls, bt ls hd cntrl f fr. ntl bt tn
thsnd yrs g, thy nd thr dscndnts crss
s wr wtht xcptn hntrs nd gthrrs. By
bt 120,000 yrs BC trnstnl frm f Hm
spns ws lvng t Ngndng, n Jv, hw vr, nd
by pprxmtly 30,000 yrs BC th nhbtnts f
th sm Zhkdn cv wr Hm spns.
Th rlst hmnds, nd th rlst tlmkrs,
ll vlvd n frc. Th cntnnt s ths th crdl
f hmnty. t w s nly th xtrmly slw sprd f
cltr-brrs crss s tht nsrd tht, bng ttlly
ct ff frm thr mst ncnt rts, thy w ld
vlv dstnctvly sn cltrs vr tm.
Th rlst flly mdrn hmns, Hm spns,
vlvd n frc, mst nthrplgsts blv, nd
my b rprsntd by fssl mtrl t Klss Rvr
mth, n th sth cst f Sth frc. ts cvs
nd rck shltrs wr ccpd ntrmttntly frm
bt 125,000 t 70,000 BC. n d crs th spcs
sprd thrght s nd rp t.
rly Cvlztn
n f th wrld’s rlst nd grtst hgh cvlz tns,
pltcl stt, rs n th frcn cntnnt:
ths ws gypt. nly Msptm hd n rlr
clm t th ttl f cvlztn. lthgh sm rcnt
frcn hstrns bjct t chrctrzng t s
sch, gypt ws ssntlly Nr strn cvlztn.
ndbtdly th mn nflnc n th ppl f th
Nl Vlly, w hch ld t th dvlpmnt f ths cvlztn
n th frth mllnnm BC, w s nt th frgng
cltrs f st r Cntrl frc bt rbnzd
Msptm nd th Lvnt. Nb, lyng jst t th
sth f gypt, ws src nly f gld, w d, nd
slvs. Wht nd brly, ntrdcd frm th Nr
st, wr bng grw n n th Fym (nr Cr) by
5000 BC. Cttl, dmstctd vr tw thsnd
yrs rlr n th Nr st, ls bgn t b hrdd
rnd ths tm. n ths rly prd, t, cttn
sprd frm nd t gypt, w hl fngr mllt sprd
frm th thpn rgn t nd. stt rs n
gypt by bt 3100 BC, bt t hd drvd ts bsc
ds bt dvn kngshp, brcrcy, nd rbn rgnztn
frm th cty-stts f Msptm (frm
bt 3500 BC thr). Nnthlss, n shld nt
xggrt th dbt f th ncnt gyptns t thr
Nr strn nghbrs, fr thy dd dvlp thr w n
wrttn scrpt, n tht ws n n wy brrwd frm
cntmprry Msptmn scrpts. n rt nd rchtctr,
t, th gyptns qckly dvlpd dstnctv
ntnl styl tht hd nthng t d w th Nr
strn prttyps. rnd 2650 BC gypt bc m
th frst cntry n th wrld t rs mnmntl
pyrmds t cmmmrt thr dd rlrs.
rn g
gypt hd bgn lng, slw dcln by th tm
Slmn w s rlng n Jrslm n th md-tnth cntry
BC, nd t nvr rcvrd ts rly grndr. lthgh
th ncnt rlgn, lngg, nd wrtng
cntnd n s ntl th Rmn prd, th grt
cvlztns f th wrld wr nw t b fnd n
Grc nd s: n Prs, ssyr, Chn, nd Mryn
nd.
Mnw hl n th rst f frc sth f th Shr
thngs w r mch s thy hd bn bfr, th dsrt
cndtns hvng sltd thm frm nflncs f
thr cvlztns. vntlly n rn g sccdd
th Lt Stn g, nd w th nn f th ntrvnng
phss f Mslthc, Nlthc, nd Brnz g tht
hd prcdd th rn g lsw hr n th ld
Wrld. Shrtly ftr 2000 BC th Httts f ntl
bgn th dngrs prcss f smltng rn, nd
lng kpt t stt scrt. vntlly t rchd gypt,
bt th frst vdnc f rn smltng n sb-Shrn
frc dts t bt 480 BC (t Trg, Ngr).
Rlgns
Th ntrctn btw n s nd frc hs bn
rlgs s w ll s mrcntl nd mltry n.
Nthr Hnds m nr Bddhs m, tw f th grt
sn rlgns, rchd Sthrn frc ntl vry rcnt
tms, bt thr fths hd mch rlr mpct.
Jdsm c m t th cts f Nrth frc sm tw
FRC-S RLTNS
32 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
thsnd yrs g, nd Chrstnty rchd gypt
drng th frst cntry C, sn sprdng t
thp. slm sprd wstwrd lng th Mdtrrnn
cst s fr s Rbt, nd thn sth t sch
sb-Shrn cts s Tmbct (Tmbkt) nd
G n prsnt-dy Ml. scnd rt fr th
sprdng nw fth ws dwn th st frcn cst
s fr s Klw (n prsnt-dy Tnzn). Bt thr s
t lst pssblty tht frc ls nflncd sn
rlgns, nd n vry ncnt tms. Th mst nflntl
mnths ms—Chrstnty, Jdsm, slm,
Skhs m, Zrstrnsm, nd Bhs m—ll rgntd
n s, yt th wrld’s ldst mnths m w s frcn.
Ths w s th tnsm f th Phrh khntn
FRC-S RLTNS
CVL DSBDNC FRM
STH FRC T ND
Mhnds Gnd’s c mpgn fr ndn ndpndnc frm Grt Brtn ctlly
bgn n Sth frc, w hr h rgnzd cvl dsbdnc prtsts t
nd dscrmntn gnst ndns n Sth frc. Th fllw ng xtrct dscrbs
hs frst cvl dsbdnc cmpgn n Sth frc frm 1906 t 1914,
whch hlpd rdc dscrmntn nd srvd s mdl fr hs sbsqnt
cmpgns n nd.
Th frst mss Stygrh [cvl dsbdnc mvmnt] nd th
mst mprtnt, n hstrcl prspctv ws lnchd by Gndhj
[Mhnds Gndh] n Sth frc n 1906, t fght th rgnzd
dscrmntn f th Sth frcn Whts gnst ndns w h hd
sttld thr. Rfsl t rgstr, t gv fngr-prnts nd t rcv
prmts w hch Gndhj clmd w ld stgmtz th ndn cmmnty
n Sth frc s crmnl w s fllw d by whlsl rrsts.
n Jnry, 1908, Gnrl Smts pr msd t rpl th
rdnnc nd vldt rgstrtn f th ndns w ld rgstr
vlntrly. n grmnt w s rchd, nd Gndhj nd thrs
wr rlsd frm jl. Bt w hn Gnrl Smts dd nt crry t
hs grmnt, w hn th rdnnc ws nt rpld, nd w hn nw
lgsltn ws ntrdcd brrng ll frthr ndn mmgrtn,
th rsmptn f th strggl bcm nvtbl.
n Sptmbr 16, 1908, tw thsnd rgstrtn crtfcts
wr brnd n Jhnnsbrg n pblc bnfr. Th fght ws
n. Fns, mprsnmnts, flggngs nd frng wr fllw d n
1913 by Hgh Crt Jdgmnt nvldtng ll ndn mrrgs
s nt n ccrdnc wth th lcl lw . Th gttn fnlly clmntd
n th clssc nvsn f th Trnsvl n th mrnng
f Nvmbr 6, 1913. Th pstn f th nn Gvrnmnt
bcm ntlrbl, nd by th nd f Jly, 1914, th ndn Rlf
Bll w s pssd, rplng th thr pnd pll tx, vldtng
Hnd nd Mslm [ccptnc f] th dmcl crtfct
s cnclsv vdnc f ctznshp. n ght-yr strggl,
nq n th hstry f wrld, ndd wth jstc. t prvdd
th xprnc nd tchnqs fr Gndhj’s sbsqnt cmpgns
n nd.
Src: R. R. Stygrh Dw kr. (1948) Th Pwr f Trth.
Hnsdl, L: Hnry Rgnry C., 71–72.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 33
(mnhtp V, rgnd 1379–1362 BC), w hch
smngly dspprd n gypt ftr hs dth. Ths
hw vr ws th prd whn th Hbrw s wr cptv
n gypt, ths rsng th dstnct pssblty tht
th svr mnthsm f Mss (w hs vry nm,
hms, s gyptn) hd grw n t f th tnsm
f th prcdng cntry.
ncnt Vygrs
Fr m th frst mllnnm BC th rbn S bcm
Phncn lk. Kng Slmn’s fmd tmpl
n th Mnt n Jrslm w s blt wth lrg
nmbr f mprtd mtrls, ncldng sm frm
Sth nd nd s m frm Nb. Th lttr lnd ws
th src f wd nd gld, bt n vn lngr s
jrny brght sndlw d fr th tmpl clmns,
hg mnts f gld, vry, pccks, mnkys, slvr,
bny, prcs stns, nd hrps frm Sth nd.
(n th Hbrw Bbl w fnd tht ths tms ll
hv Drvdn, nt Smtc, nms: th hrp, fr xmpl,
s knnr n Hbrw , frm Tml knnr.)
Th src fr ths mtrls ws rnd Tlk n
Mlbr nd ts mmdt hntrlnd, n r ncntly
knw n s bt ("cwhrd plc"), whch ws rndrd
s phr n th Bbl. n ltr cntrs, sfrrs n
th gyptn cst r bsd nr dn (Ddnts n
th ld Tstmnt) sprd t crss th wstrn
prt f th ndn cn, prbbly dscvrng hw
t mk s f th mnsn w nds n dffrnt ssns,
nd trdd rglrly w th wstrn nd; bt
thy ls pshd frthr nd frthr dwn th st
cst f frc. Nmrs Drvdn plc-nms n
th ntrr f sthrn frc sggst ths ncnt
mrnrs pntrtd fr nlnd n srch f slvs nd
rw mtrls—gng, fr xmpl, t th cppr
mns f Zmbbw .
vntlly, sm tw thsnd yrs g, th slnd
f Mdgscr cqrd hmn ppltn, nt
frm th nghbrng frcn cst nr yt frm th
wndrng Phncn trdrs, bt frm fr mr
dstnt nd nlkly src: Smtr. t s w ll-dcmntd
fct tht Mlgsy s th nly frcn lngg
n th strnsn lngg fmly. Lngg
ffltn s sr sgn f cltrl ffltn, nd n
ths cs hlps t dntfy wth sm prcsn th rgnl
hmlnd f th Mlgsy ppl. Thrs ds nt
ppr t hv bn n ntntnl vyg f xplrtn,
lk Vsc d Gm’s (c. 1460–1524), bt rthr
n ccdnt tht hd bn w tng t hppn. Th prvlng
wnds nd crrnts t crtn tm f th yr
flw nd blw wstwrd rght crss th ndn cn
tw rd th grt slnd. ccsnlly ndnsn fshrmn
lst thr sls nd, nbl t rtrn t prt,
wr blw n ff crs ntl, w th gd frtn, thy
md lndfll n Mdgscr, brngng bnns, rc,
tr, nd pltry w th thm.
rchlgcl rsrch shws tht th frst ndnsn
ccpnts wr thr by bt th frst cntry
C. rtrn t ndns ws t f th qstn,
bt th lnd f Mdgscr ws rch, nd sttld frmng
prvd t b sy. Mlgsy myth ctlly rfrs
t th ndn cty f Mnglr, n dbt stpvr
prt fr sm f th hplss mgrnts. fw ndn
plc-nms r fnd n Mdgscr, dfntly prdtng
clnl tms (sch s Mhjng, frm th
Mrth mh + jngl, "grt frst"); s w mst
prsm tht ccsnlly ndn fshrmn sffrd
th sm ft w hn th nrthstrly mnsn ws
blw ng.
By th ghth cntry C nw frc ws swpng
dw n th st cst f frc nd nt Mdgscr
t: ths ws sbrn slm. Th sccssrs f th
ncnt Phncn mrchnt-slrs wr nw rbs,
slly Mslms. Thr nflnc vn rchd s fr
s Mzmbq, nd nlnd t Z mbbw . Th grt
cty f Klw ws Mslm cty, w th msqs nd
slv qrtrs, n th frcn cst ppst th nrthrn
tp f Mdgscr. Prsn, ndn, nd vn Chns
trd gds hv bn fnd yt frthr sth,
n th Lmpp Rvr, w hch brdrs Sth frc.
Chns nd slmc pttry w r th lxry gds
ths trdrs brght; bt thr cmmnst "gft" n
ths nnmntry cnms ws bds, whch fnd
thr wy dp nt frc. n rtrn, gld, cppr,
vry, nd slvs wr brght t. n vn rds
f gft f frcn pygms nd zbr t Chns
mprr. qlly srprsng, mdvl nd bgn t
mprt vry frm frc, bcs f th rtl rqrmnt
tht vry Hnd w dw brk hr vry
bngls drng hr hsbnd’s fnrl. Th ndn spply
ws cnsqntly bcmng t dmnshd. Fr m
th lvnth cntry Klw bcm th mst mprtnt
st frcn prt, nd ts Shrz dynsty (f
Prsn rgn) bgn t mnt th frst cns n sb-
Shrn frc.
Th gld nd cppr mns f Zmbbw wr lrdy
wll knw n t ndn mnng ntrprnrs n
ths prd, sx cntrs bfr th frst rpn xplrr
st ft n th r. (t ws th tm f th
Chl, Hysl, nd Vjyngr mprs n sthrn
nd.) lthgh thr s n hstrcl dcmnttn
f ths phs f ndn vrss xpnsn, th rchlgcl
vdnc f ncnt mns s thr fr
nyn t s, nd th plc-nm vdnc s qt
cmpllng. Wll vr hndrd Drvdn plcnms
cn b dntfd n sthrn frc.
FRC-S RLTNS
34 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Th Clnl Phs
ftr thsnd yrs f slmc nflnc, frc
ws clnzd, mnly drng th nntnth cntry,
by vrty f Wstrn rpn pwrs: th Dtch
n Sth frc, th Prtgs nd Blgns n Cntrl
frc, th Frnch n Nrth nd Wst frc nd
Mdgscr, th Gr mns n st frc, th Spnsh
n th Wstrn Shr, th tlns n Nrth nd st
frc, nd th Brtsh n Wst frc nd brd
sw th f lnds rnnng frm gypt mr r lss cntnsly
t Sth frc. n sns thy wr th
sccssr ccprs t th sn mnrs, trdrs, nd
slv dlrs wh hd cm thr sm sx cntrs
bfr thm, smtms vn rpnng th s m ld
mns. Thy stblshd clnl stts, slly w th
nrlstc strght-ln bndrs, nd gvrnd
thrgh n lt rpn cvl srvc. Thy stblshd
rds, rlrds, cts, schls, nd ndstrs,
ftn blt w th ndntrd ndn lbr. Bt w hn
mst f thm lft th cntnnt n th 1950s nd
1960s, thy ls lft bhnd trdtn f rcsm nd
tttds f rpn cltrl sprrty tht lvd
n n Sth frc.
Whl th nmbr f rpns n ny frcn
cntry ws lw ys tny prcntg f th ttl ppltn,
th Brtsh hd n nxpctd dmgrphc
mpct n th cntnnt by mprtng ndntrd lbr
frm Sth s. Drng th lttr prt f th
nntnth cntry nd th rly tw ntth, thsnds
f ndns wr brght t Sth nd st frc t
wrk n bldng rlrds (spclly th gnd rlw y,
whch pnd p th ntrr), n hrbrs nd
thr mdrn nstlltns, r t lbr n th mns,
fctrs, nd plnttns. n gnd, Tnzn, nd
Kny ths wr mnly Gjrt nd Kchch spkrs,
thgh sm w r Pnjb Skhs. Prss wr
smtms brght n frm Bmby s sprvsrs nd
clrks n ths prjcts. Lwyrs sch s M. K. Gndh
(1869–1948) pprd t chmpn ndn ntrsts,
nd mny Gjrt trdrs ls rrvd frm tht sm
prt t pn smll bsnsss n th frcn cntrs,
ftn n cmpttn w th Lbns. n Sth frc
t lbrrs wr brght n frm th prts f Bmby,
Mdrs, nd Clctt, w hch csd thm t b
lbld rspctvly Bmbys, Mdrss, nd Bngls,
rgrdlss f thr ctl plc f rgn. Th thr
ctgrs tndd t frm ndgms, cst-lk
cmmnts.
ftr ndpndnc cm t sm st frcn
cntrs sch s Sml, Cmmnst Chns r K-
FRC-S RLTNS
CRTNG S—FRC NTY
n prl, 1955, dlgts frm 29 sn nd frcn ntns mt t Bndng,
ndns, t dscss cmmn cncrns nd th rl f dvlpng ntns n
th pst–Wrld Wr Cld Wr w rld. Th fllw ng xtrct s thr grmnt
n cnmc cprtn.
1. Th sn-frcn Cnfrnc rcgnzd th rgncy f prmtng
cnmc dvlpmnt n th sn-frcn rgn. Thr
ws gnrl dsr fr cnmc cprtn mng th prtcptng
cntrs n th bss f mtl ntrst nd rspct fr ntnl
svrgnty. Th prpsls w th rgrd t th cnmc cprtn
wthn th prtcptng cntrs d nt prcld thr th
dsrblty r th nd fr cprtn wth cntrs tsd th
rgn, ncldng th nvstmnt f frgn cptl. t ws frthr
rcgnzd tht th ssstnc bng rcvd by crtn prtcptng
cntrs frm tsd th rgn, thrgh ntrntnl r ndr
bltrl gr mnts, hd md vlbl cntrbtn t th
mplmnttn f thr dvlpmnt prgr mms.
Src: Grg M. Khn. (1955) Th sn-frcn Cnfrnc,
Bndng, ndns, prl, 1955. thc: Crnll nvrsty
Prss, 76.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 35
rn lbr gngs cld b sn hlpng t dvlp th
lcl nfrstrctr, ntbly by bldng nw rlrd
trcks. Rcntly, hw vr, n ntrctbl cnmc dcln
n nmrs rgns f st frc hs ndcd
th lcl ndn trdrs nd prfssnl fmls t
lv fr thr cntnnts. Th nglsh-spkng
cntrs, mnly Cnd, strl, th ntd Stts,
nd Brtn, w th thr stbl cnms nd gd
schls, hv bn th prm trgts fr ths cnmc
rfgs, lthgh sm hv rtrnd t nd
r Pkstn. n Sth frc th mny mddl-clss
ndns hv rtnd thr pstn; whrs n st
frc mst hv nt bn s frtnt.
n th gnd cnss f 1969 "sns" (prmrly
frm Sth s) nmbrd bt svnty thsnd.
Thgh mny f thm w r brn n gnd, thy
wr ffclly cnsdrd frgnrs. n tht sm yr
th gvrnmnt f Mltn bt thrtnd t ntnlz
mny ndstrs, csng th w lthy sns
t xprt thr ssts nd thn mv lsw hr. Thn
n 1972 Prsdnt d mn dprtd nrly svnty
thsnd sns, lvng nly tny mnrty bhnd.
dcd ltr fw rtrnd t clm thr xprprtd
prprty, ncldng fctrs nd stts. By th
nd f th cntry nly bt tn thsnd sns
wr t b fnd n gnd, nd fwr stll n thr
st frcn cntrs. nvrslly thy hv sn bttr
pprtnts fr thr fmls vrss.
Pl Hckngs
S ls: Bndng Cnfrnc; Jpn-frc Rltns
Frthr Rdng
Bhrt, ghnnd. (1972) Th sns n st frc: Jyhnd
nd hr. Chcg: Nlsn- Hll Cmpny.
Dvss, J., nd S. Lbb. (1984) "frc n ntr-Cntnntl
Rltns." n Gnrl Hstry f frc. Vl. 4: frc frm
th Twlfth t th Sxtnth Cntry. Lndn: Hnmnn
dctnl Bks, 635–672.
Dmnchn- Rmr mnn, B. (1988) "Mdgscr." n
Gnrl Hstry f frc. Vl. 3: frc frm th Svnth
t th lvnth Cntry. Lndn: Hnmnn dctnl
Bks, 681–703.
Kpr, Hld. (1960) ndn Ppl n Ntl. Drbn, Sth
frc: Ntl nvrsty Prss.
Mngt, J. S. (1969). Hstry f th sns n st frc, c.
1896–1965. xfrd: Clrndn Prss.
Shrff, . M. H. (1981) "Th st frcn Cst nd ts
Rl n Mrtm Trd." n Gnrl Hstry f frc.
Vl. 2: ncnt Cvlztns f frc. Lndn: Hnmnn
dctnl Bks, 551–567.
Tlb, Y. (1988) "Th frcn Dspr n s." n Gnrl
Hstry f frc. Vl. 3: frc frm th Svnth t th
lvnth Cntry. Lndn: Hnmnn dctnl
Bks, 704–733.
FRD Thrgh th cntrs th frds, Pkstn
thnc grp mng th Pshtn ppl nhbtng
prts f fghnstn nd Pkstn, bttld vrs
pw rs. frd trrtry xtnds frm th strn Sfd
rng t nrthrn Pkstn, ncldng th Khybr Pss.
n th ghtnth cntry th frds fght wth th
rmy f th fghn rlr hmd Shh Drrn nd ltr
ffrd snctry t hs grndsn, Shh Shj (rgnd
1803–1809). Frm 1839 t 1842 th frds clshd wth
th Brtsh drng th frst ngl-fghn Wr, w hn
thy jnd th rsstnc t Gnrl Grg Pllck’s
mrch n Kbl. ftr th Brtsh hd nnxd th Pnjb
n 1849, frthr clshs ccrrd bcs f Brtsh
ffrts t kp th Khybr Pss pn.
Th frds vntlly jnd th Rd Shrt Mv mnt,
whch sght ndpndnc frm th Brtsh.
Whn Pkstn chvd ndpndnc, th nrthwst
prvnc f frd trrtry ws ncldd n ts brdrs.
Ths ld t nw mvmnt fr Pshtn stt ntng
ll frd lnds, ncldng ths n fghnstn.
Th thnc cmmnts n Pkstn nd fghnstn
wr ndrrprsntd n thr rspctv gvrnmnts
ntl 1997, w hn Pkstn’s prsdnt Frq Lghr
lftd vtng rstrctns t llw thm ll t vt. Prvsly,
nly ght thnc ppl hd rprsntd mr
thn fr mlln n th Ntnl ss mbly.
Hmn . Sdr
Frthr Rdng
dmc, Ldw g W. (1997) Hstrcl Dctnry f
fghnstn. 2d d. Lnhm, MD: Scrcrw Prss.
Clvlnd, Wllm L. (1994) Hstry f th Mdrn Mddl
st. Bldr, C: Wstvw Prss.
Glzd, Slmy. (1994) xtrnl nflncs nd th Dvlpmnt
f th fghn Stt n th Nntnth Cntry. Nw
Yrk: P. Lng.
Nrtn, gsts Rchrd, d. (1996) Cvl Scty n th Mddl
st. Ldn, Nthrlnds: Brll.
FYN (2000 st. pp.124,000). Lctd n w strncntrl
Trky, fyn hs dpndd n grcltr
snc th Httt r (1900–1300 BC). Lk mst f
ntl, fyn srvvd cntrs f nvdng r ccpyng
cvlztns nd rlrs rght p t th ttmn
dms n th md-tw ntth cntry. lrg prprtn
f th cnmy dpndd n fdng rms. Th
cty’s chf ntrprss r stll frm- r rrl-bsd.
Ppps r n mprtnt crp. lcl, stt-rn
lkld fctry rfns pppy strw nt pts, spplyng
cls t n-thrd f phrmctcl pm t
FYN
36 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
wrld mrkts. Th cty s ls fms fr rch, clttd
crm prdcd s rgnl spclty.
Tw nty-frst-cntry fyn s cnsrvtv cty wth
mny dvt Mslms. Th tw rng blck ctdl tht
vrlks th tw n s blvd t hv bn rfg fr
Byzntns drng th frst fw cntrs C. Th Grk
nvdng rmy ccpd fyn, bt wr drvn t n
1921 by Mstf Krml (1881–1938; ltr knw n s
ttrk, "Fthr f Trky"), th ftr fndr f
mdrn Trky. Th rt f th Grks t fyn md
pssbl th gl f n ndpndnt Tr ksh stt.
Sznn Swn
Frthr Rdng
Lw s, Brnrd. (1975) Th mrgnc f Mdrn Trky. xfrd:
xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Mtchll, Stphn. (1993) ntl, Lnd, Mn nd Gds n
s Mnr. Vl. 1. xfrd: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
FZL KHN (d. 1659), Bjpr gnrl. fzl
Khn ws brllnt svntnth-cntry gnrl n
Bjpr (n th ndn stt f Mhrshtr). fzl ws
snt by th sltn f Bjpr w th n rmy f tn thsnd
mn n 1659 t spprss th rsng Mrth w rlrd
Shvj, w h hd cnqrd Bjpr lnds n th
Knkn nd nghbrng rs btw n 1646 nd
1655. Wthn tw w ks, fzl hd rchd W, drvng
ll rsstnc sd; bt mnw hl Shvj ws
sfly wthn th frt f Prtpgrh. s fzl cld nt
tmpt hm frth, h nggd n ngttns w th Shvj,
cllng fr cnfrnc btw n th tw ldrs.
Shvj w nt t ths stnsbly nrmd bt, frng
trchry frm th Mslm gnrl, h crrd rms
hddn n hm. s th tw mn mbrcd, th stlw rt
gnrl trd t thrttl Shvj; bt Shvj mmdtly
klld fzl by rppng hs stmch pn
wth th mtl "tgr’s clws" (bghnkh) Shvj ws
crryng. Th Mrths w nt n t dft th Bjpr
frcs n bttl, nd ths ndd Bjpr’s hstlts.
Pl Hckngs
GRTL (2002 pp. 193,000). Snc 1850 th
cptl f tny Trpr stt n nrthstrn nd, pctrsq
grtl ls nr th Bngldsh brdr n
th Hr Rvr n n ntnsvly cltvtd pln. t s
dmntd by th jjynt Plc. Blt by Mhrj
Rdh Krshn Kshr Mnky Bhdr n 1901 n
mxd rpn- Mghl styl, th glmng w ht
plc nw hss th stt lgsltv ssmbly. ts
grnds xtnd vr svnty crs f prklnd, ncldng
frml grdns, rtfcl lks, nd th mmnshw r
nd Jgnnth Tmpls, bth n strkng
yllw -rng h. Nrby r th Gd Mn
FZL KHN
fmly w ds thrgh fld w trs nr grtl n Sptmbr 2001. ( FP/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 37
Msq, ncrstd w th n nsl msc f brkn
crckry pcs, nd th Bddhst Vnbn Vhr.
Th cty ftrs th Stt Ms m, trbl ms m,
bsy bzrs, nd cllgs ffltd wth th
nvrsty f Clctt. Th prncpl lnggs r
Bngl, Kkbrk, nd Mnpr; nglsh s nt
wdly spkn. Th ppltn s lrgly Bngl bt
nclds mmbrs f th nntn "schdld" trbs.
(Sch schdld trbs hv spcl prtctns ndr
th ndn Cnstttn.) Ths ppl, w th rch
nd vrd cltr, blng mnly t th Trprs, Rng,
Chkm, Hlm, nd s cmmnts nd lv
n lvtd hss f bmb clld tng. ld grtl,
th frmr cptl, s fv klmtrs t th st.
Th Tmpl f Frtn Dts thr drw s thsnds
f Hnd dvts ch Jly fr Khrch Pj,
fstvl clbrtng wrshp f th rth.
C. Rgr Dvs
Frthr Rdng
Trpr nvrsty. (1992) Smnr n tnmy Mvmnts
n Trpr snc ndpndnc. grtl, nd: Trpr
nvrsty.
GNG PPLTN—JPN Prhps th
mst sgnfcnt chllng fcng Jpn vr th cmng
dcds s ts gng ppltn. By th mddl f
th tw nty-frst cntry, Jpn w ll hv th mst gd
scty n th wrld, wth pprxmtly n n thr
Jpns bng 65 yrs f g r mr. Th ppltn
by thn w ll hv shrnk t bt 100 mlln. s
rly s 2010, mr thn 21 prcnt f th Jpns
ppltn w ll b gd 65 yrs r mr (cmprd
wth, fr xmpl, 13 prcnt n th ntd Stts), n
ncrs f 6 prcnt snc 1998. By 2025, Jpn s
prjctd t hv th hghst vrg g n th wrld.
Ths hs bn th rslt f svrl fctrs, th frst bng
th rpd rs n brthrts fllw ng th nd f
Wrld Wr ntl 1947. Th scnd fctr s th
fllng brthrt, w hch drppd stply thrgh th
1950s, stblzng rnd 1960 nd dclnng slw ly
thrftr. t prsnt, th brthrt s lss thn 1.4
chldrn pr Jpns w mn (f chldbrng g),
whl rplcmnt s bt 2.1. Th brthrt s xpctd
t fll t bt 1.1 by 2020. Th thrd fctr
s th lngvty f th Jpns, wh lv lngr thn
nyn ls n th w rld—pprxmtly 77 yrs fr
mn nd 84 fr w mn. Jpn hs mssv chng
lmng tht w ll ffct vrtlly vry spct f ts scl,
pltcl, nd cnmc rgnztn. Sm hv
clld th prblm Jpn’s "dmgrphc tm bmb."
Th Cst f Crng fr ldrly Ppl
n th cmng dcds, n f Jpn’s mjr dffclts
wll b t dl w th th csts f spprtng n
gng ppltn. Fndng f bsc pnsns s th mst
mmdt prblm, nd prssr wll ncrs stdly.
By 2020, th rgnztn f cnmc Cprtn
nd Dvlpmnt hs stmtd, th cst f prvdng
pnsns w ll mnt t 14 prcnt f Jpn’s grss dmstc
prdct (GDP), bt thr tms tht f th
ntd Stts. t prsnt, Jpn spnds nly bt 7
prcnt f GDP n pnsns, nd th Jpns gvrnmnt
hs rcntly ntrdcd nrsng-cr nsrnc
t cmmt th ppltn t spprt f th gd.
Fndmntlly, sch schms r dsgnd t mk
ppl rspnsbl fr thr wn fnncl scrty n
ld g rthr thn dpndnt n stt spprt. t th
sm tm, t s clr tht th Jpns gvrnmnt w ll
hv t ply mr sgnfcnt rl, nd th s-clld
Gldn Pln f 1989 nd th 1994 Nw Gldn Pln
r xmpls f th stt’s ttmpt t ply rl n th
prvsn f pnsns fr th ldrly. Th vrrdng
cncrn f ths nw msrs s t vd fnncl
crss n th cmng dcds.
thr csts w ll ls rs. tlys fr mdcl cr
wll g p gvn tht, w th ppl lvng lngr, ldrly
ppl w ll nd mr ntnsv mdcl cr nd
vr lngr tm. n 1993, th nmbr f Jpns
vr th g f 80 ws nly 3 mlln, bt ths s xpctd
t jmp t 9.5 mlln by 2025.
rltd prblm s prvdng dqt hsng fr
th ldrly. Mst Jpns r rbnts, nd thr s
cncntrtn f ppltn n th Tky-Ngy-
sk blt. ndd, tdy mr thn 20 prcnt f
Jpns vr th g f 60 r lvng ln n Tky,
whl pprxmtly 78 prcnt f ths g grp s
clssfd s rbn. T sgnfcnt xtnt, ths s rslt
f pstwr ndstrlztn nd rrl-rbn mgrtn,
s tht thr s sm cnflct btwn rlr,
rrl-bsd vls nd th rlty f cntmprry
hgh-dnsty lvng. Hsng prssrs r w llknw n
phnmnn, nd n f th lmttns fr xtndd
fmly spprt s smply th lck f spc,
spcfclly ffrdbl spc, n th rbn rs (whr
mst ldrly Jpns lv, n spt f dsprprtnt
nmbr f ldrly n rrl rs). Thr s ddtnl
prssr n th stt t prvd spclzd
fclts fr th cr f th ldrly, ltrntv hmcr
mdls, spcl nrsng hms, fclts fr physclly
dsbld prsns, nd s n. Gvn th prssrs
f mdrn rbn lvng, mn r ftn t prccpd
wth wrk cmmtmnts nd th rqrd cmmtng
t hv tm t lk ftr ldrly prnts; f cr s ndrtkn
t hm, th brdn flls n w mn.
GNG PPLTN—JPN
38 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Lbr Shrtgs
fndmntl prblm n Jpn s tht thr r
fwr nd fwr yngr ppl t spprt th ldrly.
t prsnt thr r bt 5 ppl w rkng pr rtr,
bt ths w ll b rdcd t bt 2.5 w rkrs by
2010, ccrdng t Jpns gvrnmnt prjctns.
ccrdng t dffrnt tmprl c mprsn, n 1980
thr w r 12 ppl cntrbtng t mply pnsn
fnds fr vry n pnsnr, whl th rt by
2025 w ll b 2:1. Tht s, th nmbr f ppl gd
65 r vr pr 100 ppl gd 20 t 64 n 2010 w ll
b 37 nd n 2025, 49. n shrt, th wrkng ppltn
n Jpn w ll pk n 2005 nd thrftr dcln,
prdcng sbstntl lbr shrtg.
Ths lbr shrtg mns tht lbr csts w ll rs,
nd Jpn w ll bcm lss cmpttv s th cst f
prdctn ncrss; ths prcss hs lrdy bn ndrwy
fr sm tm, nd th sttn s gttng
wrs. Hghr csts ls mn tht thr s prssr
t ncrss txs, nd th Mnstry f Hlth nd Wlfr
prjcts th scl scrty tx t rs frm 14.5
prcnt n 1994 t 34.8 prcnt n 2025. Ths fctrs,
tkn tgthr, w ll drv mr nd mr ndstry
ffshr, t lw r-wg cntrs, spclly ths
n s. ls, s mr fndng gs nt ths sctr,
thr w ll b lss vlbl fr nvstmnt n th cnmy;
wth fwr ppl wrkng, thr w ll b lss svngs
vlbl fr nvstmnt. ltmtly ths mns
rdctn n Jpn’s xtrnl trd srpls, w hch w ll
hv prfnd ffct n th glbl cnmy.
ltrntv Srcs f Lbr
n rspns f Jpn’s plcy mkrs hs bn t
kp ldr Jpns w rkng lngr. t my b tht th
rtrmnt g w ll smply b stdly ncrsd, wth
ldr Jpns bng skd t w rk t, sy, th g f
70. lrdy th g f lgblty fr th ntnl pnsn
s gng p, frm 60 yrs t 65 by 2013 (thgh
th mplys Pnsn nsrnc schm stll llws
bnfts frm g 60). t th sm tm, thr s w llstblshd
(t lst n th pstw r prd) trdtn n
Jpn f hvng ppl cntn t w rk ftr rtrmnt
n cmpny ffltd wth thr mn plc f
mplymnt. n 1993, fr xmpl, th prprtn f
Jpns w h rmnd cnmclly ctv ftr th
g f 65 ws 24.9 prcnt, s ppsd t 6.6 prcnt
n Sw dn nd 12.2 prcnt n Sngpr.
f n ssms, hw vr, tht th nmbr f Jpns
wrkrs w ll dcln (nd ths w ll hppn vntlly
s sbstntl prtn f th wrkfrc ntrs
vry ld g), th qstn f lbr shrtgs rss.
cmmn plcy ptn n th Wst s t ncrg
mmgrtn. Th prblm n Jpn’s cs s tht t s
nt n mmgrnt cntry bt, n th cntrry, hs
hd tndncy t b xclsnst. nly bt 2 prcnt
f Jpn’s ppltn r mgrnts. S mch f
Jpns cltr hs rvlvd rnd bng sltnst
nd rsstnt t hvng lrg nmbrs f frgnrs
n th lnd tht ppl ftn fnd t dffclt t
ntrct wth ths frm dffrnt cltrl bckgrnds.
n cmpr ms hs bn t fcltt th
ntry f Brzlns f Jpns dscnt, nd thr r
nw bt 270,000 f thm n Jpn. Hwvr, mny
mr mgrnts r rqrd. Th .N. stmts
nd fr s mny s 600,000 mmgrnts pr yr n
cntnng bss t sstn th cntry’s cnmc
grw th. f sch rcmmndtn s fllw d (nd
thr s vrwhlmng rsstnc t t n Jpn), t
wld pt prssr n th Jpns gvrnmnt t
trt mmgrnts mr qtbly. Th Jpns gvrnmnt
my cmprms frthr n ths ss nd llw
mr frgnrs nt th cntry n tmprry
wrk prmts.
thrd ptn n dlng w th n gng ppltn
s t chng th wy n w hch Jpns w mn r
trtd n th w rkplc. T dt, thr lbr s nt
tlzd ffctvly. Mny r w ll dctd bt nt
spprtd by scty r th stt t th pnt tht thy
cn rs t th lvl f thr blts. Th gng ppltn,
hw vr, w ll frc chngs n th r f
w mn’s mply mnt. Th dmnd fr lbr w ll prvd
w mn wth grtr rng f mply mnt pprtnts.
ls, th prsnt trnd twrd crr
ntrrptns fr th prps f rsng chldrn w ll
hv t chng s lbr bcms scrc. n ndctn
tht th Jpns gvrnmnt s tkng ths ss
srsly s th 1999 mdfctn f th 1986 ql
mplymnt pprtnty Lw , w hch rmvd mny
f th brrrs t fml mplymnt n Jpn.
mpct n Glbl Trd nd nvstmnt
Wth th grw th n th glbl cnmy, prtclrly
th hgh lvl f ntrcnnctdnss btwn th
mjr cnms, vnts n n cntry r qckly
flt n thrs. Ths s prtclrly th cs wth Jpn.
Dspt ts cntnng rcssn, Jpn s th scndlrgst
cnmy n th wrld nd njys n f th
wrld’s lrgst pr cpt ncms. ts prdcts r
sd n vrtlly vry cntry n th wrld, nd
brnds sch s Sny, Pnsnc, nd Mtsbsh r
hshld nms. Jpns cmpns ls r ncrsngly
mnfctrng thr prdcts n thr
cntrs, thr t vd prtctv trffs, pntrt
lcl mrkts, r njy th bnfts f lw -cst lbr.
Jpns nvstrs r ls hvly nvlvd n thr
GNG PPLTN—JPN
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 39
cntrs, spclly th ntd Stts. n spt f
Jpn’s cnmc slw dwn thrgh th 1990s, t
rmns crcl t glbl trd, mnfctrng, nd
nvstmnt. Thrfr, sbstntl sccnmc
chng n Jpn w ll hv prfnd ffcts, drctly
nd ndrctly, nd bth pstvly nd ngtvly, n
th rst f th wrld.
Crts ndrssn
Frthr Rdng
zrt, Mltn. (1997) "Jpn’s gng cnmcs." Frgn
ffrs 76, 3 (My–Jn): 96–104.
Kn, Mkt. (2000) "Th mpct f Mdrnstn nd
Scl Plcy n Fmly Cr fr ldr Ppl n Jpn."
Jrnl f Scl Plcy 29, 2 (prl): 181–203.
Krd, Tsh. (1994) "Th Ntr nd Plcs f Ppltn
gng n Jpn." n Th gng f sn Ppltns:
Prcdngs f th ntd Ntns Rnd Tbl n th
gng f sn Ppltns, Bngkk, 4–6 My, 1992.
Bngkk, Thlnd: ntd Ntns, 92–95.
Mc Cn, Jnny. (1990) "Jpn Sys Synr t Wmb-t-
Tmb Mngmnt." Mngmnt Rvw 79, 11 (Nv mbr):
12–17.
Myksh, Ttsysh. (1999) "Trd-ff btw n Pnsns
nd Jbs fr th ldrly: Thrtcl nd mprcl
bsrvtns frm Jpn." sn cnmc Jrnl 13, 11:
93–107.
Ptrsn, Ptr. (1999) "Gry Dw n: Th Glbl gng Crss."
Frgn ffrs 78, 1 (Jnry–Fbrry): 42–52.
Schltz, Jms, lln Brw sk, nd Wllm Crw n. (1991)
cnmcs f Ppltn gng. Nw Yrk: brn Hs.
Skldn, Rnld. (1999) gng f Rrl Ppltns n Sth-
st nd st s, Prt 1. Bngkk, Thlnd: SD Dmnsns.
Skdvsky, Jy. (1990) Th Cltrl Cntxt f gng: Wrldwd
Prspctvs. Nw Yrk: Brgn nd Grvy.
Wtnb, Mk. (1992) "mply mnt f ldr Prsns
nd Nd fr Spprt Systm." Jpn Lbr Blltn
(Jpn nsttt f Lbr, n. 31): 1–6.
GN RVR Th gn Rvr s n f th mn
rvrs n Lzn Prvnc, Phlppns. t s lmst 150
klmtrs lng, rgntng t Bng Lk n Bngt
Prvnc, rnnng dw n ts dp vllys, nd trnng
wstw rd n th lw lnds f Pngsnn Prvnc bfr
drnng nt th Lngyn Glf.
Th bl ppl f Bngt rgrd th rvr s
scrd bcs t gvs lf. Bt ts "lf -gvng" prprts
xtnd bynd Bngt bcs t ls rrgts
th lw lnds f Pngsnn, w hch r prt f th "rc
bw l" f th Phlppns. Wth ts cnnctn t Bng
Lk, th gn Rvr s hrnssd t pwr hydrlctrc
plnts f th Bng nd mbkl Dms, prvdng
lctrcty t th Cgyn Vlly rgn.
nthr dm, th Sn Rq, s ndr cnstrctn
lng th gn Rvr. Ths prjct hs bn mt
wth stff rsstnc by th ppl f Bngt bcs
th dm w ll nndt tw ns nd thrtn th nvrnmnt.
rn Rnqll
Frthr Rdng
Dprtmnt f Trsm. (1994) Th Phlppns: Sprt f
Plc. Mnl, Phlppns: Dprtmnt f Trsm.
Lncn, Cnrd Jr. (1995) Fst Fcts bt Phlppn
Prvncs. Mnl, Phlppns: Thnn Bks.
Pr ks, Crl. (1999) Phlppns Hndbk. mryvll, C:
Mn Trvl Hndbks.
Slt, Dmng. (1974) Ggrphc nd Ntrl Rsrcs f
th Phlppns. Qzn Cty, Phlppns: Cllg f rts
nd Scncs, nvrsty f th Phlppns.
GR (2001 st. pp. 1.3 mlln). gr, lctd n
th stt f ttr Prdsh n nrthwst nd, s
rnw nd fr ts ncnt rchtctr. Th cty dvlpd
by vrt f ts lctn n mjr trd rts
nd w trwys.
Th frst sttlmnt s thght t hv bn stblshd
hr n 2 BC. Th sltn f Dlh sttld n
gr n 1492, mkng t hs cptl, rnvtng ts ncnt
frt, nd rlng th cty ntl th Mghl dynsty
cm t pw r n 1526. Th Mghls thn md gr
th st f thr mpr’s gvrnmnt fr tm nd
cnstrctd th grt Frdy msqs (blt spclly
fr Frdy wrshp) drng thr rgns
Th cty’s mst fms lndmr k s th Tj Mhl
(blt c. 1632–1652), th w ht mrbl mslm
GR
GR FRT—WRLD
HRTG ST
Dsgntd Wrld Hrtg St n 1983, gr
Frt s hg brck rd svntnth-cntry
Mghl frtrss tht prtcts th Mghl mprl
cty f gr wthn ts 2.5 klmtrs f w lls.
stn’s thrw wy frm th Tj Mhl, gr
Frt cntns mny Mghl rchtctrl mstrpcs.
9
40 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
cmmssnd by Shh Jhn fr hs wf Mmtz Mhl
cnsdrd mstrpc f tht prd’s rchtctr.
Lgnd sys tht Shh Jhn mmd nd
blndd th rchtct t prvnt hm frm vr cnstrctng
bldng f smlr bty. nfrtntly
th Tj Mhl nd thr mnmnts n gr r
thrtnd by th mdrn cty’s plltn.
Th frst rpn vstrs cmprd gr t Lndn
nd Prs. ftr th Brtsh nnxd gr n 1803,
th cty bcm th hdqrtrs fr th prsdncy n
th nrthw st prvncs.
Mdrn gr s cmpsd f th ncnt cty nd
th nntnth-cntry Brtsh cntnmnt. Tdy
gr s cntr fr cmmrc, hghr dctn, nd
trsm. Dspt ts mdrnty, trdtnl crfts sch
s mrbl crvng, stn sttng, nd crpt mnfctr
r stll prctcd.
Lnd Dly Plsn
Frthr Rdng
Crrll, Dvd. (1972) Th Tj Mhl. Nw Yrk: Nw swk.
Dvs, Phlp, d. (1989) "gr." n Th Pngn Gd t
Mnmnts f nd. Vl. 2. Lndn: Vkng, 189–199.
GRCLTRL CLLCTVZTN
—CHN Prvt lnd w nrshp nd th nfmly
frm w r th bss f Chns grcltr fr
mr thn tw thsnd yrs bfr th stblshmnt
f th Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn n 1949. ntl
th rly 1950s, th Chns Cmmnst Prty
(CCP) clmd tht t w ld frst mprv, rthr thn
lmnt, th systm f prvt fmly frms. Th
lnd rfrm f th CCP drng th 1940s nd rly
1950s w n grt spprt f th mjrty f Chns
psnts bcs t ctlly llw d mr psnts t
wn thr wn lnds nd ths t crt thr wn fmly
frms. Hw vr, CCP ldrs, prtclrly M
Zdng (1893–1976), shrd Mrxsts’ gl f vntlly
lmntng prvt w nrshp f lnd nd
chvng sclst cllctvztn. s rly s 1943,
M hd prclmd tht grcltrl cllctvztn
wld b th nly w y fr Chns psnts t scp
pvrty nd w ld b th CCP’s lng-rng gl. Bfr
lnd rfrm w s cmpltly ccmplshd, th
CCP w s prprd t bgn th grdl ntrdctn
f grcltrl cllctvztn.
Chn’s grcltrl cllctvztn ws crrd t
n thr stgs. Th frst stg ws t prmt mtl
d tms ( MTs). MTs w r smll scl, slly
wth fv r sx hshlds jnng t w rk cprtvly
drng bsy tms (sch s swng nd hrvstng).
ch fmly rtnd w nrshp f ts wn lnd,
nd th crps grwn n tht lnd bsclly blngd
t tht fmly. Th mv tw rd MTs ws rltvly
sccssfl. By 1952, 40 prcnt f Chn’s rrl hshlds
jnd mtl d tm.
Drng th s m prd, s mll nmbr f psnts
wr strtng t mv t th nxt stg f cllctvztn:
th "lwr" r "smsclst" grcltrl
prdcrs’ cprtv (PC). n PC slly ncmpssd
smll vllg r sctn f vllg (tw nty
t frty hshlds n vrg). Mmbrs f th PC
pld thr lnds nd lrg grcltrl tls nd drft
nmls nd wrkd th lnd tgthr. mngmnt
cmmtt kpt rcrds, slly msrng n dly
"w rk pnts," f th mnt f lbr dn by ch
fmly. t th nd f yr, th crp nd thr ncm
(ftr txs hd bn pd nd rsrv fnds hd
bn sbtrctd) wld b dvdd mng th mmbrs
f th PC ccrdng t th ccmltd w rk
pnts f ch fmly nd th lnd nd tls thy hd
cntrbtd. Fftn thsnd PCs w r stblshd
whn th CCP bgn t ncrg psnts t rplc
MTs w th PCs t th nd f 1953.
Frm PCs t Fll Cllctvz tn
Th thrd stg ws th flly sclst cllctvs,
r "hghr" PCs. Mst hghr PCs cntnd 150
t 200 hshlds. nlk n th s msclst PC,
n w hch n ndvdl fmly stll rtnd nmnl
wnrshp f ts lnds nd drvd ts ncm prtlly
frm ths lnds, th lnds nw wr lglly
th prprty f th PC. Th mnts f lnd nd
cptl cntrbtd by ch fmly w r n lngr
tkn nt ccnt n dtrmnng hw mch ch
fmly w ld rcv t th nd f yr. Th PC
wld dstrbt crps slly n th bss f ch
GRCLTRL CLLCTVZTN—CHN
Skndr, th tmb f mprr kbr n gr. (WLDCNTRY/
CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 41
fmly’s lbr cntrbtns: t ch ccrdng t hs
dds.
rgnlly, Chn’s grcltrl cllctvztn ws
plnnd qt ctsly. Th CCP ldrs w h wr
n chrg f ths wrk knw tht ths trnsfrmtn
wld hv t b mngd crflly t vd th
bldshd nd ctstrphc rslts tht hd ccmpnd
th rpd cllctvztn nttd by Jsph
Stln (1879–1953) n th Svt nn. Th CCP
Cntrl Cmmtt prdctd tht th trnstn t sclst
cllctvztn w ld b ccmplshd n fftn
yrs frm 1953. Th c mmtt dsbndd tns
f thsnds f PCs n 1953 nd 1955 n th grnds
tht ths PCs wr prmtr nd w r rgnzd
gnst psnts’ w n wll.
Hwvr, M w s nstsfd wth th cts pprch
t cllctvztn. ccrdng t M, Chn
wld sffr bth cnmc nd scl prblms nlss
th trnstn t cllctvztn spdd p. M
blvd tht sclst systm f grcltr wld
blstr grcltrl prdctvty, stmlt rrl mrkts
fr ndstrl prdcts, nd dvrt sffcnt wrkrs
nd fnds t cclrt Chn’s ndstrlztn.
n th mntm, flly sclst grcltr systm
wld nd th dvsn btw n th hvs nd hvnts
n Chn’s cntrysd.
Dspt th ppstn f mny ky fgrs wthn
th CCP nd mny psnts, M’s vw prvld
fnlly. Th CCP lnchd drv t rgnz mr
hghr PCs n th tmn f 1955. ftr t strtd,
th cmpgn mvd mch fstr thn vn M hd
ntlly prpsd. Prvncl nd lwr-lvl cdrs
mplmntd th cllctvztn drv wth sch nthssm
tht Chn’s grcltrl sclztn ws
cmpltd n lss thn yr. n 1954, thr w r
114,000 PCs ntnw d, 200 f thm hghr PCs.
By 1956, 120 mlln grcltrl hshlds, r 96.3
prcnt f Chn’s rrl fmls, w r rgnzd n
750,000 cllctvs, f whch 88 prcnt wr th flly
sclst hghr PCs.
ndrsd by M, "ppl’s cmmns" w r rgnzd
n th cntrysd n 1958 n th bss f
hghr PCs. ch cmmn mlgmtd dzns f
hghr PCs nd hd tw nty-fv thsnd ppl n
vrg. By th nd f 1958, thr wr twnty-sx
thsnd cmmns, n w hch 98 prcnt f Chn’s
rrl ppltn lvd. Th cmmn bc m nw
rgnztnl frm fr th cntrysd, cmbnng
pltcl, dmnstrtv, nd mltry fnctns n n
rgnztn. cnmclly, hwvr, th prncpl ntrnl
nt n ch cmmn w s th prdctn
brgd, w hch ftn crrspndd t hghr PC.
Rslts f Cllctvz tn
grcltrl cllctvztn hd prfnd nflnc
n Chn. t gv th CCP grtr pw r t xrt
ts thrty vr Chns psnts nd t mr
ffctvly xtrct lrg prtn f grcltrl ncm
frm th cntrysd t fnd Chn’s ndstrlztn.
n th mntm, cllctvztn w s pshd
t sn nd t hrd ftr 1955, rsltng n nffcncs
n grcltrl prdctvty, dsstsfctn
mng psnts, nd ms mngmnt n Chn’s rrl
rs. Psnts wr dprvd f thr lnd nd thr
prvt prprty nd lst th ncntv t wrk hrdr.
Chn’s grcltrl prdctvty stgntd ntl 1979,
whn Dng Xpng (1904–1997) lnchd cnmc
rfrm. Wth th dsmmbrmnt f th ppl’s
cmmns n 1982, Chn’s grcltrl cllctvztn
cllpsd. Fmly frms gn bcm th bss f
Chns grcltr; mr thn 97 prcnt f psnts
rn thr w n frms ndr th hshld rspnsblty
systm (w hch trnd rspnsblty fr prdctn
bck vr t ndvdl hshlds) by 1983.
J Wng nd lzbth D. Schfr
S ls: Hshld Rspnsblty Systm—Chn
Frthr Rdng
Frncsc, Rnld ., Btty . Lrd, nd Ry D. Lrd, ds.
(1979) Th Pltcl cnmy f Cllctvzd grcltr:
Cmprtv Stdy f Cmmnst nd Nn-Cmmnst Systms.
Nw Yrk: Prgmn Prss.
Hntn, Wllm. (1997) Fnshn: Dcmntry f Rvltn
n Chns Vllg. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty
f Clfrn Prss.
Ln, Jstn Yf. (1990) "Cllctvztn nd Chn’s grcltrl
Crss n 1959–1961." Jrnl f Pltcl cnmy
6, 98 (Dc mbr): 1228–1252.
Mrs, Mk. (1999) Mny Shds f Rd: Stt Plcy nd
Cllctv grcltr. Lnhm, MD: Rw mn & Lttlfld.
N, Vctr, nd S Sjn. (1990) "nstttnl Chng nd
cnmc Grw th n Chn: Th Vw frm th Vllgs."
Jrnl f sn Stds 1, 49 (Fbrry): 3–25.
Nln, Ptr. (1988) Th Pltcl cnmy f Cllctv Frms:
n nlyss f Chn’s Pst-M Rrl Rfrms. xfrd:
Plty Prss.
GRCLTR—CNTRL S Th
fv Cntrl sn rpblcs (CRs: Kzkhstn,
zbkstn, Tjkstn, Kyrgyzstn, nd Trkmnstn)
wr prm spplrs f grcltrl prdcts,
mtls, nd mnrls t ppltn cntrs n th Svt
nn. ftr ndpndnc n 1991, frm prdctn
fll drng th ffrts t rstrctr th
nffcnt nd hghly sbsdzd grcltrl sctr.
GRCLTR—CNTRL S
42 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Mncltr Frmng
Bfr ndpndnc th CRs prvdd th Svt
nn w th 90 prcnt f ts cttn nds, 15 prcnt
f ts vgtbl ls, nrly 50 prcnt f ts rc, nd
35 prcnt f ts frts nd vgtbls. n trn th CRs
mprtd grn, mt, dry prdcts, nd sgr frm
th Svt nn. Thn nd nw th CRs dpnd n
thr grcltr sctrs, whch r prm mplyrs
nd cntrbtrs t cnmc grwth. (S Tbl 1.)
Snc th brkp f th Svt nn n 1991, frm
prdctn nd vrll cnmc grw th n Cntrl
s hv drppd prcptsly. (S Tbl 2.) Ths
trrbl cnmc prfrmnc hs ncrsd th lvl
f pvrty n th CRs, nd th prdctvty f lbr
n frmng hs dclnd.
n th cntxt f th Svt nn, th CRs w r
nvr mnt t b ntgrtd, stnd-ln cnms.
Rthr, thy wr st p t b prmry prdct prdcrs
fr th mr ndstrlzd rpblcs. Frm
cnms n zbkstn, Trkmnstn, nd Tjkstn
spclzd n cttn; Kyrgyzstn spclzd n
wl nd mttn; Kzkhstn n grn.
Scnd-stg prcssng fr ths rw mtrls
ws dscrgd n Cntrl s, s tht th CRs dd
nt bnft frm th jbs nd cnmc ctvty tht
prcssng, mllng, nd mnfctrng w ld hv
ffrdd. Lnks wth nn-SSR mrkts w r dscrgd
r prhbtd. Th strctrl dpndnc
tht dvlpd btw n th "cntr" nd "prphry"
f th Svt nn ws brkn w th ts dssltn.
Whn th SSR cllpsd, th cnmy f th Rssn
Fdrtn ls plngd, grtly dblttng th
mrkts t nc ffrd t th CRs.
thr cnmc Prblms n grcltr
Svt plnnrs, n n ffrt t xpnd prdctn,
brght lnd tht w s mrgnl fr grcltr nt
cltvtn nd mplyd xcssv chmcl npts t
mx mz prdctn. Wth th xcptn f Kyrgyzstn,
whch xprts wtr, th CRs sffr frm
svr drghts nd shrtg f rrgtn. xstng
rrgtn systms hv flln nt dsrpr drng th
yrs f ndpndnc. Th ss f wtr s ls
prblm fr clgcl rsns. Mncrp frmng hs
rvgd ntrl rsrcs, s vdncd by th dspltn
f th rl S. s rvrs tht drnd nt th
rl w r dvrtd t prvd rrgtn w tr fr cttn,
nw dsrts wr crtd, nd mch f th rl
S drd p. Nw th w nd blw s slt nd pstcd
rsd crss n ncrsngly brrn lndscp.
nthr fctr ccntng fr th dcln n prdctn
n th CRs s th w thdrw l f grcltrl
sbsds. Drng th tm f th Svt nn
nd spclly n th Grbchv r (1985–1991), th
CRs bnftd frm th ll-nn bdgt trnsfrs
tht prvdd nvstmnt rsrcs fr grcltr
nd thr sctrs f th cnmy. Physcl
npts wr ls sbsdzd. Ths trnsfrs tndd
t hd nffcncs n grcltr whl ncrsng
prdctn.
Whn xpsd t th w rld mrkts, th grcltrl
prdcts grwn n th CRs sffrd frm sbstntl
prc flcttns. Cttn prcs wr
rltvly hgh rly n th 1990s bt fll sbstntlly
ltr n th dcd. t th sm tm mprtd npts
(lk frtlzrs nd sds) rs n prc, mprlng th
prftblty f th grcltrl sctr nd csng
cst-prc sqz.
lthgh s m f th CRs’ grcltrl trd s
stll w th thr cntrs f th frmr Svt nn
fr hstrcl r physcl rsns, tht trd s dclnng.
thr cnmclly chllngd frmr Svt
stts my dly pyng hrd crrncy r my wnt t
brtr nstd, w hl th CRs nd hrd crrncy t
prchs npts. By 1996 ffty prcnt f th ttl trd
f th CRs ws wth cntrs tht hd nt bn prt
GRCLTR—CNTRL S
Cntrl s’s dpndnc n th grcltrl sctr
fr cntrbtns t GDP nd m plymnt n 1999
Prcnt f GDP n Prcnt f ttl lbr frc
grcltrl sctr n grcltrl sctr
Kzkhstn 10 23
zbkstn 31 44
Kyrgyzstn 44 42
Tjkstn 25 52
Trkmnstn 25 44
SRCS: Dt fr ths tbl frm Wrld Bnk (2000: T bl 12)
nd T rnr (1999, 2000, 2001).
TBL 1
Prcntg f cnm c grw th nd grwth f
grcltr sctr, nnl dt fr 1990–1999
GDP Vl ddd by grcltr
Kzkhstn –5.9 –12.2
zbkstn –2.0 –1.0
Kyrgyzstn –7.4 –1.5
Tjkstn –9.8 –12.2
Trkmnstn –3.5 N dt
SRC: Wrld Bnk (2000: T bl 11).
TBL 2
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 43
f th frmr Svt nn. Th CRs nd nw mrkts,
nd s physcl lnks w th sthrn nd strn
nghbrs r dvlpd nd ccss t th Mdtrrnn
S nd t ndn nd Pcfc cn prts ncrss,
trd w th thr frmr Svt stts cn b
xpctd t dcln frthr.
n n ffrt t cltvt nw mrkts, th CRs
trnd sth t Trky, Pkstn, nd rn, w hch hd
frmd th cnmc Cprtn rgnztn
(C) n 1985. Cntrl sn cntrs w r dmttd
t C n 1992, lng w th fghnstn nd zrbjn.
Ths ddtns gv th C cltrl
chsn s t ncldd ll f th nn-rb slmc
cntrs f Wst s nd Cntrl s. Whl th
C hs nt sgnfcntly ncrsd th CRs’ trd,
t hs prvdd frm fr dscssn f rgnl
trd dsgrmnts nd frm fr ftr pcfl
sttlmnt f cnflcts. Smlrty n rsrc ndw mnts
nd vrlppng cmmdty c mpstn lmt
trd ptns btw n th thr rgnl C mmbrs
nd th CRs. Fr xmpl, cttn, n mprtnt
CRs xprt, s ls mprtnt t bth Trky
nd Pkstn.
Th CRs r mng t bld mr dvrsty nt
thr cnms. Fr xmpl, t sbsttt fr mprtd
grn, Tjkstn rdcd ts cttn crg by
25 prcnt btw n 1990 nd 1996 nd plntd w ht.
Tjkstn’s ffrts t dvlp w r mprd by cvl
wr. Whl pc grmnt hs bn sgnd, thr
s stll nrst n th cntry.
Rstrctrng grcltr
Th CRs r strgglng t rfrm th rchc systm
f frm pssssn nd mngmnt thrgh prvtztn
r lnd rfrm. Fr mng n th Svt nn
tk plc n stt lnd r stt frms (svkhzy) nd
cllctv frms (klkhzy). Thrtclly stt frms
wr "fctrs n th fld," pyng wg t wrkrs,
whrs cptl nd lnd blngd t th stt.
ny prft t th nd f th yr ntrd th gvrnmnt’s
cffrs.
n th cllctv frms, ls clld cprtvs,
bldngs nd mchnry blngd t grp f
wrkr mmbrs. Thrtclly prft t th nd f
th yr ws dvdd mng th mmbrs ccrdng
t sm prdfnd pln. Bt snc s mny stt nd
cllctv frms shw d lss s th Svt nn
cm t n nd, w gs wr ftn pd t cllctv
frm mmbrs, bt thr wr nfrqnt prfts t
dvd.
lthgh thr r sm cntry dffrncs, th
stt nd cllctv frms f th Svt nn shrd
sm cmmn chrctrstcs:
1. Th frms wr lrg n vrg nmbr f
wrkrs. frm w th 1,500 rrgtd hctrs
nd 1,500 wrkrs ws nt nsl.
2. Lbrrs n ths frms ccmplshd w rk
cmmnlly. frm’s lbr frc ws dvdd
nt brgds f, sy, dzn ppl,
wth th brgd ldr rspnsbl t th
chrprsn f th klkhz r th drctr f
th svkhz. n brgd mght b rspnsbl
fr 200 hctrs f cttn n th frm,
tndng t frm plntng t hrvst.
3. ch frm rcvd stt rdrs ch yr
stpltng th prdctn trgts nd th
prc t b pd fr ch cmmrcl c mmdty.
f th frm xcdd ts trgts, th
xtr mnt cld b sld thrgh nngvrnmntl
chnnls fr, prsmbly,
hghr prc.
4. Th prprts rcvd frm th stt th
npts nd crdt dmd ncssry t flf ll
th prdctn trgts, tmtclly nd ftn
t sbsdzd prc.
5. Th prsnnl n th frms w r chstsd
n vrs wys f trgts wr nt mt, bt
bnkrpt frms cntnd t b gvn sbsds
nd dd nt g "t f bsnss."
6. Th stt nd cllctv frms prvdd
mdcl nd thr scl nd dctnl
srvcs t thr mmbrs nd wrkrs.
7. Th frmng systm, w hl dmntd by
lrg frms, prvdd wrkrs’ nd mmbrs’
fmls w th smll xlry prcls f
bt qrtr f hctr ch. n ths
smll prcls frm fmls grw vgtbls
GRCLTR—CNTRL S
Drng Rssn nd Svt rl, cttn bcm th pr mry
grcltrl prdct n Cntrl s. Hr, w mn pcks cttn
n Mynk n 1989. ( DVD & PTR TRNLY/CRBS)
44 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
r frts fr thr wn cnsmptn, ccsnlly
sllng sm f ths prdc. Sm
f ths plts wr vry prdctv, nd f
th w rkr-mmbrs rmnd n gd
trms w th th lrg frm’s dmnstrtrs,
thy wr smtms gvn npts.
Mny f ths lrg cntrlly drctd frms bcm
srs fnncl brdn fr th stt wll bfr ndpndnc.
Sbsds wr gnrs, prdctn trgts
wr nfrqntly mt, prdctvty ws lw ,
ncntvs t wrk t cpcty dd nt xst, nd xpnss
fr scl nfrstrctr wr hgh.
ftr ndpndnc th CRs nctd lnd rfrms
n n ffrt t rnvgrt grcltr. Bt sch prfnd
chngs rqr yrs t nsttt cmpltly.
Lnd rfrms ncldd rrgnzng th frms t mk
thm s mllr, plcng thm n th hnds f frmr
mmbrs nd w rkrs, nd smprvtzng thm. ntrntnl
thrts rgd tht fmly frms w ld
b th bst ltrntv t stt nd cllctv frms,
whrs lcl spclsts blvd tht thr wr
cnms f scl tht w ld b dstryd n th cnvrsn
t fmly frms. Sm flt tht lnd shld b
trnd vr t th w nrs s thy cld by, sll, nd
nhrt lnd; vntlly, t w s thght, th mrkt
wld dctt ts ffcnt llctn. thrs rgd
tht cmplt prvtztn w ld rslt n rcncntrtn
f lnd, nd thy w ntd th lnd t rmn
stt prprty whl gvng lng-trm lss t frmr
mmbrs nd w rkrs.
Grp Frmng Stll Prvls
Sm mmbrs nd w rkrs ptd fr prvt ndvdl
frms, bt mst dcdd n sm vrnt f
cprtv frmng w th rltd fmls r w th fmls
wh hd wrkd tgthr fr lng tm ndr
th ld systm. Jnt-stck cmpns gv ngtbl
ppr shrs t mmbrs r t prdctn cprtvs
r thr ssctv rgnztnl frms. Wth
th xcptn f th prvt ndvdl frm (smtms
clld dkhn frm) th thr frm rgnztns
wr nt grt dl dffrnt frm th ld
svkhz r klkhz, thgh thy wr slly smllr
n crg nd mmbrshp. Th xlry prcls wr
ftn grntd t ths wh hld thm bfr ndpndnc.
Thr wr snd rsns tht ssctv rgnztns
wr prfrrd t fmly frms. Wrkrs nd
mmbrs wr sd t ths tm ffrt. Grp frmng
mnt tht frmng rsk ws mnmzd, nd n ghthr
dy cld slly b bsrvd. Mst f ths w h
wrkd n th frmr systm cnsdrd thmslvs t
b lbrrs nd nt frmrs; thy flt tht thy smply
dd nt hv th mngmnt nd fnncl xprnc
tht frmrs ndd. Frthrmr th mchnry frm
th ld stt r cllctv frm cld b sd f t ws
n gd rpr (lthgh mch w s nt), nd t ws mprctcl
t s ths hvy qpmnt n smll frms.
Th brns nd thr tbldngs w r lrg nd ll bt
slss fr fmly frms. Mrvr t btn npts
spcl rltnshp w th nghbrng lrg frm hd
t b stblshd; thr w s n systm nblng ndvdl
frmrs t by frtlzr, sds, nd frm chmcls
r vn t btn crdt.
Ths w h crtcz th ssctv strctr f rrgnztn
fl tht th ld thrttv strctr s
smply dplctd n th nw systm. ftn th ld
prsdnts r drctrs f th cllctv r stt frms
bcm dmnstrtv hds f th nw ntts. Nr
s th ncntv ss slvd. Thr s th cntnng
prblm f s-clld fr rdrs. Wth grp rthr
thn ndvdl ffrt, t s sr t slck ff nd lt
smn ls d th hrd w rk. ls t s dffclt fr
mmbrs t chng thr mnds bt th strctr
thy prfr. Fr nstnc n mst f th ssctv
frms t s dffclt t brk wy nd bcm fmly
frmr nc n hs ptd fr n ssctv chc.
Fw mchnsms xst fr sllng n’s shrs nlss
n gs thrgh n thrty fgr, w h s slly
nxs tht mmbrs nt lv th rgnztn. Th
rght t sll shrs my xst, bt t s slly dffclt
t xrcs ths rght.
Lnd rfrm s frthr lng n Kzkstn nd Kyrgyzstn
thn n th thr CRs. n Kzkstn, hwvr,
nly 4 t 5 prcnt f grcltrl prdctn
cms frm prvt ndvdl frms; n Kyrgyzstn
hlf f th frmlnd n th cntry ws trnsfrrd t
prvt ndvdl frmrs n th bss f 99-yr
lss, nd ths frms prvd bt hlf f th cntry’s
grcltrl prdc. f th gl f th CRs s
t rrgnz nt systm f prvt ndvdl frms
(nd t s nt cmpltly clr tht ths s th cs), t
hs lng dstnc t trvl.
Ftr mplctns
Th CRs fc myrd f prblms n rshpng
thr grcltr sctrs. Ths cntrs hv
shw n lrg drps n grss dmstc prdct nd
grcltrl-sctr grwth snc ndpndnc. T
gt grcltr mvng, th CRs mst dvlp rlbl
srcs f crdt nd npts, fnd nw mrkts,
dvrsfy thr frm cnms, fx thr rrgtn
systms nd crt nw ns, lt mrkt prcs pr-
GRCLTR—CNTRL S
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 45
vl, nd dvlp nstttnl frms cndcv t
grcltrl dvlpmnt.
Wllm C. Thsnhsn
S ls: rl S
Frthr Rdng
"Th rl S: Svng th Lst Drp." (1 Jly 2000) Th
cnmst 356, 8177: 42.
ty, Rchrd M. (1998) "Sstnbl Mnrl- Drvn Dvlpmnt
n Trkmnstn." n Sstnbl Dvlpmnt
n Cntrl s, dtd by Shrn knr, Sndr Tdmn,
nd Jhn Hy. Rchmnd, .K.: Crzn Prss, 167–185.
Bsnv, l S. (1998) "nvrnmntl Prblms n
Kzkhstn." n Sstnbl Dvlpmnt n Cntrl s,
dtd by Shrn knr, Sndr Tdmn, nd Jhn Hy.
Rchmnd, nglnd: Crzn Prss, 159–166.
Blch, Ptr, Jms M. Dlhnty, nd Mchl J. Rth.
(1996) Lnd nd grrn Rfrm n th Kyrgyz Rpblc.
LTC Rsrch Ppr 128. Mdsn, W, nd Bshkk,
Kyrgyzstn: Lnd Tnr Cntr.
cnmst ntllgnc nt. (1996) Cntry Rprt: Kyrgyz
Rpblc, Tjkstn, Trkmnstn, zbkstn. Lndn:
.
Pmfrt, Rchrd. (1999) Cntrl s Trns Sth: Trd Rltns
n Trnstn. Lndn: Ryl nsttt f ntrntnl
ffrs (Rss nd rs Prgrmm).
Rmr, Brs. (2000) "cnmc Crss nd Grw ng ntrrgnl
Tnsns." n Cntrl s nd th Nw Glbl
cnmy, dtd by Brs Rmr. r mnk, NY: M. .
Shrp, 3–56.
Spr, Mx. (1997) grrn Trnstn n th Frmr Svt
nn: Cntrl s, Stgntn nd Prgrss. Wrkng Ppr
N. 243. Th Hg, Nthrlnds: nsttt f Scl
Stds.
Thsnhsn, Wllm. (1998) grcltr nd Lnd Rfrm
n Tjkstn. Dshnb, Tjkstn, nd Mdsn, W:
Lnd Tnr Cntr.
Trshn, skndr, nd shrf Trshn. (2000) "Prblms
f Mrkt Trnstn." n Cntrl s nd th Nw Glbl
cnmy, dtd by Brs Rmr. r mnk, NY: M. .
Shrp, 86–148.
Trnr, Brry. (1999 nd 2000) Th Sttsmn’s Yrbk:
Th Pltcs, Cltrs, nd cnms f th Wrld. Nw
Yrk: Mcmlln.
———. (2000) Wrld Dvlpmnt Rprt 2000/2001. Nw
Yrk: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
———, d. (2000, 2001, 2002) Th Sttsmn’s Yrbk: Th
Pltcs, Cltrs, nd cnmcs f th Wrld, 2000, 2001,
2002. Nw Yrk: St. Mrtn’s Prss.
Wrld Bnk. (1993) Kzkhstn: Th Trnstn t Mrkt
cnmy. Wshngtn, DC: ntrntnl Bnk fr Rcnstrctn
nd Dvlpmnt, 130–143.
———. (2000) Wrld Dvlpmnt Rprt 2000/2001. Nw
Yrk: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
GRCLTR—CHN Tdy Chns
grcltr sstns 22 prcnt f th wrld’s ppltn,
wth lss thn 8 prcnt f th wrld’s rbl lnd.
Th pttrn f ntnsv grcltr vrs n ccrdnc
wth rgnl dffrncs n nvrnmntl cndtns:
dbl r vn trpl crppng n th sthrn
cstl rgns; dbl crppng wth smmr rc
crp n th Chng (Yngtz) Rvr bsn f cntrl nd
strn Chn; w ntr w ht–smmr crp cycls n
th Nrth Chn plns; sngl-crp, sprng-grwn crls
n th Nrthst.
Chns grcltr n th rly
Twntth Cntry
Hstrclly Chn hs lng bn plgd by n
nfvrbl hmn-t-lnd rt. s cnmc cndtns
wrsnd n th cntrysd by th rly
tw ntth cntry, sm bsrvrs rgd tht pr
psnts wr xpltd by prstc lndw nrs
thrgh xrbtnt rnts, nd thr plght w s xcrbtd
by srs ntrst rts, hgh txs, nd rcrrnt
wrfr nd ntrl dsstrs. Thrfr, nly
rdcl rstrctrng f rrl scty nd rdstrbtn
f w lth cld llvt ndmc pvrty. thrs
cntndd tht tchnlgcl bckwrdnss ws
th rt f mpvrshmnt. n ths cs, th ntrdctn
f mdrn frmng tchnqs nd npts
nd th vlblty f lw -cst crdt wr th prpr
prscrptns.
Th Cmmnst Plcy f Lnd Rfrm
Whtvr th crrct dgnss f Chn’s grcltrl
lls, th Cmmnst vctry n th Chns cvl
wr f 1946–1949 sccdd n lrg prt bcs th
Cmmnsts sd lnd-rfrm cmpgn t mblz
th mpvrshd nd dscntntd psnts by pplng
t thr hngr fr lnd. Th lnd rfrm
strtd n Cmmnst-ccpd rs f Chn n th
lt 1920s. t ws tmprrly sspndd ftr th Chns
Cmmnst Prty (CCP) frmd n llnc w th
th Ntnlst gvrnmnt t pps th Jpns nvsn
f Chn n 1936. ftr Jpn srrndrd n
1945, th CCP rsmd th lnd-rfrm cmpgn t
wn th spprt f psnts drng th prd f cvl
wr. Whn th Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn ( PRC) ws
stblshd n 1949, lnd rfrm sprd thrght
th cntry.
grcltrl Plcs btwn 1950 nd 1958
n ths bldy lnd-rfrm cmpgn (1950–1953),
th CCP dstryd th w lth nd pwr bs f th
rrl lt, rdstrbtd lnd mng th psnt clss
n n gltrn bss, nd lvtd lcl ldrs frm
th pr psnt strtm. Btw n th lnd-rfrm
GRCLTR—CHN
46 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
cmpgn nd th bgnnng f cnmc rfrm n
1978, grcltrl plcs w r bsd prmrly n
cntrlzd plnnng nd cllctvztn f grcltr,
dspt vrs chngs n drctn. n fll 1953,
th gvrnmnt ntrdcd cmplsry prcrmnt
f frm prdcts, whrby psnts wr blgtd t
sll fxd qts f thr prdc (ncldng grn, cttn,
nd dbl ls) t th stt t gvrnmnt-st
prcs. Prvt mrkts w r ncrsngly rstrctd.
grcltr spprtd th stt’s fcs n hvy ndstrl
dvlpmnt by prvdng chp fd nd by
rnng frgn xchng t mprt cptl gds. T
rs grcltrl prdctn wtht dvrtng rsrcs
frm ndstry, th gvrnmnt dptd
strtgy tht nvlvd th mss mblztn f rrl
lbr t w rk n lbr-ntnsv nfrstrctr prjcts
(ncldng rrgtn, fld cntrl, nd lnd
rclmtn) nd by rsng grcltrl prdctvty
thrgh mr ntnsv pplctn f trdtnl
mthds nd npts (fr xmpl, clsr plntng,
mr crfl w dng, nd mr s f rgnc frtlzrs).
Cllctvztn ws sn s th nstttnl
mns t mplmnt tht strtgy.
T mk th trnstn frm smll-hldr rrl
cnmy t th cmpltn f lnd rfrm t cllctvzd
systm, th Cmmnsts frst prmtd th
crtn f mtl-d tms cmpsd f fv t
fftn hshlds tht xchngd lbr nd shrd
th s f tls nd drft nmls rntd frm w nrprtcpnts.
Nxt th mtl-d tms w r cnsldtd
nt prmry grcltrl-prdcr cprtvs
f pprxmtly tw nty t tw nty-fv hshlds,
whch pld lnd rsrcs nd pd prtcpnts ccrdng
t th mnt f lbr, lnd, nd tls cntrbtd.
Th thrd stg n sclst dvlpmnt w s
th crtn f dvncd grcltrl-prdcr cprtvs
md p f 150 t 200 hshlds nd cmbnng
th prncpls f cllctv frmng nd
pymnt ccrdng t lbr nly. Mst psnts hd
jnd dvncd cprtvs by th nd f 1956.
Th Grt Lp Frwrd nd ts ftrmth
M Zdng’s Grt Lp Frw rd (1958–1960)
ws ntndd t ctplt Chn nt th frnt rnks f
ndstrl ntns, mkng Chn Cmmnst prds
n shrt tm. Sm 740,000 dvncd cprtvs
wr cnsldtd nt 26,500 cmmns,
slf-sffcnt cmmnts vrgng fv thsnd
hshlds ch, w hch mrgd th fnctns f grcltr,
ndstry, nd trd nd ssmd rspnsblts
fr dmnstrtn, dctn, nd dfns. Th
prdctn brgd, qvlnt t n r mr ntrl
vllgs, cnstttd mddl tr n th cmmn
strctr. n trn, brgd ws cmpsd f nmbr
f prdctn tms, ch cmpsd f tns f
fmls drw n frm n nghbrhd.
Cmmnl ktchns, mss hlls, nd nrsrs bth
prmtd cllctv lvng nd rlsd lbr tht w s
mblzd n lrg tms n mssv w tr-cnsrvncy
nd rrgtn prjcts ntndd t rs grcltrl
prdctvty drmtclly. n plc f cnmc ncntvs,
dlgcl xhrttns nsprd th ppl
t w rk hrd fr th cmmn gd. Rprts f bntfl
hrvsts prmptd th prtl mplmnttn f
th Cmmnst prncpl, t ch ccrdng t hs
nds. Nt nc m ws dstrbtd prmrly n pr
cpt bss nd nly prtlly n th bss f ndvdl
lbr cntrbtns.
Ths tpn mv mnt ndd n dsstr. Lcl
cdrs clmd fntstc prdctvty gns, ldng
hghr thrts t hrbr nrlstc xpcttns
nd t mk scltng grn-prcrmnt dmnds
n psnts. Psnts, n trn, w r lf t w th lttl
r nthng t t nd wr physclly xhstd by
th rlntlss lbr dmnd. Cnstrctn nd ndstrl
prjcts dvrtd rrl lbr ndd fr
grn hrvstng. Prgrms t pr mt rrl ndstrlztn,
bsd n th trnsfrmtn f lcl mtr ls,
mst ntbly bckyrd frncs t mk stl
t f rn rclmd frm tnsls nd tls, wstd
rsrcs bt mnfctrd fw sbl prdcts.
Dffclts wr frthr cmpndd by bd
wthr nd th wthdrw l f Svt d. Sm 30
mlln ppl prshd n th rsltnt fmn frm
1959 t 1961.
Th rgnl c mmns wr rrgnzd nt
smllr nd mr mngbl nts w th th trplng
f thr nmbrs t 74,000 n 1961 nd 1962, nd th
smll prdctn tm w s rstblshd s th bsc
nt f plnnng nd ccntng. Rrl mr kts nd
GRCLTR—CHN
MNT Q NCHNG—WRLD
HRTG ST
Th brthplc f Tsm nd hm t dzns
f ncnt tmpls, Mnt Qnchng w s dsgntd
Wrld Hrtg st n 2000. Mnt
Qnchng s ls hm t th Djngyn rrgtn
Systm, n ngnrng prjct tht cntns
t rrgt th Chngd plns ftr mr
thn tw thsnd yrs f prtn.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 47
th rght t cltvt smll prvt plts w r rstrd.
mprvd cnmc ncntvs pvd th wy fr rcvry
f grn prdctn by 1963.
M’s Cltrl Rvltn f 1966–1976
M, dstrbd by th rfrms f th rly 1960s,
whch h cnsdrd stps twrd th rstrtn f
cptlsm, lnchd th Cltrl Rvltn n 1966.
n th tn yrs f trml tht nsd, nt nly w s
Chns scty vlntly trmtzd by pltcl prsctns
nd ntrnl dsrdr, bt grcltr sffrd
frm th dscntntn f tchncl dvlpmnt;
dscrgmnt r vn lmntn f prvt plts,
sdln ctvts, nd rrl mrkts; nd prmcy f
pltcl crtr vr tchncl r cnmc cnsdrtns
n cnmc plcy mkng nd n dtr mntn
f ndvdl rnngs.
Dspt th dsrptns f th Grt Lp Frw rd
nd th Cltrl Rvltn, Chn’s ttl grn tpt
ncrsd t n vrg nnl grw th f 3.5 prcnt,
r frm 113.2 mlln mtrc tns t 304.8
mlln mtrc tns btw n 1949 nd 1978. grcltr
ws th prmry frgn-xchng rnr, ccntng
fr mr thn 60 prcnt. Mch nw lnd
ws pnd n th Nrthst, xtnsv fld cntrl
nd rrgtn systms w r cnstrctd, nd nmbr
f mprvd crp vrts (ncldng dw rf nd
smdwrf frtlzr-rspnsv vrts f rc nd
cld-tlrnt, qck-mtrng w hts) wr dvlpd
nd prpgtd. Hw vr, rflctng stt plcs tht
sqzd grcltr t prmt ndstrl dvlpmnt,
vn s rl pr cpt ncm ncrsd lmst
thrfld frm 1952 t 1978, pr cpt psnt ncm
stgntd. grcltr grw t n vrg nnl
rt f 1.9 prcnt, cmprd w th 10.8 prcnt fr
ndstry nd 6.0 prcnt fr ttl ntnl ncm.
grcltrl Plcs f Dng Xpng
frm 1978 t th Md-1980s
ftr Dng Xpng bc m th ldr f Chn
n 1978, th gvrnmnt fcsd n th Fr Mdrnztns:
ndstry, grcltr, ntnl dfns,
nd scnc nd tchnlgy. Th stt sght t stmlt
grcltrl prdctn by rntrdcng prvt
cnmc ncntvs nt psnt prdctn dcsns
n th rly 1980s: Crp- nd nml-prchs prcs
wr rsd, nd, mst mprtnt, cllctv frmng
ws rplcd by hshld-bsd frmng.
Th lttr w s chvd lrgly thrgh th hshld-
rspnsblty systm, w hch ws rgnlly n
nthrzd lcl nttv by sm pr rrl cmmnts
n th lt 1970s nd snctnd by th stt
nly n 1981 s t prvd sccssfl n rsng psnt
ncms. ch hshld cntrctd wth th stt fr
th mngmnt f fxd mnt f lnd fr frm
n t thr yrs, thrby ssmng rspnsblty t
py crtn spcfd qts nd txs t th stt r
cllctv, bt ls gnng th rght t mk ts w n
cnmc dcsns n sch mttrs s th llctn
f prdctn npts r th dspsl f ny srpls tpt.
By th nd f 1983, mr thn ffty thsnd cmmns
wr dsmntld s 200 mlln frm f mls
jnd th hshld-rspnsblty systm. n 1984,
th drtn f cntrcts ws xtndd t fftn r
mr yrs, nd n 1993, t ws xtndd n ddtnl
thrty yrs. Th gvrnmnt ls gv pr mssn t
frm hshlds t xchng nd mply lbr n 1983
nd t sbls lnd t thr hshlds n 1984.
grcltr frm th Md-1980s t th Prsnt
Fr m th md-1980s, rrl rfrm w s grdlly xtndd
frm prdctn t lbrlztn f mrktng,
dstrbtn, nd trd f frm prdcts, frst fr
frts nd vgtbls, thn fshry prdcts, lvstck
prdcts, nd lsds. Whlsl mrkts w r lglzd,
fr-mrkt trd pr mttd, nd th nmbr f
tms cvrd by prcrmnt qts rdcd by th
gvrnmnt. Prvt mrktng ntrprss, w hch
bght frm trdrs n lcl mrkts r drctly frm
frmrs, mltpld. vn th mrktng f th mst
hvly rgltd prdcts hs bn prtlly lbrlzd
snc th md-1980s: Th gvrnmnt rdcd
qts fr grn prchsd t stt-st prcs, whl
prchsng ddtnl qntts bv th qt t ngttd
prcs nd llw ng psnts t sll th rmndr
n th pn mrkt t hghr prcs.
Wth th dssltn f th cmmns, th gvrnmnt
prmttd tw nshps t tk vr thr dmnstrtv
fnctns nd prprty, whl vllgs
pprprtd th fnctns nd prprty f th prdctn
brgds. Mny tw nshps nd vllgs frmd
cllctv ndstrl nd cmmrcl ntrprss
(TVs) prvdng vrty f gds nd srvcs. Prvt
ntrprss ls grw rpdly. Rrl ndstrs
hlpd t bsrb srpls lbr nd bst hshld
ncm. By 1987, th grss prdct f rrl ndstry
hd srpssd tht f ll grcltrl prdctn. Btw n
1978 nd 1993, th nmbr f TVs xpndd
frm 1.5 mlln t 20.8 mlln, w th thr tpt t
th nnl rt f 21 prcnt nd mplymnt t 12
prcnt, thrby crtng nrly 80 mlln jbs.
Th xpnsn f fd sppls hs xcdd th
grw th f dmstc dmnd. Btw n 1991 nd 1999,
yld fr wht ncrsd frm 3.2 t 3.9 mtrc tns
GRCLTR—CHN
48 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
GRCLTR—CHN
CPRTVS N TH PPL’S
RPBLC F CHN
Th frmtn f grcltrl cprtvs ws mjr chng ffctd by th
nw cmmnst gvrnmnt n Chn n th 1950s. Th fllw ng txt sttng
frth gvrnmnt plcy stts th gnrl prncpls fr cllctvs nd ls
mmbrshp crtr.
Mdl Rgltns fr dvncd grcltrl
Prdcrs’ Cprtvs
(dptd n Jn 30th, 1956 by th Frst Ntnl Ppl’s Cngrss
f th Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn t ts thrd sssn)
Gnrl Prncpls
rtcl 1. n grcltrl prdcrs’ cprtv (th trm s sd
n ths dcmnt mns th grcltrl prdcrs’ cprtv f
dvncd typ) s sclst, cllctv cnmc rgnztn
frmd n vlntry nd mtlly bnfcl bss, wth th
gdnc nd hlp f th Cmmnst Prty nd th Ppl’s
Gvrnmnt.
rtcl 2. Th grcltrl prdcrs’ cprtv, n ccrdnc
wth sclst prncpls, cnvrts th chf mns f prdctn
wnd prvtly by ts mmbrs nt th cllctv prprty f th
cprtv. Th mmbrs r rgnzd fr cllctv wrk, nd
th cprtv ppls th prncpl f "frm ch ccrdng t
hs blty, t ch ccrdng t hs wrk," gvng ql py fr
ql wrk, rrspctv f sx r g."
Mmbrshp
rtcl 7. ll w rkng psnts wh hv rchd th g f 16
nd thr w rkng ppl bl t tk prt n th w rk f th cprtv
my b dmttd s mmbrs. pplctns fr mmbrshp
mst b vlntry nd pprvd by gnrl mtng f
mmbrs’ dlgts.
Th cprtv shll mk vry ffrt t tk n s mmbrs
th dpndnts f rvltnry mrtyrs, f sldrs nd gvrnmnt
wrkrs, nd dsbld s w ll s dmblzd srvcmn (ncldng
th mltry prsnnl w h cm vr frm th
Kmntng r md frcs nd ths wh ccptd th pcfl
lbrtn f th rgns ndr thr cntrl bt w h hv snc
bn dmblzd nd rtrnd t th cntrysd). Th gd, th
wk, th rphnd, th w dwd nd th dsbld shld ls
b dmttd s mmbrs. Nw sttlrs shld ls b drwn nt
th cprtv.
Src: W. R. Gdds. (1963). Psnt Lf n Cmmnst Chn:
Mngrph #6. thc, Nw Yrk: Scty fr ppld
nthrplgy, 56.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 49
pr hctr, yld fr rc frm 5.6 t 6.3, yld fr
crn frm 4.6 t 4.9, w hl ylds fr srghm nd
mllt r mnd stdy t 3.5 nd 1.6, rspctvly. Btw n
1979 nd 1984, ttl grn tpt xpndd by
4.9 prcnt pr nnm t rch th lvl f 407.3 mlln
mtrc tns. Grw th ws mch mr mdst frm
1985 t 2000 t 1.3 prcnt pr nnm. Btw n 1978
nd 2000, rc prdctn rs frm 136.9 t 187.9
mlln mtrc tns (w th hgh f 200.7 n 1997),
wht prdctn frm 53.8 t 99.6 (w th hgh f
113.9 n 1999), nd crn prdctn frm 56.0 t
106.0 (w th hgh f 133.0 n 1998).
Th qlty nd vrts f fd hv sgnfcntly
mprvd s cnsmr dmnd fr bttr qlty fd
ncrsd wth rsng ncms. Btw n 1983 nd
1999, rbn pr cpt cnsmptn f pltry mt
rs frm 2.6 t 4.9 klgr ms, w hl cnsmptn f
sfd grw frm 8.1 t 10.3 klgr ms; crrspndng
fgrs fr rrl rsdnts wr 0.8 t 2.5 klgrms
nd 1.6 t 3.8 klgr ms, rspctvly. T mt xpndng
dmstc nd frgn dmnd, Chn’s nml
tpt ncrsd vn mr rpdly thn grn
prdctn n th 1990s: frm 25.1 t 47.6 mlln
mtrc tns fr rd mt nd 4.0 t 11.2 mlln mtrc
tns fr pltry. qtc prdctn mr thn
trpld n tht dcd, rchng 39.0 mlln mtrc
tns n 1998.
Btw n 1978 nd 1991, cttn prdctn grw
bt tw nd n-hlf tms, frm 2.2 t 5.7 mlln
mtrc tns, bt hvrd rnd 4.5 mlln mtrc
tns thrftr. Prdctn f lsds, n th thr
hnd, cntnlly xpndd thrght th rfrm prd,
frm 5.2 n 1978 t 16.4 n 1991 t 26.0 mlln
mtrc tns n 1999.
Chn hs bc m sgnfcnt prtcpnt n th
glbl mr kt fr grcltrl cmmdts. t xprtd
s mch s 10 prcnt f th wrld’s trdd
crn whl mprtng s mch s 17 prcnt f th
wrld’s trdd wht, 25 prcnt f frtlzr, nd 28
prcnt f sybn l. Ldng grcltrl xprts
n 2000 wr cttn yrn nd fbrc ($3.73 blln),
fsh nd sfd ($2.27 blln), prprd mt nd
fsh ($1.88 blln), nd crls ($1.64 blln).
lsds nd mscllns grns ($3.07 blln),
hds nd skns ($2.95 blln), nd cttn yrn nd
fbrc ($2.79 blln) hdd th lst f mjr grcltrl
mprts.
Th xpnsn f cnmc pprtnts frm mprvd
ncntvs nd prtclrly frm rrl ndstrs
hs cntrbtd sgnfcntly t th rs n rrl ncm.
Pr cpt nnl nt nc m f rrl hshlds n
yn rs frm 133.6 n 1978 t 397.6 n 1985 t 686.3
n 1990 t 2162 n 1998. Mr thn 210 mlln psnts
wr rsd frm xtrm pvrty, thgh 50 mlln
stll rmnd n tht stt s f 1997.
Dspt th fndmntl shft frm cllctv sclsm
t n ncrsngly mrkt-rntd nd prvtzd
cnmy snc 1978, slf-sffcncy n fd s
mttr f ntnl scrty nd th prvsn f stbl
nd chp grn sppls fr rbn rsdnts rmnd
cnstnt cncrns n Cmmnst cnmc plcy.
lrmsts n 1994 vn vcd th fr tht Chn
mght b nbl n th ftr t prdc ngh fd
grn fr n ncrsng ppltn nd ngh fd
grn fr rpdly grw ng lvstck ndstry, thrby
drvng p ntrntnl grn prcs nd ldng t
strvtn n pr cntrs tht w ll b nbl t
cmpt w th Chn t mprt grn. Sch scnrs
hv bn tkn by th Chns gvrnmnt s n
ttck n ts blty t prvd fr th nds f th ppl.
Mrvr, qstns wr rsd by Chns ffcls
cncrnng th rlblty f frgn fd-grn
spplrs. Sch cnsdrtns rnfrcd th lngstndng
plcy f fd sffcncy.
Th mrktng f mst grcltrl cmmdts
hs bcm cmmrclzd nd mrktzd. Snc
1999, vn cttn prcrmnt nd prcs r n
lngr mndtd by th stt; cttn xchng ws
stblshd, nd th stt’s prchs mnply vr
cttn ws ndd. Grn rmns th sl grcltrl
prdct w hs mrktng s stll lrgly cntrlld by
th stt. ndr th gvrnr’s rspnsblty systm,
r grn-bg plcy, ntrdcd n 1995, rspnsblty
fr stblzng grn sppls nd prcs ws shftd
t prvncl ldrs. n mjr rfrm nttv n
1998, qt prcrmnt grn prcs w r t b dtrmnd
by th prvlng mrkt prc. Bt mntng
dfcts prmptd th stt t rclm mnply
cntrl vr grn dstrbtn nd t prmt prvt
grn dlrs t sll nly grn prchsd frm gvrnmnt
grn-mrktng ntrprss. Lmtd prvt
grn mrktng ws llw d gn nly n 2000.
Ths mphss n fd scrty hs rsltd n dvtng
nncssrly lrg ffrts t th cltvtn f
rltvly lw -vl bsc crps, ncldng grn nd
cttn, nd hs prvntd psnts frm ncrsng
thr prdctn f hgh vl-ddd grcltrl cmmdts.
Th lnd mrkt tslf hs bn ncmpltly rfrmd.
wnrshp f lnd hs rmnd w th th cllctv,
nd psnts hv rmnd cncrnd bt
th lng-trm stblty f lnd tnr. Cnsqntly
thy hv bn rlctnt t nvst fr th lng trm.
GRCLTR—CHN
50 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
grcltr’s shr f grss dmstc prdct nd
trd hs flln frm bt 30 prcnt n 1980 t bt
20 prcnt nd 10 prcnt, rspctvly, by 1997. By
th 1990s, rrl ndstry sffrd frm dclnng cpcty
t crt ddtnl mply mnt. nc m gps
btw n cts nd rrl rs hd bn clsng btwn
1978 nd 1985, ftr w hch thy grw gn ntl
th md-1990s, w hn pr cpt ncm fr rbn
rsdnts rmnd t rnd tw nd n-hlf tms
tht fr rrl rsdnts, bt th sm s n 1978.
Ftr Prspcts fr Chns grcltr
Frthr xpnsn f grcltrl prdctn fcs
nmbr f cnstrnts. ffcl dt ndct lss
f rbl lnd snc 1978: frm 99 t 95 mlln
hctrs. Whl thr ndpndnt stmts bsd n
Lndst (stllt phtgrphy) dt hv yldd
mch hghr fgrs fr Chn’s lnd ndr cltvtn,
rngng frm 125 t 140 mlln hctrs, thr
s lttl dbt tht mch rbl lnd hs bn dmgd
by sl rsn, dsrtfctn, slnztn, nd lklztn.
Th 80,000 dms blt snc th 1950s hv,
rnclly, cntrbtd t th prblm. ntndd t
cntrl fldng, mprv rrgtn, rs frm ylds,
nd fr psnts t ngg n ndstrl lbr, mny
dms csd th w trlggng f pstrm frmlnd;
thrs bcm clggd w th slt nd csd svr
fldng; nd thsnds f dms cllpsd.
sd frm nvrnmntl prblms, n nknw n
qntty f lnd hs bn lft ncltvtd r ndrcltvtd
by frmrs w h grw n crp fr sbsstnc
nds w hl hshld mmbrs w rkd n lcl ndstrl
ntrprss. n thr css, frmrs w ntng t
kp thr clms t th lnd s scrty lsd thr
lnd-s rghts t hshlds nt nggd n rrl ntrprss;
th lttr w r typclly t pr n rsrcs
t mk gd s f th lnd. n mny hshlds, mrrd
w mn, n ddtn t hskpng nd chld rrng,
wr frcd t ssm rspnsblty fr tllng th
flds whl thr mn w rkd tsd grcltr r
vn rmnd dl nd spnt thr tm gmblng.
By 1997 dmnstrtv rspnsblts fr rrl rs
wr shrd by 2,100 cnts nd cnty-lvl
cts, 44,700 tw nshps nd tw ns, nd 740,000 vllg
rsdnts’ cmmtts. ncrsngly, lcl gvrnmnts
hv dvtd mr f thr bdgts t th
slrs f th rpdly grwng nmbrs f ffcls, t
th dtrmnt f scl srvcs (ncldng hlth nd
dctn) nd grcltrl nvstmnt. n rcnt yrs
mny lcl gvrnmnts hv lvd plthr f spcl
txs n frmrs; ths t p 20 prcnt r mr
f rrl hshld ncm. Thy hv ftn ssd
s n l f pymnts fr grn prcrmnts. nsng
psnt ngr hs rptd n nmbr f
prtsts nd dmnstrtns.
Gvrnmnt plcy mkrs hv bcm ncrsngly
cncrnd bt rsng frm ncms snc th
rly 1990s, nd thy hv ntrdcd nmbr f
plcy nnvtns t ddrss ths prblms. n nnvtn
ttmptd t ntrdc cnms f scl
by cncntrtng frm mngmnt n lrg scl n
crtn rgns. n nthr nnvtn, sr rghts fr
th dvlpmnt f crtn typs f wstlnds wr
xtndd fr lngr prds, lng wth nhrtnc,
trnsfr, lsng, nd mrtgg rghts. Pr mr Zh
Rngj (b. 1928) prpsd fr th nnth Fv-Yr Pln
(2001–2005) th pr mtn f dw nstrm ffcncy
f grcltr, r th prcssng f prdc ftr t
lvs th frm, w th th d tht ddd vl w ld
bst th ncms f frmrs.
Frthr chllngs t Chns grcltr cm
wth Chn’s ccssn t th Wrld Trd rgnztn
(WT) n 2001. Chn s blgtd t lw r
trffs n grcltrl mprts frm n vrg f 22
t 15 prcnt nd t nd gvrnmnt grn qts nd
fd-dstrbtn mnpls. Th rsltnt fld f
fd mprts my thrw t f wrk 13 mlln frmrs,
mnly prdcrs f wht, crn, rc, nd cttn.
n th thr hnd, frt, vgtbl, nd mt prdcrs
wll gn mr pn ccss t vrss mrkts
nd dd 2 mlln jbs. s f 2001 sm 330 mlln
ppl r 70 prcnt f th rrl lbr frc stll
wrkd n grcltr.
Chns grcltr n th tw nty-frst cntry fcs
th prspct f cnsdrbl rstrctrng t dl w th
nvrnmntl dgrdtn, psnt dscntnt, nd
prblms nd pprtnts stmmng frm grtr
cnmc glblztn.
Rbrt Y. ng
Frthr Rdng
Hs, Hsn-h, nd Frd Gl, ds. (2001) Chn: grcltr
n Trnstn. grcltr nd Trd Rprts, n. WRS-
01-2. Wshngtn, DC: .S. Dprtmnt f grcltr.
Kng Ch. (1970) grcltrl Prdctn n Cmmnst Chn,
1949–1965. Mdsn, W: nvrsty f Wscnsn Prss.
Nybrg, lbrt, nd Sctt Rzll. (1999) cclrtng
Chn’s Rrl Trnsfrmtn. Wshngtn, DC: Wrld
Bnk.
, Jn C. (1999) "Tw Dcds f Rrl Rfrm n Chn:
n vrvw nd ssssmnt." Chn Qrtrly 159:
616–628.
Pr kns, Dw ght, d. (1977) Rrl Smll-Scl ndstry n th
Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty
f Clfrn Prss.
GRCLTR—CHN
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 51
Yng, Yngzhng, nd Wmng Tn, ds. (2000) Chn’s
grcltr t th Crssrds. Nw Yrk: St. Mrtn’s Prss.
GRCLTR—S TH S Th pttrns
f Sth sn grcltr r dscrnbl s fr
bck s th nds Vlly cvlz tn (c. 2300–1750
BC). Trdtnl grcltrl systms ncld shftng
cltvtn nd sttld cltvtn. Shftng grcltr
s sbstntlly th sm w rldw d. Sttld grcltr,
hw vr, sprts nt Nw Wrld nd ld
Wrld pttrns.
Shftng grcltr s stll prctcd n crtn
mntns rs n ssm, nd, w hch rcv lrg
mnts f rn; n th djcnt hlly rs f strn
Bngldsh brdrng Br m; n th Wstrn Ghts
n Krntk, nd; nd n sm r mt prts f Mdhy
Prdsh nd rss, nd. n ths systm frmrs
clr ptch f bmb jngl sng slsh nd brn
tchnqs, thn sw mxtr f crps n th shs.
Th crps ncld ndgns plnd rc, mz, mllt,
cttn, vgtbls, nd bnns.
Whrs shftng cltvtn brngs th crps t th
ccmltd bchmcl nrgy, sttld cltvtn rqrs
tht nrgy b brght t th crps. n Sth
s, s ws th cs n th ld Wrld n gnrl, frm
nmls ply n ssntl prt n ths prcss. n ddtn
t spplyng drft pwr nd sfl prdcts n
thr w n rght, frm nmls srv s nrgy gthrrs
whn thy brws bynd th cltvtd flds nd
brng bck th mtrl thy cllct n th frm f mnr.
n ddtn thy ct s nrgy rcyclrs whn thy
cnsm w ht w ld thrws b grcltrl wst.
Sth sn frmrs pply ths gnrl strtgy wth
mxtr f crps, nmls, nd nstttnl trdtns
clsly dptd t th r’s physgrphy nd clmt.
Physgrphy
Sth s s dvdd nt thr mjr zns. Prcdng
frm nrth t sth, thy r grt rch f
mntns n th dg f th sn cntnntl plt;
th sbdctn zn btw n th sn nd Sth sn
plts, w hch s flld by th llvm f th nd-
Gngtc Pln; nd th ld cntnntl mss f pnnslr
nd w th ts hghst lvtns n ts wstrn sd
rnnng dw n t ts sthrn tp, th Wstrn Ghts.
Clmt
Th Sth sn lndfrms ntrct w th th prvlng
wnds t prdc th dstnctv pttrn f
mnsn clmt. Th clmt dctts crppng ssns
nd ftn shrp crppng grdnts vr smll ggrphcl
dstncs, whch n trn shp ntrvllg
nd ntrrgnl trd.
Th clmt nvlvs rglr sccssn f wt nd
dry prds. Th Sth sn nw yr, bgnnng n
md-prl, mr ks th nst f ht, dry ssn drng
whch th prcdng w ntr’s crps r hrvstd.
Fr m Jn thrgh Jly, th s mmr mnsn ssn
bgns, s mstr-brng w nds prcd crss
th rgn frm th sthwst. nthr ht, dry ssn
bgns n lt Sptmbr, w hn th smmr ’s
crps r hrvstd, fllw d by th dvlpmnt nd
rtrt f wntr nd th nrthst mnsn. n prl
th cycl strts gn.
Lcl pttrns f rnfll dpnd n n r’s xpsr
t th prvlng w nds nd ts prxmty t th
s. n rs wth dmnnt sthw st xpsr, th
smmr rny ssn s th hvst. Whr th xpsr
s nrth nd st, s n th st sd f th
Wstrn Ghts n sthrn nd, th smmr s th
dry ssn, nd th mn rny ssn s ctbr
thrgh Jnry. Whr xpsr s mr blncd,
bth ssns prvd sfl rn, nd n rs wth n
strng xpsr t ll, s n th nds Vlly frm Lhr
stwrd, n fnds dsrt clmt.
Crppng
ftr clmt nd sl, th mst mmdt cnstrnt
n crppng s th nd t prdc fddr.
Snc fddr hs lw csh vl, frmrs rrly grw
mr thn thy nd nd thrfr hv lttl t sll
t ths w h mght nt grw ngh. Th hmn dt
mpss lss f cnstrnt bcs frmrs prdc
mr fd thn fddr fr sl. Th Sth sn dt
slly nvlvs tw mn mls dy, ch cnsstng
f n grn ccmpnd by n r t mst tw
vgtbls r plss prprd s sp r stw wth
GRCLTR—STH S
Fr mrs n th Tml Nd rgn f Sth nd wrk n
rc fld. (RVND GRG/CRBS)
52 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
nns, chls, nd lcl spcs. T, ntrdcd nt
nd n 1839, s th mst cmmn bvrg ftr wtr
nd s slly srvd w th sbstntl mnts f
mlk nd brw n sgr. Sgrcn s bth n mprtnt
csh crp nd n mprtnt fd. Snc t mnly
s cnsmd n nrfnd frms, t s hghr thn ny
thr fds n vlbl nrgy nd rn. Pckls md
f nrp frts nd chls prsrvd n l r cmmn
ccmpnmnts t ml.
n ch ssn, frmrs plnt pprxmtly thr
t sx crps lng w th smll ktchn grdn. ch
rry mst prvd vgtbls fr cnsmptn n th
crrnt ssn, t lst n grn r pls t str fr
th nxt ssn, frsh fddr fr cnsmptn n th
crrnt ssn, nd fddr fr strg fr ftr s.
f pssbl, frmrs plnt mr thn n crp fr ch
prps (1) t rdc th rsk f ttl flr n ny
n ctgry, (2) t lvl t lbr rqrmnts nd
thrby mxmz th tlztn f fmly lbr, (3) t
prvd bttr mxtr f dsrbl qlts, (4) t
blnc mr dsrbl crps w th ths tht r mr
rlbl r chpr t prdc, nd (5) t prvd bttr
crp rttns.
GRCLTR—STH S
GRCLTR—S TH S
Ths xtrct f gvrnmnt rprt n nd shws hw vllg frmrs cmbn
trdtnl nd mdrn frmng mthds.
Vllgrs kp sds fr th nxt hrvst. Pr fmls brrw
sds frm th bttr ff frmrs nd rtrn ths t thm ftr
th hrvst. t s vry rr tht frmr gs t bn fr brrwng
sds bcs bn chrgs hgh rt f ntrst.
Vllgrs crd lttl bt mprvd sds n th pst. Nw thy
r grdlly dvlpng ntrst fr sch sds. mprvd sds
f wht nd bttr sgrcn r bcmng pplr mng frmrs.
Wht sds r gvn t vllgrs n rtrn bss. Th Grm
Sw k gvs vllgrs crtn qntty f wht sd fr swng
nd tks bck th sm qntty t f th prdc f mprvd
sd. Ths s gvn t nthr vllgr n th sm tr ms nd cndtns.
Th sgrcn sd hs bn dstrbtd gnst csh pymnt.
Mst ppl prfr thr wn sds. f mprvd typs f
sds r prvdd t chpr rts, ths cld b mr pplr.
Cw dng s th cmmn mnr tht th frmrs s. Ths s
sd ftr mxng w th dry nd rttn lvs. n th rlr dys,
cmpst pts fr dpstng cw-dng wr nt cmmn nd th
mnr ws drctly trnsfrrd t th flds r dmpd n frnt
f th hss. Bt nw thngs r chngng lttl. Pts r dg
fr strng cwdng n th flds. n ths, cmpst s prprd.
Mnr s crrd t th flds n bskts r klts.
Chmcl frtlzrs r ls bng sd. dpt hs bn pnd
n th vllg nd Nr ml Ds, lcl shpkpr, slls ths.
Thr r fw frmrs w h s ths mnrs. n thry pt
frwrd by thm s tht chmcl frtlzrs hrdn th sl whch
mns mr lbr w hl plghng th flds fr th nxt swng.
Rts fr th frtlzr r nmnl.
Src: R. C. Pl Sngh. (1961) Hmchl Prdsh: Vllg
Srvy f Mgnnd (Nhn Thsl, Srmr Dstrct). Cnss f
nd 1961, vl. 20, prt 4, n. 8, 33–34.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 53
Th mst bndntly prdcd grns r rc, svrl
knds f mllt, w ht, nd brly. Mllt s th
mst w dly plntd grn. Rc s th prfrrd grn
n th sth nd th st, nd w ht s prfrrd n th
nrth. Th mst pplr plss r chckps, lntls,
pgn ps, bns, nd msh. Cmmn vgtbls r
sqshs, grns, nns, grlc, nd chls. lsds
nd mlk prvd dtry fts xcpt lng th csts
nd n Bngldsh, w hr fsh lrgly rplc plss.
Sth sns t mt, pr mrly gt nd s mtms
chckn, nly ccsnlly.
Mltcrppng cmmnly nvlvs bth rrgtd
nd rn-fd lnd. Mst vllgs w n bth typs f
lnd, nd frmrs try t hv plts n ch r. Wht
nd rc r slly rrgtd, mllts nd brly r
rn-fd. Lkws th thr mjr crp ctgrs ncld
vrts tht prdc bttr n rrgtn s wll
s sm tht cn srvv drght.
nmls
Th nml cmplx nclds lvn prncpl
spcs. Ths stnd n th sm fnctnl rltn t
ch thr crss th rgn dspt lcl prfrncs
rgrdng vrts. Th lvn spcs r snglhmpd
ndn cml r drmdry, hmpd xn r
zb (Bs ndcs), bffl, gt, shp, hrs, ss, ml,
pg, dg, nd ct. Sm fmls ls kp chckns nd
dcks.
Cmls, xn, nd bffl r th mst mprtnt
nmls t frmrs. Hrss, sss, nd mls gnrlly
r w nd by rtsns, w h s thm t crry hvy
gds n pcks. Dgs, w hch lv n vllg pcks rthr
thn n ndvdl hshlds, hnt rts nd smlr
psts n th flds. Cts r rr bt r trtd smlrly
t dgs.
Cmls r prmnnt n th nrthw strn nd-
Gngtc Pln. n dsrt rs lng th brdr f
nd nd Pkstn, nmdc pstrlsts stll rs
cmls t sll n th srrndng frmng cmmnts.
mprtnt fr thr hr, hds, mlk, nd fr s
s bsts f brdn n th dsrt clmt, c mls r
prtclrly fvrd fr prtng Prsn w hls (
Prsn w hl s mchnsm fr lftng wtr frm
w ll by mns f chn f pts r bckts, prtd
by nml pwr).
Th mn drft nml s th bllck, cstrtd
ml Bs ndcs. Bllcks vry grtly n sz ccrdng
t th trrn nd th fd spply. Th lrgst bllcks,
rsd n th smdsrt plns f Hryn, nd,
btw n th Gngs nd nds drngs, rch nrly
tw mtrs t th shldrs. n th mntns, w hr
flds r smll nd slps r stp, bllcks r lss
thn w st hgh. n thr rs, lk Bngldsh nd
Tml Nd, nd, w hr hldngs r smll nd fddr
s scrc nd pr, bllcks rch sz btwn
ths xtrms. Th fmls f Bs ndcs, th strtypcl
ndn scrd cws, r slly kpt nly n sffcnt
nmbrs t prvd th ndd bllcks.
Th bffl, rgnlly dmstctd n Snd, Pkstn,
frm th w ld rvr bffl, s th prmry mlkgvng
nml. Bffl mlk hs bt twc th
bttrft cntnt f cws’ mlk, nd th lcttn prd
s bt nn mnths n cntrst wth sx mnths
n cws. Hw vr, n ht w thr bffl nd ccss
t w tr t bth nc r twc dy. Ml bffl
r rr n ht, dry rs, bt n w ttr rs thy r
smtms kpt fr plw ng r wtr lftng. Lk Bs
ndcs thy vry n sz. Th lrgst vrts lv n
th plns, w hr mstr nd fddr r bndnt;
th smllst vrts lv n th mntns; nd th
md-szd vrts lv whr fddr s scrc. Svrl
ndn stts hv dvlpd rtfcl nsmntn
prgrms t mprv th qlty f th bffl hrd.
Bth frmrs nd th lndlss kp gts, w hch
prvd mlk nd th mst w dly ccptd mt.
Gts f th rgn ls gv cshmr w l. Mst
shp r kpt fr wl by spclzd hrdrs.
Bcs fddr shrtgs r ndmc, nmls r
slly fd ndvdlly nd ccrdng t nd. Wrkng
nmls, ths plw ng r lcttng, r fd mr
thn nmls tht r nt wrkng.
Th c mmn Wstrn pg (Ss scrf) ws rgnlly
dmstctd n nd nd strn Tr kstn. n
vllgs, pgs nrmlly r kpt by ths ppl w h
sw p t th brns nd strts, nd th pgs t w ht
thy fnd. Pgs prdc brstls, mt, nd lthr. lthgh
th mt frqntly s nfctd wth prsts,
t s sld t lw prc n mrkts nd s cnsmd by
th pr. Th Brtsh stblshd sntry pggrs,
whch hv prsstd lng ftr Brtsh rl, t rs
lcl vrts fr rbn mrkts.
rgnztn f Sth sn grcltr
Sth sn grcltr s psnt grcltr rgnzd
nd crrd t by ndpndnt hshlds
wth smllhldngs, gnrlly btw n 0.2 nd 4.0
hctrs. lthgh kngs nd grt lndlrds hv
bn prmnnt n Sth sn hstry nd lrg lndlrds
prsst n Pkstn nd fw ndn stts, thy
xrcs lttl r n mngrl cntrl, smply drw ng
shr f th prdctn.
Wthn th Hshld Th dvsn f lbr w thn
th hshld s bsd n sx nd gnrtn. n
GRCLTR—STH S
54 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
GRCLTR—STH S
GRCLTR ND GRRN RFRM
9
Snc ndpndnc nd hs bn mnly
rrl nd grcltrl scty nd th gvrnmnt
hs bn cncrnd wth mkng frmng mr ffcnt
nd prdctv. Th rsltn blw frm
th prl 1950 ndn Ntnl Cngrss cnmc
Plnnng Cnfrnc sts frth fv msrs
t mprv grcltr.
nd’s cnmc nd scl prgrss wll n
lrg msr b cndtnd by th xtnt t
whch hr lnd nd w tr rsrcs r dvlpd.
n th ffcncy f th cntry’s grcltrl
prdctn w ll dpnd nt nly th
stsfctn f th bsc nd f n dqt
blncd dt fr ts grwng ppltn bt
ls th spply f rw mtrls fr sm f
hr mjr ndstrs.
Th mmdt bjct n grcltr tht th
cntry hs st bfr tslf s slf-sffcncy
n fd t b ttnd by th nd f 1951 s
wll s n cttn nd jt; nd cncrtd msrs
t ths nd r lrdy ndr wy. Ths
cnsst f rclmtn f lnd, ffrngs f ncntvs
nd ssstnc fr th dvrsn f lnd
frm thr crps t th cltvtn f cttn
nd jt nd mprvng th yld nd qlty
f grcltrl prdcts. Wht s ndd fr
th prpss f th mmdt prgr mm s
n ntnsfctn f sm f ths msrs s
wll s th crtn f cndtns cndcv t
bttr frmng. ncrsd ffcncy f grcltr
pstlts mr thn mprv mnt n
fclts rgnstn nd tchnqs; th
mntnnc nd rstrtn f sl frtlty;
nd th prvsn f rrgtn. ll ths w ll fl
t cnfr fll r lstng bnft nlss th tllr
f th sl s gvn sns f scrty nd slfrspct
nd th cnmc nd scl cndtn
f th grcltrl lbr.
Th spcfc msrs w hch hv t b
plnnd fr th mprv mnt f grcltr
s prt f th mmdt prgr mm w ll
cmprs th fllw ng:
(1) Th prvsn f rrgtn fclts by
wy f rcndtnng ld nd cnstrctng
nw tnks nd w lls ncldng tb w lls.
Sch mnr w rks wll ppl mst rdly t
th rrl ppltn nd scr thr ctv
c-prtn. Thy w ll spplmnt th rrgtn
tht w ll b prvdd by th rvr vlly
prjcts whch shld b cmpltd s
rly s pssbl s prt f th lng-trm plns
f th Cntrl nd Stt Gvrnmnts.
(2) Th rpd mltplctn f bttr sd.
wll rgltd prcdr s rqrd n ll th
Stts fr th prdctn f nclr sd, ts
mltplctn ndr crflly cntrlld cndtns
nd ts tstng bfr fnl dstrbtn
t th cltvtr.
(3) Th stmltn f cmpst-mkng f ncssry
by lgsltn nd th fll tlstn f
th vrs thr frms f rgnc mnrs
vlbl n th cntry. Dfnt plnnng s
rqrd fr th cnsrvtn nd s f wst
mtrl, hmn nd nml xcrt nd rsdl
mttr frm th crcsss f nmls nd
fr mntnng sl frtlty.
(4) Th rclmtn nd cnsrvtn f th
sl. Thr r stll lrg rs n mst stts
whch cld b brght ndr cltvtn w th
th hlp f trctrs nd thr mchns. Nw
rs brght ndr cltvtn cld ssst
mtrlly n th sttlmnt f dsplcd ppltn
nd w rks ndrtkn t prvnt sl
rsn w ll prvd mplymnt vry pprprt
t th grcltrl w rkr.
(5) Th dvlpmnt f n ffctv nd w dsprd
grcltrl xtnsn srvc. Sch
srvc w ll ct s tw -wy lnk btw n th
cltvtr nd th scntfc dprtmnts f th
Stt, s tht th cltvtr’s prctcl dffclts
r slvd n th lbrtrs nd th
rslts r cnvyd t hm cnvncngly. t
shld b th spcl cncrn f th srvcs
t brng bt n mprvmnt n th
rrngmnt fr th dsgnng, prdctn
nd mntnnc f bttr mplmnts. (Th
qts fr th spply f rn nd stl rqrd
fr grcltrl mplmnts mst b rsd fr
sgnfcnt mprvmnt n ths drctn t
b pssbl.)
CNTND N NXT PG
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 55
gnrl, mn r cncrnd w th wht gs n tsd
th hs, nd w mn r rspnsbl fr w ht
ccrs wthn t. Mn dl w th th prdctn nd
dspsl f crps nd nmls n th flds; w mn dl
wth fd strg nd prprtn, wth fddr nd
sd strg, wth srvnts nd ths wh prvd srvcs
fr th hshld, nd w th th hshld bdgt.
Th prncpl w mn s slly th wf f th
hshld hd nd th mthr f th ctv sns. Th
hd mn s th snr ml nd th fthr f th wrkng
sns r smn f hs lvl, dpndng n c mptnc.
Snc prprty rghts r gnrlly cqrd
by brth rthr thn by sccssn, th hshld cts
mch mr s prtnrshp thn s n tcrcy.
mng Hshlds Th dvsn f lbr mng
hshlds nvlvs thr mn ccptnl grps
tht r sbstntlly nfrm crss th rgn xcpt
n rmt rs, w hr trbl cstms prvl. Th
mst ppls grp, bt hlf th ppltn, s th
frmrs, wh slly shr mmbrshp n n r
smll nmbr f lcl clns (gt r gtr). bt nthrd
f th fmls r grcltrl lbrrs, nd th
rmndr r spclzd rtsns, sch s shpkprs,
pttrs, msns, crpntrs, blcksmths, tlrs,
cttn gnnrs, nd wvrs.
Vllg ccptnl spclztns cnnt b ccrtly
chrctrzd s bsd n cst. lthgh vllgrs
rcgnz n d f cst, n th sns f
strtypcl fmly ccptn bsd n dstnctv
nhrtd prprty, s prt f thr ds f knshp
rltns, thy rcgnz th ccptnl dvsn f
lbr s sprt mttr tht fllw s dffrnt rls.
Ppl r hrd ccrdng t nd, cmptnc, nd
rtrn. Wgs r st by brgnng. Nvrthlss, ll
rrngmnts mst cntn crtn cmpnnts, nd
dfnt sns f fr wg dmnts s ppsd
t smply w ht th mrkt w ll br. Whl sw pr,
blcksmth, msn, nd crpntr r rcgnzd
csts, grcltrl lbrr nd lndw nr r nt. t
s mpssbl t prdct w th cnfdnc th cst f
ny hshld frm ts ccptn. Th wrk f msns,
crpntrs, nd blcksmths, fr xmpl, s cmmnly
dn by mn w h nswr t ny f th lbls,
nd vllg slly nclds mr fmls w h d
nt prfrm thr strtypcl cst ccptns thn
ths w h d.
Lbr slly s hrd ndr n f thr rrngmnts:
prtnrshp, n nnl cntrct, r dly
wg. n prtnrshp, n mply w rks wth
lndw nr fr yr r ssn nd rcvs shr
GRCLTR—STH S
grcltr w ll rmn n stt f flx s lng
s th strctr nd pttrn f rrl cnmy
ds nt bcm clr nd dfnt. t s, thrfr,
ncssry t shrtn th prd f trnstn
by xpdtng th bltn f zmndr
nd mlgzr by pyng cmpnstn f ncssry
n bnds. Prvsn shld b md fr
fxty f tnr t th tllr, sblttng vn f
llw d shld b fr prd f jst lss thn
fv yrs nd fr rgltd rts f rnt.
C-prtv Bttr Fr mng Scts shld
b rgnsd n vry rgn n plnnr
mnnr w th fxd trgts. xprmnts n
c-prtv jnt frmng my ls b md
n slctd rs. Bth t mltprps cprtvs
nd c-prtv jnt frms spcl
fclty shld b grntd by th Stt
nd thy shld rcv prrty n ll mttrs
f Stt ssstnc. n rs whr frgmnttn
s ntns, cnsldtn f hldngs
shld b ndrtkn n dtr mnd mnnr.
Spcl ffrts shld b md t rgns
c-prtvs fr ncnmc hldngs.
Spcl ttntn shld b gvn t th rgnstn
f grcltrl lbr fr th bttrmnt
f thr cndtn. grstc srfdm
shld b md cgnzbl ffnc nd th
Prsdnt f th nn Brd f th vllg
pnchyt mght b mpw rd t nfrc th
lw . Dbts f grcltrl lbrrs shld b
slctd dw n nd whrvr fnd nqtbl
wpd t. Hgh prrty shld b gvn t
prvsn f hs sts fr grcltrl lbrrs
nd t th rmvl f th dsblts ttchd
t th prsnt hs-sts.
Th prblm cnnctd w th th dvlpmnt
f nd’s grcltr ffrs chllng t th
plnnr nd n mmns scp fr prpsfl
c-prtn btwn th Gvrnmnt nd
th ppl; nd sccss r flr n sltn
f ths prblms w ll mk ll th dffrnc
btw n grwng prsprty nd cntnng
pvrty n th lnd.
Src: ndn Ntnl Cngrss. (1954)
Rsltns n cnmc Plcy nd Prgrmm.
Nw Dlh: ..C.C., 52–53.
CNTND FRM PRVS PG
56 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
f th crp. ndr n nnl cntrct, n mply
wrks fr frmr fr fll yr nd rcvs fxd
nnl f, r n mply prvds spcfd
srvc fr th hshld fr yr n rtrn fr
fxd pymnt n csh, n knd, r bth. n x mpl
f th lttr w ld b pttr spplyng pts t
hshld n xchng fr fdstffs, csh, r bth.
ndr th thrd rrngmnt, dly w g, frmr
mks n grmnt w th wrkr r grp f
wrkrs, wh gr t prfrm crtn prtn n
spcfc fld n rtrn fr pymnt n csh r n knd
clcltd dly.
Py mnts fr lbr nrmlly nvlv mny nd
mntnnc. ndr n nnl cntrct th mntnnc
cmpnnt mght b fd, clthng, nd mdcl
xpnss fr th yr. Fr th wrkr rcvng
dly w gs, mntnnc w ld ncld spcfc ndrstndng
bt mls nd ts tht th frmr prvds
fr th lbrr t t n th fld.
Vllg rgnztns Vllgrs cmmnly mk cllctv
rrngmnts tht ffct grcltr by (1) dffrnttng
btw n lnd tht w ll b sd fr hs
sts nd lnd tht w ll b sd s grcltrl flds; (2)
mntnng vllg rds, wrk rs, nd pblc rs,
sch s crmtn grnds r brl grnds; nd (3)
cnstrctng vllg rrgtn tnks nd w lls. Vllgs
r slly strngly ncltd wth grcltrl flds
ld t rnd th cntrs. n rs prn t fldng,
th ppltd rs r n th hgh lvtns, nd th
flds r n lw r grnd. Sm rds rdt t
frm th ppltd cntr t th mn flds, bt thy
d nt rch vry fld. ccrdngly flds r nfncd
xcpt fr ths dvtd t prmnnt rchrds.
Scrty mst f th yr s bsd n mtl ssstnc,
nd w hn crps r prtclrly vlnrbl fmly
mmbrs stnd w tch dy nd nght.
Vllg rrgtn tnks, flld by rnfll, frm lcl
strm, r frm cnl, r prtclrly cmmn
n pnnslr nd nd n Sr Lnk. slly th vllg
lnd w trd by rrgtn tnks s rsrvd fr
rc, nd th rn-fd lnd s dvtd t mllts nd
thr drylnd crps. Hstrclly rrgtn tnks wr
mngd by hrdtry vllg w tr tndr, wh ws
pd st shr f th crps h tndd. Vllgs
rrngd t shr th trppd fsh t th nd f th rrgtn
ssn nd t shr cllctv mntnnc rspnsblts.
Mngmnt rrngmnts cpd w th
lw -wtr yrs by rdcng th r rrgtd. ch
frmr ws llw d shr f th rdcd r prprtnl
t hs r hr shr n th ntr r. ftr
ndn ndpndnc, stt r ntnl gvrnmnts
tk cntrl f rrgtn tnks. Th trdtnl
rrngmnts w r dsrptd, nd rrgtn prfrmnc
hs dclnd.
rgnztns bynd th Vllg Bynd th vllg,
th prncpl rgnztns tht nflnc grcltr
r th gvrnmnt, cprtvs, nd prvt
frms. Th gvrnmnt, vr mst f hstry, hs
prvdd cnmc mrkts, cllctd txs, nd ntrdcd
nw crps nd prdcts fr trd, nd smtms
t hs blt cnls nd rsrvrs. Drng th
clnl prd, tx cllctn w s nstttnlzd n
rvn dprtmnts, nd rrgtn dprtmnts hd
vrsght f rrgtn cnstrctn. grcltr dprtmnts,
mrktng brds, nd fw spclzd rsrch
nsttts wr stblshd t stmlt th
dptn f prdctv tchnlgs nd crps dmd
spclly mprtnt thr s strtgc cmmdts
r fr ntrntnl trd, ncldng th rc, w ht,
jt, cttn, ndg, t, cff, sgr, rbbr, spcs,
nd lsds nt rdly grw n n rp. Th frst
grcltrl cllgs w r fndd n 1886, bt ths
nstttns nly trnd prspctv gvrnmnt ffcrs
nd dd nt cndct rsrch.
ftr ndpndnc, bgnnng n th md-1960s,
Pkstn, Bngldsh, nd nd dvlpd grcltrl
nvrsts pttrnd n th mrcn lnd-grnt systm.
Th prncpl ms wr t stmlt th sprd
f scntfc frmng tchnlgs mng th frm
ppltn nd t ndrtk xtnsv bsc grcltrl
rsrch, ncldng bt nt lmtd t rsrch
spprtng th ntrdctn f Grn-Rvltn
crps nd tchnlgs. Th ffctvnss f th nstttns
vrs grtly by cntry. Th mrcn prgrm
stnds n th thr ql nd ntrdpndnt
lgs f rsrch, tchng, nd xtnsn. n Pkstn,
Bngldsh, nd mst ndn stts, hwvr, th xtnsn
prgrms r thr lmtd r nnxstnt;
cnsqntly rsrch s drvn by gvrnmnt prrts,
s ws typcl n th clnl-r grcltr dprtmnts,
rthr thn by frm prblms.
Th lck f crdt cntns t cnstrn grcltrl
grw th n th rgn. N sgnfcnt cmmrcl
crdt s vlbl t smll frmrs. nly nd hs
ntnlly spprtd systm f cprtv crdt.
vn thr, gvrnmnt ppnts dmnt th
mngmnt n mst stts, nd mjrty f th frmrs
r nt mmbrs f cprtvs.
Prvt frms hv bcm ncrsngly mprtnt.
Lrg ndstrl frms prdc fll rng f mdrn
grcltrl chmcls nd frm qpmnt, sch s
wll pmps nd trctrs. Smllr mnfctrrs prdc
smplr tls, lk plws nd fddr chpprs, f-
GRCLTR—STH S
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 57
tn f mprvd dsgns rgntng n th grcltrl
nvrsts.
Prspcts
n th 1950s t w s wdly blvd tht Sth s’s
ppltn grw th wld sn tpc ts fd prdctn,
nd n th md-1960s w dsprd fmn ws
vrtd nly by mssv mprts. Sbsqntly gvrnmnts
nd ntrntnl gncs hv plcd
hghr prrty n grcltrl dvlpmnt, ncrgng
ffrts sch s th Grn Rvltn btw n
bt 1965 nd 1978. Stdy grw th cntns, nd
wth th xcptn f Bngldsh, th rgn bcm
slf-sffcnt n bt 1980. Tbl 1 gvs th ncrss
n pddy (nmlld rc) nd w ht prdctn frm
1965 t 1995 fr th rgn s w hl nd fr ch
mjr prdcng cntry. ll prdctn fgrs r
frm th sttstcl srvc f th Fd nd grcltr
rgnztn (F) f th ntd Ntns. Th F
n trn rcvs dt frm th sttstcl srvcs f th
rspctv cntrs; thrfr qlty vrs wdly.
Dspt th gns, ylds d nt pprch ths ttnd
n dvlpd cntrs. Tbl 2 gvs sm
cmprsns fr 1998.
Th dffrncs ndct th frc f xstng nstttnl
nd fnncl cnstrnts nd sggst scp
fr mprvmnt.
Mrry J. Lf
S ls: Grn Rvltn—Sth s; Rc nd Rc
grcltr; Wtr sss
Frthr Rdng
Fd nd grcltr rgnztn f th ntd Ntns.
(2000) FStt. Rtrvd gst 2000, frm: http://
pps.f.rg/cg-bn/nph-db.pl?sbst=grcltr.
Gll, Mnhr Sngh. (1983) grcltr Cprtvs. Nw
Dlh: Vks Pblshng Hs.
Jhnsn, B. L. C. (1969) Sth s: Slctv Stds f th
ssntl Ggrphy f nd, Pkstn, nd Cyln. Lndn:
Hnmnn dctnl Bks.
Lf, Mrry J. (1998) Prgmtsm nd Dvlpmnt: Th
Prspct fr Plrlst Trnsfrmtn n th Thrd Wrld.
Wstprt, CT, nd Lndn: Brgn nd Grvy.
———. (1984) Sng f Hp: Th Grn Rvltn n Pnjb
Vllg. Nw Brnswck, NJ: Rtgrs nvrsty Prss.
Rndhw , M. S. (1980–1986) Hstry f grcltr n nd.
4 vls. Nw Dlh: ndn Cncl f grcltrl
Rsrch.
Sngh, Bljt, nd Shrdhr Msr. (1965) Stdy f Lnd Rfrms
n ttr Prdsh. Hnll, H: st-Wst Cntr
Prss.
GRCLTR—S THST S
Sthst s, s whl, s rchly ndwd wth ntrl
rsrcs. xpnsv rvr vllys nd dlts, gnrlly
rch sls, nd hmd trpcl clmt nsr
tht th cnstrnts t grcltrl dvlpmnt hv
hstrclly bn mr cnmc nd nstttnl thn
nvrnmntl. grcltr ws th prmry src f
ncm, mplyr f lbr, nd cntrbtr t xprt
rvns n th prclnl nd clnl rs (ntl
bt 1950). grcltrl tpt, vl, nd trd vlms
hv cntnd t grw n th pst hlf cntry.
GRCLTR—STHST S
Ylds n Sth s nd n dvlpd cntrs n 1998
(n klgr ms pr hctr)
Crls, ttl Wht Pddy Srghm Plss, ttl
Sth s 22,479 23,735 28,344 8,239 6,160
Frnc 74,084 76,028 58,252 55,573 52,445
tly 50,643 35,785 58,333 55,584 15,777
ntd Stts 56,799 29,034 63,542 42,262 18,489
SRC: Fd nd grcltr rgnztn f th ntd Ntns (2000).
TBL 2
ncrss n pddy nd wht prdctn frm 1965 t
1995
Pddy Wht
ll Sth s 193% 258%
Bngldsh 143% nt sgnfcnt
nd 209% 260%
Npl 127% 349%
Pkstn 222% 237%
Sr Lnk 348% nt grw n
SRC: Fd nd grcltr rgnztn f th ntd Ntns
(2000).
TBL 1
58 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Hwvr, th chrctr f Sthst sn grcltr
hs chngd drmtclly, nd ts rltv mprtnc,
s msrd by ts shrs f ntnl ncm, mplymnt,
nd trd, hs dmnshd tr mndsly s thr
sctrs hv xpndd. Whrs n 1965, grcltr
ccntd fr btwn n-frth nd n-hlf f
GDP n th mr kt cnms f Sthst s, by
th lt 1990s ts shr hd flln t 20 prcnt n th
Phlppns, 16 prcnt n ndns, nd vn lss n
Mlys nd Thlnd, ccrdng t th Wrld Bnk.
n tdy’s Sthst s, th nly cntrs n whch
grcltrl ctvts stll dmnt ntnl ncm
r ths, sch s Ls, Cmbd, nd Mynmr
(Brm), tht hv fld t grw n thr wys.
Wthn th mrkt cnms f th rgn, w th
th xcptn f plnttn sctrs prdcng spclzd
xprt crps nd rmt, pr rs w th lttl
r n cmplmntry nfrstrctr, thr frms f
cnmc ctvty nw dmnt th lvs f mst
hshlds.
grcltr rmns mprtnt n tr ms f lnd
r, vn thgh crppd r pr prsn vrgs
nly 1/5 hctr, r bt hlf n cr, nd s grwng
t n vrg rt f lss thn 2 prcnt pr yr.
Tmprry crps, f whch rc s th sngl lrgst
by r, r th dmnnt grcltrl lnd s n ll
cntrs xcpt Mlys. bt qrtr f tmprry
crp r s rrgtd.
vrvw nd Hstry
Sthst sn grcltr hs lw ys bn cntrd
n rc, th stpl crl nd th mjr crp
grw n n th lrg, frtl, nd dnsly ppltd rvr
dlts. Tw cntrs, Thlnd nd Vtnm, r
mng th wrld’s tp thr xprtrs f ths crp
(lng w th th ntd Stts), bt mst thr cntrs
r nt mprtrs. n th prr cntrs f th
rgn, rc prvds mr thn tw -thrds f dly
clr ntk, fgr tht flls t bt n-thrd n
th rgn’s w lthr cntrs. Bcs f ts mprtnc
s fdstff nd ncm src, rc hs
bn, nd rmns, crp w th pwrfl cltrl nd
pltcl sgnfcnc. Thrght th rgn, ssnl
fstvls r kyd t rc plntng nd hrvstng
dts. Th sccss f th rc crp nd th prvsn
f dqt fd fr th ppltn rmn mjr rspnsblts
fr Sthst sn gvrnmnts. Hstrclly,
ths ws rflctd n rlgs rts rqstng
dvn ntrcssn t nsr gd crp; th trnng
f th frst sd fr rc plntng s n nnl crmny
stll prsdd vr by th mnrchy n Thlnd nd
Cmbd. n mdrn tms, chvng nd mntnng
ntnl slf-sffcncy n rc hs prsstd s
plcy gl, nd vn s msr f th cmptnc
nd crdblty f pltcl rgms.
Whl rc s grw n prmrly fr dmstc cnsmptn,
nmbr f crps f glbl cnmc
nd/r clnry mprtnc r ntv t Sthst
s, nd n mdrn tms th rgn hs bc m
ldng wrld prdcr f svrl thrs. rly trd
btw n Wst nd Nrthst s nd th "Spc slnds"
lctd n w ht s nw strn ndns cnsstd
f th xchng f slvr, crmcs nd thr
mnfctrs, nd slk fr ntmg, mc, clvs, nd
pppr. Th rlst rpn cntcts wth th rgn
(nd, ndd, vrtlly ll th grt rly rpn
vygs f dscvry, by Vsc d Gm,
Mglln, nd thrs) wr mtvtd by th trd n
ths hghly przd nd vry xpnsv fdstffs. S
lcrtv ws th glbl spc trd tht n th rly
svntnth cntry th Dtch, skng t stblsh
mnply cntrl, trdd Mnhttn t Brtn n xchng
fr th tny ntmg-grw ng slnd f Rn n
th Bnd rchplg, ndns.
Trd w th rly rpns ls ld t th ntrdctn
f sm thr plnt spcs tht hv snc bcm
mprtnt n Sthst sn dt nd cnmy.
Ths ncld mz, pnts, nd chls (dbbd "rd
ppprs" by Clmbs), ll f w hch r ntv t th
mrcs bt r nw grwn wdly n th rgn.
Drng th clnl prd ntrprnrs ntrdcd
cmmrcl cltvtn f svrl xprtrntd
plnttn crps ncldng sgrcn, cff,
l plm, rbbr, nd ccnt. Fr th lttr thr
crps, Sthst sn spply nw dmnts th
wrld mrkt. ndns, Mlys, nd Thlnd ccnt
fr 81 prcnt f wrld l plm prdctn, nd
th rgn s w hl prdcs 74 prcnt f th
wrld’s ntrl rbbr. Mr thn n-hlf f wrld
ccnt prdctn (54 prcnt) cms frm Sthst
s, n-thrd f t frm ndns ln. n ddtn,
rgnl cff prdctn hs rsn frm 12
prcnt f th wrld ttl n 1990 t 20 prcnt n
2000, w th Vtnm’s shr rsng frm 1.5 prcnt t
11.5 prcnt n jst dcd. Th sprd f ths plnttn
crps hs bn n mprtnt fctr drvng lnd
clnztn snc th lt nntnth cntry, spclly
n Mlys, sthrn Thlnd, nd th slnds
f th ndnsn rchplg.
Th frtns f thr mjr Sthst sn crps
hv flcttd vr tm. Trpcl frts—bnns,
mngs, pnppls, nd mny thrs—nd thr hrtcltrl
crps hv bcm sgnfcnt xprt rnrs,
spclly fr Thlnd nd th Phlppns. Lvstck
rsng, n th sns f lrg cmmrcl hrds, hs
GRCLTR—STHST S
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 59
nvr bn mjr ftr f th Sthst sn rrl
cnmy, lthgh f crs nmls rsd n smllscl
nd bckyrd prtns prvd sgnfcnt
src f prtn nd rrl ncm. Fbr crps sch s
bc nd knf hv dclnd n mprtnc, spclly
wth th dvlpmnt f chpr synthtc fbrs.
Ppltn Grwth, Lnd Scrcty,
nd Fd Plcy 1950–1965
Whrs Sthst s ws hstrclly rgn f
fd srpls nd lbr scrcty, rpd ppltn
grw th bgnnng n th lt nntnth cntry sn
bgn t pply prssr t th grcltrl lnd bs.
n th tw dcds ftr Wrld Wr , prd drng
whch th rgn’s ppltn grw vry rpdly,
th "lnd frntr" (th ggrphc lmt f prdctv
rbl lnd) ws rchd r nrd n svrl cntrs.
Wth sttc tchnlgs, dmstc fd prdctn
pr cpt bgn t dcln, nd th shr f fd
n th vl f mprts t rs. ltmtly, prssr n
lnd ws llvtd by cmbntn f tchncl
prgrss, nvstmnts n nfrstrctr, ndstrlztn,
nd ncrsng pnnss t trd. Hwvr, th
prd frm th 1950s t th 1970s w s frmtv n
Sthst sn hstry, nd grcltrl dvlpmnt
ws t th cntr f th pctr.
Frst, fd scrty—nd mr spcfclly, ntnl
slf-sffcncy—bcm hghly snstv pltcl
gl nd nsprd grt dl f plcy. ntlly, th
gvrnmnts f th rgn plyd dmnnt rl,
cntrllng trd, dstrbtn, prcs, nd vn (n
sm cntrs) prdctn, thrgh stt gncs.
Ths ntts, mst ntbly Blg n ndns, dvlpd
nt lrg nd hghly dvrsfd cmmrcl
ntrprss nd, wth lbrl bdgtry spprt, ftrd
prmnntly n ffrts t prmt rrl dvlpmnt.
Hgh lvls f stt ntrvntn n fd
mrkts w r pprnt vn n Thlnd, w hs ntrl
rsrcs mk t n f th dvlpng wrld’s
lst mprt-dpndnt fd prdcrs. Scnd, n
spt f ths nvstmnts, ncrsngly ntns cmpttn
fr lnd spwnd r ncrgd rrl-bsd
ntgvrnmnt nsrgncs, sm Cmmnst nd
thrs bsd n thnc r cltrl dvsns. Sm f
ths nsrgncs dgnrtd nt rmd cnflct
nd vn cvl wr. Ths th ncrsng shrtg f
lnd splld vr nt ntnl pltcs w th clls fr
lnd tnr rfrm s msr t rdrss ncm nqty,
pvrty, nd th sprd f Cmmns m.
Mny rgnl gvrnmnts ttmptd t vrcm
dmstc fd shrtgs nd t llvt cvl nrst
n th 1950s nd 1960s by nvstng n rrgtn,
lnd dvlpmnt, nd prdctvty-mprvng nfrstrctr.
Thy ls spprtd ntrnl mgrtn. n
Mlys nd ndns, fdrl gncs clrd
frsts, blt rds, hss, nd schls, nd spnsrd
rsttlmnt n frntr rs by rrl hshlds frm
mr dnsly ppltd rgns. n th Phlppns,
th Ntnl rrgtn thrty (N) w s frmd
t ndrtk mjr nvstmnts n th cnstrctn
nd prtn f dms, cnl systms, nd drng n
grcltrl lw lnds. s wth stt grn-trdng crprtns,
ths nvstmnts sldm rcpd vn
frctn f thr csts—ndd t s nlkly tht thy
wr vr ntndd t d s. s sch, thy cnstttd
mns f rdstrbtng ncm t rrl rs
thrgh gvrnmnt xpndtrs.
thr cnmc plcs wr ls dplyd s tls
f grcltrl dvlpmnt. n th mmdt pstw r
dcds, ll fd-mprtng Sthst sn cntrs
md strns ttmpts t cntrl prcs
rcvd by frmrs nd pd by cnsmrs. Whl th
ntnt f sch plcs ws t prmt dvlpmnt,
thy ftn bckfrd. n xprtng cntrs sch s
Brm nd Thlnd, xprt txs nd qts dmnshd
frmrs’ ncntvs t prdc nd xprt rc,
nd prmtd s mgglng. n ndns nd th Phlppns,
th lss-mkng stt trdng gncs dsplcd
prvt grn trd nd strg. By th md-1970s, th
N nd th Ntnl Grns thrty, th stt rcnd-
crn trdng crprtn, wr th tw mst
hvly ndbtd gvrnmnt crprtns n th
Phlppns. n spt f ths, frqnt rc prc "crss"
(mst ntbly n 1972, bt s rcntly s gst 1996
n th Phlppns) tstfy t th ncpcty f stt
gncs t mntn ffctv prc cntrls nd dqt
dmstc sppls drng drghts nd thr prds
f nxpctdly lw dmstc prdctn.
grcltrl Tchnlgy nd
Rsrc s snc 1966
Mssv pblc nvstmnts n grcltrl dvlpmnt
hlpd s mw ht t mtgt, bt nt frstll,
crss f grcltrl dvlpmnt n Sthst s.
ndns n prtclr ws wdly dntfd s cntry
whr ppltn grwth ws xpctd t tstrp
prdctv cpcty; n wrtr bsrvd tht s th
rslt f ppltn grw th Jv, th mn slnd, ws
"sphyxtng fr wnt f lnd" (Kyftz 1965:503). n
th rly 1970s, srs f crp flrs csd by
drght nd dss lft th rgn crtclly shrt f
rc. Fd vlblty n th lrgst mprtng cntrs
(ndns nd th Phlppns) ws mntnd
nly by mssv mprts nd nfsns f frgn d,
nd mst fd prcs rs shrply.
GRCLTR—STHST S
60 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
n th lng rn, th sltn t fd scrty n
th lrgst fd mprtrs cm thrgh tchncl
prgrss. Rsrch drctd t prdcng hghyldng
rc vrts, spclly tht crrd t t
th ntrntnl Rc Rsrch nsttt, n ntrntnl
grcltrl rsrch cntr bsd n th Phlppns,
ld t th rls f nw plnt typs wth
prprts tht grtly nhncd th prdctv cpcty
f rrgtd rc lnd. Th "mdrn vrts,"
frst rlsd n 1966, wr stff-strwd nd f shrt
sttr, t ncrs lght-s ffcncy nd rdc
grn lsss whn plnts bnd (r "ldg") ndr th
wght f thr grn drng mnsnl rn nd
wnds. Thy wr ls rpd-mtrng nd nnphtprd
snstv, mnng tht plnt grw th
nd grn mtrty ccrrd n fxd nmbr f
dys rthr thn n rspns t ssnl chngs
n dy lngth nd clmt. Ths prprts md t
pssbl t grw rc t ll tms f yr, nd mr
thn nc pr yr n sngl plt f lnd. Fnlly,
th nw rc vrts wr hghly rspnsv t ntrgn.
Th "Grn Rvltn" tchnlgcl pckg
f mdrn rc vrts, rrgtn, nd frtlzr
prvd cpbl f yldng dbl r vn trpl th
qntty f grn prdcd pr crp by trdtnl
cltvrs.
Th tchnlgy f th Grn Rvltn sprd
qckly thrgh Sthst s. n cntrs nd sbntnl
rgns wth dqt rrgtn, nd w hr
frtlzr nd thr cmplmntry npts w r vlbl
t frmrs, rc ylds ncrsd rpdly. Hghr
ylds nd crrspndngly grtr dmnd fr lbr
bth hlpd trnsfrm ths rgns’ grcltrl
cnms. n th tw dcds fllw ng th rls
f th mdrn vrts, rc prdctn n Sthst
s’s rpdly dvlpng cnms grw rpdly,
whl th ttl hrvstd r grw by mch lss, r
vn dclnd. n ndns, pr-cpt rc vlblty
rs frm 83 klgrms f mlld rc n 1962–1964
t 140 klgrms n 1986–1988. nc th w rld’s
lrgst rc mprtr, ndns chvd th pltclly
sgnfcnt gl f slf -sffcncy n 1985.
n mny rs, th dptn f mdrn rc vrts
ws ccmpnd r shrtly fllw d by mchnztn.
n mst cntrs th dptn f mchncl
tchnlgs ws mtvtd by th dsr t rdc
csts n cnms xprncng rpd grwth f lbr
dmnd. n Thlnd, fr xmpl, th dptn rt
f frm trctrs cclrtd rpdly s wgs bgn rsng
n th lt 1980s, rflctng th ncrsngly rpd
trnsfr f lbr t nngrcltrl sctrs.
Gns n rc prdctn wr gnrlly chvd t
sm cst t thr grcltrl sctrs. n mst cntrs
f th rgn nnfd crps, nd vn crn nd
thr grns grwn mnly fr fd, rcvd rltvly
lw llctns f pblc spndng nd rsrch ffrt.
ntl th 1980s, prdctn nd ylds f ths crps
GRCLTR—STHST S
Wrkrs hrvst rc n fld nr Mnt gng, th mst scrd mntn n Bl, ndns.
(LNDSY HBBRD/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 61
typclly grw mch lss qckly thn fr rc. s grcltrl
dvrsfctn bcm th w tchwrd twrd
th nd f th dcd, nnrc grcltrl prdctn
nd rsrch bgn t rcv lrgr shr f pblc
rsrcs nd plcy ttntn.
Mdrn grcltrl dvlpmnt n Sthst
s hs bn ssctd wth trmnds strss n
ntrl rsrc stcks nd nvrnmntl qlty.
Th xpnsn f cltvtd r hs bn chvd
t th xpns f frst rsrcs, nd ntnsfctn
(th shrtnng f fllw prds, nd lnd-s
chngs frm prnnl t nnl crps) hs rsltd
n ncrsd lnd dgrdtn nd sl rsn n mny
rs. n th 1970s, lrg rs f nrthstrn
Thlnd wr dfrstd drng n xprt bm n
cssv, crp tht ws sld t th rpn nn
s n ngrdnt n nml fd. n th lt 1990s,
frs sd t clr frsts fr grcltr (spclly
l plm plnttns) cntrbtd t n nnl "hz"
tht blnktd th ndnsn slnds, Sngpr,
nd lrg prts f th Mly Pnnsl. Th sprd
f rrgtn hs rsd dmnds fr wtr t th sm
tm tht dfrsttn hs rdcd th ntrl cpcty
f wtrshds t str ths prcs rsrc
drng mnsn rns nd t rls t grdlly
thrght th yr. Chmcl rsds nd sspndd
slds frm sl rsn hv cntrbtd t
th dgrdtn f drnkng-w tr sppls, sltng f
dms nd rrgtn cnls, nd dmg t strn
nd cstl csystms. lthgh "nvrnmnt
frndly" pst-mngmnt tchnqs sch s ntgrtd
Pst Mngmnt ( PM) r ncrsngly
pplr, chmcl cntrl r mns th nr m. ncntrlld
pstcd s nd npprprt pplctn
mthds ccnt fr mny lmnts nd dths mng
frmrs nd thr fmls. Thr s grw ng cncrn
vr bdvrsty lsss n rs whr mncltr
nd plnttn crps sch s l plm hv xprncd
rpd grw th.
ll f ths rsrc nd nvrnmntl csts hv
bcm prssng plcy cncrns, nd ccsnlly th
sbjcts f htd pblc dbt, n th rgn. Th
Grn Rvltn my hv ls brght sm ndrct
nvrnmntl bnfts, hw vr. Prdctvty
gns nd ncrsd rc sppls n rrgtd lw lnds,
whr thy ccrrd, hlpd t llvt prssrs fr
frst cnvrsn nd grcltrl ntnsfctn t th
lnd frntr n plnds nd w trshds. n ths wy,
ncrss n lw lnd mply mnt nd ncms hlpd
cmpnst plnd frmrs w h, lckng rrgtn
nd ftn fcng dffclts btnng crdt nd grcltrl
npts, hd gnrlly drvd lttl drct bnft
frm Grn Rvltn tchnlgs.
Glblztn, Trd-Plcy Rfrm,
nd grcltrl Trnds
n th fnl tw dcds f th tw ntth cntry,
trd nd grcltrl plcy lbrlztn gn hlpd
trnsfrm th cnmc scn fr Sthst sn grcltr.
Sm plcy rfrms wr ndrtkn s th
rslt f rgnl trd grmnts (sch s FT, th
SN Fr Trd gr mnt), n rspns t bltrl
trd pprtnts, r s cndtns fr ccssn
t ntrntnl trdng nstttns sch s th Wrld
Trd rgnztn (WT). thrs w r frcd pn
cntrs by cnmc nd pltcl crss. Whtvr
thr mtvtn, th ffcts f trd nd prc plcy
lbrlztn hv bn prfnd.
Lbrlzd rls gvrnng dmstc nd ntrntnl
trd n crls, nd lssnng f th rlr
mphss n slf-sffcncy n rc, hv n gnrl
bn ssctd wth grtr stblty n fd spply nd
fd prcs. t th hshld lvl, trd rfrms hv
hlpd mprv ncms, nd nt nly thrgh thr
drct ffcts n grcltr. Plcy rfrms tht rdcd
dscrmntn gnst lbr-ntnsv mnfctrng
sctrs sch s grmnts, cnsmr pplncs,
cmptr prts, nd smcndctrs hv prmtd
mplymnt grw th nd w gs n nngrcltrl sctrs.
xprt crps sch s pnppl, mng, nd thr
frts hv bnftd frm sr ccss t frgn mrkts,
nd r plntd hs grw n ccrdngly. Ths
trnds hv rdcd th rlnc f Sthst sn
rrl hshlds n th vcsstds f wthr nd
grcltrl prcs.
n Cxhd
S ls: Frst ndstry—Sthst s; Grn Rvltn—
Sthst s; Rc nd Rc grcltr;
Trrc rrgtn
Frthr Rdng
Cxhd, n. (2000) "Th Cnsqncs f Phlppn
Fd Slf-Sffcncy Plcs fr cnmc Wlfr nd
grcltrl Lnd Dgrdtn." Wrld Dvlpmnt 28,
1 (Jnry): 111–128.
Cxhd, n, nd Jrprn Plngprphn. (1999) "cnmc
Bm, Fnncl Bst, nd th Dcln f
Th grcltr: Ws Grw th n th 1990s T
Fst?" Chllngkrn Jrnl f cnmcs 11, 1 (Jnry):
76–96.
Dvd, Crstn C., nd Kjr tsk, ds. (1994) Mdrn
Rc Tchnlgy nd ncm Dstrbtn n s. Bldr,
C nd Lndn: Lynn Rnnr Pblshrs; Ls Bñs,
Phlppns: ntrntnl Rc Rsrch nsttt.
Dw , Dvd. (2001) "Hw Fr Dw n th Pth t Fr
Trd? Th mprtnc f Rc Prc Stblztn n
Dvlpng s." Fd Plcy 26: 163–175.
GRCLTR—STHST S
62 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Fd nd grcltr rgnztn f th ntd Ntns
(F). (2001)"F Sttstcl Dtbss." Rtrvd 2
My 2001, frm : http://pps.f.rg/.
ntrntnl Rc Rsrch nsttt (RR). (1991) Wrld
Rc Sttstcs 1990. Ls Bñs, Phlppns: RR.
———. (2001) "Rc Fcts." Rtrvd 2 My 2001, frm:
http://www.cgr.rg/rr/Fcts.htm.
Kyftz, Nthn. (1965) "ndnsn Ppltn nd th rpn
ndstrl Rvltn." sn Srvy 10: 503–514.
Rd, nthny. (1988–1993) Sthst s n th g f
Cmmrc, 1450–1680. Nw Hvn, CT: Yl nvrsty
Prss.
Rl, gns C., nd Prbh L. Pngl. (1993) Pstcds, Rc
Prdctvty, nd Frmrs’ Hlth: n cnmc ssssmnt.
Ls Bñs, Phlppns, nd Wshngtn, DC: ntrntnl
Rc Rsrch nsttt nd Wrld Rsrcs nsttt.
" Tst fr dvntr." (2000) cnmst (19 Dcmbr).
Wrld Bnk. (vrs yrs) Wrld Dvlpmnt Rprt. Wshngtn,
DC: xfrd nvrsty Prss fr th Wrld Bnk.
Wrld Rsrcs nsttt (WR). (2000) Wrld Rsrcs
1998–99. Wshngtn, DC: WR.
GRCLTR—WST S lthgh ndstry
s dvncng mr rpdly thn grcltr, th
lttr s f cnsdrbl mprtnc n th cnms
f Wst sn ntns. Lcl frmng prdcs mch
f th fd cnsmd n th rgn nd mplys
lrg prt f th wrkfrc. Th vl ddd by grcltr
t th grss ntnl prdct (GNP), s w ll
s th nmbr f ppl mplyd n grcltr, hs
shw n grt vrblty. Ths vrblty s d t th
cnmc nd pltcl crss xprncd n th rgn
nd t grcltr’s vlnrblty t th vgrs
f th wthr. n Trky, grcltr slly cntrbts
bt 16 prcnt f th GNP, n rn bt
20 prcnt, nd n rq bt 40 prcnt. n th 1990s,
grcltr mplyd pprxmtly 40 prcnt f
th w rkfrc n Trky nd bt 30 prcnt n rn
nd rq.
Ntrl Cndtns
Ntrl cndtns ply n mprtnt rl n grcltr
n Wst s. Clmt, fr xmpl, s spclly
sgnfcnt fr grcltr nd vrs grtly
frm n sbrgn f Wst s t nthr. Bth th
grw ng ssn nd th rng f crps r lmtd by
th mnt f prcpttn, w hch, n gnrl, s nsffcnt
n Wst s. vrg nnl prcpttn
rngs frm 5 cntmtrs n th rnn dsrts t
mr thn 254 cntmtrs nr th Blck S n
Trky. nly bt n-frth f th lnd n rn
cn b frmd bcs f svr wtr shrtg.
Th mst prdctv frmlnds n Trky r
Thrc, th Msptmn lw lnds, nd th cstl
GRCLTR—WST S
Lnd s nd rrgtn n 1998
(n thsnds f hctrs)
Prm nnt Frst nd s % f
Prm nnt pstr w dlnd thr lnd rrgtd lnd
Cntry Ttl r Lnd r rbl lnd crps (1994 dt) (1994 dt) (1994 dt) lnd r
rn 163,319 162,200 16,837 1,966 44,000 11,400 87,841 7,562 4.66
rq 43,832 43,737 5,200 340 4,000 192 33,765 3,525 8.06
Trky 77,482 76,963 24,438 2,530 12,378 20,199 16,615 4,200 5.46
Ttl 284,633 282,900 46,475 4,836 60,378 31,791 138,221 15,287 5.40
SRC: Dt fr ths tbl frm rpn Mrktng Dt nd Sttstcs 2001 (2001) nd ntrntnl Mrktng Dt nd Sttstcs
2001
(2001).
TBL 1
Wht flds lng th rd btw n Shhrd nd Shhpsnd,
rn. (RGR WD/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 63
rgns; n rn, th mst prdctv frmlnds r th
Cspn S cst nd th frtl vllys n th nrthrn
nd cntrl prts f th Zgrs Mntns; n rq,
th sthrn pln, w hch bgns nr Smrr nd xtnds
sthst t th rbn-Prsn Glf. Mr
thn hlf f Wst s’s rbl lnd s n Trky, nd
hlf f th rrgtd lnd n th rgn s n rn. (S
Tbl 1.)
Cntmprry Stts
n th bss f th mthds sd, th grrn sctr
f Wst s mst b dfnd s hghly dlstc.
Gnrlly, n th mst prdctv sbrgns, grcltr
hs hgh lvl f mchnztn, ss mdrn
rrgtn schms, nd hs cnsdrbl xprt
ptntl. n cntrst, n th rmt mntn sbrgns,
th w dn plw nd h r stll th mst
GRCLTR—WST S
TH NNL CYCL
Ths xtrct f txt frm n thngrphc stdy f frmng vllg n cntrl
Trky smmrzs th nnl frmng cycl nd ls prvds sm nsght
nt th Trk vw f mnl lbr.
s sn s th sprng cms, th mn gt bsy. Th xn w knd
by th lng w ntr mst b gt nt trnng w rk, nd sprng
plghng nd sw ng mst b dn. Th x-hrds nd shphrds
tk chrg f th nmls. Th shp r lmbng nd n ch
hshld w mn mst b rdy t mddy t mlk th w s.
Plghng nd sw ng f sprng wht nd brly s mmdtly
fllw d by th plghng f th yr’s fllw , whch gs n prhps
nt My, vn ntl Jn, dpndng n ndvdl crcmstncs.
Mnw hl th vnyrds mst b dg vr, nd ptts
nd thr vgtbls sw n. Mst f ths ltr wrk s dn by
w mn.
n Jn, ll grsss nd w ds grwng n dd plcs mng th
crps r ct fr hy, gn mstly by w mn. Drng lt My
nd Jn th mn r cmprtvly dl. n Jly th hrvst bgns,
frst wth vtch nd lntls, thn w th th mn crps f ry
nd w ht. Thrshng fllw s th rpng; rpng, thrshng, nd
strng tgthr lst bt tw mnths f cslss ctvty fr
vryn; whl hshld frqntly wrks rght thrgh
mnlt nght.
n Sptmbr th prssr ss. s sn s rn flls n th hrd
bkd grnd—vn bfr, f th rns r lt—th mn mst
plgh gn nd sw thr wntr ry nd wht. By Nvmbr
thr rmns fr th mn nly vst t tw n t ly n sppls
f cff, prffn, slt nd s n, nd prhps chp vgtbls
fr th mnths f wntr sltn, nd thn dlnss gn ntl
th sprng. H ws vrsttng hs cs nd, s smn cmmntd,
n tw mnths hrvstng thy d fr mnths’ w rk;
bt th d f hvng, lk n nglsh grcltrl lbrr, t
wrk fr wgs dy n nd dy t ll yr rnd ws grtd wth
hrrr.
Src: Pl Strlng. (1965) Th Vllg cnmy; Lndn:
Chrls Brchll & Sns, 47.
9
64 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
cmmnly sd grcltrl mplmnts. n th ntln
plt nd strn Trky, s w ll s n th
nrthrn pln n rq nd n th cntrl plt f
rn, mdrn grcltrl mchnry s sd n nly
lmtd scl.
Thr r bg dffrncs mng th ntns n grcltrl
prdctn. Trky hs strng grcltrl
bs. t s slf -sffcnt n crls nd xprts mch
f ts grrn prdctn. Trksh frms r prdmnntly
fmly bsnsss w th smll lndhldngs.
n f th mn prblms n Trksh grcltr s
tht th vrg sz f frms s dclnng bcs f
th nhrtnc cstm f dvdng lnd qlly mng
sns. Lrg stts d stll xst, mnly n th sth,
bt bt 70 prcnt f frmrs cltvt hldngs f
jst 1.5 hctrs.
rn mst mprt mch f ts fd. Bfr 1970,
rn ws slf -sffcnt n grcltrl prdctn nd
xprtd mny crps. Hw vr, cntmprry rn
fcs mny prblms bcs sccssv gvrnmnts
hv nglctd grcltr, th ppltn hs ncrsd
rpdly, nd th prdctvty f frms s lw .
n th 1990s, rq’s grcltr xprncd srs
prblms. Sm f ths prblms wr d t
scrcnss f grcltrl npts (tht s, frtlzr nd
pstcds) csd by .N. snctns snc 1990. vn
wth gd rnfll, cntmprry rq slly hs lw
crp prdctn, whch s ttrbtd t ndqt s
f frtlzr nd hrbcds; pr lnd prprtn d
t lck f mchnry; dtrrtd frm nd rrgtn
nfrstrctr; ncrsd nfsttn by nscts, psts,
nd w ds; nd cntns s f lnd w tht crp
rttn.
grcltrl Strctr
n Wst s, frmng nd nml hsbndry r
qlly dvlpd. bt 50 prcnt f th crplnd
s sd t grw grns. Wht s th chf grn, fllw d
by brly nd mz. Trky s th mn prdcr
f crls n th rgn. (S Tbl 2.) Cntrl
ntl ccnts fr nrly 40 prcnt f Trksh
wht prdctn. Hwvr, ths sbrgn ftn hs
lng drghts tht cs srs lsss f crps.
Wst s s mjr prdcr f sgr bts, ptts,
frts, nd vgtbls. (S Tbl 3.) Lrg qntts
f cttn r grwn fr bth fbr nd cttnsd
l. Trky prdcs nd xprts lrg qntts f
tbcc, whch s grwn lng th Blck nd gn
Ss, s w ll s ggplnts, grps nd rsns, hzl-
GRCLTR—WST S
Prdctn f crls n 1999
(n thsnds f mtrc tns)
Cntry Wht Brly Mz Rc Ttl
rn 8,687 1,919 941 2,300 13,847
rq 800 500 100 240 1,640
Trky 18,000 9,000 2,400 317 29,717
Ttl 27,487 11,419 3,441 2,857 45,204
2001
(2001).
TBL 2
Prdctn f slctd crps n 1999
(n thsnds f mtrc tns)
Cntry Sgr bt Tm ts Ptts Grps ppls
rn 4,987 3,204 3,430 2,315 1,944
rq 8 800 380 290 80
Trky 20,000 6,600 5,315 3,650 2,500
Ttl 24,995 10,604 9,125 6,255 4,524
2001
(2001).
TBL 3
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 65
nts, mlns, nd rngs. rn xprts drd frts
nd nts.
Th mnstys f Wst s’s stckbrdng r
shp nd gts. (S Tbl 4.) Nmdc stckbrdng
stll xsts n sm rs, spclly n wstrn nd
sthwstrn rn. Trky rss hlf f th wrld’s
ngr gts. Wl s Trky’s mst vlbl lvstck
prdct. rn s mng th wrld’s lrgst xprtrs
f krkl lmb. Trky nd rn spply th
wrld wth lrg qntts f hds nd skns.
Trky s th mn prdcr nd xprtr f grcltrl
prdcts n Wst s. bt hlf f Trksh
grcltrl xprts r shppd t th rpn
nn. thr mn mrkts ncld th Mddl st
nd Nrth frc, w hch bsrb bt hlf th xprts
f frts nd vgtbls nd vrtlly ll th xprts f
lvstck nd mt.
Dmtr L. Dmtrv
Frthr Rdng
yln, m, d. (1996) Mddl st Cntmprry Srvy 17:
1993. Bldr, C: Wstvw Prss.
Bts, Dnl, nd ml Rssm. (1983) Ppls nd Cltrs
f th Mddl st. nglw d Clffs, NJ: Prntc Hll.
rpn Mrktng Dt nd Sttstcs 2001. (2001) Lndn:
rmntr Plc.
ntrntnl Mrktng Dt nd Sttstcs 2001. (2001) Lndn:
rmntr Plc.
ssw, Chrls. (1995) Slctd ssys. Prnctn, NJ: Mrks
Wnr Pblshng.
HMDBD (2001 st. pp. 3.5 mlln). hmdbd,
th gtw y t Gjrt stt n wstrn nd
nd ts prncpl cty, sprw ls n th Sbrmt
Rvr bt 450 klmtrs (280 mls) nrth f Bmby.
t s n f th bsst ndstrl cntrs n nd,
wth cttn mllng prdmnnt. hmdbd w s
fndd n 1411 by th Mslm r lr Sltn hmd
Shh; t thrvd n th fftnth nd sxtnth cntrs
ndr th rly Mghl kngs nd prsprd gn
snc th Brtsh nnxtn n 1818. f prtclr ntrst
r cmpct hsng clstrs f fmls lnkd
by cst, prfssn, r rlgn, dtng t 1714.
Mny mnmnts f Hnd, Ms lm, nd Jn rchtctr
n th w lld cty tstfy t ts pst glry nd
prsnt prsprty. Knkr Lk, blt n 1451, ffrs
prmnds, btng, n qrm, nd ms m
dsgnd by Chrls-Édrd Jnnrt (clld L
Crbsr; 1887–1965). Th Sd Bshr Msq ftrs
th mystrs "shkng mnrts." Fr m th
Stygrh shrm, n 1930, Mhnds K. Gndh
(clld Mhtm; 1869–1948) bgn hs mrch t th
s t prtst th Brtsh slt tx. mmrl cntr
nd snd-nd-lght shw hghlght hs lf nd th
ndn Frdm Mv mnt.
C. Rgr Dvs
HMDBD
Crcltn f lvstck n 1999
(n thsnds)
Cntry Hrss Cttl Shp Gts
rn 250 8,047 53,900 25,757
rq 46 1,100 6,000 1,300
Trky 391 11,185 30,238 8,376
Ttl 687 20,332 90,138 35,433
SRC: Dt fr ths tbl frm rpn Mrktng Dt nd
Sttstcs 2001 (2001) nd ntrntnl Mrktng Dt nd
Sttstcs 2001 (2001).
TBL 4
w mn crryng ld n hr hd n th mr kt n hmdbd
n c. 1982. (DM WLFTT/CRBS)
66 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Frthr Rdng
Glln, Knnth L. (1968) hmdbd: Stdy n ndn
rbn Hstry. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty f
Clfrn Prss.
Ptl, B. B. (1989) Wrkrs f Clsd Txtl Mlls: Pttrns
nd Prblms f Thr bsrptn n Mtrpltn Lbr
Mrkt. Clmb, M: Sth s Bks.
Mht, Mr, nd Dnsh Mht. (1990) Mtrpltn Hsng
Mrkt: Stdy f hmdbd. Nw bry Prk, C:
Sg.
QP Qp ws Kzkh jrnl pblshd n
Trtsk by nrg Prss frm Jnry 1911 ntl
Sptmbr 1915. Strtng s mnthly, by th nd f
1912 t pprd twc mnth ntl t csd pblctn.
dtd by Mkhmmdzhn Srln, Qp
ws th frst sccssfl ndpndnt Kzkh-lngg
prdcl pblshd bfr Wrld Wr . t bcm
vtl frm n w hch Kzkh ntllctls cld cllctvly
rtclt thr grw ng scl cncrns nd
dscss th vrs sss cnfrntng th Kzkh
cnmy, cltr, lngg, nd ntnl ftr. n
ddtn, th jrnl dvtd ttntn t myrd f
thr sbjcts. dctn nd lnd rdstrbtn
dmntd, bt thr sss grcd ts pgs, ncldng
Rss’s rl n th w r. Mny ntbl Kzkhs
pblshd rtcls n Qp, ncldng lkhn
Bkkhnv, khmt Btrsynv, Mrzhqyp Dltv,
Sltnmkhmt Trghyrv, nd Skn (Sdvks)
Sflln. Th jrnl ls pblshd trnsltd
wrks by Lrmntv, Krylv, Tlsty, nd Pshkn.
n ts fr-nd--hlf -yr xstnc Qp pblshd
ttl f ghty-ght sss. Nvr sffcntly cptlzd,
th jrnl fnlly sccmbd t th mtrl
nd cnmc prssrs brght n by Wrld Wr .
Qp’s sccss ws clrly d t Srln, w h gthrd
rfrmsts nd ntnlsts tgthr, s w ll s
hst f dvrs schlrs, dctrs, pltcns, nd
wrtrs.
Stvn Sbl
Frthr Rdng
Bnngsn, lxndr, nd Chntl Lmrcr-Qlqjy.
(1964) L Prss t l Mvmnt Ntnl chz ls Mslmns
d Rss vnt 1920. Prs: Mtn & C.
Sbkhnbrdn, shklt. (1961) qp btndg mqllr
mn kht-khbrlr (n ndx f rtcls nd Nw s Strs).
lmty, Kzkhstn: Kzk Mmlkt Bspsy.
Sbkhnbrdn, shklt, nd S. Dtv, ds. (1995) qp.
lmty, Kzkhstn: Kzk nstklpdsy.
CH (2002 st. pp. 7.1 mlln). ch Prfctr
s sttd n th cntrl rgn f Jpn’s lrgst
slnd, Hnsh. ldng ndstrl r, t ccps
n r f 5,139 sqr klmtrs. ts prmry ggrphcl
ftrs r th Mkw Hghlnd n th st
nd th Nb Pln n th wst, w th th Ksgw nd
th Yhggw s th mn rvrs. ch s brdrd
by th Pcfc cn nd by M, Gf, Ngn, nd
Shzk Prfctrs.
Th prfctrl cptl s Ngy, w hch grw
rnd th cstl rctd n 1614 by Tkgw ys
(1542–1616), th frst f th Tkgw shgns; t ws
cntrlld by hs dscndnts ntl th 1868 Mj
Rstrtn. Rblt fllw ng bmbng dmg sstnd
n Wrld Wr , Ngy t th dw n f th
tw nty-frst cntry s Jpn’s thrd-lrgst cty. t s
ldng c mmrcl nd ndstrl cntr w th bsy
prt. t s hm t Ngy nvrsty nd t tst,
th mprl shrn scnd n mprtnc nly t s.
Th prfctr’s thr mprtnt cts r Tyhsh,
Tyt, chnmy, nd kzk.
Drng Jpn’s mdvl prd (1185–1573), th
prfctr ws dvdd nt Mkw nd wr
Prvncs. Bgnnng n 1573 thr w rlrds frm
ths rgn, d Nbng (1534–1582), Tytm
Hdysh (1536–1598), nd Tkgw ys, cmpltd
th nfctn f Jpn. n 1872, fllw ng th
Mj Rstrtn, th prfctr ssmd ts prsnt
nm nd brdrs.
Drng th tw ntth cntry, th prfctr dvlpd
nt n mprtnt ndstrl r, nchrng th
Chky ndstrl Zn (th rgn btw n Tky
nd Kyt) nd ldng ll thr prfctrs n ndstrl
prdctn. Th mn ndstrs r stl, chmcls,
tmbls, crmcs, nd txtls. grcltrl
prdcts ncld rc, vgtbls, nd chckns. Lmbr
prcssng ls s mjr cnmc ctvty.
. L. S. Wbr
Frthr Rdng
"ch Prfctr." (1993) Jpn: n llstrtd ncyclpd.
Tky: Kdnsh Ltd.
DS s cntns 60 prcnt f th wrld’s ppltn
nd lmst 20 prcnt f th dlts w th HV
nfctns—sm 6 mlln f th stmtd 34.4 mlln
wrldwd t th nd f th twntth cntry.
Bt th pdmc s rltvly nw t th rgn. t ws
frst dtctd n th rly t md-1980s, th rlst
css f nfctn rflctng sxl cntcts wth nfctd
prsns frm tsd th rgn. By 2000, thr
wr n stmtd 6 mlln nfctns; ntnl xprncs
wr dvrs s t srcs, lvls, nd prspcts.
QP
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 67
stmtd HV prvlncs rngd frm nr zr n
th Dmcrtc Ppl’s Rpblc f (Nrth) Kr t
n pr svrl thsnd n mst cntrs nd s hgh
s 2–3 prcnt n Cmbd, Mynmr (Br m), Thlnd,
nd sm stts f nd.
Tdy, ll th gvrnmnts f th rgn hv
HV/DS tsk frcs nd ctn plns t dl w th
th thrt, thgh ths cmmtmnts r rltvly
rcnt nd th trnsltn nt rl prgrms rmns
vrbl. n Thlnd, ctn by bth th Th gvrnmnt
nd th prvt sctr hs bn ggrssv nd
ntbly ffctv snc 1987. thr gvrnmnts gnrlly
hv xpndd lss n rsrcs nd hv lss t
shw fr thr ffrts.
Drvrs f th sn pdmc
crss mch f th rgn, th sprd f HV s
drvn by sx wrk nd ssctd sxl ntw rkng
nd by pttrns f s f njctd drgs. Thr r xtrnl,
vstr-drvn, nd ntrnl dmnsns t ch
f ths. Th ntl pttrns w r fcl pdmcs f
sm ntnsty nvlvng mn hvng sx w th mn
(MSM) nd ntrvns drg srs (D). Rts f nfctn
d t MSM hv snc dclnd, w hl rts
f nfctn d t D hv nt. Whthr n ch
ntnl ppltn thr s brkt t th gnrl
ppltn s mnly fnctn f pttrns f htrsxl
sx n sxl ntw rks. Th pttrn nd mgntd
f th htrsxl pdmc n ch scty
rflct th scl strctrs nd bhvrs chrctrstc
f ch, prtclrly th prvlnc f mn hvng
mltpl prtnrs, ncldng sx w rkrs.
Dmgrphc nd Scl mpcts
n strn nd Sthrn frc, DS s mng th
tp tn css f dth, nd DS dths hv sbstntlly
dmnshd th rt f ppltn grw th.
Th dmgrphc mpcts r mch w kr ths fr
n s, thgh ppltn grw th rts hv lrdy
bn rdcd slghtly n Mynmr, Cmbd, nd
Thlnd, nd t s stmtd tht ths thr cntrs
hv ch lst thr yrs f lf xpctncy. n
ky t ndrstndng th scl mpct s th fct tht
HV nfctn dsprprtntly strks th dlt
ppltn rthr thn chldrn r ldrly ppl, rsltng
n th lss f cnmclly prdctv mmbrs
f hshlds nd f scty s w hl. Th
rprcssn s drmtc lss f qlty f lf r vn
f lf chncs mng nfnts nd chldrn, d t rphnhd
nd dmnshd hshld nc ms. fll
ccntng f mpcts mst cnsdr lst prdctvty
nd cnmc prgrss, th prvt (tht s, fmly) nd
pblc csts f mdcns nd cr, nd th scl csts
f w knd fmls nd thr nstttns.
Prspcts fr Bhvr Chng nd Cntrl
Prjctns f th sprd f HV nfctns nd css
f DS vry drmtclly by cntry nd wth wht s
ssmd bt th ntnl pdmc pttrns. Th ftr
f HV n s hngs n wht ccrs n crtn
crtcl cntrs, mng thm Chn, nd, Thlnd,
Mynmr, nd Cmbd. Th Mntrng th DS
Pndmc r MP ntwrk lsts fv cntrs n whch
HV prvlnc s ncrsng nd nthr tn n w hch
t s slw ly ncrsng. Ths lvs nly tw cntrs
n dcln (strl nd Nw Zlnd), nd n, Thlnd,
whch s tndng t stblz.
Th cs f Thlnd s llmntng. n th md-
1980s, thr ws wrryng vdnc frm D dt
nd dt n sx wrk, nd by 1993 th HV rt mng
rmy rcrts (vrtlly rprsnttv smpl f
yng dlt mls) w s t 4 prcnt (mch hghr n
th nrth, d bth t th grtr pvrty thr s wll
s th prvlng sxl bhvrs, whch ncrg th
sprd f nfctn). nfctn lvls thn pkd nd
hv bn dclnng s drct cnsqnc f mgntv
prgrms. Sm f ths hv brght mssgs
bt th dngrs f nfctn nd th prtctn
ffrdd by cndms drctly nt th brthls. Lvls
f cndm s n brthls hv rsn drmtclly.
Smlrly, HV prvlnc mng prgnnt w mn
DS
n s, mny w mn nd chldrn r HV-nfctd. Hr,
n-yr-ld HV-nfctd grl plys n hr bd t Phy Th
Bby’s Hm, fclty fr HV-nfctd chldrn n Bngkk,
Thlnd. (FP/CRBS)
68 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
pkd t bt 2 prcnt n 1995. Whthr th s m
pstv xprnc cn b shrd by thr sn cntrs
dpnds n thr gvrnmnt nd prvt-sctr
ffrts nd plcs.
Mynmr, Cmbd, nd Vtnm r shw ng th
pttrns nd lvls nc wtnssd n Thlnd. Thr
pdmcs hv ths fr bn drvn by ntrvns
drg s nd sx wrk, thgh Cmbd hs hgh nfctn
lvls mng prgnnt w mn s w ll. Ths
cntrs llstrt th ptntl fr HV t sprd
qckly. n Chn, Mlys, nd Npl, HV hs
sprd mng D ppltns bt pprntly nt yt
tsd ths grps. Cmbd hs bgn t shw
hpfl sgns. Gvrnmnt nd nngvrnmntl nstttns
r n plc, nd cmpgns r ndrw y.
Cndm s n brthls rs btw n 1997 nd 1999,
s dd HV prvlnc mng yng sx wrkrs.
Chn s vw d s ptntl fcs f rpd pdmc
sprd. Thr s nw n plc n xtnsv sntnl
r mntrng systm, by 1999 cvrng nrly
hndrd sts n thrty prvncs nd fcsd n fml
sx wrkrs, ntrvns drg srs, lng-dstnc
trck drvrs, bld dnrs, nd ntntl
w mn. Rcnt rtrns frm ths systm ndct rsng
nfctn rts fr D nd fml sx w rkrs.
vrll, rprtd sxlly trnsmttd nfctns
rchd 836 thsnd n 1999. Th gvrnmnt stmts
tht thr r 3 mlln drg srs n Chn nd
tht ndl shrng s cmmn. Thr r smlr
nmbr f sx wrkrs, hlf f w hm rprt nvr sng
cndms. Th w rkng stmts f HV nfctns
n Chn w r 400,000 t th nd f 1998,
600,000 n 2000, nd prbbly vr 1 mlln by lt
2001. Thr s nr ms ptntl fr pndmc nd
mssv nmbrs f nfctns.
nd dsplys dvrs st f xprncs crss ts
stts nd mtrpltn rs, frm vry lw HV
prvlncs t s hgh s 2 prcnt f dlts n th
stt f Tml Nd nd th cty f Mmb (Bmby),
frm pdmcs drvn by htrsxl trnsmssn
(Tml Nd, Mhrshtr) t pdmcs
drvn by ntrvns drg srs (Mnpt). srvllnc
systm ws pt n plc nly rcntly, nd
th 1999 stmt f 3.5 mlln HV nfctns crtnly
wll b rvsd s nw dt r xmnd.
Cnsdrng th dvrsty f ntnl pttrns nd
mxtr f xprncs fr sbgrps wthn cntrs,
vrll prjctns r dffclt. Th ntd Ntns’
DS crdntng gncy r NDS prdcs sch
prjctns, nd ths wr ncrprtd nt th
ntd Ntns’ 1998 rnd f ppltn prjctns.
mng th tw nty-nn lrgst cntrs wth
HV prvlncs f 2 prcnt r grtr, thr r n
s: nd, Thlnd, nd Cmbd.
bsrvtns
nlk mny thr dsss, w th HV/DS, bhvrl
knw ldg nd bhvrl chng r ntmtly
cnnctd. Th HV/DS pdmc s
bhvrlly drvn nd lnkd t ntmt rs f prsnl
lf. Th knw ldg-gthrng ndd t dl
wth HV/DS s kn t n X ry f th scl crps,
wth th HV vrs tkng th rl f rdstps,
rvlng spcts nt slly sn. Thr s
rvlng nw knw ldg f mrrg, fmly, nd sxl
systms, nd vn ntnl plts r bng plcd
ndr scrtny tht xpss pltcl ntrsts nd ndrlyng
vls.
Th ttntn nw bng gvn thrght s
t hrtfr ff-lmts bhvr s gnrtng prssr
fr chng. Bfr th HV/DS pndmc hs
bcm hstry, t s lkly tht mprtnt scl
chngs w ll ccr r wll b cclrtd bcs f t:
n gndr rltns (sch s wvs’ chngd xpcttns
f thr hsbnds, nd mr pnnss w thn
nns bt mrtl nd sxl rltnshps), n fmly-
bsd cr nd n th rl f gvrnmnts nd prvt
gncs n spplmntng t, n th rltnshps
btw n prnts nd thr yng dlt chldrn, n th
rl f pblc r prvt rprdctv hlth srvcs
t yng nmrrd ppl, nd n th stts f mrgnlzd
ppltn grps sch s sx wrkrs nd
drg srs.
Ptr Xns
Frthr Rdng
Brw n, Tm, Ry Chn, Drs Mgrdtchn, Brn Mlhll,
Rbn Srd, nd Wrst Stttr. (1998) Sxlly
Trnsmttd Dsss n s nd th Pcfc. rmdl, strl:
Vnrlgy Pblshng.
MP. (2000) "Mntrng th DS Pndmc: Th Stts
nd Trnds f th HV/DS pdmcs n th Wrld:
Prvsnl Rprt, Jly 5–7, 2000." Drbn, Sth
frc: MP. Rtrvd 31 Jnry 2002, frm: http://
www.nds.rg/hvdsnf/sttstcs/MP.
———. (2001) "Mntrng th DS Pndmc: Th Stts
nd Trnds f th HV/DS/ST pdmcs n
s nd th Pcfc, 2001." Mlbrn, strl: MP.
Rtrvd 31 Jnry 2002, frm: http://www.nds.rg/
hvdsnf/sttstcs/MP.
NDS. (2001) "DS pdmc pdt." Rtrvd 30
Jnry 2002, frm: http://www.nds.rg/pdmc_
pdt/rprt_dc01/ndx.html.
Wrld Hth rgnztn. (2001) "HV/DS n s nd
th Pcfc Rgn." Nw Dlh: Rgnl ffc fr
Sth-st s; Mnl: Rgnl ffc fr th Wst-
DS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 69
rn Pcfc. Rtrvd 31 Jnry 2002, frm: http://www
.w pr.wh.nt/pdf/st/ds2001/cmplt.pdf.
KD kd s Jpns mrtl rt tht tks
svrl dffrnt mdrn frms. Th sprt w s
fndd by shb Mrh (1883–1969) w h n th
1920s nd 1930s cmbnd tchnqs frm Dt-ry
jjts w th ncnt Jpns phlsphcl blfs
t crt nw mrtl rt frm tht strssd dfns
nd th s f n’s ppnnt’s strngth nd ggrssn.
n gnrl, kd s lss ggrssv thn thr
mrtl rts nd s chrctrzd by grbbng, jnttw stng,
blnc-brkng, nd pnnng. Th pplrty
f kd tsd Jpn s d lrgly t th wrk
f shb’s stdnts nd th k-k ssctn h
fndd. Mdrn frms f kd r ssctd wth
prtclr schls nd ssctns, ncldng th Jpn
kd ssctn (Tmk kd), Yshn-kn, K
n Knky-k (K Scty), nd Ys-kn. ch
schl prmts smw ht dffrnt tchnqs nd
phlsphy nd thy ls dffr n thr spprt f
cmpttns s ppsd t trnng sssns fr prsnl
grw th. Bcs f th mphss n trnng nd
th prfrmnc f chrgrphd rtns clld
kt, kd s pplr s frm f xrcs wth
w mn nd th ldrly.
Fmk Shshd
Frthr Rdng
Prnn, Stnly. (1991) Th k Nws ncyclpd f kd.
Tky: k Nw s.
Shshd, Fmk, nd Ttsr Nrym. (1985) kd
Kyshts (kd Crs). Tky: Tshkn Shtn.
MG Th Mngln Ppl’s Rpblc s dvdd
nt ghtn mgs, r prvncs—Byn lg,
Hvd, vs, Zvhn, Gv’lty, Bynhngr, rhng,
Blgn, Hvsgl, Slng, Tv, vrhng, Dndgv’,
mngv’, Drngv’, Hnt, Shbtr, nd
Drnd. n 1994, th rgns rnd thr prmnnt
cts (rdnt, Drhn, nd Chr) w r ls dclrd
mgs w th lrgly rbn ppltns (rspctvly,
rhn mg, 2000 ppltn 72,000; Drhn-l,
2000 ppltn 83,000; Gb-smbr, 2000 ppltn
12,000). Mngl’s ntnl cptl, lnbtr,
s ts wn dmnstrtv nt w th ppltn f
760,000.
Th strn Prvncs
Mngl’s strn prvncs f Drnd, Shbtr,
nd Hnt r dmntd by grssy stpp,
ggrphy tht sts th rgn’s mjr cnmy—
shp, cttl, nd hrs brdng. lthgh svrl mnrty
ppls mk ths prvncs thr hm, th
ppltn cnssts prmrly f th Khlkh mjrty.
Drnd s th frthst st f Mngl’s prvncs
(2000 ppltn 75,000, r 123,000 sqr klmtrs),
fms fr fr-rngng hrds f ntlp tht
ftn nmbr n th thsnds. Th prvnc’s Hlhyn
Gl rgn bc m ntw rthy n 1939 w hn
Mngln trps nd th ssstng Svt Rd r my
rtd lrg frc f nvdng Jpns sldrs. Shbtr
mg (2000 ppltn 65,000, r 82,000
sqr klmtrs) n th sthst ws nmd ftr
Dmdny Shbtr, th fndr f th Mngln
Ppl’s Rpblc nd n f th rgn’s ntv sns.
Th Drgng vlcnc plt, rgn w th dzns
f xtnct vlcns, ntrrpts th prvnc’s ndltng
plns. Hnt mg (2000 ppltn 71,000,
r 82,000 sqr klmtrs) n nrthst Mngl
s cnsdrd by mny t b th ntv hm f
Gnghs Khn. Mntns f th Hnt rng cvr
th prvnc’s nrthrn rgn nd grdlly slp
nt hlly stpp n th sth. Mnrl sprngs r
fnd thrght th prvnc.
Th Gb Prvncs
Th thr Gb prvncs f Drngv’, mngv’,
nd Dndgv’ hv sm f th smllst ppltn
dnsts n Mngl nd r lmst xclsvly
ppltd by th Khlkh thnc mjrty. Mnng nd
cml r shp brdng cntrbt mst t ths rgns’
cnms. Drngv’ (2000 ppltn
51,000, r 110,000 sqr klmtrs) s n th
sthstrn prt f th cntry, dmntd by rllng
plns nd smdsrt. n ncnt crvn rt frm
Rss t Chn, w hch hs nw bn sbsmd by th
Trns-Mngln Rlrd, nc pssd thrgh ths
r. Flrt mnng hs md mprtnt cntrbtns
t th rgn’s cnmy. mngv’ (2000 ppltn
47,000, r 165,000 sqr klmtrs)
ccps th xtrm sth f th cntry nd s th
mg w th bth th lrgst r nd th smllst ppltn.
Th grt mssfs f th strn Gv’lty
rng nd th Gb Tn Shn dmnt th prvnc.
Th w lth f prhstrc fssls n ths rgn mks
t pplr spt fr plntlgcl rsrch. Drctly
nrth f th thr tw Gb prvncs, Dndgv’
(2000 ppltn 52,000, 78,000 sqr klmtrs)
cnssts mr f rch grssy stpps thn f dsrt.
Th Cntrl Prvncs
Th fv cntrl prvncs f Tv, Slng, Blgn,
vrhng, nd rhng ccpy rgn f
KD
70 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
wll-wtrd mntns nd rch, frtl vllys.
Drw ng wtr frm tw mntn rngs, ths lsh,
rbl rgn spprts lrg ppltn, th mjrty
bng Khlkh spkrs. Tv mg (2000 ppltn
99,000, r 81,000 sqr klmtrs) s th st
f Mngl’s cptl, lnbtr. Th prvnc’s
cnmy rflcts ts nq lctn, w th mst ctvty
grd tw rds spplyng th cptl cty nd srvcng
th Trns-Mngln rlwy. Drctly nrth f
Tv mg, Slng mg (2000 ppltn 100,000,
r 65,000 sqr klmtrs) ccps th frtl
bsn f th Slng Rvr nd srvs s Mngl’s
brdbskt. n 1990, 40 prcnt f th cntry’s crl
crp prdctn cm frm ths rgn ln. Th
rgn ls srvd s th crdl f th Mngln Ppl’s
Rvltn w hn Dmdny Shbtr rcrtd
th frst nts f vlntr mlts hr n th rly
tw ntth cntry. Th prvnc’s mrbysglnt
mnstry stnds s n f th fw prmnnt mnstrs
tht th rvltn lft ntchd. T th wst
f Slng, Blgn mg (2000 ppltn 62,000,
r 49,000 sqr klmtrs) ccps prtn f
th Slng Rvr bsn nd th nrthrn Hnt
Mntns. Th 70 prcnt f lnd tht s nt cvrd
by frst s sd fr frmng nd lvstck brdng.
Wst f Blgn, rhng (2000 ppltn 97,000,
r 55,000 sqr klmtrs) ls n th bsns f th
Slng Rvr’s trbtrs nd rss t th hgh prts
f th Hngy hghlnds. Th prvnc s fms fr
th stt-prtctd Trhn Tsgn Lk, frmd
whn vlcnc lv dmmd p th Smngn Gl
Rvr. Lvstck brdng s th prmry cnmc ctvty,
wth yk nd yk hybrd cmprsng 40 prcnt
f th prvnc’s hrds. T th sth f rhng,
vrhng (2000 ppltn 91,000, r 64,000
sqr klmtrs) ls btw n th frtl rgns f
th nrth nd th smdsrts f th Gb. Th
prvnc ttrcts mny w th ts ntrl w ndrs, mst
ntbly ts 24-mtr-hgh w trfll, ln Tstgln.
t s ls th st f Krkrm, th ncnt Mngln
cptl, nd n f Mngl’s lrgst Bddhst
mnstrs, rdn Z. Lvstck brdng cncntrts
n shp nd hrss.
Th Nrthwstrn Prvncs
Th thr nrthwstrn prvncs f Hvsgl, vs,
nd Zvkhn cvr rggd mntns rgn. Hvsgl
mg (2000 ppltn 119,000, r 102,000
sqr klmtrs) s nmd ftr th nrms frshwtr
lk fr w hch th prvnc s fms. Th
frstd mntns tht srrnd th lk hv ld
sm t cll Hvsgl mg "Mngl’s Sw tzrlnd."
Mst lvstck brdng fcss n cttl, yks, nd yk
hybrds. Nr Lk Hvsgl, th Tstn thnc grp
hs bcm fms fr ts rndr hrdng. Wst f
Hvsgl, Zvhn (2000 ppltn 90,000, r 82,000
sqr klmtrs) s th hm f tgn Tngr, th
hghst pk f th Hngy Mntns nd scrd
spt fr mny Mnglns. Frm th hgh pks f th
Hngy rng th prvnc dscnds wstwrd nt
smdsrt nd dsrt xpnss. Th ntrmdt rgn
s std t shp brdng, nd th prvnc
bsts th lrgst shp ppltn n th cntry. Frthr
wst, vs (2000 ppltn 90,000, r 84,000
sqr klmtrs) hs mjrty f Drvd spkrs.
Th prvnc’s mny rvrs nd lks r frqntd
by svrl spcs f wtrfw l, ncldng th rr pnk
plcn. Bsds bng mjr spplr f cl fl t
th cntry, th prvnc spclzs n shp, cttl,
nd hrs brdng.
Th Sthwstrn Prvncs
Th fr sthwstrn prvncs f Bynhngr,
Gv’lty, Hvd, nd Byn-lg cvr rd rgns
f hgh mntns nd w d dsrts. Dspt thr brrn
pprnc, thy r hm t rr Mngln
wldlf—th w ld cml, Gb br, nd stpp ntlp.
Bynhngr (2000 ppltn 85,000, r
116,000 sqr klmtrs) dscnds frm th Sth
Hngy plt t th Gb Dsrt. Th prvnc s
fms fr ts mnrl sprngs, nd spclzs n gt
brdng. Gv’lty (2000 ppltn 87,000, 142,000
sqr klmtrs) s t th strnmst tl f th lty
mntn rng. Th prvnc’s grt Gb Rsrv
s Mngl’s lrgst prtctd r nd hbtt
fr rr Mngln w ldlf—th mntn shp, w ld
gt, snw lprd, stpp ntlp, nd rd br.
Wst f Gv’lty, th lty Mntns f Hvd (2000
ppltn 64,000, r 76,000 sqr klmtrs) r
hm t w d vrty f thnc grps. Th frthst
wst f Mngl’s prvncs, Byn lg (2000 ppltn
91,000, r 46,000 sqr klmtrs) s
nq mng th Mngln mgs n tht th mjrty
f ts nhbtnts r nn-Mngln spkng
thnc grp—th Kzkhs. Mch f th prvnc’s
ffcl nd cltrl bsnss tks plc n Kzkh.
Dnl Hrschk
Frthr Rdng
Bw dn, Chrls R. (1968) Th Mdrn Hstry f Mngl.
Lndn: Wdnfld & Nclsn.
Mngln Ppl’s Rpblc cdmy f Scncs. (1990)
nfrmtn Mngl. xfrd: Prgmn Prss.
N n th n lngg th w rd n mns
"hmn bng." Fr th rst f th w rld, th wrd
N
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 71
dsgnts th smll ndgns ppltn tht lvs
n th nrthrn prt f Jpn. lthgh Jpn hs svrl
mnrty grps (Brkmn, Krns, Chns),
nly th n r bth thnclly dstnct frm th
Jpns nd hv lvd n th Jpns slnds frm
lng bfr wrttn hstry.
n prhstrc tms, th n cld b fnd n
th slnds f Hnsh, Hkkd, Skhln, nd th
Krl rchplg; n mdrn tms, thy mnly nhbt
Hkkd. Thr nmbr t prsnt s stmtd
t b rnd tw nty-fv thsnd, bt ftr dcds
f ntrmrrg w th th Jpns t s nw rr t
ncntr prsn prly f n bld. Th ppltn
stmt ths rprsnts ths ppl w h thnk
f thmslvs s bng bth n nd Jpns.
rgns
Th rgns f th n ppl nd thr lngg
r nknw n. Mny dffrnt thrs hv bn prpsd,
bt nn hs mngd t gn gnr l ccptnc
mng schlrs. Fr lng tm, Wstrn
schlrs blvd tht th n wr f Ccsn dscnt,
whch grtly stmltd rsrch nd rsltd
n lrg bdy f ltrtr n ll spcts f n cltr.
Th thry w s nvr wdly ccptd by Jpns
schlrs nd hs bn thrghly dscrdtd by
nw r rsrch. cnsnss grdlly mrgd tht
th thnc rgns f th n mst b sght n
Jpn’s prhstrc Jmn cltr (10,000–300 BC).
Th n lngg hs n wrtng systm. Trdtns,
blfs, nd tls bt th pst wr rlly
trnsmttd thrgh pcs, sngs, nd strs mmrzd
nd tld by th ld t th yng. Thr w r
rgnlly thr dstnct dlcts f n—Skhln,
Krl, nd Hkkd. Hwvr, thr s n lngr
nyn w h spks th n lngg s mthr
tng.
Th trdtnl lfstyl f th n ws bsd n
hntng, fshng, nd gthrng dbl plnts. Scty
cntrd n vllgs (ktn) f fv t tw nty fmls
ndr th ldrshp f ml chf (tn). Vllgs
wr slly plcd nr rvr t nsr ccss t
wtr nd fsh. Dr nd fx wr hntd nr th
vllgs, nd brw n br wr hntd n th mntns—
ll w th bw nd rrw.
Cstms
Th n r fms fr thr sklld w dwrk.
Fr mrly, th prdcts wr bw ls nd tnsls, dcrtd
wdn pryr stcks, nd w httld stcks ffrd
t th gds. n mdrn tms, mst w dcrft
s md t th trst trd. Clths wr wvn
frm th shrddd brk f th lm tr nd dcrtd
wth dyd pttrns r cttn pplqé. Mn nd
w mn wr ct-lk drsss fstnd wth blt. ccssrs
sch s hdgr, rrngs, nd ncklcs
wr sd fr fstv ccsns. Shs wr md frm
fsh skn.
N
SHP’S CPTN RFLC TS N TH N
n Vyg f Dscvry t th Nrth Pcfc cn, Wllm R. Brghtn, cptn
f th HMS Prvdnc, prsntd hs nlyss f th n n th lt ghtnth
cntry:
Ths ppl ppr t hv ntllgnc. Thr brds r lng,
blck, nd strng. Thy hv brw n skn nd thr hds r shvd
wth th xcptn f tsk f hr th sz f tw fngrs, whch
rsts t th frnt f th hd. Thy pt thr hnds tgthr blw
thr hds s grtng. Thy r drssd n br skns nd
rmd w th bw nd rrw. . . . Th ppl s m t hv n rlgn.
Thy t lk brbrns, w tht ny srt f crmny. . . .
Thy sm t hv n gvrnmnt, n w rtng r bks, nd n
n sms bl t rd r wrt.
Src: W. R. Brghtn. (1804) Vyg f Dscvry t th
Nrth Pcfc cn 1804, 89ff.
9
72 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Ml nd fml lngs w r kpt sprt. Th
mn’s lng ws shwn by thr ttm nml (tkp)
n vrs tnsls, whrs th w mn’s lng n
th frm f pttrns n blt (psr) ws wrn ndr
th clths. Wmn ls wr ttts rnd th
mth nd n thr frrms nd hnds. Ths w r
prdcd by mkng s mll ncsns w th shrp stns
nd rbbng st nt th pn w nds.
Th n gds r clld kmy nd r blvd t
b prsnt s sprts vrywhr n ntr, s w ll s n
sprt wrld f thr wn. vrythng n th hmn
wrld s sn s vstr frm th sprt wrld. Th mst
mprtnt kmy w s th brwn br. vry yr, ll
vr Hkkd, br cbs wr cght nd kpt n cgs
n vllgs. Whn cb rchd yng dlthd, crmny
ws hld t snd ts sprt bck t ts ncstrs
n th sprt wrld. By prvdng n lbrt crmny
nd hnrng th br, t ws hpd tht t w ld spk
wll f hmn bngs t th thr br sprts. f ths
hppnd, mny br sprts w ld vntr nt th lnd
f th hmns, nsrng stdy spply f brs fr
hntng. ftr th br ws crmnsly klld, ts
mt w s tn by th vllgrs nd ts hd ws plcd
n n ltr tsd th chf’s hs.
Th n nd th Jpns
Th Jpns knw f th n s fr bck s th
tnth cntry, whn n wr stll prsnt n th
mn slnd f Hnsh. By th fftnth cntry th
Jpns hd mngd t stblsh svrl strnghlds
n sthrn Hkkd frm w hch thy trdd mtl
nd rc t th n fr fr, fsh, nd thr ntrl
prdcts. By th bgnnng f th d prd
(1600/1603–1868), Mts m, Jpns w rrr cln,
gnd thrty vr th Jpns-dmntd prts f
th slnd nd stblshd trd mnply. Trd
cm t b cndctd thrgh Jpns mrchnts
wh trvld t spcfd trdng psts n th slnd
ndr th cntrl f th Mtsm cln. Dcvng
th n n trd trnsctns ws cmmn, nd
nmbr f n w r frcd nt slv-lk lbr fr
th Jpns. Ths sttn gv rs t svrl n
rbllns, bt vntlly th n sccmbd t th
Jpns.
ftr th Mj Rstrtn n 1868, th n c m
t b cnsdrd s Jpns ctzns nd wr frcd
t dpt Jpns nms. Thy w r, hwvr, stll
cnsdrd scnd-clss ctzns nd wr grtly dsdvntgd
n trms f dctn, hlth, nd mply mnt.
Th Mj gvrnmnt strtd lrg-scl
clnztn f Hkkd tht ld t mss mmgrtn
frm thr prts f Jpn, nd vntlly th n w r
rdcd t nly smll prcntg f th ttl ppltn
n Hkkd. Dprvd f thr lfstyl s
hntrs nd fshrmn, thy qckly snk nt pvrty
nd pthy. T mlrt ths sttn, th Hkkd
N
NNTNTH-CNTRY VW
F TH N PPL
sbll Brd, n dvntrs trvlr t Jpn n th lt 1800s, rcrdd hr
mprssns f th n n nbtn Trcks n Jpn:
Thy hv n hstry, thr trdtns r scrcly wrth th nm, thy clm
dscnt frm dg, thr hss nd prsns swrm w th vrmn, thy r
snk n th grssst gnrnc, thy hv n lttrs, r ny nmbrs bv
thsnd, thy r clthd n th brk f trs nd th ntnnd skns f bsts,
thy wrshp th br, th sn, mn, fr, wtr, nd knw nt wht, thy
r ncvlsbl nd ltgthr rrclmbl svgs, yt thy r ttrctv,
nd n sm w ys fscntng, nd hp shll nvr frgt th msc f
thr lw swt vcs, th sft lght f thr mld brw n ys nd th w ndrfl
sw tnss f thr sml (Brd 1881: 75).
Src: sbll Brd. (1881) nbtn Trcks n Jpn: n ccnt f Trvls
n th ntrr ncldng Vsts t th brgns f th Yz nd th Shrns f
Nkk nd s. Lndn: Mrry.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 73
Fr mr brgns Prtctn ct w s nctd n 1899,
grntng dctn nd smll plts f lnd t th n.
n th lt tw ntth cntry, nw prd n bng
n mrgd. Cltrl vnts, lngg clsss, nd
stdy grps ttmptd t rvv th n cltr.
Bw ng t prssr frm n rgnztns tht sw
th prtctn lw s dscrmntry, n 1997 th gvrnmnt
rpld th Prtctn ct nd rplcd t
wth nw lw t prmt n cltr nd fcltt
pblc ndrstndng f n trdtn.
Krstn Rfsng
Frthr Rdng
Ftzhgh, Wllm, nd Chst Dbrl, ds. (1999) n,
Sprt f Nrthrn Ppl. Wshngtn, DC: rctc Stds
Cntr, Ntnl Msm f Ntrl Hstry n ssctn
wth nvrsty f Wshngtn Prss.
Kyn Shgr. (1994) r Lnd Ws Frst. Bldr, C:
Wstvw Prss.
Krnr, Jsf, d. (1993) rpn mgs f n nd n
Stds n rp. Mnch, Gr mny: dcm Vrlg.
Rfsng, Krstn. (1986) Th n Lngg. rhs, Dnmrk:
rhs nvrsty Prss.
Rfsng, Krstn. (1996–2000) Th n Lbrry. 20 vls.
Rchmnd, .K.: Crzn Prss.
Sddl, Rchrd. (1996) Rc, Rsstnc nd th n f Jpn.
Nw Yrk: Rtldg.
R PLLTN Thrght s r plltn
s sgnfcnt thrt t hmn hlth nd th nvrnmnt.
ndstrl mssns frm fssl fl s
cnsttt th blk f th plltnts rlsd nt th
tmsphr, bt frst frs nd th cmbstn f
bmss fls ls dd plltnts. Cmbtng r plltn
s dffclt bcs t rqrs ctn n mny
dffrnt lvls, frm pgrdng hshld stvs t
rdcng rgnl mssns t bttlng glbl clmt
chng ntrntnlly. Scntsts wrn tht, f crrnt
trnds cntn, by 2025 thr tms s mny ppl
n s w ll sffr pr hlth d t r plltn s
dd n 1990.
ndstrl Plltn
ndstrl dvlpmnt n th pst cntry ws
pw rd lrgly by fssl fls lk cl, l, nd ntr l
gs. sd t gnrt lctrcty, drv ndstrl
prcsss, nd snd tmbls dw n th rd, fssl
fls rls slfr dxds, ntrgn xds, nd
tny prtclts f prtlly cmbstd fl nt th
tmsphr. vn th clnst fssl fls prdc crbn
dxd mssns, frmd w hn crbn n th fl
cmbns w th tmsphrc xygn. ndstrl r plltn
s glbl prblm bt s nw hr mr srs
thn n s, w hr fssl fl cnsmptn hs
rsn by fctr f 20 n th pst hlf-cntry.
Th lcl ffcts f r plltn hv bn mst
svr n cts ndrgng rpd ndstrlztn nd
ppltn grw th. f th fftn cts wrldwd
sffrng frm th wrst cncntrtns f r plltnts,
tw lv r n th s-Pcfc rgn. Bjng,
Chngqng, nd thr Chns cts hv th hghst
cncntrtns f slfr dxd, jnd by Jkrt,
Mnl, nd Sl n th lst f ths wth hgh lvls
f prtclt mttr. Hgh lvls f r plltn
hv mnt ncrsd rts f brnchts, sthm, lng
cncr, nd nfnt mrtlty. Wrld Bnk stdy ttrbts
sm 67,200 prmtr dths nd vr
hlf-mlln css f chrnc brnchts n s t rbn
r plltn.
ndstrl r plltn ls tks tll n th nvrnmnt.
Th r rnd Gln, Chn, fms fr
ts mntn scnry, hs bn spclly hrd ht. Nt
nly hs plltn frm Gln’s fctrs bscrd th
mntn n hz, bt th rgn’s lmstn glgcl
frmtns r bng rdd by th cdc slfr
dxd. cd rn, nthr by-prdct f tmsphrc
slfr dxd, dmgs frsts nd qtc lf fr
frm th src f th plltn. Whl Jpn hs
md sgnfcnt prgrss n rdcng ts wn r plltn,
t nw cntnds wth cd rn rgntng n
Chn nd Kr. Jpn, sthrn Chn, mntns
rs f Sthst s, nd sthwstrn nd ll
hv sls nd vgttn prtclrly snstv t cdfctn.
Glblly th mst sgnfcnt nvrnmntl chngs
my b d t mssns f s-clld grnhs gsss,
whch trp ht nsd th tmsphr. Trc mnts
ccr ntrlly n th tmsphr, bt thr cncntrtns
hv rsn xpnntlly snc th ndstrl Rvltn.
Th ncrs f crbn dxd, th mst
sgnfcnt grnhs gs, hs bn lnkd drctly t
ncrsd s f fssl fls nd th lss f frsts, whs
trs nd thr flr bsrb crbn dxd. n 1990 ntrntnl
scntsts prdctd tht n vrll rs n
tmprtrs, s lvls, nd svr wthr cld b
xpctd f grnhs-gs mssns wr nt crbd.
Th cnsqncs cld b spclly svr fr s f
clmtc chngs ld t rdcd crp ylds r th nndtn
f hvly ppltd cstl rs.
Plltn frm Bmss Fls nd Frst Frs
n th dvlpng cntrs f s th hghst lvls
f r plltn ccr nsd hms w hr bmss
fls lk w d, grsss, r nml dng r sd fr
R PLLTN
74 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
ckng nd htng. Thr-qrtrs f nd’s hshlds
rly n bmss fls. Smk frm ths fls
cntns mny hrmfl chmcls nd c mpnds.
Wmn nd chldrn, w h r n th hm th mst,
hv th grtst xpsr; thy rsk dvlpng rsprtry
nfctns, lng cncr, nd y dmg. Hlf
f nd’s css f tbrclss my b ttrbtd t
rsprtry dmg frm ckng s mk.
Frst frs wr th src f th r plltn tht
blnktd mch f ndns nd ts nghbrs n 1997
nd 1998. n nprcdntd nmbr f frs dcmtd
trpcl frsts n th slnd f Klmntn
(Brn) drng tw-yr drght lnkd t th l
Nñ sthrn sclltn, prdc shft n glbl
wthr systms. Th dsstr ws xcrbtd by th
xpnsn f fr-prn l-plm plnttns. Sm
12.5 mlln ppl n th srrndng rgn w r
xpsd t hzrds r plltn lvls, frcng th
ndnsn prsdnt t plgz ffclly t
Mlys, Sngpr, th Phlppns, nd Thlnd.
Th frs rlsd s mch crbn nt th tmsphr
s yr f fssl fl s by Wstrn rp. s w th
thr mjr frst frs, sch s th gnt blz n th
Chns-Sbrn brdr dcd rlr, th svrst
mpcts w r n th hlth nd lvlhd f th lcl
cmmnty nd srrndng ntrl nvrnmnt.
Cmbtng r Plltn
ctn t rdc r plltn s ndrwy t mny
lvls n s. Whl mch ttntn hs bn gvn
t ntrntnl ssstnc prgrms prmtng th
s f xpnsv nw tchnlgs t rmv plltnts
frm tmsphrc mssns, th mst sccssfl
strtgs cll fr sbstttng clnr fl srcs nd
sng fls mr ffcntly. Chn hs lng spprtd
prgrm t pplrz th s f bgs dgstrs;
bmss fls prcssd n ths dvcs r cnvrtd
t clnr-brnng mthn gs, lvng rch mxtr
f cmpnds sfl s frtlzr. lswhr, bmss
fls r bng rplcd n th hm by cl
brqtts, ntrl gs, r lctrcty frm pw r
plnts. Fr ntnl pwr gnrtn, Chn nd
nd r tkng stps t lmt th s f cl hgh n
slfr, sbstttng thr nrgy srcs sch s hydrlctrc
pw r, thgh ths hv thr wn nvrnmntl
nd scl cnsqncs.
Th ffcncy wth whch fssl fls r sd n
s vrs wdly. Jpn’s fl s s nw mng th
mst ffcnt n th w rld, bt lsw hr n th rgn
tdtd tchnlgs n fctrs nd vhcls
brn fls lss ffcntly nd pllt mr. Mdrnztn
my hlp rdc plltn lvls, n tc m
spclly crtcl n th r f grnhs gsss.
Cl-dpndnt Chn nd nd r mng th
wrld’s bggst srcs f crbn dxd, bt, pntng
t thr lw pr-cpt mssns cmprd w th
Jpn, Kr, r thr mr dvlpd cntrs, thy
rg tht t w ld b nfr fr ntrntnl trts
t cp thr mssns t crrnt lvls.
Th Ftr
r plltn pss ngng chllngs t hmn
hlth nd nvrnmntl qlty n s, spclly
wth s’s grw ng cnmc dvlpmnt nd ncrsd
fssl fl cnsmptn. Th ffcts f r plltn
r flt n th hm, n rpdly dvlpng rbn
rs, nd crss ntnl bndrs. Crrnt trnds
r lrmng, bt cncrtd ffrts my rdc th
dmg r plltn css t th ppl nd nvrnmnt
f s.
Mrk G. Hndrsn
S ls: Bhpl; Frst ndstry—Sthst s
Frthr Rdng
Hrw ll, mly . (2000) "Rmt Snsblts: Dscrss
f Tchnlgy nd th Mkng f ndns’s Ntrl
Dsstr." Dvlpmnt nd Chng 31, 1: 307–340.
Hghs, G. (1997) Cn th nvrnmnt Wt? Prrty sss
fr st s. Wshngtn, DC: Th Wrld Bnk.
Mrlnd, G., T. . Bdn, nd R. J. ndrs. (2000) "Glbl,
Rgnl, nd Ntnl C2 mssns." Rtrvd 21
Sptmbr 2001 frm: http://cdc.sd.rnl.gv/ndps/
ndp030.html.
Smth, Krk R. (1987) Bfls, r Plltn, nd Hlth. Nw
Yrk: Plnm Prss.
RLNGG (991–1049?), Hnd-Jvns kng.
rlngg lvd w hn strn Jv hd bcm rvl
n th ntrntnl spc trd f th mrtm mpr
f Srw jy n Smtr. ccrdng t th Clctt
stn nscrptn f 1041 C, rlngg w s brn
t Blns Kng dyn nd hs wf, Qn Mhndrdtt,
dghtr f th Kng Dhr mw ngs
Tgh f strn Jv. Th lttr kngdm ws dstryd
n 1017, thr by Srvjyn ttck r d t
ntrnl frctn. ftr tw yrs n hrmtg, rlngg
st t n 1019 t rstr th kngdm f Kng
Dhr mw ngs. By 1035 h sccdd n sbjgtng
ll f Dhr mw ngs’s frmr vssls thrgh mltry
nd pltcl prwss. Hs kngdm bc m n ntrntnl
trd cntr nd h hmslf prmtr f ld-
Jvns ltrtr. Tw rd th nd f hs lf, h
rtrtd nt th frst t bcm hrmt gn. T
frstll sccssn dspts btwn hs tw sns, h
dvdd hs kngdm nt Kdr nd Jnggl rnd
RLNGG
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 75
1049. ftr hs dth, h ws rvrd s n ncrntn
f th Hnd gd Vshn.
Mrtn Rmstdt
Frthr Rdng
Cdès, Grgs. (1964) Ls Étts Hndsés d'ndchn t
d'ndnés. Prs: Édtns . d Bccrd.
Kmprs, . J. Brnt. (1991) Mnmntl Bl: ntrdctn
t Blns rchlgy nd Gd t th Mnmnts. Sngpr:
Prpls dtns.
Vlkk, Brnrd H. M. (1959) Nsntr: Hstry f ndns.
Th Hg, Nthrlnds: W. vn Hv.
Ztmldr, P. J. (1974) Klngwn: Srvy f ld Jvns
Ltrtr (Trnsltn Srs 16). Ldn, Nthrlnds:
KTLV (Ryl nsttt f Lngstcs nd nthrplgy).
TMTV, CHNGS (b. 1928), Kyrgyz
wrtr. Chngs Trklvtch tmtv s prbbly
th bst-knw n nn-Rssn thr f th frmr Svt
nn. tmtv w s brn n th vllg f Shkr
n Kyrgyzstn n 12 Dc mbr 1928. Hs mthr nd
fthr sw t t tht h w s xpsd t Rssn ltrtr
nd lngg, w hl hs mtrnl grndmthr
nd nt xpsd hm t th lngg, sngs, pcs,
nd flk tls f trdtnl Kyrgyz cltr. tmtv
xprncd trgdy rly n hs lf, s hs fthr ws
klld n th Stlnst prgs f 1937.
tmtv bgn w rtng n th lt 1940s, cntrbtng
rtcls nd sktchs t lcl nwspprs n
Kyrgyzstn. H w nt n t trn s vtrnrn bt
cntnd w rtng. Th pblctn f svrl shrt
strs whl h ws wrkng s lvstck spclst
n Kyrgyzstn rnd hm th rght t jn th w rtrs’
nn nd dmssn t th prstgs Grky Ltrry
nsttt. H c mpltd hs stds t th
nsttt n 1958.
tmtv’s wrks wr ftn pssmstc n tn nd
wr pnly crtcl f th Svt systm. Hs nvls
ddrssd sch sss s th pssng f trdtnl wys
f lf (Th Wht Stmshp, 1970) nd th Stlnst
trrr (Th Dy Lsts Lngr thn 100 yrs, 1981).
ndr Shrp
Frthr Rdng
Mzr, Jsph P., Jr. (1988) "Chngz Trklvch tmtv"
n Rfrnc Gd t Rssn Ltrtr, dtd by
Nl Crnw ll. Lndn nd Chcg: Ftzry Drbrn
Pblshrs.
JNT (1991 pp. 600,000). jnt, vllg
lctd n th stt f Mhrshtr n th Shydr
Hlls nr th Wghr Rvr n nd, s th st f
pprxmtly 30 Hnd nd Bddhst cv tmpls
nd mnstrs frst crtd btwn th scnd
cntry BC nd th lt ffth cntry C, nd xpndd
nd lvshly dcrtd gn drng th
Gpt prd (c. 230–c. 500 C).
Th cvs wr crvd frm th grnt w lls f
rvn, nd r pprxmtly 80 mtrs hgh nd
380 mtrs lng. Thr ntrrs r cvrd wth
vbrnt frscs nd rlf sclptrs. Sm f th
cvs r lt by ntrl lght t crtn tms f dy,
nhncng th rtstc ffct. Th mjrty f th
cvs r Bddhst, th rt s nsprd by lgnds,
Jtk strs (ncnt Pl fbls), nd rl lf; bth
mythlgcl fgrs nd rdnry ppl nggd
n vrydy tsks r dpctd.
n 1819 Brtsh ffcrs n th Mdrs rmy rdscvrd
th cvs. Sm hstrc ccnts stt th
grp ws n mltry xpdtn; ccrdng t thr
ccnts th Brtsh wr hntng n th r. Zls
rchlgsts nd lcl ffcls dmgd th pntngs
t llw th fndngs t b dsplyd n msms. Pblc
frvr dstryd rly prsrvtn ffrts, whch
bgn bt 1839. T prvnt frthr dbsmnt f
th mnmnts, w r scrns wr plcd vr th rt
n ll th mjr cvs n 1903; tdy, hwvr, th pntngs
rmn t rsk f dtrrtn. Vrs mthds
f prsrvtn, ncldng slng thm bhnd fbrglss,
hv bn prpsd. Bcs th frscs rprsnt
mjr xmpl f Bddhst pntng nd bcs
f thr xtrrdnry qlty, th cvs f jnt w r
dsgntd NSC Wrld Hrtg st.
Lnd Dly Plsn
Frthr Rdng
Mchll, Grg, d. (1989) "jnt." n Th Pngn Gd
t th Mnmnts f nd, 1. Lndn: Vkng, 335–343.
JNT
JNT CVS—WRLD
HRTG ST
trsr trv f ncnt Bddhst rt nd
sclptr, th jnt Cvs w r frst cnstrctd
mr thn tw thsnd yrs g.
Ths cvs wr ddd t th NSC lst f
Wrld Hrtg Sts n 1983.
9
76 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
JDHY (2002 pp. 51,000). n ncnt cty
ls clld ydhy, dh, r w dh, jdhy, nw
prt f th cty f Fzbd, ls n th Ghghr
Rvr n th strn ttr Prdsh stt f nrthrn
nd. jdhy s n f svn hly plcs fr
Hnds, rvrd s th lgndry brthplc f
Rm, hr f th Rmyn pc. t ws th cptl
f th kshvk dynsty’s Ksl kngdm (sxth
cntry BC) nd cntr f Gpt pwr (thrd–
ffth cntrs C). By th ffth cntry C th
Chns Bddhst mnk F-hsn rprtd n hndrd
mnstrs thr. n th lvnth nd tw lf th
cntrs, jdhy bcm prt f th Knj kngdm,
thn th Dlh sltnt, th Jnpr kngdm,
nd, n th sxtnth cntry, th Mghl mpr. t
cm ndr th cntrl f th st nd Cmpny
n 1764.
n 1856 jdhy ws nnxd by th Brtsh; lss
f hrdtry rghts hlpd sprk th 1857 ndn
Mtny. dh jnd th gr Prsdncy n 1877 t
frm th Nrth-Wst Prvncs nd ltr th ntd
Prvncs f gr nd dh. n 6 Dcmbr 1992,
th sxtnth-cntry Msq f Bbr, blt n st
scrd t Hnds nd Mslms, ws dmlshd by
Hnd fndmntlsts; vr n thsnd dd n th
nsng rts.
C. Rgr Dvs
Frthr Rdng
Chnchrk, K. L., nd Sr j Prsd, ds. (1993) Crss n
nd. Clmb, M: Sth s Bks
Jndl, T. P. (1995) ydhy mbrgl. Clmb, M: Sth
s Bks.
KV, SKR (b. 1944), Prsdnt f Kyrgyzstn.
skr kv ws brn n 1944 n th vllg
f Kyzyl-Brk, lctd n th Chn-Kmn rgn f
Kyrgyzstn. H s nt, by prfssn, pltcn. Prr
t hldng th ffc f prsdnt f Kyrgyzstn h hd
nvr hld pblc pltcl ffc. kv bgn hs
dlt lf s prfssr f ngnrng nd cmptrs.
Fr m 1962 t 1972 h btnd hs dctn t th
Lnngrd nsttt f Prcs ptcs nd Mchncs.
pn rtrnng frm Rss t Kyrgyzstn, h mvd
stdly p th cdmc lddr t bc m prsdnt
f th cdmy f Scncs n 1988. Tw yrs ltr,
n 27 ctbr 1990, kv w s ppntd by th prlmnt
s prsdnt f Kyrgyzstn. rly Wstrn phr
vr kv’s cmmtmnt t thntc
dmcrcy nd cnmc rfrm hs sgnfcntly dmnshd
d t ncrsng rprssn nd crrptn.
Th frst srs rprssn bgn n 1994 w hn
kv, dsllsnd w th th dmcrtc cnstrnts n
hs xctv pwr, lnchd n thrtrn ffnsv
tht hs ncrsngly strngld dmcrtc cltr. Frst,
kv frmd th Cmmtt t Dfnd th Hnr nd
Dgnty f th Prsdnt. Nxt, kv bgn bldng
pw r bs t spprt hm s prmnnt prsdnt. n
Fbrry 1996 Prsdnt kv hld rfrndm tht
grtly xtndd hs pwrs. Ths rfrndm vltd
bth th cnstttn nd th Lw n Rfrndms.
Vtr pthy ws hgh, trnt ws lw , nd bllt stffng
ws rmpnt, yldng rslts "rmnscnt f th Svt
r" (.S. Dprtmnt f Stt 2000: 11).
kv’s pw r ws ths cnsldtd, nd h bcm
th dmnnt pltcl frc n Kyrgyzstn—
nt s mch "th hd f th xctv brnch bt
knd f rpblcn mnrch w h srvs s th grntr
f th cnstttns . . . prtng t th pnncl
f stt pwr" (Hsky 1997: 17). H hs th pw r
t nmnt th pr m mnstr nd ppnt gvrnmnt
mnstry hds nd th drctr f th stt bnk.
kv ls cntrls th crts nd hs tkn srs
msrs (mnly v th crts) t slnc nd sbjgt
th md. Th clmntn f ths cntrls ws
vdnt n th Fbrry–Mrch 2000 prlmntry
lctns, w hr bltnt gvrnmntl mnpltn
rsltd n spntns cntrywd prtsts, ncldng
dmnstrtns, hngr strks, nd vn scd,
by ctzns frstrtd w th th vrt crrptn nd
thr nblty t lct thr w n rprsnttvs.
L. M. Hndrhn
Frthr Rdng
shmknv, Mls. (1995) . kyv: Th Frst Prsdnt f
ndpndnt Kyrghyzstn. Bshkk, Kyrgyzstn: SB.
JDHY
Hnds ly th fndtn stns t th tmpl n jdhy tht
hd bn th src f cnflct btw n Hnds nd Mslms.
(ZN CKNW/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 77
Hsky, gn. (1997). "Kyrgyzstn: Th Ft f Pltcl
Lbrlztn." n Cnflct, Clvg, nd Chng n Cntrl
s nd th Ccss, dtd by Krn Dwsh nd
Brc Prrtt. Cmbrdg, .K.: Cmbrdg nvrsty
Prss, 254–268.
———. (1995) "Th Rs f Cntstd Pltcs n Cntr l
s: lctns n Kyrgyzstn, 1989–1990." rp-s
Stds 47, 5: 813–833.
.S. Dprtmnt f Stt. (2000) .S. Dprtmnt f
Stt Cntry Rprts n Hmn Rghts Prctcs: Kyrgyz
Rpblc, 1999. Wshngtn, DC: .S. Dprtmnt f
Stt.
KBR (1542–1605), Mghl mprr. Th grtst
mprr f th Mghl dynsty n nd, kbr,
th ldst sn f Hmyn, rld frm 1556 t 1605,
ntlly w th th hlp f th rgnt Brm Khn. n
mbts mn, sprb strtgst, nd dplmt, kbr
cnqrd Gjrt n 1573 nd tk cntrl f
Bngl n 1576. Kshmr cm ndr hs cntrl n
1586, nd by th tm srgrh w s cnqrd n 1601,
h rld vr mst f nrth, wst, nd st nd, nd
hs szrnty ws cknw ldgd by kngdms n cntrl
nd s w ll.
kbr’s cnqsts wr ccmpnd by pltcl
cnsldtn nd dmnstrtv rrgnztn. Hs
dmnstrtv chngs ncldd rfrmng th Mnsbdr
rnk systm n th mltry t rt t crrptn,
ntrdcng nfrm, hgh-qlty cng nd
mnt, nd mprvng rvn ssssmnt nd cllctn.
kbr sght t rdc th thrty f ndvdl
rvn hldrs by cnvrtng lnds nt crwn
hldngs nd dstrbtng trrtry ndr th drct dmnstrtn
f slrd ffcrs.
kbr’s blf n nvrsl tlrtn nd th pltcl
nd t nt Hnds ndr th Mslm Mghls
fnd xprssn n hs mrryng tw Hnd
prncsss; n, Jdh B, w s mthr f th hr t
th thrn. kbr ls ppntd Hnds (prtclrly
Rjpt kngs) t mprtnt stt pstns, blshd
rlgs txtn, nd vn fndd hs wn rlgn,
th Dn--lh ("dvn rlgn"), n clctc mx f
dffrnt fths, ncldng Brhmnsm, Chrstnty,
nd Zrstrnsm. Thgh lltrt nd lckng
frml dctn, kbr ws cltrd svrgn nd
gnrs ptrn f th rts.
Chndrk Kl
Frthr Rdng
Hbb, rfn, t l. (1997) kbr nd Hs nd. Nw Dlh:
xfrd nvrsty Prss.
KH Th kh r hghlnd ppl nhbtng
prts f strn nd sthrn Shn Stt n Mynmr
KH
KBR N RPNS
ND LCHL
"[Th mprr] kbr pblshd dcr prmttng
ntxctng sprts t b sld t rpns,
bcs, h sd, 'thy r brn n th
lmnt f w n, s fsh r prdcd n tht f
wtr, nd t prhbt thm th s f t s t dprv
thm f lf.'"
Src: Phlp ndrsn: Th nglsh n
Wstrn nd (1856)
9
Th tmb f kbr n Skndr, nd, n 1975. (CRBS)
78 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
(Brm) s w ll s djnng brdr rgns n Chn,
Thlnd, nd Ls. Thy spk Tbt-Br ms
lngg tht s rltd t tht f th Lh ppl w h
nhbt mny f th sm mntn rs. Rptdly
dscndd frm th ncnt Ll ppls, th kh
r blvd t hv mgrtd nt Shn Stt frm
Chn’s Ynnn Prvnc n cntrs-lng prcss
f mgrtn nt Sthst s tht cntnd nt
th tw ntth cntry.
Fw cdmc stds hv bn cmpltd n
th kh n Mynmr. ndr Brtsh rl (1886–
1948), thy w r ndrctly gvrnd ndr th Frntr
rs dmnstrtn. Sbsqntly, mny khnhbtd
rs wr bdly dsrptd by th Chns
Gmndng nvsn nd nsrgncs tht bgn n
th lt 1940s ftr Mynmr’s ndpndnc. s rslt,
vr th yrs kh vllgrs hv smtms
crssd s rfgs nt Thlnd. Hw vr, dspt
th dgr f pltcl vlnc w thn Mynmr, th
kh hv nvr frmd r md ppstn rgnztns
lng ntnlty lns, nlk th Shn, W, nd
thr thnc nghbrs.
Th kh ppltn f Mynmr s stmtd t
rnd 100,000. n 1995, thr w r n stmtd
500,000 kh n Ynnn, Chn, 40,000 n nrthrn
Thlnd, nd 66,108 n Ls. Thy rprsnt 50 prcnt
f th Tbt-Brms fmly n Ls. Th hghst
cncntrtns f kh n Mynmr r n rrl
dstrcts rnd Kngtng. Mny kh c mmnts
cn b rcgnzd by th wdn gtwys t th
ntrnc t ch vllg. Gnrlly, kh vllgs r
sttd n hghr mntn rs, w hr mny cmmnts
stll prctc swddn (slsh-nd-brn) grcltr.
Thr prncpl crps ncld mz, tbcc,
sgr cn, nd pm, lthgh n th 1990s nmbr
f crp-sbstttn schms wr ntrdcd
ftr cs-frs wr grd t by lcl rmd ppstn
grps.
Th kh sbgrps r mst ftn dstngshd
by th dstnctv hddrsss f thr w mn, mny
f whm w r trdtnl cstm f blck clths
nd mbrdrd jckts. ccrdng t kh lgnd,
thr r svn fmls r clns, wh rprsnt th
svn brthrs frm w hm ll kh ppl dscnd.
thr nms fr th kh r k, kr, Kh, Kh K,
nd kw . Thy cll thmslvs kh.
Drng th tw ntth cntry, bth Chrstnty
nd Bddhs m hd ncrsng mpct n kh cmmnts.
Nvrthlss, kh hstry nd myths cntn
t b prsrvd by strng rl trdtn f
strytllng. Thr r, hw vr, grw ng cncrns
mng kh ldrs bt th scl ffcts f rmd
cnflct, ntrnl dsplcmnt, nrctcs bs nd,
mr rcntly, th sprd f HV/DS, ll f w hch
thrtn th trdtnl fbrc f kh scty.
Mrtn Smth
Frthr Rdng
Chz, Lrnt. (1999) Th Ppls f Ls: Rrl nd thnc
Dvrsts. Bngkk, Thlnd: Wht Lts Prss.
Hnks, Lcn, nd Jn Hnks. (1975) "Rflctns n Bn
kh M Slng." Jrnl f Sm Scty 63, 1: 72–83.
Lbr, Frnk, Grld Hcky, nd Jhn Msgrv. (1964)
thnc Grps f Mnlnd Sthst s. Nw Hvn,
CT: Hmn Rltns r Fls.
Lw s, Pl, nd ln Lws. (1984) Ppls f th Gldn
Trngl: Sx Trbs n Thlnd. Lndn: Thms &
Hdsn.
KT (2002 st. pp. 1.2 mlln). kt Prfctr
s sttd n th nrthrn rgn f Jpn’s s-
KT
n kh grl n trdtnl cstm n nrthrn Thlnd n
1986. (CHRSTN KLSCH/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 79
lnd f Hnsh. Knw n fr ts mntns trrn
nd hvy snwflls , t ccps n r f 11,613
sqr klmtrs. ts prmry ggrphcl ftrs
r th g Pnnsl nd th nd Dw Mntns.
Th mn bds f w tr r th rvrs mngw
nd Ynshrgw, lng w th Lk Tzw
nd prt f Lk Tw d. kt s brdrd by th S
f Jpn nd by mr, w t, Myg, nd Ymgt
Prfctrs. n ncnt tms kt Prfctr ws prt
f th g sctn f Dw Prvnc; th prfctr
ssmd ts prsnt nm nd brdrs n 1871.
Th cptl f th prfctr s kt cty, sttd
t th mth f th rvr mngw . kt s hm
t fv nvrsts, ncldng kt nvrsty, nd t
s th st f th fms Knt lntrn fstvl (4–7
gst), ssctd wth w lc mng nd sng ff th
sprts f n’s ncstrs. dstrbtn cntr fr
grcltrl gds, t ls s mnfctrng cntr fr
ptrchmcls, frtlzr, mchnry, wd plp, nd
znc. kt rgntd frm mltry frt (ktj)
blt n 733 C t pcfy th ndgns z ppl.
t prsprd n th 1600s s th cstl twn f th Stk
fmly. n th kt ncdnt f 1881, cbl f
frmrs nd frmr smr ttmptd t vrthrw
th gvrnmnt. Th thr mprtnt cts f kt
Prfctr r Nshr, Ykt, dt, nd Kzn.
Th cstl llvl kt Pln n th cntrl r s
cltvtd n rc, nd th lrg crp sppls n ctv
sk-brw ng ndstry. Frstry spprts plp nd plyw d
prdctn, nd th r’s mns yld cppr,
gld, slvr, nd znc. Th w st cst kt l flds, t
thr mx mm tpt n 1959, pmpd vr tw-thrds
f Jpn’s crd l prdctn. n ffshr l fld
strtd n 1960 cntns t spply th prfctr’s ptrlm
ndstry. Th mjr trst ttrctns ncld
ht sprng rsrts, Tw d-Hchmnt Ntnl Pr k,
nd th Krkmy m pk (1,628 mtrs).
. L. S. Wbr
Frthr Rdng
"kt Prfctr." (1993) Jpn: n llstrtd ncyclpd.
Tky: Kdnsh.
KSKL n th frmr Svt Cntrl s cntry
f Kyrgyzstn, rnwd trblsm snc th cllps
f Svt rl hs rsltd n prctcs sch s th rvvd
kskl crts. Ths crts, th nm f w hch
s ltrlly trnsltd s "w ht brd crts," cnssts
f th ldst mn n th vllg w h mk ll mrl
nd fmly dcsns. Th kskls r nt lctd, bt
thr pw rs f jdgmnt nd pnshmnt r spprtd
by th plc frc f Kyrgyzstn’s Prsdnt
kyv.
Th kskls w r rrgnzd fllw ng cll rprtdly
mk by Prsdnt kyv t Jnry 1995
ntnl cngrss. H s llgd t hv ncrgd th
crtn f ntwrk f tnms nd ctv cvl nstttns,
ndpndnt f stt nd pltcl strctrs.
Th 1995 cngrss rprtdly dptd prvsnl stts
rgltng th ctvts f kskl crts, whrby
kskls w r gvn rspnsblty fr xmnng css
f dmnstrtv vltns; prprty, fmly, nd thr
dspts; nd mnr crms pssd t thm by stt
prcrtrs. Th prsdnt s rprtd t hv sgnd
dcr pprvng ths stt n 25 Jnry 1995.
Prsdnt kyv hs pblcly spprtd th rl f
kskl crts nd hs rnfrcd nd rvvd thr mprtnc
n Kyrgyz scty dspt rprtd css f
mdvl pnshmnt, sch s pblc stnng by th kskls
s pnshmnt fr vltng lcl cstm nd
rls. llgtns f hmn rghts bss by th kskls,
ncldng llgl dtntn, w hppngs, nd stnngs,
hv bn brght t th ttntn f hmn
rghts grps. Th .S. Stt Dprtmnt Rprt fr
1996 chrgd ths lcl ldrs w th bss, ncldng
trtr. Mlts, knw n s chr nd prtng ndr
th thrty f th kskl, hv lttl rstrctn
plcd n thr ctvts by rglr lw nfrcmnt
bds. n sm vllgs, zndns, r plcs f llgl
dtntn, hv vn bn stblshd. Crprl nd
cptl pnshmnt by th kskl nd chr hv ls
bn rprtd.
L. M. Hndrhn
Frthr Rdng
mnsty ntrntnl. (1996) Kyrgyzstn: Trnshd Hmn
Rghts Rcrd. Lndn: mnsty ntrntnl.
.S. Dprtmnt f Stt. (1997) .S. Dprtmnt f Stt:
Kyrgyz Rpblc Cntry Rprt n Hmn Rghts Prctcs
fr 1996. Wshngtn, DC: .S. Dprtmnt f Stt.
———. (2000) .S. Dprtmnt f Stt Cntr y Rprts n
Hmn Rghts Prctcs: Kyrgyz Rpblc, 1999. Wshngtn,
DC: .S. Dprtmnt f Stt.
LBNNS n s, lbnn sttlmnts xst
thrght Trky, spclly n stnbl nd Brs,
nd n Dmscs, Syr. Th lrg lbnn clny n
gypt, dtng frm th nntnth cntry, hs ll bt
dspprd. lbnns frst rrvd n Trky s cnscrpts
fr th Trksh jnssry frcs (th jnssrs
wr stblshd n th frtnth cntry) nd sbsqntly
fr th ttmn frcs n th ghtnth
nd nntnth cntrs. scnd wv f lbnns,
LBNNS
80 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
frm Ksv nd sthrn Srb, rrvd frm th
1930s thrgh th 1960s. Th Srbs dprtd svrl
hndrd thsnd f ths Ksv lbnns frm
Ygslv gnst thr wll ndr th bsrd prtnc
tht, s Mslms, thy w r Trks.
n lbn, th lbnns frm tw cltrl grps
sprtd by th Shkmbn Rvr: th nrthrn lbnns
r Ghgs, smtms splld Ggs, nd th
sthrn lbnns r Tsks. Thgh dlct nd cltrl
dffrncs btwn th Ghgs nd Tsks cn b
sbstntl, bth sds strngly dntfy wth thr
cmmn ntnl nd thnc cltr, nd bth spk
dlcts f lbnn, n nd-rpn lngg.
n rp, n ddtn t th Rpblc f lbn
wth ts cntrlly lctd cptl cty f Trn, lbnns
lv n thnclly cmpct sttlmnts n thr
lrg rs f th sthwst Blkn Pnnsl. Th Rpblc
f lbn, w hch nclds nly bt 60 prcnt
f ll lbnns n th Blkns, s mntns
cntry lng th sthrn drtc cst crss frm
th hl f tly. n pprxmtly 10 prcnt lbnn
mnrty ppltn lvs nrth f lbn n Mntngr,
n rgns lng th lbnn- Mntngrn
brdr. Nrthst f lbn s th ntd Ntns–
dmnstrd trrtry f (th slf -prclmd
Rpblc f) Ksv, ls knw n s Ksv, tchnclly
prt f th Fdrl Rpblc f Ygslv .
Ksv’s ppltn s bt 90 prcnt lbnn
spkrs. st f th Rpblc f lbn s th frmr
Ygslv Rpblc f Mcdn, bt n-thrd
f whch, lng th lbnn brdr, hs n lbnn
mjrty.
Thr r n rlbl fgrs fr th (lrgly ssmltd)
lbnn ppltn lvng n s ( mnly
Trky), bt thr r n stmtd sx mlln lbnns
n rp. f ths, bt thr nd hlf mlln
lv n th Rpblc f lbn, bt tw mlln
n Ksv, bt hlf mlln n th Rpblc f
Mcdn, nd bt 100,000 n Mntngr. Thr
r ls lrg lbnn mnrts n tly nd Grc.
lbn s n th brdr dvdng thr grt rlgns:
slm, Grk rthdxy, nd Rmn Cthlcsm.
pprxmtly 70 prcnt f lbnns n th
Rpblc f lbn r Mslm. mng thm r th
Bktsh, Mslm sct clsly lnkd t th lbnn
ntnlst mvmnt f th lt nntnth cntry.
bt 20 prcnt f lbnns, mstly n th sth,
r f rthdx bckgrnd, nd bt 10 prcnt,
mstly n th nrth, r f Cthlc bckgrnd. lbnn
hstry s ntrtwnd w th tht f th ttmn
mpr. lbnns w r th bckbn f mch f th
ttmn mltry nd dmnstrtv systm. Mny l-
LBNNS
lbnn sldrs srvng th ttmn mpr ps n dstnctv nfrms, c. 1900. (MCHL
MSLN HSTRC PHTGRPHS/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 81
bnns rs frm th rnks f th jnssrs t hgh
ffcs n th ttmn mpr; s m vn bcm
mnstrs nd prm mnstrs f th mprl crt.
Rbrt ls
Frthr Rdng
Hll, Drk. (1994) lbn nd th lbnns. Lndn:
Pntr.
Jcqs, dw n . Th lbnns: n thnc Hstry frm
Prhstrc Tms t th Prsnt. Jffrsn, NC: Mc Frlnd
& C.
Vckrs, Mrnd. (1994) lbn: Mdrn Hstry. Lndn
nd Nw Yrk: . B. Trs.
LBQ RQ, FNS D (1453–1515),
Prtgs vcry. Brn n lhndr, sth f Lsbn,
fns d lbqrq ws th rchtct f th
Prtgs mrtm mpr n th ndn cn. Hs
strtgy f scrng ky pnts lng mjr trd
rts nd stblshng frtrsss wth prmnnt sttlrs
chvd th dl bjctv f crryng th crsd
gnst th Mslms n s nd cptrng th
lcrtv spc trd, thn ndr th cntrl f rb
nd ndn Mslms n th rbn S, ndn cn
rgn, nd Sthst s. lbqrq hmslf
gnd hs rly mltry xprnc n Nrth frc
fghtng th Brbrs r Mrs, bfr trvlng t th
st n 1503.
Fllw ng Vsc d Gm’s pnrng vyg n
1498 rnd th Cp f Gd Hp nd t nd,
Cchn ws cptrd by th Prtgs n 1503. Dm
Frncsc d lmd, th frst vcry f Prtgs
nd (1505–1509), dftd cnfdrtn f Mslm
pw rs (gypt, rld by Mmlk sltn; Gjrt,
rld by Bhdr Shh; Clct, rld by
Smrn [Zmrn]) t th Bttl f D ff th nrthwst
cst f nd n 1509.
lbqrq sccdd s vcry n 1509 nd st
t t cnqr th Glf f dn, fr cntrl f th
Rd S; rmz (tdy’s Hr mz) Strt n th Prsn
Glf; G stt n nd; nd Mlk, th spctrd
mpr m n th Mly Pnnsl. ttmpts t
cptr dn fld, bt lbqrq cnqrd Sctr
slnd n 1507, bfr bcmng th scnd
vcry f Prtgs nd. H szd G n 1510
nd Mlk n 1511. t Mlk, lbqrq cnstrctd
n mpsng frtrss, Fms, w hch wthstd
ll ttcks fr 130 yrs. rmz fll t th
Prtgs n 1515. Fllw ng th rmz cmpgn,
lbqrq w s tkn ll nd dd n rt t G.
Kt Gn
Frthr Rdng
Brch, W. d G. ([1875–1884] 1970) Th Cmmntrs f th
Grt fns Dlbqrq. 4 vls. Rprnt d. Lndn:
Hklyt Scty.
Bxr, C. R. (1969) Th Prtgs Sbrn mpr, 1415–
1825. Lndn: Htchnsn.
Crts, ., d. (1944) Th ‘sm rntl’ f Tm Prs. 2
vls. Lndn: Hklyt Scty.
Mlnk- Rlfsz, M. . P. (1962) sn Trd nd rpn
nflnc n th ndnsn rchplg btwn 1500 nd
bt 1630. Th Hg, Nthrlnds: Njhff.
LPP (2001 st. pp. 2 mlln). lpp, th
scnd cty f mdrn Syr nd n f th ldst cntnsly
nhbtd cts n th w rld, s 110 klmtrs
nlnd frm th Mdtrrnn nd 30 klmtrs
sth f th Syrn-Trksh frntr. ntl th mdnntnth
cntry, lpp ws th wstrn trmns
f th Slk Rd, nsrng ts lng-lstng prsprty.
lpp pssd ndr svrl ccprs ntl th rb
cnqst n 636 C. Mny f ts bst-knw n bldngs
(ncldng th mpsng Ctdl nd th Grt Msq)
wr rstrd r cnstrctd ndr th Zngds nd
thr sccssr Sldn (1137/38–1193) n th tw lfth
cntry. ndr th ttmns (1516–1918), th cty
prsprd nd grw, bcmng n f th ldng cmmrcl
cntrs f th strn Mdtrrnn. vdnc
f ths prsprty cn stll b sn n th sks (mrktplcs)
nd crvnsrs (nns) dtng frm ttmn
tms. Th prsnc f frgn trdrs nd dplmts
ls bnftd thr lcl ntrmdrs, ftn mmbrs
f th Chrstn nd Jwsh mnrts, w h ccntd
fr sm 35 prcnt f th ppltn n 1900.
ftr th crtn f Syr n 1920, lpp sffrd
frm th lss f ts trdtnl mrkts n ntl nd
nrthrn rq nd fr th frst tm bcm dmnstrtvly
sbrdnt t Dmscs, th nw cptl. t
grdlly rcvrd ts cmmrcl nd ndstrl
vgr, prtly s rslt f th xpnsn f th cltvtn
f csh crps t th st f th cty nd ls
thrgh lrg-scl mgrtn frm th cntrysd.
Ptr Slgltt
Frthr Rdng
Mrcs, brhm. (1989) Th Mddl st n th v f
Mdrnty: lpp n th ghtnth Cntry. Nw Yrk:
Clmb nvrsty Prss.
Mrw thr, Mrgrt L. (1999) Th Kn Wh Cnt: Fmly
nd Scty n ttmn lpp, 1770–1840. stn, TX:
nvrsty f Txs Prss.
Ry mnd, ndré. (1984) Grt rb Cts n th 16th–18th
Cntrs: n ntrdctn. Nw Yrk: Nw Yrk nvrsty
Prss.
LPP
82 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
LV MSLMS Th lv Mslms, ls
knw n s lvs, lw s, lw ts, r lts, frm
dstnct brnch f th tw lv -mm Sh_t trdtn
(Tw lvrs). Thr ntrprttn f slm nd Sh_sm
s knw n s lvsm r th lv fth. Vrs lv
scts dffr n sm spcts f thr fth, bt thy ll
sbscrb t n nrthdx ntrprttn f slm,
whch mks thm dstnct frm ll thr Mslms
whthr Sh_t r Snn. Th lvs, w h lv mnly
n Trky, r stmtd t b btw n 12 nd 20 mlln
n nmbr, w th mch smllr cmmnts n
Syr, rq, nd rn.
Lk thr Mslms, th lvs rcgnz th
prpht f slm, Mhmmd, s th lst prpht. Lk
Sh_t Mslms, thy blv tht mm l, th csn
nd sn-n-lw f Mhmmd, s hs tr sccssr nd
rghtfl mm. Thy ls blv tht th thr lvn
Sh_t mms, w h wr ll dscndd frm l, w r
mm l’s tr sccssrs. Thr hvy mphss n
mm l s th prfct hmn plys ky rl n thr
fth. Ths s rflctd n thr nm, lv: "f l" r
"fllw r f l." Th lttr mphss s n f th fctrs
mkng thm dstnct frm thr Sh_ts.
Crtn chrctrstcs ls dstngsh th lvs
frm thr Mslms, bth Sh_t nd Snn. Whl
blvng n th Qr_n, thy d nt fllw t s th
gd t thr fth. Rthr, thy cnsdr t hly
bk lng w th ths f th Jw s nd Chrstns, nd
ll th hly bks, ccrdng t thm, r ll th s m
n ssnc. Th lvs hv n msqs r frml
clrgy, nd thy d nt bsrv dly slmc pryrs.
Thy d nt fst n th mnth f Rmdn lk thr
Mslms, bt n th mnth f Mhr m nd fr prd
shrtr thn mnth. Fr th lvs, mkng
plgr mg t Mcc s nt rlgs ncssty. nlk
thr Mslms, thr rlgs crmns ncld
mn nd w mn pryng tgthr thrgh spchs,
ptry, nd dnc. Th drnkng f lchl s nt frbddn
mng mst lv scts. Th lvs frbd
plygmy nd gnr lly dvct qlty f ll ppl
rgrdlss f gndr. Fr ths rsn mst lvs
r gnst slmc rstrctns n w mn, ncldng
vlng. Mst fvr th sprtn f rlgn nd stt
nd dvct sclrty.
Ths dstnctv chrctrstcs f th lvs hv
prvdd grnds fr th prsctn f thr mn
cmmnty n Tr ky. Th Snn clrgy f Trky
cnsdr thm nn-Mslm. Ths hs crtd jstfctn
fr thr prsctn by Snn xtrmsts n tht
cntry, ncldng ttcks n thr lvs nd prprty.
Hmn Pmn
Frthr Rdng
lssn, Trd, lsbth Özdlg, nd Cthrn Rdvr.
(1998) lv dntty. stnbl, Trky: Sw dsh Rsrch
nsttt n stnbl.
LGHZ lghz s gnrc trm fr vrs
typs f twn-fltd w nd nstrmnts rgntng n
Sndh, th sthstrn prvnc f Pkstn, nd n
nrthrn nd. Th mscn plys bth flts vrtclly
t th sm tm, prdcng th tw snds
smltnsly.
Th lngths f th w dn flts vry frm rgn
t rgn bt r cmmnly rnd 48 cntmtrs
(19 nchs). ch flt hs sx fngr hls n th lw r
nd. Cntns snd s chvd thrgh th tchnq
f crclr brthng. Th mldy s prdcd
n bth flts. vrtn s th smllr (27 cntmtrs
[11 nchs]) dbl-fltd pw, md frm bmb,
whch hs n mldy flt nd n flt
sndng th drn. t s thght tht th lghz nd
ts vrtns r vr tw thsnd yrs ld. Th
sw t mlds plyd n th lghz r rmnscnt
f th Wstrn rcrdr. Trdtnl lghz msc rvlvs
rnd th thms f lv, sprtn, nd srrw.
Rnw nd cntmprry plyrs f th lghz
ncld Khms Khn nd Msr Khn Jml.
Dnl kmn
Frthr Rdng
Dv, B. Chtny. (1978) Mscl nstrmnts f nd:
Thr Hstry nd Dvlpmnt. Nw Dlh: Mnshrm
Mnhr l.
Ysf, Zhr. (1988) Rhythms f th Lwr nds: Prspctvs
f th Msc f Sndh. Krch, Pkstn: Gvrnmnt f
Sndh, Dprtmnt f Cltr nd Trs m.
L JNHR, MHMD (1878–1931),
prmnnt fgr f nd’s ndpndnc mv mnt.
Th l brthrs, Mhmd nd Shkt, wr brn
n Njbbd, Bjnr Dstrct, ttr Prdsh. Bth
wr gd rtrs nd w ll-dctd Mslms. Mhmd
l bcm n stblshd schlr w h prdcd
n f th mst thrttv trnsltns f th
Qr’n nt nglsh.
n 1912, Mhmd l nd M. . nsr ld Rd
Crss mssn t Trky drng th Blkn Wrs. Mhmd
nd Shkt l ltr bc m ldrs f th
Khlft mv mnt, w hch rs n rctn t th hmltng
trms mpsd n Trky t th Vrslls
Cnfrnc n 1919. Ths mvmnt sn cllpsd,
hw vr, bcs Kml ttrk (1881–1938) dr-
LV MSLMS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 83
mtclly rvvd Trky; th clpht thr ws blshd
n 1924; nd dspt ts Mslm mjrty, Tr ky
dclrd tslf sclr stt. Mhmd l thn
jnd w th Mhnds Gndh (1869–1948) n ldng
th Nn- Cprtn Mv mnt drng th 1920–
1924 prd nd, n s dng, fr th frst tm ntd
ndn Hnds nd Mslms n pltcl ndvr. n
1923 Mhmd l bcm prsdnt f th ndn
Ntnl Cngrss. Ltr h brk w th Gndh w hn
th lttr fndd th Cvl Dsbdnc Mvmnt
n 1930. Nnthlss Mhmd l rmnd n nflntl
Mslm nd ntnlst ldr fr th fnl
yr f hs lf. H dd n Lndn n 1931 w hl ttndng
th Frst Rnd- Tbl Cnfrnc btw n
Brtsh thrts nd rprsnttvs f th ndn
Ntnl Cngrss.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
l, Mhmd. (1942) My Lf, Frgmnt: n tbgrphcl
Sktch f Mln Mhmd l, fzl qbl, d.
Lhr, Pkstn: Sh. Mhmmd shrf.
qbl, fzl. (1979) Lf nd Tms f Mhmd l: n nlyss
f th Hps, Frs, nd sprtns f Mslm nd frm
1878–1931. Lhr, Pkstn: nsttt f slmc Cltr.
L KHN, BD GHLM (1902–1968),
Hndstn vclst. Bd ("Th Grt") Ghlm l
Khn ws n f th fnst Hndstn vclsts f
th tw ntth cntry, n w hs styl nd stndng
rflct nq hstrcl sttng. Brdgng th gp
btw n ryl cltvtn nd pblc pprctn,
hs ws gnrtn f mscns whs rtstry
lnkd nntnth cntry rstrnt t twntth cntry
rmntcsm.
Ghlm l ws trnd by hs ncl, Kl Khn, nd
hs fthr, l Bksh Khn, th lttr crt mscn
t th Mhrj f Kshmr. s ryl ptrns wr ftn
msclly rdt, Ghlm l’s yrs f dscplshp
wr spnt n mscl ths tht w s nhrrd,
rgrs, nd mjstc. Yt, hs wn crr grw n n
g f rdcl scl trnsfrmtn—brngng nw ptrng
(th stt), chngd cnmy (cptlsm) nd
nw svrgn (ndpndnt nd). Ghlm l cnsqntly
bcm th frst f nw gnrtn f mscns
wh ws snstv t nw "pblc" dnc:
n tht w s ncrsngly lrg, vrd, nd nnyms.
Ghlm l ws brn nd msclly grmd n Ksr,
jst tsd f Lhr, Pkstn. Fr m hs dbt
n Clctt n 1939, h trd thrght nd, bcmng
wdly knw n. ftr Prttn, h md Pkstn
hs "hm." Whl th gvrnmnt f nd
grntd hm vss fr shrt cncrt trs, t prhbtd
rd brdcst f hs rctls, vn frbddng
mntn f hs nm. dcd ltr h bc m ctzn
f nd.
Ghlm l’s khyl styl f sngng ws s dmnnt
tht tw gnrtns f mscns cntn t mlt
t. Wht ndrd hm t th msss, hwvr,
wr hs rndtns f bhjn-s (dvtnl sngs) nd
hs ncrprtn f flk tns. H bc m, s sch,
nd’s frst clsscl clbrty, mscn whs rpttn
ly n ts crcltn btw n th rd brdcst,
th cmmrcl rcrdng, nd th pblc cncrt.
Drd Nmn
LSHR NVY SMRQ ND STT
NVRSTY Th lshr Nvy Smrqnd
Stt nvrsty s n f th ldst nstttns f
mdrn hghr dctn n Cntrl s. t w s stblshd
n 1927 s th zbk Hghr Pdggcl
nsttt, w th sxty-fv stdnts nd tn fclty mmbrs.
Smrqnd ws thn th cptl f zbkstn
nd th Hghr Pdggcl nsttt ws prt f th
Svt rgm’s ffrts t trn tchrs s prt f ts
prgrm f lmntng lltrcy nd stblshng
systm f nvrsl dctn. Pstgrdt clsss bgn
n 1931, nd n 1933, th pdggcl nsttt w s
trnd nt th zbk Stt nvrsty. Drng Wrld
Wr , th nvrsty brfly bcm stllt c mps
f th Cntrl sn Stt nvrsty n Tshknt.
n 1960, t cqrd ts prsnt nm.
Th Svt rgm’s ffrts t fght lltrcy nd
stblsh nvrsl dctn hv sccdd, nd th
nvrsty hs grwn vr th dcds. n th rly
2000s, ts hs n nrlmnt f nrly tn thsnd stdnts
wh ttnd clsss n mdrn skyscrpr nt
fr frm th cty’s hstrc cntr.
db Khld
LL BRM STDNTS DMCRTC
FRNT Th ll Br m Stdnts Dmcrtc
Frnt (BSDF) s n rmd stdnt grp tht bc m
prmnnt n th dcd fllw ng th ssmptn
f pwr by th mltry Stt Lw nd rdr
Rstrtn Cncl n 1988. Stdnts hv std n
th frfrnt f pltcl prtst n Brm (nw Mynmr)
snc th 1930s, w hn stdnt ldrs sch s
ng Sn (1915–1947) nd N (1907–1995) ld th
ppstn t Brtsh clnl rl.
LL BRM STDNTS DMCRTC FRNT
84 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Th dcsn t tk p r ms w s md by stdnt
ldrs ftr th Brms rmy’s spprssn f prdmcrcy
dmnstrtns n 1988. thr-prng
strtgy ws mplmntd: th mnstr m ll Br m
Fdrtn f Stdnts nns rmnd th bvgrnd
fc f stdnt pltcs; nw rgnztn, th
Dmcrtc Prty fr Nw Scty, ws stblshd t
prs lgl prty pltcs; nd th BSDF w s frmd
n ctbr tht yr mng th thsnds f stdnts
wh hd fld nt trrtry cntrlld by rmd thnc
ppstn frcs. t n stg, ghtn stdnt bttlns
wr rgnzd n Mynmr’s brdrlnds.
Th BSDF, hw vr, ws bdly w knd drng
th 1990s by fctnl splt nt tw wngs, hdd
by Dr. Nng ng nd M Th Zn, rspctvly.
Th BSDF w s ls hmprd by lgstcl dffclts
nd strnd rltns w th svrl f ts thnc mnrty
hsts. s rslt, th nmbr f rmd BSDF
mmbrs dw ndld stdly. nstd, mny stdnts
tk pltcl sylm brd, w hr BSDF xls bcm
ctv vcs n th ntrntnl cmpgn fr
dmcrtc trnstn n Mynmr.
Mrtn Smth
Frthr Rdng
Smth, Mrtn. (1999) Brm: nsrgncy nd th Pltcs f
thncty. 2d d. Lndn: Zd Bks.
Thng Htn. (1995) "Stdnt ctvsm n Br m: Hstrcl
Prspctv." Brm Dbt 2, 2 (prl): 4–10. LLHBD (2001 pp. 990,000). llhbd s
hly cty n nd, w hs nm mns "Cty f Gd."
Lctd n th nrthrn stt f ttr Prdsh, t s
t th jnctn f th Gngs nd Jmn Rvrs, w hch
Hnds cnsdr scrd plcs f sprtl clnsng.
n ddtn t ttrctng mny rlgs plgrms, llhbd
s n mprtnt hstrc nd cltrl st. n
2001 t ws th lctn f th wrld’s lrgst rlgs
gthrng, w hn prhps 70 mlln dvts cmng
t prtcpt n th Mh Kmbh Ml, r Grnd
Ptchr Fstvl, Hnd fstvl w hch s hld bt
nc vry 12 yrs. Fndd n bt 200 C, ncnt
llhbd’s strctrs rmn prtly ntct tdy.
Mjr rchtctrl sts ncld mnmnt frm th
rgn f shk, thrd-cntry-BC kng fmd fr
hs bnvlnc; th Jm Msjd r Grt Msq;
nd th plc nd frt cnstrctd n 1583 by kbr,
th Mghl mprr w h gv th cty ts prsnt
nm. llhbd ws rld by th Mrths, n thnc
grp n nd, th Pshtns, n thnc grp n
mdrn Pkstn nd fghnstn, nd th Brtsh.
Th cty ws th cptl f th ntd Prvncs f
gr nd dh, nw ttr Prdsh stt, btw n
1901 nd 1949.
LLHBD
NGHT LF N
CLNL LLHBD
"llhbd s nw n f th gyst, nd s, s t
lw ys hs bn, n f th prttst sttns n
nd. W hv dnnr-prts mr thn
ngh, blls ccsnlly; bk scty; sm
fv r sx bllrd-tbls; pck f dgs; sm
mngst thm hnds, nd (hw cld hv
frgttn!) frtn spnstrs!"
Src: Fnny Pr ks (1832) Wndrngs f
Plgrm n Srch f th Pctrsq Drng Fr
nd Twnty Yrs n th st wth Rvltns f
Lf n th Znn/Fnny Prks. Lndn:
Plhm Rchrdsn.
9
Hnds tkng rtl clnsng bth n th Gngs Rvr n
llhbd drng th Khmb Ml fstvl n 1988. (JNZ
SKK/CRBS)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 85
Tw f nd’s mst fms mdrn pltcns
wr brn n llhbd: Jw hrll Nhr, th frst
ndn prm mnstr, n 1889, nd ndr Gndh,
hs dghtr nd ls prm mnstr, n 1917. Th
Nhr fmly stt nw hss msm. Th
shs f Mhnds K. Gndh, ssssntd n 1948,
wr cnsgnd t th Gngs t llhbd. Tdy
llhbd s n mprtnt c mmrcl cntr w th
xchngs fr cttn, sgr, nd thr grcltrl
prdcts.
Lnd Dly Plsn
Frthr Rdng
Mchll, Grg, nd Phlp Dvs, ds. (1989) "llhbd."
n Th Pngn Gd t th Mnmnts f nd, 1 nd 2.
Lndn: Vkng, 1:152–153; 2:200–203.
LMTY (1999 st. pp. 1,129,400). lmty s
frmr cptl nd th lrgst cty n th Rpblc f
Kzkhstn, Cntr l sn stt. Sttd n th
sthstrn prt f th cntry, lmty sts n th
bnks f th Blsh (Grtr) lmtnk nd Ml
(Lssr) lmtnk Rvrs, t th ft f th Zlysky
lt mntns, nd n svn-rvr vlly knw n s
Jtys n Kzk, r Smrch n Rssn. Th cty w s
fndd s Rssn frtrss nmd Vrn (Lyl) t
th ncnt st f lmt n 1854. n 1867, Vrn
ws rcgnzd s twn nd rcvd th slghtly dffrnt
nm f Vrny. t ws th mn strnghld drng
Rss’s frthr nvsns n Cntrl s.
n th lt nntnth thrgh th tw ntth cntrs,
Vrny ws plc f xl fr Rssn rvltnrs.
n 1916, t ws th cntr f th mjr
nt-Rssn Jtys Rblln, w hch ws crdly spprssd.
ftr th Blshvk Rvltn n Rss
(1917), Vrny bcm th hdqrtrs f th nt-Blshvk
Bl Dvzhn (Wht Mvmnt) n Smrch
(1918–1920), w hch vntlly ws dftd by
th Rd r my. n 1921, th cty ws rnmd lm-t
(Fthr f ppls) ftr ts rmrkbl ppl rchrds.
Fr m 1929 t 1991, lm-t w s th cptl f th
Kzkh Svt Sclst Rpblc, cnsttnt prt f
th nn f Svt Sclst Rpblcs (SSR). n
Dc mbr 1986, th cty w s th st f mssv stdnt
prsng t prtst gnst Mscw ’s dcsn t
rplc Dnmkhmd Knv (1912–1993), th frst
scrtry f th Cmmnst Prty f Kzkhstn, wth
Gnndy Klbn (b. 1927), ntv Rssn. ftr th
dssltn f th SSR n 1991, th cty rcvd ts
rgnl nm f lmty n 1994 nd r mnd th
cptl f th Rpblc f Kzkhstn ntl 1997. n
Jnry 1998, th cptl f Kzkhstn w s trnsfrrd
t qml, sbsqntly rnmd stn, n
nrthrn Kzkhstn.
Prsnt-dy lmty rmns th cntry’s mst mprtnt
bsnss nd cltrl cntr, wth 7.5 prcnt
f th ntr ppltn f Kzkhstn. lmty srvvd
tw mjr rthqks, n 1887 nd 1911, nd
mssv md sld n 1921. Th fms hghlnd c
rnk Md (ngrtd n 1951), w th n r f
10,500 sqr mtrs, s sttd 15 klmtrs sthst
f lmty, t n tttd f 1,700 mtrs bv
s lvl. Th hstrcl dclrtn n th dssltn
f th Svt nn, th lm-t Dclrtn, w s
sgnd by th ldrs f twlv Svt rpblcs n lmty
n 21 Dc mbr 1991.
Ntly Y. Khn
Frthr Rdng
Mlr, sf srvch. (1983) lm-t: Gd. Mscw :
Rdg.
Sck, Svt. (2000) Hstry f nnr s. Cmbrdg,
L-NJF (2002 st. pp. 563,000). ls knw n
s Mshhd _l, l-Njf s n f th hlst cts
f Sh_ slm. t s lctd n Cntrl rq, fw klmtrs
wst f th phrts Rvr nr Kf. Prr
t thr xplsn drng th rn-rq Wr, nrly
n-qrtr f th cty’s ppltn ws f rnn
dscnt.
ccrdng t trdtn, th cty cntns th brl
st f _l bn b Tlb (c. 600–661 C), csn nd
sn-n-lw f th Prpht Mhmmd, frth clph,
nd th sprtl fndr f Sh_ slm. shrn ws
blt vr _l’s prsmd tmb n th rly tnth cntry
ftr t hd lrdy bcm cntr f plgrmg.
Th shrn w s dstryd nd rblt svrl tms, nd
tdy t cnsttts snctry wth lrg msq nd
n djnng Sh_ cllg. Th ld cty s stll ncrcld
by w ll tht dts bck t ttmn tms, nd th tskrts
cntn nmbr f Sh_ cmtrs. ls nrby
r th rmns f svrl rly Chrstn mnstrs.
Th cty cntns srs f mzlk cllrs tht ws
cnstrctd t prvd shltr frm th dsrt ht nd
hs bn sd s hdng plc fr pltcl ppstn
grps. D t ts rlgs stts l-Njf dvlpd
strng trdtn f pltcl tnmy, w hch ftn ld
t rsstnc nd rblln gnst th cntrl thrts
n Bghdd.
Thbt bdllh
L-NJF
86 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
LPMSH lpmsh s n rl pc fnd mng
th Trkc ppls f Cntrl s, n prtclr th
zbks, Kzkhs, nd Krklpks. Vrsns f th
pc r ls fnd mng th Ttrs, Bshkrs, nd
ltns. Th bst-knw n vrsn f lpmsh s th
pc wrttn dw n frm th zbk sngr Fzl
Yldsh-ghl n 1928. Th rlst vrsn f th lpmsh
stry s fnd n th tl f Bms Byrk n
th ghz pc f Grkt t (Grndfthr Krkt).
Th stry s n tw prts: th wnnng f th brd nd
th rtrn f th hr. n th frst prt, lpmsh w ns
th hnd f th btfl Brchn n str cntst
nvlvng hrs rc, bw shtng, nd w rstlng
mtch. n th scnd prt, lpmsh bc ms cptv
n th lnd f th Klmcks, bt s fnlly rscd
frm th dngn w th th hlp f hs hrs. n hs
rtrn hm, hs wf s bt t b rmrrd t th
srpr f hs rlm. lpmsh tsts hs wf’s fdlty
n sng cntst nd vrcms hs rvl n bwshtng
cntst. Th pc s ls mprtnt n ffrng
cls prlll t th rtrn f dysss.
Krl Rchl
Frthr Rdng
bdrkhmv, M., nd Tr Mrzv. (1999) lpmysh:
zbkskjy nrdny grchsky ps (lpmysh: n zbk
Hrc Flk pc). Tshknt, zbkstn: Fn.
Chdw ck, Nr K., nd Vktr Zhrmnsky. (1969) rl
pcs f Cntrl s. Cmbrdg, .K.: Cmbrdg nvrsty
Prss.
Rchl, Kr l. (1992) Trkc rl pc Ptry: Trdtns,
Frms, Ptc Strctr. lbrt Bts Lrd Stds n rl
Trdtn 7. Nw Yrk: Grlnd.
Zhrmnsky, Vktr M. (1960) Skzn b lpmysh bgtyrsky
skzk (Th Tl f lpmysh nd th Hrc
Tl). Mscw : zd. Vstchny Ltrtry.
LTC LNGGS Th ltc lnggs
r grp f lnggs nd lngg fmls, w dsprd
n nd dmntng prts f Cntrl nd Nrthrn
s. Th nm ltc llds t th lt mntn
rng n sthrn Sbr, w hr nntnth-cntry
schlrs lctd th rgnl hbtt f th spkrs f
ths lnggs.
Lngsts slly cnsdr th Trkc, Mngln,
nd Tngsc lnggs, ftn rfrrd t s mcr-ltc,
s th prncpl mmbrs f ths grp; sm schlrs
ls ncld Krn nd Jpns, rfrrd t s
mcr-ltc. Whl lngsts gr tht ll ths lnggs
shw hgh dgr f strctrl nfrmty nd
mny shrd lxcl (w rd-rltd) nd, t lssr dgr,
mrphlgcl (frm-rltd) mtrls, th "ltc
thry" cntns t b n f th mst cntrvrsl
sss n cntmprry cmprtv lngstcs.
Th gst f ths dbt s th qstn f whthr
ths lngg fmls—r sbst f thm—r t
b vw d s mmbrs f hghr-lvl fmly f lnggs
(ftn clld mcrfmly), fr whch cmmn
lngstc ncstr ( prtlngg) cn b
rcnstrctd nd frm w hch th lnggs dvrgd,
r w hthr th cmmn trts nd lmnts fnd n
ths lnggs rs drng mllnn-lng prcsss
f "rl cnvrgnc," r lrg-scl lngg cntct,
f rgnlly nrltd lnggs.
Th ltc Dbt
Schlrs ntcd th hgh dgr f strctrl smlrty
shrd by th ltc lnggs s rly s th
lt ghtnth cntry nd ths ssmd tht th lnggs
wr gntclly rltd. n slnt typlgcl
ftr s vwl hrmny: w rds my cntn nly
vw ls blngng t n f tw r mr mtlly xclsv
clsss, sch s frnt vrss bck r rndd
vrss nrndd vwls. Th prncpl mrphlgcl
tchnq n ltc lnggs s tht f ggltntn:
lrgly mnfnctnl ffxs (lmst xclsvly
sffxs) ddd t th rts thy mdfy, n fxd rdr,
nd w tht th hgh dgr f fsn cmmn,
fr nstnc, n nd-rpn lnggs (s n th
Ltn w rd lbrrm ["f th bks"], w hr th ndng
-rm smltnsly crrs th fnctns f plrl
nd gntv). Th bsc w rd rdr n rdnry sntncs
n ltc lnggs s gnrlly sbjct—bjct—
vrb; mdfyng cnsttnts, lk djctvs,
lw ys prcd th cnsttnt thy mdfy; pstpstns
rthr thn prpstns r fnd.
Mdrn lngsts, hw vr, n lngr vw sch typlgcl
smlrts s ndctv f gntc rltns,
mstly bcs th smlrts cn chng (spclly
n sttns f ntnsv lngg cntct), nd bcs
ths nd thr phnmn nc vw d s "typclly
ltc" trts ccr n glbl scl nknw n
whn th ltc thry ws frst dvlpd.
Frthrmr, crtcs f th ltc hypthss ftn
pnt t th fct tht sm typlgcl hllmrks f
ltc lnggs r hstrcl nnvtns. Fr nstnc,
th rlst Mngln txts (thrtnth cntry
C) hv lmnts typcl fr ltc (whn
cmprd w th ld Trkc, fr nstnc), ncldng
grmmtcl gndr, n rgd vrb–fnl wrd rdr,
nd djctvs fllw ng rthr thn prcdng nns.
Mngln ltr dvlpd nt "typcl" ltc lngg.
Smw ht smlrly, n Tngsc, th vnk
nd vn lnggs, spkn n th nrthrn nd w st-
LPMSH
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 87
rn frngs f th lngg fmly’s trrtry n cntrl
Sbr nd Mngl, r typlgclly mch
mr dvrgnt frm th ltc rchtyp thn ths
spkn n th cntr, w hr thy hv bn n cntct
wth Mngln fr cntrs.
Prpnnts f th gntc rltns thry slly
mntn tht th ltc lnggs shr mny lxcl
tms frm ll smntc sphrs, ncldng bsc
vcblry. Ths lxcl cmmnlts r chrctrzd
by hghly rglr phnlgcl crrspndncs,
th mst mprtnt crtrn fr gntc
rltnshp. cnsdrbl nmbr f shrd mrphlgcl
lmnts (ffxs) hv bn dntfd,
nd ll ths bsrvtns mply tht ths lnggs
shr cmmn rgn.
Crtcs f th gntc pprch t ltc lngstcs
ftn rg tht whl th grt nmbr f lxcl cmmnlts
cnnt b dnd, mst f nt ll cn b xplnd
s rly brrwngs. n mcr-ltc, th mst
rdly dntfbl lyrs f brrw ngs r Trkc
lns n prt-Mngln nd Mngln lns n
prt-Tngsc. Frm th tm f Ghngs Khn (c.
1162–1227) n, Mngln lmnts bgn t bnd
n Trkc lnggs, nd thn lyr f Tngsc lns
n rly Mngln s smtms cknw ldgd. n prtclr,
th fct tht mny w rds cmmn t Trkc
nd Mngln shw , n Mngln, trts f n f
th sbgrps f Trkc, nmly th Blghrc brnch
(f whch mdrn Chvsh s th sl srvvr), lds
t th hypthss tht strng prt-Blghrc nflnc
n prt-Mngln s rspnsbl fr mst cmmnlts
n th tw lngg fmls. Th brrw ng
hypthss s frthr strngthnd by th fct tht th
ltc lnggs shr fw lxcl tms tht blng t
ths smntc rs tht r gnrlly thght t b
stbl vr tm nd lst mnbl t lngstc brrwng.
ltcsts clm tht phnlgcl crrspndncs
btw n th lnggs r hghly rglr, w hch
prsppss th ccptnc f mny tymlgs; ths
r prblmtcl fr nmrs rsns, ncldng
phllgcl prblms f dtrmnng th rlst Tr kc,
Mngln, nd thr frms tht ln shld ntr
ny xtrnl cmprsn; prblms f nxct r
vg smntc mppng n frms nd wrds cmprd;
nd s n. Th systms f crrspndncs prpsd
by ltcsts cntn gps, s wll. Mrphlgcl lmnts
cmprd by ltcsts r mstly cnfnd t
drvtnl mrphlgy nd slly nvlv vry shrt
mrphms, ftn cnsstng f mrly n phnm,
th fnctns f whch my b vg.
Sm crtcs f th ltc thry mntn tht, nc
ll c mprsns fr whch ths nd smlr bjctns
my b brght frwrd r rmvd, th rmnng
ptntlly cmprbl tms r s fw tht thy cld
ll b xplnd s chnc smlrts. thrs d nt
cmpltly rjct th ltc thry, blvng tht th
vdnc, whn sftd thrgh, w ll jstfy lnr vrsn
f th thry.
ll ths pnts hv bn nd cntn t b ddrssd
by prpnnts f th thry; bth th mthdlgcl
prncpls (sch s nsstng n llw ng
ntrnl rcnstrctn f prt-Mngln, prt-
Trkc, nd s n lwys t prcd xtrnl ltclvl
cmprsns) nd th fctl clms (fr xmpl,
th ccptblty f ndvdl tymlgs nd sndcrrspndncs
bsd n thm) f thr crtcs hv
bn chllngd. Ths, th ltc dbt stll cntns
nd hs dvlpd nt n dl tstng grnd fr
th mthdlgy f ssssng (r rjctng) th gntc
rltns f lnggs n gnrl.
Stfn Grg
Frthr Rdng
Drfr, Grhrd. (1963) Türksch nd mnglsch lmnt
m Nprsschn, Bnd : Mnglsch lmnt m Nprsschn.
Wsbdn, Gr mny: Hrrssw tz, sp. 51–106.
Grg, Stfn, Ptr Mchlv, lxs Mnstr Rmr, nd
Pl J. Sdw ll. (1998) "Tllng Gnrl Lngsts bt
ltc." Jrnl f Lngstcs 35: 65–98.
Jnhnn, Jh. (1996) Mnchr: n thnc Hstry.
Hlsnk, Fnlnd: Fnn-grn Scty.
Mrtn, Sml lm. (1996) Cnsnnt Lntn n Krn
nd th Mcr-ltc Qstn. Hnll, H: Cntr fr
Krn Stds.
Mllr, Ry ndrw . (1996) Lnggs nd Hstry: Jpns,
Krn, nd ltc. Bngkk, Thlnd: Wht rchd Prss.
Ppp, Nchls. (1965) ntrdctn t ltc Lngstcs.
Wsbdn, Gr mny: Hrrssw tz.
LTC LNGGS
LTC LNGGS
"Th ltc lnggs shr lmst n bsc vcblry,
nr d thy pssss ny ncntrvrsl
mtrl prllls n thr mrphlgcl systms.
Th nly lgcl cnclsn s tht th ltc ntts
wr bth gntclly nd ggrphclly
clrly sprt frm ch thr, ntl . . . ntnsv
cntcts rs btwn Pr-Prt-Blghrc
nd Pr-Prt- Mnglc."
Src: Jh Jnhnn. (1996) Mnchr: n
thnc Hstry. Hlsnk, Fnlnd: Fnn-grn
Scty, 241–242.
9
88 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
LTY MNTNS Th lty Mntns
r cmplx nd mltfrntr chn wth thr dstnctv
sprs: th lty prpr (Rss nd Kzkhstn),
Mngln lty (Mngl nd Chn), nd
Gb lty (Chn). Th ssmblg strtchs 2,000
klmtrs (1,250 mls) n sthst t nrthwst
drctn frm th Gb Dsrt t th Wst Sbrn
Pln nd rchs n lvtn f 4,506 mtrs (14,783
ft) n Blkh. n th Trkc-Mngln lngg,
ltn mns "gldn," rflctng th blf f rly nhbtnts
tht th mntns w r rch n prcs
mtls. Sdmnts dtng frm 500 t 300 mlln
yrs g wr plf td drng th rcnt Qtrnry
prd (1.6 mlln yrs g) nd hv snc bn
sclptd by glcl nd rvr rsn nt n lpn pprnc.
Thr r 1,500 ctv glcrs, 3,500 lks,
nd 4 dstnct mntn vgttn zns (sbdsrt,
stpp, frst, nd lpn). nml lf s f Mngln
(.g., mr mt, ntlp) r Sbrn (.g., brs,
lynx, msk dr) rgn. Th xtr m cntnntl clmt
rslts n lng nd vry cld wntrs nd shrt,
wrm smmrs. vrg nnl prcpttn vrs
wth lvtn, frm 500–1,000 mllmtrs (20–40
nchs), nd s hghst n th wndwrd wstrn
slps. lty rdglns dvd th rctc-bnd b/
rtysh Rvr frm th ntrr nd ftn sln bsns
f Cntrl s.
ndgns ltc ppls, Rssns, nd Kzkhs
shr th lty prpr. Khlkh Mngls nd Kzkhs
prdmnt n th Mngln nd Gb lty.
Lvstck (cttl, shp, nd hrss), grcltr, mnng,
frst prdcts, nd fd prcssng r th mst
mprtnt cnmc prsts. Snc th 1940s, Svt
nd Chns gvrnmnt plcs hv pnd ths
nc rmt rgn t lggng, mnng, nd hydrlctrc
dvlpmnt.
Stphn F. Cnh
Frthr Rdng
Cmpbll, Mtthw . (1994) "c Mdn f th Stpps."
Wrld Prss Rvw 41, 6: 40–41.
Ntrl Hstry Ms m f Ls ngls Cnty. (1989) Nmds
f rs. Sttl, W: nvrsty f Wshngtn
Prss.
Plsmk, Ntl. (1994) " Mmmy nrthd frm th
Pstrs f Hvn." Ntnl Ggrphc 186, 4 (ctbr):
80–103.
Rrkh, Nkl K. (1996) lt-Hmly: Trvl Dry.
Dlh: Bk Fth, nd.
LTYNSRN, BRHM (1841–1889), Kzkh
dctr, scl ctvst, thr. ltynsrn s cnsdrd
by mny schlrs t b n f th frst Kzkh ntllctls
whs prncpl prfssnl ctvty ws t
crt grtr dctnl pprtnts fr Kzkh
chldrn. n 1850 h ntrd th rnbrg Schl fr
Kzkhs, w hr h ws dctd n Rssn clsscs,
sch s by lxndr Pshkn nd Mkhl Lrmntv.
n ddtn, h ws trnd n mthmtcs nd th ntrl
scncs. n 1864 h pnd schl fr Kzkh
chldrn n Trg. H ws spprtr f th Nkl
l’mnsk’s dctnl systm fr Rss’s ntnl mnrts.
Th Rssn gvrnmnt, cncrnd tht
Ttr rlgs vws wr hvng ptntlly ngtv
nflnc n yng Kzkhs, spprtd stps t
ntrdc lssns n th Kzkh vrnclr. ltynsrn
ws ssgnd th tsk f cmplng th lssns sd n
th txtbk. n 1879 ltynsrn’s mst sgnfcnt
wrk, Nchl’n rkvdstv k bchn krgz rsskm
zyk (Bgnnng Hndbk fr Tchng Kzkh
LTY MNTNS
Lk
Blkhsh
l t yM nt ns
T vnR ng
msk
Nvkzntsk
lmty
Kzkhstn
Mngl
Rss
Chn
N
0
0
150 300 Mls
150 300 Klmtrs
lty Mntns
LTY MNTNS—
WRLD HRTG ST
Th lty Mntns n w strn Sbr r
wndr f clgcl bndnc. Th mr thn
1.6 mlln hctrs f mntn, lk nd lpn
pln r hm t snw lprds nd tw mjr
rvrs. Th mntns w r dsgntd s
Wrld Hrtg St n 1998.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 89
th Rssn Lngg), ws pblshd w th th twn
gls f dctng Kzkh yth n th Rssn lngg
nd lmntng lltrcy mng th Kzkh ppltn.
H ws ls ldr n th ffrt t pblsh
nw sppr n th Kzkh lngg; hw vr, th thrts
lw ys dnd hs rqsts. n ddtn, ltynsrn
wrkd trlssly t dct Kzkh grls. n 1891,
tw yrs ftr hs dth, th frst schl fr grls ws
pnd n Trg.
Stvn Sbl
Frthr Rdng
Krndlr, sbll. (1983) "brhm ltynsrn, Nkl
l’mnsk, nd th Kzkh Ntnl w knng." Cntrl
sn Srvy 2: 99–116.
MM SLNDS (2000 st. pp. 150,000). Th
mm slnds, r mm Gnt, frm th nrthrn
hlf f th Nns slnd chn, sth f Kysh,
Jpn, nd r lctd btw n 29° nd 27° nrth
lttd. Th slnds ncld mm shm,
Kkshm, Tknshm, knrb, nd Yrnjm,
s w ll s svrl smllr slnds, ght f w hch
r ppltd. mm shm s th lrgst f th
mm slnds, w th n r f 720 sqr klmtrs
nd ppltn f bt 74,000; t rnks thrd n sz
mng Jpn’s ffshr slnds (ftr knw nd
Sd). Th mn cty s Nz, lctd n mm shm,
nd srvs s th bsnss, pltcl, nd dmnstrtv
cntr f th slnds. Th smtrpcl slnds,
whl hlly, r chfly grcltrl, w th sgrcn,
sw t ptts, nd frts bng th mn prdcts.
Th mm slnds r dmnstrd s prt f
Kgshm Prfctr. Prr t bcmng n dmnstrtv
prt f Kgshm n 1871, thy wr cntrlld
by th Stsm dmn n Kysh, w hch tk
vr th slnds n 1609. Bfr tht, th slnds hd
blngd t th Ryky Kngdm (1429–1879) n knw .
ftr Wrld Wr , th ntd Stts ccpd
th slnds frm 1946 t 1953, w hn thy wr
rtrnd t Jpns cntrl, fllw ng rvrsn
mv mnt ld by lcl dctn nd pltcl ldrs
nd ths frm mm lvng n Tky nd thr prts
f mnlnd Jpn.
Rbrt D. ldrdg
Frthr Rdng
ldrdg, Rbrt D. (frthcmng) Th Pltcl nd Dplmtc
Hstry f th Rtrn f th mm slnds. Lxngtn,
M: Lxngtn Bks.
MNGKRT mngkrt (t hv th wrld
n n’s lp) s Jvns ryl ttl. Th rl f th
fr mngkrts n Jvns hstry ws dmntd
by bldy crss nd rptd ntrvntns f th
Dtch st nd Cmpny (VC). Sltn gng
(rgnd 1613–1646) hd stblshd th grtst Jvns
rlm snc th tm f Hnd-Bddhst Mjpht.
Wth th rl f hs sn nd sccssr
mngkrt (rgnd 1646–1677), hw vr, th
hgmny f th Mtrm dynsty n cntrl nd st
Jv cm t n nd. mngkrt ’s tyrnncl rl,
lntng hm frm pw rfl crt lls nd rgnl
vssls , sltd th mnrchy nd w knd ts mltry
mght. Th mpr dsntgrtd, nd n 1677 th
crt f Mtrm fll t rbl r ms. nly w th th
hlp f th VC w s hs sn nd sccssr mngkrt
(rgnd 1677–1703) rstrd t th thrn,
fndng th nw crt f Krtsr. Drng th Frst
Jvns Wr f Sccssn (1704–1708), th VC
spprtd mngkrt ’s brthr, th ftr
Pkbw n (rgnd 1704–1719), gnst mngkrt
(rgnd 1703–1708). Pkbw n ’s dth
n 1719 nttd th Scnd Jvns Wr f Sccssn
(1719–1723). mngkrt V (rgnd 1719–
1726) sccdd hm pn th thrn bt ls ndd
th VC t fght fr hm.
dwn Wrng
Frthr Rdng
Rcklfs, M. C. (1993) Wr, Cltr, nd cnmy n Jv,
1677–1726: sn nd rpn mprlsm n th rly
Krtsr Prd. Sydny: sn Stds ssctn f
strl; lln & nw n.
MNLLH (1892–1960), Kng f fghnstn.
mnllh Khn, ls knw n s mnllh Brkz,
ws th kng f fghnstn frm 1919 t 1929. H
ws rspnsbl fr ldng fghnstn t ndpndnc
frm Brtn n 1919 s w ll s nstttng mjr
cnmc, pltcl, nd scl rfrms t mdrnz
fghnstn.
Brn th thrd sn f Hbbllh Khn, w h rld
n fghnstn frm 1901 t 1919, mnllh srvd
s th gvrnr f Kbl. Whn hs fthr ws ssssntd,
mnllh sd hs pltcl shrw dnss t
gn th thrn vr th clms f hs brthrs nd ncl.
H sn nttd w r gnst th Brtsh rl n
hs cntry nd, wthn n mnth, hd scrd ndpndnc
fr hs ppl. Th Svt nn qckly
mbrcd th nw ly ndpndnt dmnstrtn, nd
mnllh w nt n t stblsh rltns wth Frnc,
Grmny, tly, Jpn, nd th ttmn mpr.
MNLLH
90 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Drng hs rgn, mnllh nstttd s m frrchng
chngs, sm f whch hv prvld t th
prsnt. H rrgnzd th dmnstrtv dvsns
wthn th cntry, dclrd cnstttn, nstttd
nw tx systm, nd llw d fr prss t prt.
Hwvr, h ls nstttd sm cltrl chngs twrd
mr sclr w y f lf , sch s rmvng th
rqrmnt fr w mn t w r vls, whch crtd
bcklsh f ppstn. n ddtn, h lntd hs
rmy thrgh chngs n cmpnstn, w hch lft
hm w tht mltry spprt w hn svrl rvlts tk
plc n 1928. Ths prssrs ltmtly ld mnllh
t rlnqsh hs thrn n My f 1929. H trd
t rgn hs thrn thrgh mltry cmpgn tw rd
Kbl, bt t fld. H ltmtly lft th cntry
t lv n tly n xl.
Hmn . Sdr
Frthr Rdng
dmc, Ldw g W. (1996) Dctnry f fghn Wrs, Rvltn,
nd nsrgncs. Lnhm, MD: Scrcrw Prss.
———. (1997) Hstrcl Dctnry f fghnstn. 2d d.
Lnhm, MD: Scrcrw Prss.
Nyrp, Rchrd F., nd Dnld M. Skns. (1986)
fghnstn: Cntry Stdy. Frgn r Stds.
Wshngtn, DC: Th mrcn nvrsty.
MSY (2002 st. pp. 78,000). msy, knw n
hstrclly s ms, s th cptl cty f th prvnc
f msy (ppltn 346,191) n Trky. Th cty
strddls th Yslrmk Rvr n cntrl ntl.
Th cty ws ndr th rl f nn dffrnt cvlztns,
bgnnng w th th Httts (scnd mllnnm
BC) nd ndng w th th ttmns (1453–1922),
bfr t bcm prt f th Trksh Rpblc. Th
tw n mst lkly bgn s Httt sttlmnt, fllng
t lxndr f Mcdn n th frth cntry BC.
ndr Kng Mthrdts (123–88 BC; rlr f th
Pntc kngdm tht flrshd frm th frth cntry
t 66 BC), msy flrshd s th Rmn ryl
cptl f th kngdm f Pnts. Mch f ts w lth
nd pw r drvd frm ts strtgc lctn n th
Rmn rd systm. n bt 47 BC, s Rmn nflnc
n ntl dclnd, th cty fll ndr Byzntn
(330 C) nd thn Sljk (1075) rl.
Th Mngls ndr Gnghs Khn rtd th cty
n th thrtnth cntry. Th tw n ws fnlly lst t
th ttmn r my, ld by th sltn Byzd (c.
1360–1403). ndr ttmn rl, msy flrshd
s n f th trnng nd dctn cntrs fr crwn
prncs wh ftn srvd s gvrnrs. Drng th fftnth
cntry, t ws cntr fr cllgrphc mngr ms
(tr), nd drng th nntnth cntry t bcm
mjr cntr f slmc dctn.
Th cty ls plyd mjr rl n Trksh ndpndnc
whn, n 12 Jn 1919, Mstf Kml
ttrk (1881–1938), th fndr f th Trksh Rpblc,
cm t msy. Thr h mt scrtly w th
sscts t pln th w r f ndpndnc t drv t
th vctrs lls nd Grks nd mk Trky n
ndpndnt ntn. Th cty sffrd dvsttng
fr n 1915, w hch dstryd mny f ts bldngs nd
mnmnts, s w ll s rthqks n 1734, 1825, nd
1939.
msy s knw n fr ts rchrds f ppls, chrrs,
nd pchs; s w ll s th rck tmbs f th rlrs
f Pnts, ttmn bldngs, nd nntnth-cntry
wdn hms. cnmc ctvty cntrs n grcltr,
txtls, nd mnng. t s ls knw n s th brthplc
f th Grk ggrphr nd hstrn Strb
(64 r 63 BC–ftr 23 C).
T. skzl-.F. skzl
Frthr Rdng
Sttstcl Yrbk f Trky, 1998. (1998) nkr, Trky:
Dvlt Ysttstk nstts.
MBDKR, B. R. (1891–1956), ndn rfrmr
nd sttsmn. Dr. Bhmr Rmj (Bbshb)
mbdkr hs tw clms t fm. H w s nd’s
ndsptd ntchbl ldr f th ntchbls,
crtng mvmnt tht hs brght mch prgrss
t tht rlgsly, sclly, nd cnmclly pprssd
grp. H ws ls sttsmn w h ftn tstfd
t gvrnmnt c mmssns nd srvd s lbr
mnstr n th prndpndnc cbnt f nd nd
s lw mnstr n th frst cbnt ftr 1947. Hs w rk
s chr f th drftng cmmtt fr nd’s nw cnstttn
s hnrd tdy. Hs stt r prtrt s vsbl
n ntchbl hms nd nghbrs nd n cty
cntrs ll vr nd.
Brn t n rmy schltchr, mbdkr w s n
f th frst ntchbls t grdt frm cllg.
dd by nn-Brhmn rfrmst prncs, h thn
scrd n M.. nd Ph.D. n cnmcs frm Clmb
nvrsty n Nw Yrk nd D.Sc. frm th
Lndn Schl f cnmcs. H bc m brrstr
frm Gry’s nn. Rtrnng t nd, h mmdtly
bgn nw spprs, rgnzd cnfrncs fr "Th
Dprssd Clsss," bgn w rk n dctn, prssd
fr th pltcl rghts f ntchbls, tght t Gvrnmnt
Lw Cllg, bgn pltcl prty nd
MSY
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 91
lbr nn, nd, t frst, cndctd tmpl ntry
cmpgns.
By th tm f hs dth, h hd stblshd hs thrd
pltcl prty; cnvrtd t Bddhsm lng w th mllns
f hs fllw rs; nd crtd ntwrk f dctnl
nstttns rn by hs Ppl’s dctn Scty,
whch n trn prdcd mr nnvtns, ncldng
nw ltrry mvmnt clld Dlt (pprssd) shty.
lnr Zllt
Frthr Rdng
Mn, Vsnt, d. (1979) Dr. Bbshb mbdkr: Wrtngs
nd Spchs. Bmby, nd: dctn Dprtmnt,
Gvrnmnt f Mhrshtr.
Zllt, lnr. (1996) Frm ntchbl t Dlt: ssys n
th mbdkr Mvmnt. Nw Dlh: Mnhr Pblshrs
nd Dstrbtrs.
MBN MSSCR n 1605 th Dtch st
nd Cmpny (Vrngd stndsch Cmpgn,
VC) szd th slnd f mbn (mbn) n th
Mlccs r Spc slnds s mltry bs nd cntr
fr clv prdctn. n mprtnt lmnt n V C
plcy ws t xcld Wstrn trdng rvls frm th
nds (tdy’s ndns), bt n 1619 trty btwn
Brtn nd th nw Dtch Rpblc rqrd th VC
t cprt w th ts Brtsh cntrprt, th st nd
Cmpny. lthgh thr ws lttl r n cmmrcl
cprtn, th VC w s frcd t prmt Brtsh
trdrs t wrk frm mbn nd thr cntrs.
Rltns btw n th tw ntnlts wr dffclt,
nd n 1623 th Dtch gvrnr f mbn rrstd ght
Brtsh trdrs nd sm Jpns mrcnrs n
chrgs f plttng t sz th slnd’s frtrss. ftr
thy wr trtrd, th ccsd wr smmr ly trd,
fnd glty, nd xctd. Th xctns bcm
cs célèbr n Brtn nd cntrbtd t mntng
hstlty btw n Brtn nd th Nthrlnds. Th mn
ffct, hwvr, ws t cnvnc th Brtsh t w thdrw
frm th nds nd t cncntrt thr cmmrcl nd
mprl ffrts n nd.
Rbrt Crbb
S ls: Dtch st nd Cmpny; Dtch n Sthst
s
Frthr Rdng
Mltn, Gls. (1999) Nthnl’s Ntmg: Hw n Mn’s
Crg Chngd th Crs f Hstry. Lndn: Hddr
nd Stghtn.
Vlkk, Brnrd H. M. (1943) Nsntr: Hstry f th
st ndn rchplg. Cmbrdg, M: Hrvrd nvrsty
Prss.
MNK RVR Th mnk Rvr (n Krn,
mnkkgng), knw n n Chns s th Yl Rvr, s
th lngst rvr n Kr nd s n f tw rvrs tht
frm th brdr btw n Nrth Kr nd Chn.
(Th nm Yl s sppsdly drvd frm th grn
clr f th dcks’ hds, whch mtch th grn clrd
rvr wtrs.) t bgns n th slps f Mnt
Pkt nd flws sthwst n dply ntrnchd
crs fr 790 klmtrs ntl t psss thrgh n
ndstrl r t ts mth t tw cts n th st
Chn S (Yllw S)—Snj, Nrth Kr, nd
Dndng, Chn. n ts mddl rchs t s p t 160
mtrs w d, lthgh th flw vrs frm ssn t
ssn. t hs drng bsn f 38,700 sqr klmtrs,
hlf f whch s n th Chns prvncs f
Jln (Krn) nd Lnng. n th rly1900s, th mnk
ws nvgbl fr 672 klmtrs by 1,000-tn
shps, bt d t sdmnttn, nly 500-tn shps
cn nvgt th rvr t prsnt.
Th mnk Rvr hs bn th tnttv nrthwst
brdr f Kr snc th nd f th frtnth cntry.
ndr Kng Sjng f Kr (rgnd 1419–1450)
fr tpsts wr crtd lng th ppr mnk
Rvr, mkng th rvr th d fct nrthrn brdr.
MNK RV R
B. R. mbdkr n 1950. (BTTMNN/CRBS)
92 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
n 1875 t bc m th lgl ntrntnl brdr. Drng
th Krn Wr (1950–1953), th Chns r my
crssd th Yl Rvr t fght th ntd Ntns
frcs.
Th Jpns clnl rl (1910–1945) blt srs
f dms lng th Yl Rvr n rdr t hrvst
hydrlctrc pwr fr Kr nd Mnchk. Th
Yl Rvr rmns n mprtnt src f hydrlctrc
pw r fr bth Nrth Kr nd Chn.
Brndn Plmr
Frthr Rdng
Krn vrss nfrmtn Srvc. (1993) Hndbk f
Kr. Sl: Krn vrss nfrmtn Srvc.
MRTSR (1991 st. pp. 709,500). Wll sttd
n sthrn xtnsn f th Slk Rt, mrtsr
(" pl f nctr") s vbrnt cmmrcl,
cltrl, nd trnsprttn cntr n nd’s Pnjb
stt. n mprtnt cntr f th Skh fth, mrtsr
ws fndd rnd scrd pl n 1577 by Rm
Ds, th frth gr f th Skhs. Th cty’s th
Gldn Tmpl r Hr Mndr hss th Grnth
Shb, scrd scrptr cmpld by th ffth Skh
gr, rjn n 1604. mtsr s ls blvd t b
whr th sg Vlmk w rt th Hnd pc Rmyn.
Sckd by fghns n 1761, th tmpl ws
rblt n 1803 nd ts dm cvrd n gld fl, by
Rnjt Sngh, th mhrj f Pnjb nd rlr f th
svrgn Skh cmmnw lth ntl 1849 w hn mrtsr
ws nnxd by th Brtsh.
mrtsr w s th st f tw vlnt pltcl clshs.
Drng th Jllnw l Bgh Msscr, 13 prl 1919,
Brtsh trps frd n crwd f ndn prtstrs,
kllng t lst 400 t 2,000 by sm ccnts nd
wndng hndrds mr. n 6 Jn 1984, ndn
rmy trps klld hndrds f Skh sprtsts—
gn cslts nmbrng 2,000 n s m rprts—
t th Gldn Tmpl w hr rms wr bng strd
fr ttcks n th gvrnmnt f ndr Gndh. n n
ct f rtltn Pr m Mnstr ndr Gndh ws
ssssntd n 1984.
C. Rgr Dvs
Frthr Rdng
ltr, Stphn. (2001) mrtstr t Lhr: Jrny crss
th nd-Pkstn Brdr. Phldlph: nvrsty f
Pnnsylvn Prss.
Dhnjl, Bryl. (1994) mrstr. Nw Yrk: Dlln Prss.
M DR’Y Th lngst rvr n Cntrl s
(lngth msrmnts vry btw n 2,200 nd 2,500
klmtrs), th m Dr ’y (xs) hs tw nnl
flds: n th sprng, frm prcpttn, nd n th
smmr, frm th Pmr Mntns’ mltng glcrs
nd snws. n cntmprry pltcl mps, th m
MRTSR
Skh plgr ms t th Gldn Tmpl n mrtsr n Jly 1996. (STPHN G. DNLDSN PHTGRPHY)
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 93
Dr’y bgns w th tw strms rsng n th Pmrs
plt n nrthwstrn fghnstn, cntns nrthwst
thrgh th Hnd Ksh, frmng th bndry
btw n Tjkstn nd nrthstrn fghnstn, thn
flw s wst nd nrthwst thrgh Trkmnstn nd
zbkstn, nt th mrshs n th sth shr f th
rl S n th Krklpk tnms Rpblc. ts
dlt t th mth s bt 161 klmtrs lng, nd
th rvr bsn s sm 466,000 sqr klmtrs.
Th rvr’s lw r xtnt nd ssctd ss dvd
th Kr-Km nd Kyzyl Km Dsrts nd hv bn
crtcl t th cltrl clgs f Cntrl s
thrght th hstry f hmn ccptn. Bgnnng
wth rly hntr-gthrrs, scts rs n th
rvr’s prxmty nd dvlpd cmplx cnms
bsd n systms f grcltr, pstrlsm, r bth.
Brnz g rrgtn prjcts llw d th rgn’s
frst rbn cvlztns t mrg; ncnt qls (frtfd
cts) bcm lcl pltcl nd c mmrcl
cntrs. Cllctvly ths cvlztns’ rly ctystts
bcm th bss f wdr rgnl nd xtrrgnl
trd ntw rks, sch s ths frm s rly s
th thrd nd scnd cntrs BC mkng p th Slk
Rd thrgh Cntrl s. Whl scts rs nd
dclnd lng th m Dr ’y thrght th Brnz
nd rn gs nd ftrwrd, ffctv rrgtn ws
cnstnt cncrn fr th rgn’s rstcrtc nd
cmmrcl lt; s m spclt, fr nstnc, tht
Khw rzm’s shft f cptls t Khv ws d lrgly
t ntrl ltrtns f th m Dr’y.
Bynd th rgns f scts nd rbnztn,
th m Dr ’y w s ls symblc frntr n Cntrl
sn hstry. Fr th chmnd rlrs f Prs
(c. 553–331 BC) th rvr bndd th rgn thy
cntrlld r sght t dvnc bynd; cts wr
fndd lng ts crs n lxndr f Mcdn’s
pcfctn cmpgn f th frth cntry BC; t
mrkd lmt t th sbsqnt Chns dvnc nt
Cntrl s (scnd cntry BC); nd snc mdvl
tms t cnstttd pw rfl psychlgcl (nd ftn
gpltcl) bndry sprtng Trkc nd
rnc ppls nd stts. ts svnth-cntry crssng
by rb rms rprsntd th dvnc f slm. vr
th fllw ng cntrs, nbld by n ncrsd cnstrctn
f rrgtn wrks knw n s qnts r krz
nd by th nvstmnts f nw rgnl ldrs nd
stts drng nd ftr slmcztn, rbn cntrs
grw bth n trms f thr ppltns nd nfrstrctr.
Ths w s prd f cltrl (.g., rchtctrl,
ltrry, rtstc, nd s frth) flrscnc d
t th ptrng f lcl nd rgnl lts.
n th rly ghtnth cntry Ptr th Grt
cmmssnd th m Dr’y’s xplrtn w th th
hp f scrng rt t nd, thgh th rgn
ws nt flly ndr Rssn cntrl ntl th tw ntth
cntry. ssctd w th cttn prdctn fr
cntrs, ths prt f Cntrl s ws th cr rgn
n Lnnst plns fr th Svts t ttn slf sffcncy
n ths cmmdty. w tr-ntnsv
crp, cttn cltvtd t ths scl n ths nvrnmnt
rqrd mssv rrgtn prjcts (.g., Trkmnstn’s
Kr-Km Cnl, th lrgst n Cntrl
s). Th cnsqnc f ths prjcts ws nvrnmntl
dgrdtn f ctstrphc prprtns,
wth dstrctn f th rvr’s dlts, dscctn f th
rl S, ssctd clmtc chngs, xhstn nd
slnztn f nc prdctv lnds, nd dclns n
lcl fd prdctn.
Thgh cttn prdctn pkd n 1977 t mr
thn 5.5 mlln mtrc tns, cnstrctn f mnmd
dvrsns cntnd nt th pst-Svt r. By
th md-1990s mr thn svnty thsnd rrgtn
cnls wr n prtn, nd thr cllctv nffcncy
s cnsdrbl; mst w trs dvrtd r ctlly
lst t spg nd vprtn. llvtn f ths
wrsnng crss s nt lkly, d t th ncrsng
dvlpmnt dmnds f th stts nd scts n
qstn (prmrly Trkmnstn, zbkstn, nd
Kzkhstn), thr prcvd lck f ltrntvs, brrrs
t th scl f mltntnl cprtn crtcl
t ts rsltn, nd th ngng nd c mltv
dgrdtn f lcl nd rgnl csystms.
Kyl T. vrd
Frthr Rdng
Brnrd, Pl. (1994) "n ncnt Grk Cty n Cntrl
s." Scntfc mrcn 5, 1: 66–75.
M DR’Y
m Dr’y
rl
S
Bkhr
Smrqnd
Tr k m n s tn
Tj k s tn
zb k stn
Kz khs tn
f gh n stn
N
0
0 100
100 200 Mls
200 Klmtrs
m Dr’’y
94 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
Glntz, Mchl H., d. (1999) Crpng nvrnmntl Prblms
nd Sstnbl Dvlpmnt n th rl S Bsn.
Cmbrdg, .K.: Cmbrdg nvrsty Prss.
L Strng, Gy. ([1905] 1966) Th Lnds f th strn
Clpht: Msptm, Prs, nd Cntrl s frm th
Mslm Cnqst t th Tm f Tmr. Rprnt. Lndn:
Frnk Css.
N DNG VNG (rgnd c. 257–c. 208
BC), Lgndry fndr f Vtnm. n Dng
Vng, w hs gvn nm w s Thc Phn, s trdtnlly
cnsdrd th fndr f th ntn f Vtnm.
n 258 BC, ccrdng t lgnd, Thc Phn,
wrlrd nd rlr f nghbrng lnds, cnqrd th
Vn Lng, th trrtry f mdrn-dy Vtnm. H
rnmd t Lc nd gv hmslf th nm n
Dng Vng (Kng n Dng).
Rltd lgnds hld tht w hl bldng hs cptl
cty, C L, n Dng Vng sw ll th w rk
ccmplshd drng th dytm crmbl ch nght.
ftr cpl f w ks, h lrnd n drm tht
th st f hs cty ws lctd n th bck f trtl
gd. Th kng chngd th lctn f hs cptl, nd
lrg cty n th frm f cnch shll ws cnstrctd
n n tm t ll. s tkn f thnks, th trtl dty
ffrd th kng n f ts clw s, whch, whn sd
s trggr n bw , mltpld ts rrw by th thsnds.
s rslt, Zh T, Chns gnrl, fld
tm nd gn n hs ttmpts t sbjgt Lc,
ntl Zh T mrrd hs sn t n Dng Vng’s
dghtr nd th sn stl th mgc w pn. Zh
T fnlly sccdd n nnxng Lc t hs wn
Chns trrtry nd fndd th kngdm f Nn
Yh (Nm Vt) n 207 BC.
Trng B Lm
Frthr Rdng
Tylr, Kth W. (1983) Th Brth f Vtnm. Brkly nd
Ls ngls: nvrsty f Clfrn Prss.
NLCTS Th nlcts (Chns Lny) s n
f th mst nflntl txts n Chns phlsphy. t
ws cmpld by th dscpls f Cnfcs (551–479
BC) nd thr fllw rs, thgh schlrs rg vr
xctly whn. D. C. L hlds th trdtnl vw tht
th frst fftn bks wr wrttn shrtly ftr Cnfcs'
dth nd th r mnng fv by th scnd gnrtn
f dscpls. Jhn Mkhm rgs tht th
chngng txtl mtr l ws nt sttld nt ts prsnt
frm ntl 150 BC. . Brc nd Tk Brks
prps tht bks fr thrgh lvn r th ldst,
tht nn thrgh lvn wr wrttn by scndgnrtn
dscpls, whl w ht rmns ws wrttn
t dffrnt tms.
t s knw n tht th nlcts ws bsclly n ts prsnt
frm by 55 BC bsd n th frgmnts xcvtd
t Dngzh. Th nlcts s frst mng th s-clld
Fr Bks, th Cnfcn txts whs mstry ws
rqrd fr th mprl cvl-srvc xmntn systm
p t 1905.
Th nlcts s cmpsd f brf sttmnts
mstly ttrbtd t Cnfcs; sm r scrbd t
hs dscpls r rlrs. Th mdrn rdr s gnrlly
strck by th brvty f th sttmnts nd th
pprnt lck f sstnd prs r rgmnt, w hch
my vry w ll hv bn Cnfcs' mthd f pdggy.
H xpctd hs stdnts t b gr t lrn:
H nly gv thm n crnr, nd f thy dd nt
rtrn w th th thr thr, h wld nt rvw th
lssn (nlcts 7:8).
Th gnrl thrst f th txt s t ssst th rdr
n slf-cltvtn s tht th rdr mght bcm
mrl x mpl fr thrs. n mght fnd th prpr
wy t lv nd bhv by prctcng vrs vrts
(d), thrby bcmng hmn prsn (rn zh) r
prnc f vrt (jnz, slly rndrd "gntlmn").
Hmnty r bnvlnc (rn) s th mst mprtnt
vrt n th nlcts; t s mntnd mr
thn n hndrd tms. Rn s n chvmnt cncpt;
n s nt brn hmn, bt n mst lrn t
bcm s. Rn mns t lv thrs (nlcts 12:22).
Th prctc f rtl ctn (l) s th bst wy t xprss
n’s hmn kndnss. Rtl ctn s nt lmtd
t stt nd rlgs fnctns, bt cvrs th
spctrm f hmn bhvr. Spkng prgmtclly,
frst chld mst lrn fll pty (x) nd brthrly
lv (d); thn, s n grws n cn xtnd n’s fmly
lv t thrs n th frm f rn.
Cnfcs mphszd ltrcy, stdy, nd lrnng
t dvlp th prctc f mrl wsdm. Rt mmrztn
s nt sffcnt; n mst b thghtfl. Cnfcs
ls xpctd hs dscpls t b lyl nd t d
wht ws prpr, spclly n gvrnmnt srvc.
Whn Zgng skd f thr ws sngl wrd tht n
cld s s gdnc, Cnfcs rpld (nlcts 15:24,
12:2) tht prhps t w ld b mpthy (sh): t "nvr
d t nthr w ht y d nt dsr."
Jms D. Sllmnn
Frthr Rdng
ms, Rgr T., nd Hnry Rs mnt, Jr., trns. (1998) Th
nlcts f Cnfcs: Phlsphcl Trnsltn. Nw
Yrk: Bllntn Bks.
N DNG VNG
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 95
Brk, . Brc, nd Tk Brks. (1998) Th rgnl
nlcts. Nw Yrk: Clmb nvrsty Prss.
Chn, Wng-tst. (1963) Src Bk n Chns Phlsphy.
Prnctn, NJ: Pr nctn nvrsty Prss.
Dwsn, Rymnd, trns. (1993) Cnfcs: Th nlcts. xfrd:
xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Grhm, ngs C. (1989) Dsptrs f th T. L Sll, L:
pn Crt.
Hs, Kng-chn. (1979) Hstry f Chns Pltcl
Thght. Trns. By F. Mt. Pr nctn, NJ: Prnctn
nvrsty Prss.
Jnsn, Lnl M. (1997) Mnfctrng Cnfcnsm: Chns
Trdtns nd nvrsl Cvlztn. Drhm, NC,
nd Lndn: Dk nvrsty Prss.
L, D. C., trns. (1979). Th nlcts (Ln Yü). Lndn.:
Pngn Bks.
Lys, Smn, trns. (1997) Th nlcts f Cnfcs. Nw
Yrk: Nrtn.
Mkhm, Jhn. (1996) "Th Fr mtn f Lny s
Bk," Mnmnt Src, 44: 1–24.
Mnr, Dnld J. (1969) Cncpt f Mn n rly Chn. Stnfrd,
C: Stnfrd nvrsty Prss.
NND, MLK RJ (b. 1905), ndn w rtr.
n nflntl ndn nvlst nd shrt stry wrtr n
th md-tw ntth cntry, Mlk Rj nnd w s brn
n 1905 n Pshwr, nw n wstrn Pkstn, nd s
yng mn w s ctv n ltrry crcls n nglnd
ntl 1939. Hs frst nvls frmd tr: ntchbl
(1935), Cl (1936), nd Tw Lvs nd Bd (1937).
Wrttn n nglsh, sch bks strck chrd wth
smw ht lf tst rdrshp bth n Brtn nd n nd.
Thy ffrd rthr sprfcl pltcl nd psychlgcl
nlyss f nd’s "dw ntrddn msss"
tht drw ts nsprtn frm D. H. Lw rnc, . M.
Frstr, ml Z l, Chrls Dckns, vrs Rssn
nvlsts, Mrxsm, nd Gndhn ntnls m. Bt
nnd w s bl t cntrbt smthng nw t ndn
wrtng by shwng hw nvlst cn mk s f th
drm f rvltnry ntnlsm. Tllngly, h
wrt lttl f ny nt ftr nd gnd ndpndnc
n 1947. Lk hs cntmprrs Rj R nd R. K.
Nryn, nnd ws cncrnd wth xplrng th mprtnc
f ndn scty fr hmnty t lrg.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Vrm, K. D. (2000) Th ndn mgntn: Crtcl ssys
n ndn Wrtng n nglsh. Nw Yrk: St. Mrtn’s Prss.
Wllms, H. M. (1977) nd-ngln Ltrtr 1800–1970:
Srvy. Clmb, M: Sth s Bks.
NND PNYRCHN (b. 1932), Th pltcl
ldr. nnd Pnyrchn s n f Thlnd’s
mst pr mnnt pltcl fgrs. n 1952, nnd grdtd
frm Cmbrdg nvrsty n lw . H jnd
th Th Mnstry f Frgn ffrs n 1955, vntlly
bcmng tp dplmt. n th 1960s, nnd
srvd s Thlnd’s rprsnttv t th ntd Ntns
bfr bng nmd mbssdr t Cnd nd,
ltr, th ntd Stts. n 1976, h ws ppntd
dpty frgn mnstr bfr srvng s mbssdr
t Wst Grmny n 1977. n 1979, nnd lft pblc
ffc fr th bsnss wrld, srvng s prsdnt
f Sh-nn nd chrmn f th Th ndstrl
Fdrtn.
Hwvr, hs rnwnd ntgrty nd ldrshp
drw nnd bck t pltcs. Btw n 1980 nd 1988,
Thlnd ws ld by Pr m Tnslnnd, th frmr
Th r my chf, wh mngd th ntn w th srs
f cltn gvrnmnts thrgh cnsdrbl cnmc
bm, s w ll s tw fld mltry cps. Hw vr,
hvng nvr ctlly jnd pltcl prty, nd
nvr stndng fr n lctn s mmbr f Prlmnt,
Pr m w s nt sn s "dmcrtc." md prssr
t psh frthr cnmc nd pltcl rfrms n
Thlnd, Pr m ws dftd n th 1988 lctn by
nthr frmr gnrl, Chtch Chnhvn. lthgh
Chtch prsdd vr cntnd cnmc
prsprty, hs cltn gvrnmnt w s ntrsly
crrpt. Fllw ng bldlss mltry cp n Fbrry
1991, nnd mrgd s rfrm-mndd cnsnss
ldr. H rlctntly ccptd n ppntmnt s
ntrm pr m mnstr, w dly sn s th nly pltcn
cpbl f strng Thlnd tw rd dmcrcy.
ftr ntnl lctns n Mrch 1992 prdcd
shky fv-prty cltn, th mltry ffctvly
szd pwr by pstnng frmr strngmn
Schnd Krpryn s prm mnstr. ppstn
NND PNYRCHN
Fr mr Prm Mnstr nnd Pnyrchn (L) n Nvmbr
2000 t mtng f th ssctn f Sthst sn Ntns.
(FP/CRBS)
96 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
t th mv mntd dr mtclly btw n Mrch nd
My, w hn th mltry w s clld n t Bngkk t
rplc plc dlng w th prtstrs. Btw n 17
My nd 20 My 1992, vlnc brk t btw n
th rmy nd thsnds f prtstrs, ldng t n
f th drkst psds n Th pltcl hstry. lthgh
ffcl sttstcs lstd ffty-tw klld, thr
rsnbl stmts w r vr tw hndrd klld.
nly th prsnl ntrvntn f Kng Bhmpl
dlydj prvntd n vn bldr cnflct. Stll
wdly pplr wth th Th ppl, n th kng’s dvc
nnd w s gn chsn t ld th gvrnmnt.
n hs scnd trm s prm mnstr (Jn–
Sptmbr 1992), nnd bldly tckld th mltry’s
pltcl pwr n hps f dstncng t frm gvrnmnt.
H ls st n plc nmrs thr pltcl
nd cnmc rfrms tht hlpd stblz th ntn
nd stmlt ts fnncl bm. n rcgntn f hs
dstngshd crr, n 1997, nnd w n th hghst
wrd fr gvrnmnt srvc. lthgh ffclly rtrd
frm pltcs, nnd rmns n f th mst mprtnt
nd rspctd pblc fgrs n Thlnd.
rn Kslnk
Frthr Rdng
nnd Pnyrchn. (1992) Mngmnt, Rfrm, nd Vsns:
Slctn f Spchs by Prm Mnstr nnd Pnyrchn.
Bngkk, Thlnd: Scrtrt f th Prm
Mnstr, Gvrnmnt Hs.
Mrry, Dvd. (1996) ngls nd Dvls: Th Pltcs frm
Fbrry 1991 t Sptmbr 1992— Strggl fr Dmcrcy.
Bngkk, Thlnd: Wht rchd Prss.
Prsn Mrkkhphtk. (1998) nn Pnyrchn, Chwt,
Khwmkt, l Knngn khng dt Nykrtthmntr Sng
Sm (nnd Pnyrchn, Lf, Thghts, nd Wrk
f th Frmr Tw -Tm Pr m Mnstr). Bngkk,
Thlnd: mmrn Pblshng.
NRKL nrkl s c mmrcl dstrct n
nnr-cty Lhr, Pkstn, fms fr ts rtl shps
nd clrfl tmsphr. Th r drvs ts nm
frm mslm dtd 1615, prprtdly tht f
slv grl nmd nr kl ("pmgrnt blss m"),
brd lv n w ll by rdr f th Mghl mprr
kbr (d. 1605) n 1599. s Wllm Fnch, n nglshmn
vstng Lhr, frst rprtd n 1611, kbr
llgdly sspctd nrkl f n llct rltnshp
wth hs sn Prnc Slm (ltr crw nd mprr Jhngr,
d. 1628). Bcs th lgnd s nt mntnd
n ndn srcs ntl th nntnth cntry, mst
cmmnttrs blv tht th stry s thr fls r
hvly mbllshd. Nvrthlss t nsprd wrtrs
(.g., th rd drm nrkl by mtyz l Tj) nd
flmmkrs.
rchlgcl rsrch shwd tht nrkl’s tmb
ds cntn hmn r mns, thgh ths my blng
t wf f Jhngr w h dd n Lhr rnd
ths tm. Th tmb w s rgnlly srrndd by xtnsv
grdns. ftr th Brtsh nnxtn f Lhr
n 1849, th tmb srvd s Prtstnt chrch
frm 1851 t 1891 nd thn s gvrnmnt rcrds
ffc. Th prsnt nrkl bzr, whch vlv d
grdlly vr th pst 150 yrs, s prtclrly wll
knw n fr w mn’s pprl.
Shhzd Bshr
Frthr Rdng
Bqr, Mhmmd. (1952) Lhr, Pst nd Prsnt. Lhr,
Pkstn: Pnjb nvrsty Prss.
Fstr, Wllm, d. (1921) rly Trvls n nd, 1583–
1619. Lndn: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Ltf, Syd Mhmmd. (1892) Lhr: ts Hstry, rchtctrl
Rmns, nd ntqts. Lhr, nd: Nw mprl
Prss.
NTL (1997 st. pp. 54 mlln). ntl,
ls clld ndl r s Mnr, s Trky’s stc
rgn, mntns pnnsl srrndd by th
Blck S n th nrth nd th Mdtrrnn nd
gn Ss n th sth nd wst. T th nrthw st
r th Bsprs Strt, S f Mrmr, nd Drdnlls.
ntl ncmpsss 743, 634 sqr klmtrs—
bt thr-ffths f th r f Trky.
Th Pntc nd Trs (Trs) Mntns brdr
th flt, cntrl ntln plt n th nrth nd
sth. Mnt rrt s ntl’s hghst pk (5,172
mtrs). Th rgn s prn t rthqks. Mjr
rvrs r th phrts nd Tgrs. f th thr hndrd
lks tht nrch th lnd, Lk Vn n th st
s th lrgst. ntl’s clmt rngs frm cld w ntrs
n th cntrl plt t sw ltrng ht n th
Mdtrrnn rgn. ts crps ncld grn, tbcc,
lvs, fgs, nd cttn; nml lf nclds th
ngr gt.
ntl, cnsdrd th crdl f mny cltrs
nd cvlztns, ws nhbtd t lst s rly s th
ghth mllnnm BC nd srvd s brdg btwn
rp nd s; t s rch n rchtctrl nd rchlgcl
rmns, rck rlfs, brls, pttry, nd
stn mplmnts. ncnt nhbtnts ncldd th
Htt, Httts, Trjns, rrtns (kngdm f
rrt, ltr, rmn), Phrygns (ld by Kng Mds),
Lycns, nd Lydns.
NRKL
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 97
Th Prsns nvdd ntl n 546 BC, lxndr
f Mcdn n 334 BC. By th nd f th scnd
cntry BC, ntl ws ndr Rmn rl. Fllw ng
cvl wr n th rly frth cntry, th vctr,
Cnstntn, stblshd th cptl t Byzntm
nd rnmd t Cnstntnpl. ftr hs dth, th
nw mpr w s dvdd. Th strn hlf, cntrd n
Cnstntnpl, cm t b knw n s th Byzntn
mpr. By 711, ll ntl ws ndr Byzntn rl.
rly n th lvnth cntry, th Sljk vctry t
th bttl f Mnzkrt (1071; mdrn Mlzgrt)
pnd ntl t frthr Trksh nvsns. Th trrtry
grdlly bcm Trkczd ftr th rs f
th ttmn Tr ks rnd th thrtnth cntry.
ntl cm ndr Mslm ttmn rl w hn
Mhmt (rgnd 1432–1481) cptrd Cnstntnpl
n 1453. n 1923, Mstf Kml ttr k
(1881–1938), ntnlst gnrl, stblshd th nw
Trksh Rpblc.
ntl hs svnty-fr prvncs, grpd nt
svn rgns: Blck S cst; Mrmr nd gn
csts; Mdtrrnn cst; wstrn ntl; cntrl
ntl; sthstrn ntl; strn ntl.
Nnty prcnt f ntl’s ppltn s Trksh,
nd 99 prcnt s Mslm. Nn-Tr ksh lmnts r
mstly Grks, Jw s, rmnns, Krds, nd rbs.
T. skzl-.F. skzl
Frthr Rdng
zb_rk, Rst. (1976) Ggrphy f Trky. nkr, Trky:
Drctrt f Prss nd nfrmtn.
NWRTH (d. 1077), Kng f Brm.
nw rth (ls nrddh, rgnd 1044–1077) ws
th frst grt kng f th clsscl Brms kngdm f
Pgn s w ll s n mprtnt fgr n th rly hstry
f Thrvd Bddhsm n Br m. nmbr f
sgnfcnt hstrcl dvlpmnts r ttrbtd t
nw rth, lthgh th hstrcty f ths ttrbtns
s pn t qstn. ndr nw rth, Pgn’s rlrs
r blvd t hv ndrgn trnstn frm chftns
t kngs. Bt h s chfly rmmbrd n Br ms
hstry bcs f hs prcvd rl n th rly dvlpmnt
f Thrvd Bddhsm n Br m. H hmslf
s sd t hv bn cnvrtd t rthdx Thrvd
Bddhsm by th Mn mnk Shn rhn. n 1057,
nw rth cptrd Thtn, th Thrvd cntr f
sthstrn Brm. ccrdng t th fftnth-cntry
Klyn nscrptn, nwrth brght Thrvd
Bddhst mnks bck t Pgn w th thrty cps f th
Tptk, th rthdx Thrvd Bddhst scrptrs.
nw rth s ls crdtd wth prgng Pgn’s Bddhst
mnkhd f th "hrtcl" r sct. Tdy,
nw rth s cnsdrd n f Brm’s grtst kngs.
Th chvmnts f hs rl wr crrd by ltr
sccssr, Kynztth (rgnd 1084–1112).
Mchl Wltr Chrny
Frthr Rdng
Hrvy, G. . ([1925] 1967) Hstry f Brm: Frm th rlst
Tms t 10 Mrch 1824, th Bgnnng f th nglsh
Cnqst. Rprnt d. Lndn: Frnk Css.
Tw Sn K, d. nd trns. (1892) Th Klyn nscrptns:
rctd by Kng Dhmmct t Pg n 1476 .d. Rngn,
Mynmr: Spt. f Gvt. Prntng.
NYS. S Cnstttn—Trky.
NCSTR WRSHP—ST S s’s
wdsprd trdtn f vnrtng ncstrs hs bn
shpd by ndgns flk blfs nd mjr rlgs
trdtns. Dpndng n th lcl cltr, ths wrshp
r vnrtn my cmbn lmnts f fll
pty, grcltrl trdtns nd ssnl bsrvncs,
lng pttrns, nmstc cncpts f th ctns f
sprts n th wrld f th lvng, n mphss n blgtns
t sprrs, nd th d tht hmn bngs
bcm dts t dth. Cnfcn ncstrl rts nd
th fndmntl cncpt f fll pty nd th Bddhst
tnt f trnsmgrtn f sls r cmmn ncstrl
blfs thrght s, bt th rltv
mprtnc f ths tw rgnzd rlgns vs-à-vs
lcl flk blfs mks fr dvrsty. Schlrs dbt,
fr xmpl, w hthr ncstr wrshp n Jpn prmrly
sprng frm ndgns blfs r ws mprtd
frm Chn. Bfr th ntrdctn f Bddhsm, th
Jpns hd lrdy ncrprtd Cnfcn ncstrl
rts nd th cncpt f fll pty. Bddhsm crtnly
md mjr cntrbtn t th dvlpmnt
f th ncstrl clt n Jpn, bt th Jpns prctc
tht vlvd s nlk tht f thr Bddhst cltrs
f s.
Chrctrstcs
Th bsc prms f ncstr wrshp s tht th
wrld f th lvng nd th sprt wrld f th dd r
ntrdpndnt. Wht hppns n ths w rld s, t s
Mrk Mllns’s trm, "cslly nflncd" by th
wrld f th sprts. Whl ll th sprts cmmnd
crtn mnt f rspct, n shld shw prtclr
dvtn t n’s ncstrs. Sm schlrs ntrprt
ths dvtn nt s wrshp, bt s n xprssn f
NCSTR WRSHP—ST S
98 NCYCLPD F MDRN S
grttd nd rspct twrd ths t whm n s ndbtd.
Th ncstrl clt s ssntlly ptrlnl phnmnn.
s Jnll nd Jnll ntd bt Krn
prctc, cmmmrtng ncstrs ws th blgtn
f th ldst sn, nd w mn wr nrmlly xcldd
frm ffctng t vnrtn rts. Ths schlrs sw
crrspndnc btw n prprty nhrtnc r
hshld sccssn nd th dgr f blgtn t
crry t rtls:
n Chn, w hr ll sns nrmlly nhrt ql shrs
f prprty, nd nn sccd t th hdshp f thr
prnts’ hshld, ch dscndnt s qlly blgtd
t hs frbrs. . . . n Jpn, by cntrst, rtl
blgtns r vstd n crprt hshlds, nt dscnt
lns. Whvr sccds t th hdshp f th
hshld nhrts ll f ts prprty; nd nly mmbrs
f hshld wrshp ts prcdng hds, thr
spss, nd ts dcsd dpndnts. . . . Th Krn
pttrn fr llctng rtl blgtns hs smlrts
t bth th Chns nd Jpns systms. ch
sn rcvs shr f hs prnts’ prprty nd s blgtd
t prtcpt n thr rts. Yt th ldst sn
rcvs th lrgst shr f thr ncstrs’ prprty
nd sccds t th hdshp f thr hshld, nd
n rtrn h s xpctd t br mst f th csts f
th rtls nd t ffr ths rts t hs hm.
(Jnll nd Jnll 1982: 179–180)
ctl hrdtry lng s nt n ssntl cndtn
fr ncstr wrshp. Rbrt J. Smth pnts t
tht n Jpn "ncstrs" r frmst ctgry f
th dd w h xrcs pwrs vr grp t w hm
thy r cnsdrd ncstrs. n thr wrds, bld
ts r nt s ssntl s th sns f shrd hrdty,
bt n ths frmw rk thr s cmmnly rcgnzd
rdr f scndnc. Th dscndnt grp my
b hshld, sm lnkg f fmls, vllg,
gld, r vn th ntr ntn. Frdmn pnts t
smlr lmnts n Chn: "n vry gnrl sns th
ncstrs cllctvly mbdy th dgnty nd thrty
f th grps vr whch thy prsd. Thr d
s grttd nd prs. nd n pyng thm thr d,
th lvng r md cnscs f thr mmbrshp f
th grps w thn whch thy wrshp" (Frdmn
1979: 297).
NCSTR WRSHP—ST S
TH CHNGNG SGNFCNC
F NCSTR WRSHP
ncstr wrshp s ky lmnt f trdtnl rlgn n st s. t hs srvvd
nd vn nflncd th sprd f mjr rlgns n th rgn. Hwvr,
n th lst hlf f th tw ntth cntry t dd dcln n mprtnc, fr sm
f th rsns mntnd n th dscssn bt rrl Chn tht fllws.
Tdy th ncstrl clt s vry lrgly n clps. Th scl
chngs spnsrd by th gvrnmnt—spclly th qlty f
stts f mls nd fmls, th nw mrrg prctcs, nd th
grtr mphss n th mprtnc f th yngr gnrtn—
hv ndrmnd th clt. Drctly, th vldty f th ld sprntrl
blf ws cntrdctd by th rthdx Mrxst dctrn
f thsm w hch nfrms th w hl schl crrclm nd s prpgtd
n th spchs f gvrnmnt ldrs nd ll lssr ffcls.
Th prcss s cmltv n. Th vllg hs bn gng
thrgh prd f rsng mtrl w lfr. Sccss, nt flr,
hs fllw d th dsrtn f ld prctcs nd blfs fr nw.
Th prstg f th nw dctrn nd f th tchrs f t s thrfr
hgh mngst ppl n w hm prt f th mtv fr cltvtng
thr ncstrs ws th srch fr mtrl bnfts.
Src: W. R. Gdds. (1963) Psnt Lf n Cmmnst Chn:
Mngrph #6. thc, NY: Scty fr ppld nthrplgy, 48.
9
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 99
n ths w rldvw t s nly ntrl tht th lvng
prfrm rtls nd mk ffrngs t thr ncstrs,
f thy pprprtly rcgnz thr ndbtdnss t
thm. Th lvng hnr ths dbt thrgh mmrl
srvcs, n th ssmptn tht sccss nd prsprty
n ths lf prtly dpnd n th bnfcnt prtctn
f th ncstrs. Th sprts f th ncstrs r
blvd t b plsd by ny pstv ccmplshmnt
by dscndnt, nd nnncmnts f sch chvmnts
bfr th mmr l tblts n th ltr r t
th grv r cnsdrd mprtnt. n cntrst, hlth
prblms, flrs n ntrprs, nd prblms n scl
rltnshps my b ttrbtd t th flr f
dscndnts t prprly vnrt th ncstrs. Th
npcfd sprt my thn xct rtrbtn frm th
ngrtfl dscndnts.
ncstr Wrshp nd rthly thrty
ncstr wrshp n Jpn, fr xmpl, w s ffctd
by pltcl nd dmnstrtv fctrs, ccrdng t
Smth. Smth cnvncngly rgs tht th vnrtn
f ncstrs ltrntly srvd th prpss f vrs
rlgs bds, th ntnl gvrnmnt, nd rfrmrs
thrght Jpn’s hstry. n th sxth nd
svnth cntrs, ncstr wrshp ws frst mplyd
NCSTR WRSHP—ST S
TH STRY F TH NCSTR TBLTS
cmmn ftr f th rrl Chns hm s th ncstr tblt. Ths flktl
prvds n vrsn f hw sch tblts cm t b.
nc skd Chns schlby bt th rgn f th ncstrl
tblt, nd h tld m th fllw ng stry:
nc pn tm thr w s vry crl nd bd mn w h dd
nt lv hs mthr. H dd nthng sh w ntd hm t d, bt
nly scldd hr. Whnvr h cm hm h mmdtly w ntd
ml. Bt w h cn mk w hl ml n mnt? S h bt
hr nd scldd hr. Bt th sfthrtd w mn dd nt cmpln.
n dy, w hn wrkng n th flds, th sn hrd th cwng f
crws n th r nd sw crw wth fd n ts mth, cmng
frm fr wy plc t tr t th crnr f th fld, t fd
ts yng. H w s mvd nd thght, ‘Ths crws r brds bt
vn thy cllct fd frm thr rltvs nd cr fr thm. Ths
mns tht m nt vn s gd s brd. m ctng ngrtflly
tw rds my mthr. My fthr dd lng g, nd vn f
wr t bhv s w ll s cld, stll cld nt mk hr frgt
hs dth. Shm pn m.’ H dcdd t b nc t hs
mthr frm thn n.
Jst t ths tm, hs mthr c m t brng hm hs lnch. s sn
s h sw hr, h strtd rnnng tw rd hr t tk lnch s tht
sh w ldn’t hv t w lk s fr. t ws hs frst gd dd fr th
ld ldy. Bt hw cld sh knw bt hs sddn chng f hrt?
Sh thght h w ld bt hr s sl. S sh hrrdly pt dwn
th bskt w th th lnch nd strtd rnnng wy. t hppnd
tht sh ht smll tr, fll dw n, nd dd. Th sn w s dply
dstrbd, nd n rdr t kp hs mthr nd ths nhppy vnt
n mnd frvr, h ct dw n th tr nd md smll tblt w hch
h prsrvd. Ths th ncstrl tblt cm nt bng.
Src: Wlfrm brhrd. (1952) Chns Fstvls. Nw Yrk,
NY: Hnry Schmn, 43–44.
9
100 NCY CLPD F MDRN S
n th prmtn f Bddhsm, nd th tw wr lnkd
fr th nxt thsnd yrs. n th rly Tkgw prd,
hw vr, tht rltnshp chngd w hn th gvrnmnt
sd Bddhsm t spprss Chrstnty by
rqrng vry hshld n Jpn t stblsh frml
rgstrtn wth Bddhst tmpl. ntl tht
tm, ncstr w rshp hd bn cntrd n th hm
nd prctcd wtht prsts. s cnsqnc f th
dcr, ncstr wrshp bcm nthr rtl rqrng
th srvcs f th Bddhst clrgy nd tmpls.
n th tw ntth cntry, wrshp f n’s wn
ncstrs ws c-ptd t spprt vnrtn f th
mprl ln nd pltcl ctns.
vrydy Prctc
n dly bsrvnc, vnrtn f ncstrs my
tk th frm f mkng ffrngs sch s ckd rc,
wtr r t, flw rs, ncns, nd thr ckd fds
t Bddhst ltr n th hm r t th f mly grv.
nnl bsrvncs nvlvng ncstrs ftn ncld
fmls’ vstng th hshld grv t th bgnnng
f th nw yr nd rnd th sprng nd fll
qnxs; drng th vsts fmls cln th grv
nd ffr pryrs nd ncns. t th bgnnng f th
prd f th Bddhst Fstvl f th Dd, ls
knw n s th Fst f Lntrns nd th Fst f ll
Sls, th fmly grts th rtrnng sprts wth
lntrns t nsr tht thy cn fnd th wy bck.
Mmrl srvcs n th Bddhst trdtn r hld
fr ndvdl ncstrs, bgnnng w th srvcs vry
svnth dy ntl th frty-nnth dy fllw ng dth.
Ths crmns r f prmnt mprtnc n
Bddhst blf, bcs ftr prsn ds, h r sh
s thght t w ndr btwn ths wrld nd th nxt.
Th rts hld fr th bnft f th dd cndct th
sl sfly t th nxt wrld. Shld th rts nt b
prfrmd, th sprt f th dcsd my w ndr,
csng msfrtn nd clmty.
Dmgrphc chngs ncldng th shft f ppltn
tw rd cts, dclnng brth rts, nd th ncrsng
rts f nclr fmls s w ll s chngs
n th lgl systms rgrdng nhrtnc f prprty
sm t hv bn ccmpnd by stdy dcrs
n th sgnfcnc f ncstr vnrtn. Whl nnl
bsrvncs cntn t b bsrvd, dpndnc
n th thr w rld fr spprt n ths wrld sms t
b n th dcln. Crrnt ndctns r tht th
trdtnl sns f grttd nd rspct t prvs
gnrtns w ll cntn t dcrs, th prmry
qstn bng t w ht pc wthn ch f s’s
cltrs.
Jms M. Vrdmn, Jr.
Frthr Rdng
Frdmn, Mrc. (1979) Th Stdy f Chns Scty. Stnfrd,
C: Stnfrd nvrsty Prss.
Hr, chr. (1968) Flk Rlgn n Jpn: Cntnty nd
Chng. Tky: nvrsty f Tky Prss.
Jnll, Rgr L., nd Dw nh Ym Jnll. (1982) ncstr
Wrshp nd Krn Scty. Stnfrd, C: Stnfrd nvrsty
Prss.
Mllns, Mrk R. (1998) Chrstnty Md n Jpn. Hnll,
H: nvrsty f Hw Prss.
Smth, Rbrt J. (1974) ncstr Wrshp n Cntmprry
Jpn. Stnfrd, C: Stnfrd nvrsty Prss.
NDMN ND NCBR SLNDS
(2001 st. pp. 356,000). Th ndmn nd Ncbr
slnds, trrtry f th ndn nn, frm nrrw
chn rnnng mstly nrth-sth nd strtchng
vr 1,000 klmtrs. Th ndmn slnds (6475
sqr klmtrs) t th nrth hv fr mn nd
200 smll, mstly nnhbtd slnds. Dvdd by th
Tn Dgr Chnnl, th Ncbr slnds (1852
sqr klmtrs) cnsst f thr grps f nntn
slnds. Prt f sbmrn Trtry-prd-fld
mntn, th ndmn nd Ncbr slnds r gnrlly
hlly, w th Sddl Pk (738 mtrs bv s
lvl) nd Mnt Thllr (614 mtrs) th tw hghst
pks n Nrth ndmn nd Grt Ncbr, rspctvly.
Bcs mnsns brng mpl rnfll nd
tmprtrs r hgh, lsh trpcl frsts wth grt
bdvrsty (ncldng 242 brd nd 78 rptl spcs)
cvr rnd 90 prcnt f th lnd. Sch frsts,
prtly stll vrgn, hv grt cmmrcl vl nd
rprsnt th mn src f ncm. grcltr s
nly sprsly dvlpd, wth cltvtn f rc, ccnts,
nd frt trs. Frgnrs r bnnd frm th
Ncbr slnds, bt trsts r wlcmd t th cptl
f Prt Blr n ndmn nd frm thr cn vst
thr slnds v dy crss.
Fr dffrnt grps nhbt th ndmn nd
Ncbr slnds: ndmns brgns, ndmn
ndns (dscndnts f n ndn pnl clny fnctnng
frm 1848 t 1945), nsttlrs w h mgrtd
frm th mnlnd ftr ndn ndpndnc, nd
Ncbrs brgns. Th mjrty r ndmn ndns
nd nsttlrs. Th brgn grps r ch
dstnctv. Wth ttl ppltn f fw thsnd,
th Ncbrs brgns r nd-Chns w h r
thr nmsts r cnvrtd Chrstns nd wh stll
prctc shftng cltvtn. Th ndmns brgns
r pygms nd Ngrts w h hnt nd fsh.
Thgh th ndmn nd Ncbr slnds r
sprsly nd nvnly ppltd, rnd n-thrd f
th nhbtnts lv n Prt Blr, th nly tw n nd
th bsnss nd cmmrcl cntr. lsw hr p-
NDMN ND NCBR SLNDS
NCYCLPD F MDRN S 101
pl lv n clstrs f smll vllgs. Th nly (dmstc)
rprt fr rglr flghts t Clctt nd Mdrs
s t Prt Blr, w hch s ls th mst mprtnt sprt,
cnnctng ll thr mjr slnds by rglr bt
srvc.
Mnfrd Dmrs
Frthr Rdng
Jstn, nstc. (1990) Th Ncbrs. Clctt, nd: Sgll
Bks.
Rdclff-Brwn, . R. (1948) Th ndmn slndrs. Glnc,
L: Fr Prss.
NDMN S Th ndmn S s lctd
st f th mn bdy f th By f Bngl nd s
bndd by Mynmr (Br m) t th nrth, sthstrn
Mynmr nd sthwstrn Thlnd t th
st, th ndmn nd Ncbr slnds (w hch blng
t nd) nd th mn bdy f th By f Bngl t
th w st, nd th Strt f Mlcc nd Smtr t th
sth. Th ndmn slnds nd th Ncbr slnds
r dvdd nt tw grps: th Grt ndmn
(Nrth, Mddl, nd Sth ndmn slnds) nd th
Lttl ndmn. Th chf tw n nd prt s Prt Blr
(fndd 1868), lctd n Sth ndmn slnd.
Th Ncbr slnds r lctd 120 klmtrs sth
f Sth ndmn slnd nd ncld Cr Ncbr
nd Grt Ncbr.
Th ndmn S’s strtgc pstn jst nrth f
th Strt f Mlcc (nd ths btw n th ndn
cn nd th Sth Chn S) hs md t hstrclly
mprtnt st f sn ntrctn. n th
nntnth cntry, th Brtsh ttmptd t clnz
th ndmn slnds. n rcnt dcds, nd hs ls
ttmptd t pr mt sttlmnt f th slnds.
Mchl W. Chrny
Frthr Rdng
vnff, Jcqs. (1997) Mkn: S Gypss f th ndmn
S. Bngkk, Thlnd: Wht Lts.
Sn, Stdr. (1999) "Plcng th Svg: Sgrgtn, Lbr
nd Stt Mdcn n th ndmns." Jrnl f
sn Stds 58, 3: 753–773.
NDHR PRDSH (2001 pp. 75.7 mlln).
ndhr Prdsh s th frth-lrgst stt n nd,
hvng ppltn f 75.7 mlln nd cvrng
275,068 sqr klmtrs n th sthstrn prt f
nd. t hs th lngst cstln f ll ndn stts—
970 klmtrs lng th By f Bngl. t s flnkd
by th stts f Tml Nd, Krntk, Mhrshtr,
Chhttsgrh, nd rss n thr sds prt frm th
lng strn cstln. ndhr Prdsh ws th frst
stt n nd t b frmd n prly lngstc bss
n 1953 w th th mrgr f Tlg-spkng rs
f th Nzm’s Dmnns nd Mdrs Stt, sbsqntly
xpndd t ncld mr sch trrtry n th
ftrmth f th Stts Rrgnztn ct f 1956.
ndhr Prdsh hs tw nty-thr dmnstrtv
dstrcts, w hch cn b dvdd nt thr dstnct rgns:
ndhr, ncrprtng nn cstl dstrcts;
Ryls m, ncrprtng fr dstrcts n th ntrr;
nd Tlngn, ncrprtng tn dstrcts, ncldng
th cptl, Hydrbd. Bcs f ts
htrgns cmpstn, ndhr Prdsh hs
grppld w th th prblm f rgnl mblnc n
dffrnt frms. Th stt hs ncmrl lgsltr
wth 295 sts. t hs rprsnttn f ghtn sts
n th Rjy Sbh (ppr Hs) nd frty-tw sts
NDHR PRDSH
By f
Bngl
By f
Bngl
NDMN
S
Tn Dgr Chnnl
Prt Blr
Mlcc
Nrth
ndmn
Lttl
ndmn
Lttl
Ncbr
Ktchll
slnd
Cmrt
slnd
Cr
Ncbr
Grt
Ncbr
Sth
ndmn
Mddl
ndmn
Rtchs
rchplg
ndmn
slnds
Ncbr
slnds
N
0
0
25 50 Mls
25 50 Klmtrs
ndmn nd
Ncbr slnds
n th Lk Sbh (Lw r Hs) f th ndn Pr lmnt.
Hstrclly, ndhr Prdsh hs bn ssctd
wth th rgn f sccssv ndn dynsts,
bgnnng w th th Mrys n th frth cntry BC
nd cntnng, mst ntbly, w th th Kktys n
th thrtnth cntry nd th Vjyngr kngs n
th nxt tw cntrs. Ltr, t cm ndr th rl
f th Qtb Shhs nd th sf Jhs, Mslm rlrs
f th Dccn w h crtd th mdrn cty f Hydrbd
nd strck n llnc w th th dvncng
Brtsh clnl pw r. Trcs f ths lgcy stll xst
n th frm f mnmnts nd rchtctrl rns.
ky ftr f th stt’s trrn s th frtl
cstl pln n th st. Th tw mjr rvrs f th
stt, Gdvr nd Krshn, flw frm th w st t th
st nt th By f Bngl nd frm dlts. Ths frtl
dlt rgn spprts xtnsv rc cltvtn,
whch s th mn crp, lng w th mllt, grndnts,
chl, trmrc, tbcc, nd sgrcn. grcltr s
th mn ccptn f th ppl, lthgh fw mjr
ndstrs lk mchn tls, shppng, frtlzrs,
nd lctrncs spplmnt ncm nd mplymnt.
n rcnt tms, Hydrbd hs trnd nt hb f
cnmc ctvts, wth prtclr mphss n th
grw th f sftwr tchnlgy. Th stt ws th frst
t flt th d f -gvrnnc n nd thrgh th
s f cmptrs n dy-t-dy dmnstrtn. mng
th mn trst ttrctns, th Glcnd frt t Hydrbd,
th Vnktswr tmpl t Trpt, nd th
Ngrjn Sgr dm r pr mnnt.
Rm Shnkr Nnd
Frthr Rdng
Rbnsn, Mrgrt S. (1988) Lcl Pltcs: Th Lw f
Sshs: Dvlpmnt thrgh Pltcl Chng n Mdk Dstrct,
ndhr Prdsh (Sth nd). Nw Dlh: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
Tppr, Brc . (1987) Rvlry nd Trbt: Scty nd Rtl
n Tlg Vllg n Sth nd. Dlh: Hndstn
Pblshng.
ND TD (b. 1941), Jpns rchtct.
nd Td w s brn n sk n 13 Sptmbr 1941.
nlk mst cntmprry rchtcts, nd dd nt
rcv ny frml rchtctrl trnng bt w s crpntr’s
pprntc fr shrt tm, drng w hch h
lrnd trdtnl Jpns w d cnstrctn. H
tght hmslf rchtctr by vstng tmpls,
shrns, nd thss n Kyt, Nr, nd vrs
thr prts f Jpn nd thrgh trvls n th ntd
Stts, rp, nd s, w hr h md nmbr f
hs dtld sktchbks. n 1969, nd stblshd hs
wn rchtctrl frm n sk. H rcvd hs frst
wrd, th rchtctrl nsttt f Jpn’s nnl
prz f 1979, fr hs rw hs n Smysh. H hs
dsgnd sm f th smplst nd mst lyrcl bldngs,
spclly hss, chrchs, tmpls, ms ms,
nd rt gllrs. By th mnpltn f mssv xpsd
cncrt strctrs, nd hs prdcd mnmlst
typ f rchtctr. mng hs w ll-knw n
prjcts r th Rkk Hsng (1978); th Chrch
n th Wtr (1985); th Chrch f th Lght (1987);
th Jpns Pvln fr ntrntnl xp 92 n
Svll, Spn (1989); th Msm f Ltrtr
(1993); th Sntry Ms m n sk (1995); th NSC
Mdtn Spc n Prs (1994); nd th Mdrn
rt Ms m f Frt Wrth, Txs (1997).
Nthl Cvsn
Frthr Rdng
nd Td, nd Rchrd Pr, ds. (1996) Th Clrs f
Lght. Lndn: Phdn.
Dl C, Frncsc. (1995) Td nd: Cmplt Wrks. Lndn:
Phdn.
Drw , Phlp. (1996) Chrch n th Wtr, Chrch f th Lght:
Td nd. Lndn: Phdn.
NG L (b. 1954), Chns flm drctr. ng
L w s brn n Tw n n 23 ctbr 1954. n 1978,
h mvd t th ntd Stts w hr h stdd thtr
t th nvrsty f llns nd flm prdctn
t Nw Yrk nvrsty. L drctd hs frst ftr
flm, Pshng Hnds, n 1992, tl f Chns fmly
strgglng t dpt t lf n th ntd Stts,
whch n Tw n wn hm thr Gldn Hrs w rds
nd spcl jry prz fr drctn. Pshng Hnds
ws fllw d n 1993 by Th Wddng Bnqt,
cmdy bt gy Chns mn lvng n Nw
Yrk Cty, w hch rcvd th Gldn Br w rd n
Brln. Ths flms ld t ncrsd fndng fr t,
Drnk, Mn, Wmn (1994) nd Sns nd Snsblty
(1995), bth f whch rnd cdmy wrd nmntns
fr L. n hs nxt flms, c Strm (1997) nd
Rd wth th Dvl (1999), L fcsd n mrcn
sbjcts. n rtrn t Chns-lngg flms, th
mrtl rts dvntr Crchng Tgr, Hddn Drgn
(2000) w n fr cdmy w rds ncldng bst frgn
lngg flm.
Bnt Nlsn
Frthr Rdng
ng L, t l. (1994) T w Flms by ng L. Wdstck,
NY: vrlk Prss.
ND TD
NGKTN BL SLM MLYS
ngktn Bl slm Mlys (Mlysn slmc
Yth Mvmnt, r BM) ws stblshd n 1971
by nwr brhm, mng thrs. Th mv mnt w s
ffclly rgstrd by th Mlysn gvrnmnt n
17 gst 1972. mng BM’s bjctvs r slmc
trnng, dfns, nd prpgtn (dkwh) thrgh
mblzng Mslm yths bth n nd t f schl.
lthgh nt ffltd w th ny pltcl prty, th
mv mnt ddrsss scpltcl sss nd trns ftr
pltcns. Fr ths rsn, n prtclr, t s
clsly mntrd by th thrts.
Th frst prsdnt f BM, Rzl Mww, ws
rplcd by nwr brhm n 1974. pn hs rsgntn
s prsdnt f BM n 1982, nwr ws rplcd
by Sddq Fdl. Sddq ws sccdd by
Mhmmd Nr Mnty n 1991. hmd zm bdl
Rhmn w s lctd s BM’s ffth prsdnt n
Sptmbr 1997.
lthgh th dlgy r mssn f BM r mns
t fstr th dvlpmnt f slm nd t vc slmc
sprtns, s xprssd by th Mlysn Mslm
cmmnty, ts thm hs vlvd vr th
dcds. n th 1970s, BM w s mr ggrssv twrd
nd crtcl f th gvrnmnt, n tttd tht
mshd w th th gnrl pltcl clmt f tht
dcd. Fr xmpl, w hl h ws th BM scrtry-
gnrl nd prsdnt, nw r dfndd mpvrshd
Mly frmrs frm llgd gvrnmnt bss.
H ws rrstd n 1974 nd thn jld w tht trl
fr twnty mnths ndr th ntrnl Scrty ct.
BM rgrdd ths ct s n-slmc nd ccsd th
gvrnmnt f bng sclr-ntnlst nd rbtrry.
n th 1980s, BM sftnd ts ttcks bt rmnd
crtcl f th rlng rgm, s shw n by ts nclntn
tw rd prblm slvng by dptng th "w rkng
n th lght f w sdm" pprch. n th 1990s,
th mv mnt dptd prctv pprch nd bcm
gvrnmnt prtnr n ntn bldng. Snc
th ldrshp f hmd, BM hs fstrd th
thm: "Rvtlzng BM’s dls nd xtllng th
mv mnt’s dynms m nd strggl."
BM hs lng bn th vc f th slmc
cmmnty, ldng Ms lms tw rd mr mdrn,
nncnsrvtv pprch t rlgn nd twrd
vntl ldrshp pstns n ll sctrs. Dspt
hs pltcl cntrbtn t ths chvmnts,
Mhthr Mhmd, th pr m mnstr f th cntry
snc 1981, hs drppd frm hs dmnstrtn
mny f BM’s mst prmnnt ldrs lnkd t
nw r, wh srvd s dpty prm mnstr ntl
1998. Ths ws prtclrly th cs ftr th sck f
nw r nd hs mprsnmnt s rslt f pwr
strggl btw n nwr nd Mhthr. Tdy, lthgh
BM s stll rcgnzd by th gvrnmnt
s n slmc rgnztn, ts nflnc s lmtd t
th scrlgs nd cltrl sphrs. BM, lng
wth thr slmc rgnztns, hs rsd th d
f rfrms ( rfrm mvmnt), cntnng ts crtcsm
f th gvrnmnt, w hl th gvrnmnt ss
ll th pw rs t ts dspsl t kp BM ndr srvllnc.
nd Fsl Bkt
Frthr Rdng
Chndr Mzffr. (1987) slmc Rsrgnc n Mlys.
Ptlng Jy, Mlys: Fjr Bkt.
Gll, Rnjt. (1998) nwr brhm Mhthr’s Dlmm. Sngpr:
pc Mngmnt Srvcs, Pt Ltd.
Hssn Mtlb. (1995) "BM." n Th xfrd ncyclpd
f Mdrn slmc Wrld, vl. 1, dtd by Jhn spst.
Nw Yrk: xfrd nvrsty Prss, 15–17.
NGKTN BL SLM MLYS
ng L hlds hs scr fr th bst frgn lngg flm t
th 25 Mrch 2001 cdmy wrds n Ls ngls. (FP/
CRBS)
Mln, R. Stphn, nd Dn Mzy. (1999) Mlysn Pltcs
ndr Mhthr. Lndn: Rtldg.
Mhd nr Thr. (1993) Pndrn Pltk BM (BM’s
Pltcl Prncpls). Ptlng Jy nd Slngr, Mlys:
ngktn Bl slm Mlys, Bdy lm Sdn Bhd.
Mhmmd Kml Hssn. "Mlys." n Th xfrd ncyclpd
f Mdrn slmc Wrld, vl. 3, dtd by Jhn
spst. Nw Yrk: xfrd nvrsty Prss, 36–38.
Sddq Fdl. (1989) Klks cpn Dsr Mktmr Snw
BM: Mngngkt Mrtbt mt ( Cllctn f Mn
Tlks drng th nnl Mtngs f BM: lvtng
th Dgnty f th Cmmnty). Kl Lmpr, Mlys:
Dw n Pstk slm.
Znh nw r. (1987) slmc Rvvlsm n Mlys: Dkwh
mng th Stdnts. Ptlng Jy nd Slngr,
Mlys: Plndk Pblctns.
NGKR WT Whl mr thn n hndrd
mjr tmpl sts r fnd n nd rnd th tw n
f Sm Rp nd Tnl Sp ("Grt Lk") n nrthw st
Cmbd, ngkr Wt s nq mng thm.
n rly cptl f th Khmr mpr, w hch flrshd
n clsscl Sthst s frm th sxth t th
md-fftnth cntry, ngkr Wt s th lrgst tmpl
cmplx n th ntr ngkr pln (thr fms
sts n th pln ncld Byn nd T Pr m) nd
th lrgst rlgs mnmnt n th w rld. Rptdly
cnstrctd s fnrry tmpl nd mslm
frm sndstn t Phnm Kln by Sryvrmn
(1113–1150 C), th rns ncmpss n r f pprxmtly
104 sqr klmtrs nd tk mr thn
thrty yrs t bld. t w s nmd NSC Wrld
Hrtg St n 1992.
rchtctr
ngkr Wt ws ddctd t th Hnd gd
Vshn, bt ts mpccbly crftd nd dtld rnmntl
rchtctr nd bs rlfs dpct ll mnnr
f Khmr lgnds nd hstry f ngkr Wt. Msrng
1.5 by 1.3 klmtrs n sz, th cmplx s dstngshd
by ts wstwrd rnttn, s w ll s by
th w ll nd mt ( msrng 190 mtrs w d) tht
srrnd t. Ths ftrs nt nly dlnt th tmpl
bndrs bt ls rprsnt thr mntn
rngs nd cns. cntrl vn, 475 mtrs n
lngth, cnncts th mn ntrnc—ccssd v
cswy crss th mt—t th cntrl tmpl, pssng
btw n tw lbrrs nd rflctng pls. Th
cntrl tmpl cnssts f thr strs, ch f ltrt,
wth fv twrs. Th cntrl twr, rsng 55
mtrs bv th grnd, stnds fr Mnt Mr, n
Hnd mythlgy th cntr f th nvrs nd hm
f th gds. Th tw rs ls srv s th crrnt symbl
f th Kngdm f Cmbd.
Hstry
stblshd by Ysvrmn (rgnd 889–900/
910), ngkr chvd ts znth n th tw lf th cntry,
whn th Khmr mpr rld vr n r tht
strtchd frm Vtnm t Chn nd nd. Hwvr,
NGKR WT
Mnks t th rns f th Byn Tmpl, ngkr Wt, Cmbd, n 1996. (KRN S/CRBS)
th cty ws sckd by th Chms f sthrn Vtnm
n 1177, nd ngkr Wt ws cnvrtd nt Bddhst
tmpl prr t th Sms cnqst f 1431.
Jyvrmn V (c.1120–c.1215; rgnd 1181–c.1215)
sbsqntly stblshd nw cptl, ngkr Thm,
whch ws bndnd n 1434. vrgrw n by jngl,
th rns f bth wr rdscvrd by th Frnch n
1861, lthgh thr xstnc ws wll knw n t lcl
Khmr rsdnts nd rly rpn xplrrs.
Wrfr n Cmbd n th 1970s nd 1980s prvntd
trsts frm vstng th st, thrt tht prsstd
n rmt prts f th cmplx thrgh 1999,
whn grll sldrs f th Khmr Rg vn ccpd
ngkr Wt tslf fr brf prd. n th frst
yrs f th twnty-frst cntry, trst vsts t
ngkr Wt r gn n th ncrs, nd trsm
hs bcm mjr src f frgn xchng fr th
Cmbdn gvrnmnt. Lnd mns cntn t b
thrt n rrl rs srrndng th cmplx, hwvr,
whl thft nd vndlsm r th mst srs
physcl thrt t th mnmnts thmslvs. n rdr
t prvnt stts nd crvngs tht gv vtlty t
th tmpls nd thr hstrs frm bng stln fr
prvt cllctrs, mny hv bn rmvd fr sfkpng
nd rstrtn.
Grg Rngr
Frthr Rdng
Chndlr, Dvd P. (2000). Hstry f Cmbd. 3d d.
Bldr, C: Wstvw Prss.
Ck, n G., Mrcs . Dl, nd L. . Rx. (1996). Frgmntd
s: Rgnl ntgrtn nd Ntnl Dsntgrtn
n Pcfc s. ldrsht, .K.: shgt.
Dtt, shk, d.(1985). Sthst s: Rlm f Cntrsts.
Bldr, C: Wstvw Prss.
Hghm, Chrls. (2002) Th Cvlztn f ngkr. Brkly
Rngr, Grg, (2000). "Trsm n Cmbd, Ls nd
Mynmr: Fr m Trrrsm t Trsm?" n Trsm n
Sth nd Sthst s: sss nd Css, dtd by C.
Mchl Hll nd Stphn Pg. xfrd: Bttrwrth-
Hnmnn, 178–194.
NGL-DTCH TRTY Th ngl-
Dtch Trty (1824) md t tr mnt ngl-Dtch
rvlry n th Mly rchplg nd st nds. t
ttmptd t nd clshs nd dspts btw n Brtsh
nd Dtch mrchnts by dvdng th Mly Pnnsl
nd th st nds nt Brtsh nd Dtch sphrs
f nflnc. Th trty ws sgnd n Lndn by
Brtsh nd Dtch ffcls wtht cnsltng th lcl
rlrs cncrnd.
Th ln dmrkng Brtsh nd Dtch sphrs f
nflnc ws sth f th Strts f Sngpr. Th
Nthrlnds trnsfrrd t Brtn hr fctrs n nd,
rlnqshd Mlcc nd ts dpndncs, nd
ccptd Brtsh ccptn f Sngpr; Brtn srrndrd
ts dpndncs sth f th Strts nd
Bncln n th sthwst cst f Smtr. Th
Dtch grd t tr mnt tn mnply trts w th
Pr k nd Slngr n th Mly Pnnsl. Bth prts
grd nt t cncld trts wth lcl ldrs
r frm nw sttlmnts n slnds n ch thr’s
sphrs f nflnc.
Th trty dd nt flly nd ngl- Dtch rvlry.
Th Brtsh clmd Dtch gnts stll ccsnlly
pntrtd thr trrtry. Th Dtch prtstd n th
1840s nd 1870s, w hn Jms Brk nd Dnt nd
vrbck tk cntrl vr wht r nw prts f
Srw k nd Sbh. Snc th trty fld t dfn
th pstn f th slnd f Brn, th Brtsh
clmd Brn w s nt cvrd by t.
Th trty brk p th Mly mpr f Jhr.
Th Brtsh nd Dtch ffctvly xcldd thr
pw rs frm th rgn, sng th trty s mns
f cntrllng w ht bcm Brtsh Mly nd th
Nthrlnds st nds.
Gth Gvndsmy
Frthr Rdng
ndy, Brbr Wtsn. (1982) Hstry f Mlys. Lndn:
Th Mc mlln Prss Lmtd.
Bkr, Jm. (1999) Pplr Hstry f Sngpr nd
Mlys. Kl Lmpr, Mlys: Tms Bks ntrntnl.
Mlls, L. . (1971) Brtsh n Mly: 1824–1867. Nw Yrk:
MS Prss.
NGL-NDNS lthgh "ngl-ndn"
rgnlly mnt smn f Brtsh dscnt wh ws
brn nd lvd prmnntly n nd, ftr bt 1900
th trm c m t mn prsn f mxd rpn
nd ndn ncstry, rsn.
NGL-NDNS
NGKR WT—
WRLD HRTG ST
ngkr Wt ws dsgntd NSC Wrld
Hrtg St n 1992 bcs t s th mst mprtnt
rchlgcl st n Sthst s.
Spcl msrs hv bn tkn t prtct th
st nd th srrndng r.
9
ntl th pnng f th Sz Cnl n 1869, Brtsh
mn vstly tnmbrd rpn w mn n nd,
nd ths ml rsdnts cmmnly tk ndn
w mn s mstrsss r hskprs. ftr th cnl
pnd, w mn cld mr sly trvl frm nglnd,
nd th ngl-ndn c mmnty thn bc m
stbl nd lrgly ndgms nt.
nly fw thsnd ngl-ndns rmn n nd,
snc mst mgrtd t Brtn, strl, r
Cnd drng th pst hlf-cntry. Th lst cnss
t nmrt thm, tkn n 1951 w hl thr xds
ws n prgrss, rcrdd 11,637 ngl-ndns.
Th mn chrctrstcs f th ngl-ndns r
Chrstn rlgn; nglsh s mthr tng; rpn
lfstyl nd hm décr; Wstrn drss fr chldrn
nd dlts; nd mplymnt n prtclr
dmnstrtv nd srvc prfssns (typclly rqrng
flncy n nglsh nd hgh-schl dctn),
sch s th pst ffc, rlw ys, plc wrk,
tchng, nd nrsng.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Gkw d, Vjy Sngh R. R. (1967) Th ngl-ndns:
Stdy n th Prblms nd Prcsss nvlvd n mtnl
nd Cltrl ntgrtn. Bmby, nd: s Pblshng
Hs.
Gst, Nl P., nd Ry D. Wrght. (1973) Mrgnlty nd
dntty: ngl-ndns s Rclly Mxd Mnrty n nd.
Ldn, Nthrlnds: . J. Brll.
NGL-MYSR WRS Th ngl- Mysr
wrs wr fr wrs cndctd by Brtsh frcs gnst
Hydr l (1722–1782) nd hs sn Tp Sltn (1749–
1799), th rlrs f th kngdm f Mysr (nw Krntk),
n sthrn nd, drng 1767–1769, 1780–
1784, 1790–1792, nd Mrch–My 1799. Th fnl
cnflct ndd wth th dth f Tp Sltn drng
hs dfns f Srngptm, Tp’s cptl.
Mysr ws rch grcltrl trrtry wth mny
sprbly blt hll frts, nd t ws prz tht th
Brtsh st nd Cmpny sw s hldng th ky t
lrg cnqst f sthrn nd nd t blckng
Frnch sprtns n th rgn. Th w rs bgn whn
Hydr l ws fghtng th Mrths t th nrth, nd
th Brtsh lnt spprt t th nzm (rlr) f Hydrbd,
wh thn nvdd Mysr trrtry wth
Brtsh dtchmnt. Hydr gt th Mrths n hs
sd, w n vr th nzm, nd thn vntd hs fry n
th Brtsh, w h wr bsd n Mdrs nd tlyng
tw ns. Hydr rchd th w lls f Mdrs Cty, w hr
h dcttd trty t th pnc-strckn rsdnts.
Hs xsprtn w th th Brtsh flrd nw n th
Scnd ngl- Mysr Wr, csd by th Brtsh flr
t hnr th trty nd rndr hm ssstnc n
hs rnw d strggl w th th Mrths. gn Hydr
mrchd n Mdrs, ths tm hpng t gt ssstnc
frm th Frnch bsd n Pndchrry. t fld t mtrlz.
Drng ths wr Hydr l dd f cncr,
bt hs sn Tp Sltn tk p th crsd gnst
th Brtsh, w h md pc w th hm n 1784 (th
Trty f Mnglr).
Th nxt wr bgn bcs th Brtsh n Mdrs
wrt t th nzm f Hydrbd tht thy w ld hlp
hm rgn trrtrs lst t Tp’s frcs. ntcptng
frthr hstlts, Tp ttckd Trvncr nd
thrbts n 1789–1790. Th Brtsh thn ntrd
nt lg w th th nzm nd ls w th th pshw ,
th chf mnstr f th Mrths. n 1790 th Brtsh
mvd nt sthrn Mysr, bt Tp dnd thm
ny clr vctrs. Lrd Chrls Crnw lls (1738–
1805), th gvrnr-gnrl f nd, thn ssmd
cmmnd hmslf. H cptrd Bnglr nd mvd
tw rd Srngptm (r Sr Rng Pttn), jst tsd
Mysr Cty. Nw Tp’s scrchd rth plcy
brght fmn nt th Brtsh cmp nd blgd
Crnw lls t rtrt. H hd mr sccss n sbsqnt
cmpgn, nd n 1792 bsgd Srngptm.
Ths ld t Tp’s sbmssn, nd nthr trty ws
NGL-MYSR WRS
TH MKNG F
NGL-NDNS
" hd ftn dmrd lvly Hndstn grl
wh smtms vstd Crtr t my hs, w h
ws vry lvly nd clvr. pn Crtr’s lvng
Bngl nvtd hr t bc m n nmt
wth m, w hch sh cnsdrd t d, nd frm
tht tm t th dy f hr dth Jmdnn,
whch ws hr nm, lvd w th m, rspctd
nd dmrd by ll my frnds by hr xtrrdnry
sprghtlnss nd gd hmr. nlk th
w mn n gnrl n s sh nvr scldd hrslf
frm th sght f strngrs; n th cntrry,
sh dlghtd n jnng n ml prts, crdlly
jnng n th mrth w hch prvld, thgh sh
nvr tchd wn r sprts f ny knd."
Src: lfrd Spncr, d. ([1787] 1913)
Mmrs f Wllm Hcky. Lndn: Hrst &
Blcktt, Ltd.
9
cncldd n Mrch. Tp w s blgd t srrndr
tw f hs sns s hstgs, py mssv ndmnty,
nd cd p hlf f hs dmnns, w hch wr thn ncrprtd
nt th Brtsh st nd Cmpny trrtrs
s th "Cdd Dstrcts". Tp ls ws frcd
t cd trrtry t th Mrths nd th nz m.
Th Frth Mysr Wr, thr-mnth nggmnt,
ws csd by Tp’s rfsl t ccpt n
llnc w th th Brtsh. Th nw gvrnr-gnrl,
Lrd Rchrd Wllsly (1760–1842), sspctd
Tp’s ntntns bcs fllw ng th prvs
trty Tp hd trd t frm llncs w th Frnc,
stnbl, nd th shh f fghnstn, hpng t drv
th Brtsh t f nd ltgthr. Thr rms, n
ld by rthr Wllsly (1769–1852), th ftr Dk
f Wllngtn, cnvrgd n Srngptm nd w th
tw frc ttcks brght th wr t n nd. Tp’s
dd bdy w s fnd, swrd n hnd, mng ths f
hs sldrs t nrth gt, n 4 My 1799. Th nz m
ws gvn sm f th cptrd trrtry, bt mch f
t w s rstrd s th Kngdm f Mysr ndr Krshnrj,
th mhrj f Mysr, nd rmnd w th
Mysr ntl 1947. Th llnc w th th Brtsh ws
fnlly sgnd.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Frrst, Dnys. (1970) Tgr f Mysr: Th Lf nd Dth f
Tp Sltn. Lndn: Chtt & Wnds.
Wlks, Mrk. ([1810] 1930) Hstrcl Sktchs f th Sth f
nd, n n ttmpt t Trc th Hstry f Mysr: frm th
rgn f th Hnd Gvrnmnt f tht Stt, t th xtnctn
f th Mhmmdn Dynsty n 1799. Rprnt d.
Mysr, nd: Gvrnmnt Brnch Prss.
NH D DY (1904–1988), Vtnms jrnlst,
hstrn, ldr n ntclnl strggl. Hghly
crtcl f Cnfcn cltr tht h blvd bnd
th cntry t fdlsm nd clnls m, nh D
Dy stblshd H-bsd stdy grp nd bgn
t pblsh bks n qc ng—th Vtnms vrnclr—
tht ntrdcd th Vtnms pblc t Wstrn
scl scncs n th 1920s. H w s rrstd by
Frnch thrts n 1929 fr rgnzng th Nw
Vtnm Rvltnry Prty. mprsnd fr n
yr, h ws gvn thr-yr sspndd sntnc
tht ld hm t bndn pltcs nd prs schlrshp.
n 1938, h pblshd th smnl n tln Hstry
f Vtnms Cltr. Fllw ng th 1954 Gnv
ccrds, nh jnd lrg nmbr f Nrth Vtnms
rtsts nd wrtrs wh bgn t dmnd ntllctl
nd ltrry frdms, w hch th L Dng
Prty hd strppd n ts ttmpt t mps th rgd
tnts f sclst rlsm n rts nd lttrs; n vnt
tht bcm knw n s th Nhn Vn–G Phm ffr.
nh ssrtd tht th prty’s rgd dhrnc t
Mrxst dlgy cnstrnd scl scnc rsrch.
nh ls ttckd th clt f prsnlty srrndng
H Ch Mnh nd th mnply f pwr hld by th
L Dng Prty. n n prl 1958 crckdw n n th
dssdnt ntllctls, nh w s frcd t wrt slf crtcsm.
ffctvly slncd, nh dd n 1988.
Zchry bz
Frthr Rdng
bz, Zchry. (2001) Rnvtng Vtnms Pltcs n Cntmprry
Vtnm. Bldr, C: Lynn Rnnr Pblshrs.
NH (1995 st. pp. 59.6 mlln). Th cntrl
strn Chns prvnc f nh (nhw) s brdrd
by Hb nd Hnn n th wst, Shndng
nd Jngs n th nrth, Jngs nd Zhjng n th
st, nd Jngx n th sth. Th prvnc, w hr
grcltr s th prncpl ccptn, cvrs n r
f 139,000 sqr klmtrs, mkng t n f Chn’s
smllst. t s trvrsd by th Chng (Yngtz) Rvr
frm wst t st. Th cptl Hf (1993 ppltn
1.1 mlln) s sttd n th cntr f nh, nrth
f Lk Ch, nd th prvnc s dvdd nt nn
rgns nd svnty cnts.
nh s sprtd nt tw dstnct rgns by
mntn rngs rnnng nrthst-sthwst, wth
pks n th wstrn prt rchng t 1,751 mtrs.
Th nrthrn rgn, w hch hs bn dnsly pp-
NH
NH—WRLD
HRTG ST
Dsgntd by NSC s Wrld Hrtg
St n 2000, th Xd nd Hngcn vllgs n
sthrn nh r nqly prsrvd xmpls
f rrl trd psts frm Chn’s fdl prd.
Smhw th tw vllgs hv srvvd lmst
ntct, dw n t th rgnl dcrtns nd wtr
systms.
9
ltd snc th Hn dynsty (206 BC–220 C), hs
tmprt mnsn clmt, w hl th sth, w hch
ws sttld by Hn Chns frm th svnth cntry
n, hs sbtrpcl mnsn clmt w th grw ng
ssn f ght t nn mnths. Th mntns rs
r mnly cncntrtd n th sthrn nd w strn
prts f th prvnc; th rst s mstly frtl
plns. Mjr crps n th nrth r w ht, sybns,
nd cttn, w hl th sthrn rgn crps r dmntd
by rc nd t.
Bnt Nlsn
NM nm, th Jpns tr m fr nmtd
flms, rfrs t Jpns nmtn. Snc th rly
1950s, w hn th fthr f nm, Tzk sm
(1928–1989), crtd sch fms srs s Jngl tt
(knw n n th ntd Stts s "Kmb th Wht
Ln") nd Ttsn tm (knw n n th ntd Stts
s "str By"), Jpn hs prdcd strm f nnvtv
nd rgnl nmtd flms. rtstclly,
nm r knw n fr thr s f clr, thr txtrd
nd dtld bckgrnds nd frgrnds, nd thr
cmplx cmr pnts f vw , whch pprxmt
ths f ctd flms. Sympthtc chrctrs r ftn
dpctd w th nrms ys, ddly clrd hr, nd
chldlk ftrs. Stry lns tnd t b cmplx, nd
mny nm ppr s lng srs f psds, w th
mlttd f chrctrs nd sbplts.
nm ftn hv thr rts n mng (cmc
bks, r grphc nvls), thgh nt lw ys; n rcnt
tms cmptr gms hv ls nsprd nm,
s n th cs f Pkmn. thr chldrn’s nm tht
hv crssd th Pcfc t ntrg .S. dncs ncld
Mch G! G! G! (.S. "Spd Rcr"), ch
snkn Ymt (.S. "Strblzrs"), Drgnbll Z, nd
Slr Mn. Thr r ls mny nm md t n
ldr dnc, w hch ftr grphc sx nd vlnc.
Sm nm r srs flms; Prncss Mnnk, th
1999 .S. vrsn f fll-lngth nmtd flm by
Jpn’s pr mr nm drctr, Myzk Hy, rcvd
crtcl cclm n th ntd Stts.
Mchl shknz nd Frncsc Frrst
S ls: Cnm—Jpn
Frthr Rdng
" Brf Hstry f nm." Rtrvd 20 Jly 2001, frm:
http://gws2.crc.gw.d/~klkm/hstry.html.
Npr, Ssn J. (2000) nm frm kr t Prncss
Mnnk: xprncng Cntmprry Jpns nmtn.
Nw Yrk: Plgrv.
Schdt, Frdrck L. (1983) Mng! Mng! Th Wrld f
Jpns Cmcs. Tky, Nw Yrk, nd Sn Frncsc:
Kdnsh ntrntnl.
NKR (1997 pp. 3.7 mlln). nkr (frmrly
ngr) s th cptl nd scnd-lrgst cty f th
Rpblc f Trky. Lctd n th Cntrl ntln
plt, nkr s pprxmtly 355 klmtrs
sthst f stnbl, Trky’s lrgst cty.
Hstry
nkr hs bn th st f cntns sttlmnt
snc t lst th Nlthc r (c. 10,300/10,000–3500
BC) nd w s szbl tw n thrght mst f ntqty.
ts sttn lng mjr crvn rts nd ts
mpl sppls f frshwtr nd sly dfnsbl pstn
wr dl fr trdng twn. nkr ws ncrprtd
nt th Rmn mpr n 25 BC nd ws
cntrlld t vrs tms by th Prsns, rbs,
Sljks, nd Byzntns.
Th cty ws cnqrd n 1354 (sm srcs sy
1356) by th scnd ttmn sltn, rhn (c. 1281–
1360). rhn’s sn Mrd (1326–1389) ncrprtd
nkr nt th ttmn mpr n 1360 r 1361. n
1402 th Mngls ndr Tmr (Tmrln, Tmr-
Lng; c. 1360–1403) dftd th ttmn sltn
Byzd (c. 1360–1403) n bttl jst tsd
nkr. Dspt th nsng cvl wr, nkr rmnd
ndr ttmn cntrl nd srvd fr sm
tm s th rgnl cptl f th prvnc f ntl
(ndl). Kthy vntlly rplcd t s rgnl
cptl, bt nkr ws rstrd s prvncl
cntr n th nntnth cntry.
Thrght ths prd nkr ws cntr f
grn prdctn. Drng th nntnth cntry lxry
trd bsd n mhr, prtclrly w rm nd
sft fbrc md frm th hr f th lcl ngr
gts, ncrsd n mprtnc, s dd crpt prdctn
fr th rpn mrkt. rlwy btwn
nkr nd zmt, fnncd by th Dtsch Bnk nd
bgn n 1889, ncrsd nkr’s cmmrcl mprtnc
s w ll s ts ts t brdr cnmc trnds.
Th Twntth Cntry
nkr’s sgnfcnc ncrsd mrkdly drng th
Trksh Wr fr ndpndnc frm 1919 t 1923.
Th Brtsh ccpd th ttmn cptl f stnbl,
nd Svs, th ntl cntr f ntnlst rsstnc,
ws t fr frm th frnt. Cnsqntly th ntnlst
frcs chs nkr s nw bs f prtns.
n 27 Dc mbr 1919 th ntnlst gvrnmnt,
NM
ndr th ldrshp f Mstf Kml (ltr ttrk)
(1881–1938), rrvd n nkr nd bgn th w rkngs
f gvrnmnt n th tw n’s grcltrl schl.
Th ntnlst prlmnt (Byk Mllt Mcls)
cnvnd n 23 prl 1920.
Sch ws th pwr nd prstg f stnbl, hwvr,
tht th dcsn t mk nkr th cptl n
ctbr 1923 ws mt w th cnsdrbl srprs nd
nt lttl ds my. Cmprd t csmpltn stnbl,
nkr w s dstnctly nglmrs, slpy tw n,
dsty n smmr nd mddy n w ntr. Hw vr, ths
shft nvlvd mprtnt symbls m. Th mv t
nkr ndrlnd th rpblc’s brk frm ts ttmn
lgcy nd th fndtn f dstnctly Trksh
nd ntln ntn.
nkr’s nw stts s th Trksh Rpblc’s cptl
brght drmtc grw th nd dvlpmnt t th
cty. n th frst yrs f th rpblc lrg nmbr
f mprtnt bldngs wr cnstrctd n r nr
wht s rfrrd t s th ld Cty, prncplly rnd
th ls dstrct. ftr 1930 brdr pln fr th cty
dvlpd, nd mjr nstttns w r cnstrctd n
dstrcts sthst f th rgnl tw n cntr. Plnnng
cld nt cntrl th ffcts f xplsv ppltn
grw th, hwvr, nd mny dstrcts wr md
p f nlcnsd hsng f vryng qlty, lclly
clld gcknd (ltrlly, cnstrctd t nght). lthgh
nkr dvlpd n ctl "dw ntwn," th
dstrct f Kzly gnrlly hs bn cnsdrd th
cty’s hb. Th w lthr dstrct f Cnky ls hs
bn n mprtnt cntr f trd nd gvrnmnt.
nkr Tdy
nkr hss th prlmnt, prsdntl plc,
nd gvrnmntl mnstrs, nd th cty hs bcm
cltrl cntr f Trky. nkr nvrsty,
Hctpp nvrsty, Mddl st Tchncl nvrsty,
nd Blknt nvrsty, prvt nvrsty, r
mprtnt nstttns fr lrnng nd rsrch.
nkr s ls hm t th thngrphc Msm nd
w rld-clss rchlgcl ms m clld th Ms m
f ntln Cvlztns. Th Hc Byrm
Msq (1429), ddctd t n mprtnt Mslm
snt, s pnt f lcl plgrmg, nd th Mslm
f Mstf Kml ttrk (nt Kbr), dsgnd by
mn nt nd rhn rd, s n xmpl f rpblcn-
r rchtctr nd tstmnt t ttrk’s
plc n th rpblc’s ntnl cnscsnss.
Dspt ts rl s th st f gvrnmnt, nkr
rmns, cltrlly, cnmclly, nd dmgrphclly,
Trky’s "scnd cty" ftr stnbl. Nvrthlss,
whl stnbl’s plcs nd msqs r
cnstnt rmndr f n ttmn pst, nkr mbds
th ftr, bth s th cptl f th Trksh
Rpblc nd s th rbn mbdmnt f th rpblc’s
mdrnzng mssn.
Hwrd ssnstt
NKR
n rl vw f th mslm f Kml ttrk, th fndr f th Rpblc f Trky, n nkr.
(YNN RTHS-BRTRND/CRBS)
Frthr Rdng
Crss, Tn M., nd Gry Lsr (2000) Brf Hstry f
nkr. Vcvll, C: ndn Frd Prss.
NSR, BDLLH (1005–1089), Sf rlgs
fgr. Khw j bdllh nsr ws Sf shkh
frm Hrt, fghnstn, nd Hnbl trdtnst,
rnw nd fr hs srmns n rhymd prs nd fr hs
plmcs gnst rtnlst thlgy (klm). nsr,
dscndnt f Mdnn cmpnn f th Prpht
Mhmmd, ws n xcptnlly gftd chld w h
cmpsd ptry n Prsn nd rbc nd lrnd th
Qr_n nd th Prphtc trdtns (hdth) bfr th
g f nn. H mbrkd n th Sf pth ndr th
gdnc f hs fthr, bt hs mystcsm ws tmprd
by rgrs schlstc trnng, nd h shnnd prctcs
tht sght t ndc csttc stts. H ws ls
rnw nd tchr f th Qr_n nd th hdth, w h
cstgtd th nflntl sh_rt thlgns fr sbjctng
th rvld w rd t lgcl nfrncs.
nsr ws prmrly n rtr, nt wrtr, nd hs
wrks bnd wth ssnncs nd rhythmc pttrns
tht d mmrztn. Mst w r thr cmpld
frm dscpls’ nts r dcttd t scrbs n hs ld
g. mng hs fms w rks r Mnzl l-S’rn
(Th Stgs f th Plgr ms), Sf sprtl gd n
rbc nlyzng th psychlgcl stts nd sttns
f th Sf pth; Tbqt l-Sfyy (Bgrphs f Sfs),
n xpndd trnsltn f th rbc wrk f th
grt Sf mstr Slm (c. tnth–lvnth cntrs)
nt th ncnt dlct f Hrt; nd Kshf l-srr
(nvlng f th Scrts), th frst systmtc cmmntry
n th Qr_n w rttn n nn-rbc
lngg. Hs pplr ppl rsts prmrly n hs
qtrns nd n th Mnjt (ntmt Cnvrstns)—
mystcl nvctns t Gd bstrctd frm
hs thr wrks. nsr s n f th mst nflntl
rly Sf thrs w hs rhymd prs, ntrsprsd
wth prbls nd vrss, ws mltd by S_d, Jm
nd nflncd thr Prsn clsscs.
Mrt Smdchv
Frthr Rdng
nsr, bdllh. (1978) "ntmt Cnvrstns." n Th Bk
f Wsdm, dtd by bn _t_ llh nd trnsltd by
Whlr M. Thckstn. Nw Yrk: Plst Prss, 163–233.
Brcl, Srg d. (1985) "bdllh l-nsr." n ncyclpd
rnc, Vl. 1, dtd by .Yrshtr. Lndn:
Rtldg nd Kgn Pl, 187–190.
Rvn Frhd, . G. (1996) bdllh nsr f Hrt (1006–
1089 C): n rly Sf Mstr. Rchmnd, .K.: Crzn
Prss.
Rypk, Jn. (1968) "Hstry f Prsn Ltrtr p t th
Bgnnng f th 20th Cntry." n Hstry f rnn Ltrtr,
dtd by K. Jhn. Drdrcht, Nthrlnds: Rdl,
234–235.
NTKY (1994 pp. 137,200). ntky, th cptl
f Hty ( prvnc f pprxmtly 1.2 mlln
ppl) n sthstrn Trky, n th strn bnk
f th s (rnts) Rvr, ws n mprtnt cty f
th Rmn mpr. Th Mcdnn Slcs
fndd th cty bt 300 BC nd nmd t ntchs
(ltr ntch). Th cty srvd s cntrl sttn
fr Rmn c mmrcl nd mltry rts
btw n s Mnr nd Msptm nd s Rmn
rmy bs fr cmpgns gnst th Prsns. lthgh
fms s ncls f Chrstnty, ts rgnl
sttlrs wr f mny rcs nd rlgns. Th prsprty
f ntch dmnshd ftr mjr rthqk
n 526 nd dstrctn by th Ssnd rlr Khsrw
n 540. Th rbs tk ntch n 638 C.
ftr brf Byzntn ccptn ntch fll t
th Mslm Sljk Trks n 1084. n 1098 th cty ws
rdd drng th Frst Crsds nd rdd gn n
1268 by Bybrs , Mmlk sltn f gypt. Whn
th ttmn sltn Slm (rgnd 1512–) cptrd
ntch n 1516, th cty ws ppld prmrly by
Mslm Trkmn nd rbs nd hd lng lst ts mprtnc
s Chrstn cntr. ntch rmnd prt
f th ttmn mpr ntl ftr Wrld Wr . Th
cty ws ccpd by Frnch trps n 1919 nd plcd
ndr Frnch mndt by th Lg f Ntns. n
ndpndnt rgm knw n s th Rpblc f Hty
ws stblshd n 1938 w th ntch s ts cptl. ftr
rfrndm th w hl trrtry ffclly bcm
NSR, BDLLH
Q TRN BY
BDLLH NSR
Grt shm t s t dm f hgh dgr
Thyslf, r vr thrs rcn th:
Strv t b lk th ppl f thn y—
T s ll ls, bt nt thyslf t s.
Src: dwrd Brw n. (1964)
Ltrry Hstry f Prs. Vl.
2. Cmbrdg, .K.: Cmbrdg
nvrsty Prss, 270.
9
prt f th Trksh Rpblc (fndd by Mstf Kml
ttrk, 1881–1938) n 23 Jn 1939. Snc thn
th cty hs bn ffclly clld ntky.
Srrndd by rch rchrds, ntky stnds t th
jnctn f mprtnt rds btw n ntl nd
thr Mddl strn cntrs. ts clmt s mld,
nd ts cnmy s bsd mnly n grcltr. Th
chf crps r cttn, grps, wht, rc, lvs, vgtbls,
nd frts. ndstrs ncld lv-l nd sp
fctrs, s w ll s cttn gnnng nd slk nd sh
mnfctrng. Th rchlgcl Msm f ntky
cntns mgnfcnt Rmn mscs nd cns
dtng frm th scnd nd thrd cntrs C. pplr
rsrt nd trst ttrctn s th st f ncnt
Dphn nr Hrby, prhps th plc w hr ntny
mrrd Clptr n 40 BC. nthr mnmnt n
th r s th Chrch f Snt Ptr, w hr th pstl
sppsdly prchd th frst Chrstn srmns.
T. skzl-.F. skzl
Frthr Rdng
Dvlt sttstk nstts.
NTLY (2002 pp. 571,000). ntly, cptl f
th prvnc f ntly (ppltn 1 mlln; knw n
n ncnt Grc s ttl) n sthwstrn Trky,
ws fndd n th scnd cntry BC by ttls ,
kng f Prgmm. ntly s Mdtrrnn prt n
th Glf f ntly, thrws knw n s th Trqs
Cst. D t ts strtgc lctn, t ws nc sprt
sd by Crsdrs t vd Sljk trrtry n
thr wy t Plstn. mng mny mnmnts frm
ntly’s pst s th Hdrn Gt, splndd strctr
cnsstng f thr dntcl rchs, blt n C 130 t
cmmmrt Rmn mprr Hdrn’s vst. Snts
Pl nd Brnbs ls vstd th cty n thr wy t
ntch. ftr th Sljks cptrd ttl n 1207, t
bcm ntly. lthgh ntly w s frst ccpd
by Sltn Byzd (rgnd 1389–1402) n 1391, t
ws nt ncrprtd nt th ttmn mpr ntl
th lt fftnth cntry. tln trps ccpd ntly
ftr Wrld Wr ntl Trksh ntnlst frcs
xplld thm n 1921. ts dl clmt, btfl ntrl
sttng, nd prxmty t ncnt sts mk ntly
trst rsrt. n f Trky’s fstst-grwng
cts, t s cntr f rt nd cltr. Ntrl vgttn
nclds bnns, ctrs frts, pn frsts, nd
plm trs. Th rgnl cnmy s lrgly spprtd
by trsm nd cttn prdctn.
T. skzl-.F. skzl
Frthr Rdng
Dvlt sttstk nstts.
NT- FSCST PPL’S FRDM
LG—MYNMR Th nt- Fscst Ppl’s
Frdm Lg (FPFL) strtd t drng
Wrld Wr s n ndrgrnd rsstnc mvmnt
gnst fscst ccptn f Brm (nw Mynmr) bt
ws trnsfrmd nt th dmnnt pltcl prty n
pstndpndnc lctrl pltcs btw n 1948 nd
1962. rgnlly fndd s th nt-Fscst rgnztn
(F) n gst 1944, ts rly ldrshp ncldd
ng Sn (prsdnt), Thn Tn (scrtry gnrl), nd
Thkn S. t vrs tms, th F ncldd th
Brm Cmmnst Prty (BCP), th Ppl’s Rvltnry
Prty, Mh Bm, th Fbn Prty, My Cht,
th Shn ssctn, nd th Yth Lg. ntlly t
dclrd ts m s rsstng Jpns ccptn.
Th F ws rnmd th nt-Fscst Ppl’s
Frdm Lg t mss mtng n 19 gst 1945;
rgnzrs ddd th gl f scrng ntnl ndpndnc.
Whn Brtsh clnl gvrnmnt rtrnd
t Brm n ctbr 1945, th FPFL dmndd mjrty
rprsnttn n t. Whn th Brtsh gnrd
ths dmnd, frc cmpttn tk plc mng dffrnt
fctns fr nflnc. ftr prd f rsstnc
nd strks gnst th clnl gvrnmnt, nd ftr
tw chngs n gvrnr, th FPFL fnlly mrgd
ndr ng Sn s th frc wth whch th Brtsh
cm t tr ms n Sptmbr 1946. ftr prd f ntrnl
strf wthn th FPFL, ng Sn ngttd
ntnl ndpndnc frm th Brtsh w th th sgnng
f th ttl–ng Sn gr mnt n Jnry 1947.
n Jly 1947 ng Sn ws ssssntd lng w th
thr cbnt mnstrs. ftr ng Sn’s ssssntn,
N tk vr th ldrshp f th FPFL. ndr
N’s ldrshp, th FPFL bc m th dmnnt
prlmntry prty ntl th cp by Gnrl N Wn
n 1962. Drng ts yrs n pwr, th FPFL w s
grdlly w knd by fr splts. Th frst f ths
splts ccrrd whn ng Sn xplld th BCP n Nv mbr
1946. Ths ws fllw d by th dfctn f th
Ppls’ Vlntr rmy t th BCP n Jly 1948, th
xplsn f th Brm Wrkrs nd Psnts Prty n
1951, nd th splt n ldrshp btw n th N-Tn
"Cln" nd th Sw -Nyn "Stbl" fctns n 1958.
Th dmnnt rl f th FPFL ndd w hn th Rvltnry
Cncl ndr Gnrl N Wn blshd
ll pltcl prts n 23 Mrch 1964 w hn t prmlgtd
th Lw Prtctng Ntnl nty.
Gstf Htmn
NT-FSCST PPL’S FRDM LG—MYNMR
Frthr Rdng
Sn Wn. (1959) Th Splt Stry: n ccnt f Rcnt Pltcl
phvl n Brm wth mphss n FPFL. Rngn,
Brm: Th Grdn.
Tnkr, Hgh. (1967) Th nn f Brm. Lndn: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
NT- TRS Th nt- Trs r sthstrn
Trs (Gny Dg Trs) Mntns r
fldd lmstn rng lyng btw n th rnn brdr
n sthst Trky nd th Syhn Rvr, t lngtd
35º 30´ st. Th rng frms n rch. Th
wstrn nd mrgs w th th Nr Mntns nd th
strn wth th Zgrs Mntns f rq. nsd th
rch s plt vrgng 600 mtrs hgh, slpng
gntly dw n t th nrth Syrn pln. Nrth f th
nt-Trs s Trky’s lrgst lk, Lk Vn. Th
nt-Trs rng s p t 170 klmtrs w d frm
nrth t sth nd nclds (frm w st t st) th
Thtl ( mx mm hght 3075 mtrs) nd th Cl-
St (mx mm hght 4170 mtrs) Mntns.
Rnfll s gnrlly rnd 500 mllmtrs, rsng
t vr 1000 mllmtrs t th wst nd st xtrmts;
n th Cl-St Mntns, w th tn prmnnt
glcrs, rn flls mnly s snw . Mst f th rgn
hs ht, dry smmrs nd sm snwfll n w ntr,
mltng qckly; tr cvr hs bn rmvd by ndscrmnt
fllng.
Th rng s dssctd by thr mjr rvrs—th
Cyhn, phrts (Frt), nd Tgrs (Dcl); th
lst tw spply rrgtn nd drnkng w tr fr
Trky, Syr, nd rq s fr sth s th Prsn
Glf. n th phrts r th Kbn Dm (Brj)
nd th ttrk Dm nd thr lks; thy spply
26 blln klw tt-hrs pr yr f lctrcty nd
rrgt w ll vr n mlln hctrs. Th rd hb
s Dyrbkr, frm w hch psss rn t Btls, Bngl,
lzg, nd Gzntp, w th rds t Mlty-Kysr
nd dn.
Th prctc f trnshmnc, mvng flcks n
ssn t hgh smmr pstrs, s nw lss prftbl
thn th cltvtn f rchrd trs, cttn, nd vgtbls
n rrgtd lnds. Th ppltn, hstrclly
Trksh, Krdsh, nd r mnn, nd nw mnly
Krdsh, hs bn rdcd by th mltry plcy f
vctng vllgs blvd t hlp th Krdstn
Wrkrs Prty r PKK, Mrxst trrrst rgnztn.
smll mnt f ptrl cms frm th Btmn
r; cppr mns t rgn nd chrm dpsts
t Glmn r xpltd by tbnk, th Stt mnng
cncrn. Th mst pplr trst dstntn s
Nmrt Mntn, nr dymn, w hr Rmn
clnt kng rctd tmb nd stts n n sltd
smmt.
Kt Clw
Frthr Rdng
Drk, Dn. (1990) Dscvry Gd t strn Trky nd
th Blck S Cst. Th Hg, Nthrlnds, nd Lndn:
Mchl Hg.
NWR, BRHM (b. 1948), Mlysn pltcn.
brhm nw r s th pplr frmr Mlysn
dpty prmr w h ws std n 1998. Brn n 1948
n Pnng, nw r ws yth ldr nd vcl crtc
f th gvrnmnt n th 1970s. n 1972 h fndd
th ngktn Bl slm Mlys (slmc Yth
Mv mnt, r BM), w hch grw t sm 100,000
mmbrs. H ws crtd by th ntd Mly Ntnl
rgnztn (MN) prty ldrs, nd h
jnd th rlng prty n 1982. H w n st n prlmnt
tht yr nd ls nrrw ly wn th MN
Yth ldrshp, pttng hm n tch w th th prty’s
grss rts. n 1987 nw r bcm n f MN’s
thr vc prsdnts. n 1991 h bcm th pw r-
NT-TRS
Fr mr dpty prmr nw r brhm rrvng t crt n
Kl Lmpr n 5 ctbr 1999. ( FP/CRBS)
fl mnstr f fnnc, pst h hld ntl 1998. n
1993 h bcm MN dpty prsdnt, th cntry’s
dpty prmr, nd mmbr f MN’s 35-
prsn sprm cncl.
nw r ws rgbly th cntry’s mst pplr
pltcn, spclly mng th yth nd ndgns
Mlys. Hs pplrty w s n prt d t hs sttr
s stdnt ctvst wh chllngd th pltcl stts
q nd ltr bcm yth ldr fr NM,
bt mr s bcs h hd bcm mdl f
dvt Mslm w h ws stll cmmttd t mdrnsm
nd cnmc dvlpmnt. lthgh h w s
Pr m Mnstr Mhmmd Mhthr’s hnd-chsn
sccssr, rltns btwn th tw bgn t sr n
1994. nwr nvr chllngd Mhthr n ldrshp
cntst, thgh mny w thn MN ncrgd
hm t d s, nd Mhthr sw nwr s thrt nd
sckd hm n 1998. Mhthr rgd tht nw r ws
nft t rl w ng t crrptn nd sdmy llgtns,
bt h w s ctlly std vr cnmc plcs
ftr th 1997 sn cnmc crss, whch
dscrdtd Mhthr. nw r ws rrstd nd sntncd
n hghly pltczd trl t sx yrs’ mprsnmnt
fr crrptn; h ws ltr trd nd
sntncd t nn yrs’ mprsnmnt fr sdmy.
Dspt hs rrst nd mprsnmnt, nwr rmns
vry pplr pltcn. Hs spprtrs hv rlld
bhnd hs wf, Wn zz, wh fndd th ppstn
Jstc Prty.
Zchry bz
Frthr Rdng
ndy, Brbr Wtsn, nd Lnrd Y. ndy. (2001)
Hstry f Mlys. 2d d. Hnll, H: nvrsty f
Hw Prss.
Crch, Hrld. (1996) Gvrnmnt nd Scty n Mlys.
thc, NY: Crnll nvrsty Prss.
D Th d (prnncd "w z" n th
nrth nd "w y" n th sth nd ltrlly mnng
"lng drss") s th trdtnl drss f th Vtnms
ppl. Th d s cntrd, fll-lngth drss
wrn vr blck r wht ls-fttng trsrs tht
brsh th flr. Th drss’s bdy-hggng tp splts
nt frnt nd bck pnl frm bv th w st nd
rns t jst blw th kn. Th d w s rgnlly
dsgnd fr bth gndrs, bt th drss s mr cmmn
tdy mng w mn. rly vrsns f th d
dt bck t 1744, w hn Lrd V Vng f th Ngyn
dynsty (1802–1955) dcrd tht bth w mn nd
mn shld wr n nsmbl f shrt gw n tht
bttnd dw n th frnt nd ls-fttng trsrs. t
ws nt ntl 1932 tht th mdrn-styl d pprd.
Vtnms dsgnr Ct Tng fttd th
bdc t th crvs f th bdy, mvd th bttns
frm th frnt pstn t clsr lng th shldr
nd sd sm, nd lngthnd th tp s tht t
rchd th flr. Drng th 1950s, tw tlrs n
Sgn, Trn Km nd Dng, strtd prdcng th
drss wth rgln slvs tht crtd dgnl sm
rnnng frm th cllr t th ndrr m. Th clr
f th tp s trdtnlly ndctv f th wrr’s g
nd stts n scty. Yng grls nd stdnts wr
wht, ldr bt nmrrd w mn wr sft pstls,
mrrd w mn w r rch, strng clrs, nd rd s
wrn t wddngs.
Trdtnlly th d s cstm md, ccntng
fr th flttrng ft tht hghlghts th fgr f
th w rr, bt tdy th pplrty f th drss tsd
f Vtnm hs dcttd tht t b mss prdcd
t mk t mr vlbl nd ffrdbl.
Rchrd B. Vrrn
Frthr Rdng
L, N. T. (2000) "Rmmbrng 'th Ntn' thrgh
Pgntry: Fmnnty nd th Pltcs f Vtnms
Wmnhd n th H H D Cntst." Frntrs
21: 127–151.
"Styl-Dsgnr Mnh Hnh Brngs th D, Vtnm’s
Trdtnl Cstm, Bck nt Fshn." (2001) Ppl
Wkly (1 My): 66–72.
MTSR Th Mtsr, hld n Kyt
n 15 My, s th ldst fstvl n Jpn nd pssbly
n th w rld. t ws frst hld n th md-sxth cntry
s pttn t th gddss f rn nd th gd f
thndr fr rlf frm th trrbl strms nd flds
tht w r bttrng th cntry nd dstryng th
hrvst. Th pl w s sccssfl, fr th strms nd
flds sn btd; th crmns hv bn rnctd
vr snc n grttd nd t nsr bntfl
hrvst.
Th grnd prcssn, shrn ffrngs, nd rtls
r th clmntn f srs f prfctn rts tht
tk plc drng th frst hlf f th mnth. Th dy’s
vnts ccr n thr prts: kych (t th plc), rch
(n th rd), nd shch (t th shrn). Trdtnlly,
mssngr frm th mprr, tgthr w th n ntrg
f rnd fv hndrd nbls nd crtrs,
prfrmd scrd rtls t Kyt mprl Plc,
rly n th mrnng. Th prtcpnts thn lft th
plc grnds nd prcdd t Shmgm Shrn
nd thn Kmgm Shrn n th sttly prcssn
MTSR
tht frmd th hghlght f th fstvl. Ths vnts
r nw rcrtd by ctrs; th grgs cstms
r thntc rcrtns f th smpts crt drss
f th Hn prd (794–1185). Th mntd mpr l
mssngr nd tw x-drwn lcqrd crts, dcrtd
wth wstr flw rs nd fn bmb blnds,
ld th prcssn, fllw d by rtn f ffcls
nd ttndnts. Thn c ms th s-d, n nmrrd
prncss-prstss wrng th lbrt tw lvlyr
slk rbs f Hn nblw mn nd rdng n
plnqn, ttndd by crt lds, dncrs, nd
mntd grds.
Whn th ntrg hs rrvd t Shmgm
Shrn, pryrs nd ffrngs r prsntd t th dts
nd crmns nd ncnt crt msc nd dncs r
prfrmd. Th prcssn thn cntns t nrby
Kmgm Shrn, w hr pryrs nd dncs r gn
ffrd nd th fnl crmns r prfrmd.
ftn trnsltd s "hllyhck" th nm ctlly
rfrs t th ftb wld gngr plnt (srm
clscns), whs vrgrn lvs r cnsdrd scrd
nd pw rfl chrm gnst thndrstrms.
Ths lvs r sd t dcrt th fstvl cstms
nd crrgs nd th vs f hss lng th prcssnl
rt, n ddtn t bng ffrd t th
dts t th tw shrns. Tdy th Mtsr
cntns t b n f th grtst vnts n Jpn’s
fstvl clndr, cntng mng Kyt’s thr frmst
fstvls nd ttrctng hndrds f thsnds f
spcttrs.
Lcy D. Mss
Frthr Rdng
Hg, Hd. (1970) Jpns Flk Fstvls llstrtd. Trns.
by Fnny Myr. Tky: Mr Prntng Cmpny.
Vlhr, Grzd, nd Chrltt ndrsn. (1994) Mtsr:
Wrld f Jpns Fstvls. Tky: Shfntm.
MR (2002 st. pp. 1.5 mlln). mr Prfctr
s sttd n th nrth f Jpn’s slnd f
Hnsh. pr m grcltrl nd fshng r, ts
Skn Tnnl lnks Hnsh w th th slnd f
Hkkd t th nrth. t ccps n r f 9,619
sqr klmtrs. mr’s mn ggrphcl ftrs
r th Dw nd Mntns, nd th lrgst
rvrs r th w kgw nd th rsgw. Tw
pnnsls, th Tsgr n th wst nd th Shmkt
n th st, frm Mts By. mr s brdrd by
th Pcfc cn, Tsgr Strt, nd th S f Jpn
nd by w t nd kt Prfctrs. n ncnt tms,
mr ws knw n s Tsgr nd Nmb dstrcts,
whch wr cmbnd n 1871 s Hrsk Prfctr,
ltr rnmd mr Prfctr.
Th cptl f th prfctr s mr cty, sttd
n mr By. t lng hs bn cntr fr shppng
nd fshng snc ts hrbr ws cnstrctd n
1624. ntl th 1988 pnng f th Skn Tnnl,
t ls w s th trmnl fr frry srvc t Hkkd.
mr s fms fr ts Nbt Fstvl, clbrtng
th ncnt vctry f th Tsgr cln w th nghttm
prd f llmntd flts. Th prfctr’s
thr mprtnt cts r Hchnh, Hrsk, Msw ,
nd Tw d.
Th cnmy s dmntd by grcltr, frstry,
nd fshng, whch prmts lrg ctch f mckrl,
pllck, nd sqd. Whl th cts f mr nd Hrsk
cntn th prdctn f trdtnl lcqrwr,
sm mdrn ndstry hs clstrd rnd
Hchn. Trsts r drwn t th rgn by ts
mny ht sprng rsrts, by Tw d-Hchmnt Ntnl
Pr k, nd by th Shmkt Pnnsl vlcn
f srzn, whch hs tmpl ftrng trdtnl
shmns m.
. L. S. Wbr
Frthr Rdng
"mr Prfctr." (1993) Jpn: n llstrtd ncyclpd.
Tky: Kdnsh Ltd.
PRL 19 RVLTN—KR Th
prl 19 Rvltn rfrs t th 1960 cllps f th
gvrnmnt f Syngmn Rh (1875–1965), th nw ly
rlctd prsdnt f th Rpblc f Kr (Sth
Kr). n 15 Mrch f tht yr, Rh, th ldr f
th Lbrl Prty, hd gn w n th ffc f prsdnt,
bt hs sccss cm md w dsprd lctrl
frd. mnth ltr, n 19 prl, mssv stdnt
dmnstrtns rckd Kr, nd Rh ws frcd t
rsgn nd fl nt xl.
Rh w s cmplx fgr. n rstcrt, Mthdst,
nd prpnnt f rpblcnsm, h hd strggld
t rplc Kr’s mnrchc systm w th
mdrn gvrnmnt nd n 1948 bc m th frst prsdnt
f th nw ly fndd Rpblc f Kr. Bt hs
thrtrn mnnr—ncldng hs w llngnss t s
th mltry nd cvl plc t spprss ny dmcrtc
dssnt thrtnng hs pwr—ws pprnt lng
bfr th 1960 lctn. Whn plc klld scndry
stdnt n tw n tsd th sthrn cty f
Psn, nt- Rh sntmnts sn sprd t Kr’s
cptl, Sl. n th fllw ng dys, th vlnc cn-
MR
tnd, bt th stdnts, nw jnd by thr tchrs,
sccdd n frcng Rh’s rsgntn.
lthgh th xplsn f Syngmn Rh rvls
th mprtnc f pplr prtst n th hstry f
mdrn Kr, Rh’s str cm n th ftrmth
f Wrld Wr , md mch brdr, frcly fght
strggl btw n th ntd Stts nd ts thn rvl,
th Svt nn. Th Cld Wr (s ths strggl
bcm knw n) ffctd mny thr ntns bsds
th tw ppnnts. Fr nstnc, ftr Wrld Wr ,
Kr hd bn brptly dvdd nt tw mtlly
hstl rgns: Cmmnst nrth nd dmcrtc
sth. Yt vn tdy, th prcs ntr nd xtnt
f dmcrcy n Sth Kr frm 1945 nd 1987 r
wdly dbtd.
n 1949, Km K (b. 1876), th nly fgr cpbl
f chllngng Rh’s pltcl lgtmcy, hd bn ssssntd.
Rh, w h njyd th spprt f th .S.
mltry gvrnmnt n Kr frm 1945 ntl hs lctn
s prsdnt n 1948, my hv knw n bt th
ssssntn pln n dvnc. n 2001, dcmnts
rsrfcd sggstng pssbl cnnctn btw n
K’s ssssntn nd th Cntrl ntllgnc gncy
(C) f th ntd Stts.
Mchl Gdwn
S ls: Rh, Syngmn
Frthr Rdng
Hr, Jms, nd Ssn Prs. (1999) Cnflct n Kr: n
ncyclpd. Snt Brbr, C: BC- CL.
L, K-Bk. (1984) Nw Hstry f Kr. Cmbrdg,
M: Hrvrd nvrsty Prss.
h, Jhn K-chng. (2001) "Th Stdnt prsng." Kr
Tms Rtrvd 18 prl 2001, frm: www.hnkk
.cm/kt_p/200104/t2001041816442848110.htm.
Q N, BNGN (1932–1983), pltcl
ldr n th Phlppns. Brn n Cncpcn, Trlc,
s th sn f pltcn f ntnl fm, Bngn
("Nny") qn, Jr. bcm jrnlst nd c m t
ntnl pr mnnc w hn h ngttd th srrndr
f th Hk rbl ldr Ls Trc n 1954. rprtr
fr th Mnl Dly Mrrr, qn hd bn
scrtly ppntd by Prsdnt Rmn Mgsysy t
ngtt w th Trc.
qn ntrd pltcs nd n 1956 ws lctd
myr f hs hm tw n, Cncpcn, t th g f
tw nty-fr. H bcm gvrnr f Trlc n 1961
nd sntr n 1967. Hs mrrg t Crzn Cjngc
n 1954 prdcd fv chldrn.
Th ldr f th pltcl ppstn, qn w s
rrstd n dy ftr Prsdnt Frdnnd Mrcs dclrd
mrtl lw n 22 Sptmbr 1972. Kpt n sltry
cnfnmnt fr ght yrs, h ws pt n trl
n gst 1973 n chrgs f mrdr, sbvrsn, nd
llgl pssssn f wpns. Th trl ws ff nd n
fr fr yrs, nd th sntnc f dth by frng
sqd ws nt crrd t.
n Mrch 1980, qn sffrd hrt ttck nd
ws llw d t trvl t th ntd Stts fr mdcl
trtmnt. ftr bypss srgry, h ccptd fllw shp
t Hrvrd nvrsty nd bcm n tspkn
crtc f th Mrcs rgm.
Whn qn rtrnd thr yrs ltr, h ws ssssntd
n Mnl s h lft th pln. Th grv
Cmmssn tht cnvnd t nvstgt th mrdr
cncldd t ws th wrk f cnsprcy f rmy nd
r frc ffcrs, ncldng Gnrl Fbn Vr, Mrcs’s
csn nd chf f stff. qn’s bdy ly n
stt fr tn dys, n th bldstnd clths h ws
QN, BNGN
Bngn qn n Sn Frncsc n Jly 1983, jst w ks bfr
h rtrnd t th Phlppns, w hr h ws ssssntd
n hs rrvl n Mnl. (BTTMNN/CRBS)
wrng whn mrtyrd. Mllns lnd th 30-klmtr
rt t th cmtry thrgh mtrpltn
Mnl. Th prcssn tk lvn hrs. Hs dth
s sn s th ctlyst t th vnts tht ld t th str
f Frdnnd Mrcs.
Dmn L. Wds
Frthr Rdng
Hll, Grld N., nd Kthln Thmpsn Hll. (1984) Th
Tr Stry nd nlyss f th qn ssssntn. Snm,
C: Hlltp Pblshng Cmpny.
Jqn, Nck. (1983) Th qns f Trlc. Mnl, Phlppns:
Cch Hns.
Q N, CRZN (b. 1933), svnth prsdnt
f th Thrd Phlppn Rpblc. Crzn
("Cry") Cjngc qn ws brn 25 Jnry
1933 n Tr lc, Phlppns, nd srvd s prsdnt f
th Thrd Phlppn Rpblc frm 1986 t 1992.
Brn nt n f th w lthst fmls n th Phlppns,
sh ws dctd n th Phlppns nd th
ntd Stts. ftr sh mrrd Bngn ("Nny")
qn, Jr. n 11 ctbr 1954, sh r mnd n th
bckgrnd nd styd t hm t rs thr fv chldrn
whl hr hsbnd sccssflly prsd pltcl
crr.
ftr hr hsbnd’s ssssntn n 21 gst
1983, th dvt Cthlc hswf cm t symblz
nd rprsnt th mrl ppstn t th rgm
f Frdnnd Mrcs (1917–1989), w h rld th
Phlppns frm 1966 t 1986. lthgh rlctnt t
frst, sh bcm th ntd ppstn’s cnddt fr
th prsdncy n th "snp lctn" clld by Mrcs
fr 6 Fbrry 1986. Bth qn nd Mrcs
clmd vctry. mltry rvlt ld t th fms
DS (pfn d ls Snts, fr th strt whr
mch f th ctn ccrrd) rvltn nd th vctry
f Ppl Pw r. (Ppl Pw r rfrs t th
nnvlnt gthrng f hndrds f thsnds f Flpns
n prtst nd t rjct th Mrcs rgm.
Thy gthrd t th rgng f Crdnl Jm Sn t
prtct grp f mltry ffcls whs rrst hd
bn rdrd by Mrcs.) lthgh nt prtcpnt
n th DS rvltn, qn bnftd frm t s
Mrcs, ndr strng prssr frm Wshngtn, lft
th cntry nd sh ssmd th prsdncy n 25
Fbrry 1986. Sh ssd prsdntl prclmtn
n 25 Mrch 1986 tht bsd hr gvrnmnt’s lgtmcy
n th DS rvltn rthr thn th lctn.
qn prmlgtd prvsnl cnstttn
nd ppntd c mmssn t w rt nw cnstttn.
Ths nw cnstttn ws rtfd by pplr
vt n Fbrry 1987.
Th qstn hs bn skd: Dd th vnts f
DS rprsnt rvltn r rstrtn?
qn’s gvrnmnt mrkd th rtrn t pw r f
th lgrchy tht hd cntrlld mch f Phlppn
pltcs nd th cnmy bfr th dclrtn f
mrtl lw by Prsdnt Mrcs n 22 Sptmbr
1972. Hr prsdncy ws thrtnd by vrs cp
ttmpts, bt sh srvvd t th nd f hr trm n
1992. s f 2001, qn cntns t b ctv n
Phlppn pltcs s ldr n Ppl Pw r ,
whch ld t th str f Prsdnt Jsph strd
(b. 1937) md llgtns f crrptn n 20 Jnry
2001.
Dmn L. Wds
Frthr Rdng
Kmsr, Lcy. (1987) Crzn qn: Th Stry f Rvltn.
Nw Yrk: Grg Brzllr.
Rd, Rbrt H., nd ln Grrr. (1995) Crzn
qn nd th Brshfr Rvltn. Btn Rg, L:
Lsn Stt nvrsty Prss.
Stnbrg, Dvd Jl. (2000) Th Phlppns: Snglr nd
Plrl Plc. Bldr, C: Wstvw Prss.
QN, CRZN
Fr mr prsdnt Crzn qn hngs yllw rbbns n Fbrry
2000 t mrk th nnvrsry f th vrthrw f Frdnnd
Mrcs n Fbrry 1986. (FP/CRBS)
RBC rbc, l-_rbyy, r lsn l-_rb, s
th lngg spkn by 200 mlln ppl n tw ntyn
cntrs frm th rbn Glf t th tlntc.
s th ltrgcl lngg f Mslms, t s th mdm
fr blln ppl ll vr th glb. t s Smtc
lngg, nd ts rly xtnt scrpt dts bck t bt
300 C t Tmpl f Rmm n Sn nd bt 328
C t Nmr, n th Syrn dsrt. rly rbc
vlvd frm nmbr f dlcts btw n th thrd
nd th sxth cntrs, ldng t th clsscl lngg,
whch rcvd ts fll xpnsn btw n 632
nd 710, w hn th mssg f slm rchd mny
lnds st nd w st.
s th lngg f th Qr_n, th rvld wrd
f Gd t ll Mslms, t s nmtbl. Tkn s th
stndrd fr xcllnc, clsscl rbc, th wrttn
lngg, hs srvvd th rvgs f tm. Cdfctn
nd stndrdztn f rbc bgn n th ghth
cntry, fllw ng rly slmc xpnsn nd th
grw th f rbn cntrs, spclly n Bsrh, Bghdd,
nd Dmscs. t w s crrd t nt nly t
cntrct slcsm nd crrptn cncmtnt w th
ntrcltrl nd thnc mxng bt ls t sstn ts
lxcl nd grmmtcl mdls, tkng th Qr_n,
pr-slmc ptry, th Prpht’s syngs, nd rly slmc
rtns, pms, nd spchs s th stndrd.
Th ffrt btwn th ghth nd tnth cntrs t
cllct nd vrfy ptry, spch, nd prvrbs s crrd
t by rb nd nn-rb schlrs prvd t b
f grt vl, bth n xplnng Qr_nc w rd sgs
nd mnngs, nd n nsrng th srvvl f slmc
nd rbc trdtn nd cltr.
Th w rttn grmmtcl stndrds s st by l-
Khll (d. 791) nd crrd t by hs stdnt Sbwyh
(d. 804) md s bth f ttstd dt, sch
s th Qr_n, ptry, nd lctd mtr l frm th
Prpht’s trb (Qrysh), nd f nlgy, r th s
f xplntn t rtnlz spch tht dvtd frm
th nrm.
Mrphlgy nd Syntx n Clsscl rbc
Th bss fr rbc mrphlgy ls n th dstnctn
btw n plstc, r smpl nd nnlyzbl
wrds, nd th cmplx, nlyzbl ns. Cmplx r
nlyzbl w rds bld n trltrl rt fr frthr
nrchng th drvtv prcss tht gvs rbc ts
dstngshbl lf nd rchnss.
Syntx, n rbc grmmr, s gvrnd by th tw
frmdbl ntns f llpss nd cnjctr, r prphrs,
whch smltnsly sstn cmprssn nd
nfrc ttntn. rbc rhtrc grw t f th
stdy f th stylstc nmtbl Qr_n, brgnng
nt trtss n lngstcs, ltrtr, lw , jrsprdnc,
phllgy, thlgy, nd th rt f prs. f
rlvnc n ths cntxt s rbc lxcgrphy, bgnnng
wth l-Khll’s lxcn l-_yn w th ts
phntc nd phnlgcl rdrng, t b fllw d by
th w rks f bn Drd (d. 933), l-Jw hr (d. 1003),
bn Sdh (d. 1066), nd mny thrs bfr rchng
Dw d l-ntk (d. 1405) nd l-Bstn (d. 1883).
Spkn rbc
Whl th tr m clsscl rbc ppls t wrtng
t lrg, bsd n stndrdzd nrms snc th clsscl
prd (tht s, frm th ghth t th thrtnth
cntrs), w mst ndrstnd t n rltn t ts dscndnts,
rly Mddl rbc nd Mdrn Stndrd
rbc (MS). nsfr s MS s cncrnd, th syntctc
nd mrphlgcl stndrds r thr, lrgly
sstnd thrgh dctn nd cltvtd md prgrms.
Dspt ggrphcl nd cltrl bstcls nd
brrrs mng rb lnds, th clsscl nrm n wrtng
nd pblc spchs s rspctd. t s sgn f cltvtn
nd gnn blngng nd s sght ftr by
pltcns nd pblc fgrs. Spkn rbc, n th
thr hnd, vrs, nd vrnclrs bnd.
Dlcts rmn tsd th dmn f th clsscl.
slmc xpnsn snc 632 C ntld th lvlng
f dlcts, bt t ls brght sm ntrdlctl
hbts nd frms. mkshft prctc cld sly
mrg mng nw ly cnvrtd ppl, frdmn, nd
ndgns nn-Mslm trbs nd nhbtnts. lthgh
sprnts t hgh pstn ndd plshd
styl nd lcd xprssn t ft nt th rlng dscrs,
rtsns, lbrrs, nd bsnssmn cld srvv
wth ths r tht rbc dlct r wth th
rmnnts f ndgns lnggs nd dlcts.
Th Dcln f Clsscl rbc
Fr m th strt f th dcln f th bbsd
clpht n th lt tnth cntry, nd w ll bfr th
fll f Bghdd n 1258, thr ws dcln n th s
f clsscl rbc tsd frml r slmn ccsns.
rbc lngg f th Sljk prd (1038–1157),
fr nstnc, dmnstrts mxtr f th clsscl
nd th cllql. sd frm th ndlsn prctc
f sng lcl dlcts n strphc strt sngs (zjl)
lk bn Qz mn’s (d. 1160), wrtrs lk bn Dnyl
(d. 1294) shw smlr bnt. Cnvrsly, pstlgrphrs
snc th fftnth cntry nsstd n wrtng
n plshd styl. Th fct rmns, hw vr, tht
hstrns, scntsts, nd phlsphrs snc th fftnth
cntry hv rsrtd t th s f Mddl
rbc, whch lrgly kpt t stndrds wtht mtclsly
fllw ng clsscl xprssn nd sg. Th
RBC
dscndnt f ths Mddl rbc cn b trcd n th
prsnt-dy lngg f th md nd ffcl rprts.
rb phllgsts f th nntnth cntry wr
wr f th ncrsng mpct f th md, nd th
Lbns brhm l- Jzdj (1847–1906) w rt hs
bk Lght l-Shfh (Th Lngg f Dls) t
drw ttntn t fltnss nd dvtns frm clsscl
nrms. Mny ryl cdms w r stblshd t
crb th mpct f th md n rbc clsscl sg.
Prsts lk th rq Chrstn clrc P. nstns
l-Krml ssd n 1911–1931 Lght l-rb (Th
Lngg f th rbs), t cnsldt th clsscl
gnst bth th md Mddl rbc nd th vrnclrs
tht w r bgnnng t ppr n w rtng.
Whl th prsts pt p fght, thy rcgnzd th
nd t cp w th mdrnztn prcsss thrgh
pprprtn f scntfc wrds, dpttn f thrs,
nd xpnsn f vcblry thrgh drvtn. t
prsnt, th clsscl n ts mddl sg s lrgly sd
n w rtng, crmns, nd slmn ccsns. n ts
stndrd frm t prvds th wrttn mdm
thrght th rb w rld, nd mng dvt Mslms.
Vrnclrs nd dlcts r thr n spkn rbc,
rl cmmnctns, nd dly trnsctns.
Mhsn J. l-Msw
Frthr Rdng
l-Msw , Mhsn J. (2001) "rbc Rhtrc." n th ncyclpd
f Rhtrc, d. by Thms . Sln. xfrd:
xfrd nvrsty Prss, 29–33.
Cw n, Mltn J. . (1979) Dctnry f Mdrn Wrttn rbc.
Wsbdn, Gr mny: .Hrrssw tz.
Sttkvych, Yrslv. (1970) Th Mdrn rbc Ltrry Lngg:
Lxcl nd Stylstc Dvlpmnts. Chcg: Chcg
nvrsty Prss.
Vrstgh, Ks. (1997) Th rbc Lngg. Nw Yrk:
Clmb nvrsty Prss.
RBS lthgh thr r rfrncs t rbs n
ncnt ssyrn nd Bbylnn nscrptns, whch
s th nms rb r rb t dntfy th nmdc
ppl lvng n nrthrn rb, tdy th tr m dntfs
th rbc-spkng ppls w h nhbt th
cntrs f Nrth frc nd wstrn s. Th rbs
f wstrn s nhbt mdrn-dy Jrdn, Syr,
Lbnn, rq, Sd rb, th Glf Stts, Ymn,
nd frmr Plstn, tdy cmprsng srl nd th
ccpd Trrtrs f st Jrslm, th Wst
Bnk, nd Gz.
Thgh th rbc lngg s th mst bvs
trt rbs shr, ll th rbs f wstrn s—th
Mslm mjrty nd th Chrstn nd Jwsh mnrts—
r ls bnd by cltr tht xprsss tslf
thrgh scl, rlgs, nd pltcl nstttns.
Th mn nstttns f th slmc scts f wstrn
s mrgd btw n th ghth nd sxtnth
cntrs, cntrd n slm s th bss f ll thght
nd rgnztn, nd rbc s th mdm f xprssn.
Ths rbc-slmc cltr dfnd th
strctr f scl clsss, th stts f w mn nd
nn-Mslm mnrts, th cntnt nd trnsmssn
f knw ldg, nd th frmtn f cts.
Th Pr-slmc Prd
n th prd bfr slm w s fndd n 622 C,
rbc-spkng ppl lvd s nmds rgnzd n
trbs r clns n th rbn nd Jrdnn dsrts,
nggng n dsrt prdc (cml rsng). Fr ths
Bdn, ptry mrgd s th pnncl f cltrl
xprssn: pts prsd th vrts f lylty t th
trb, brvry n bttl, nd hsptlty t gsts. thr
rbs stblshd dvncd rbn sttlmnts, sch s
th scnd- nd thrd-cntry Nbtn cntrs n
Ptr (sthrn Jrdn) nd Plmyr (cntrl Syr)
tht srvcd trd lng th crvn rts.
rb-slmc Cltr
Ths xmpls f ncnt rb cltr nd lngg
rmnd cnfnd t rb, Jrdn, nd th
Lvnt ntl Mhmmd bn bdllh (c. 570–632),
mrchnt frm Mcc, sthrn rb, fndd
nw rlgn—slm—bsd n w ht Mslms blv
wr dvn rvltns cmmnctd t Mhmmd
n rbc, w hch wr ltr cllctd t frm th
Qr_n. rb-slmc cltr mrgd n ths dsrt
rgn nd xtndd thrght th Mddl st.
Th cltr tht dvlpd n th sbsqnt cntrs
strssd slm s gdng prncpl n thght
nd scl rgnztn, nd rbc s th mn dm
f xprssn. Tw sccssv rb-slmc dynsts,
th myyds (661–749/750 C), bsd n Dmscs,
nd th bbsds (749/750–1258 C), w h rld frm
Bghdd, cntrbtd t th frmtn f ths rb-
slmc cltr, w th slmc lw , thlgy, nd phlsphy
bsd n blf n Mhmmd’s dvn
rvltn. Ths w h pssssd nd cntrlld
knw ldg f ths lngg nd rlgn, knw n cllctvly
s th lm, w ldd grt thrty nd stts
n scty, ctng s ts jdgs, lw yrs, tchrs,
nd rlgs ldrs.
By th lvnth cntry, rb-slmc cltr hd
pprd n th mn scl nd rlgs nstttns
f Wstrn-sn rb cts. Mst f ths rbn cntrs
ncldd rnt cngrgtnl msqs, sch s
RBS
th myyd Msq n Dmscs; thlgcl cllgs
(mdrsh) t tch rlgn, lw , nd phlsphy;
nd shrns, sch s th Dm f th Rck n
Jrslm.
Nn-Mslms nd Wmn
Chrstns nd Jws wr sn by th Mslm mjrty
s "Ppl f th Bk," tht s, cmmnts
tht w r lnkd t slm by bng rcpnts f Gd’s
rlr rvld bks—Trh, Pslms, nd Gspls—
f whch th Qr_n ws th fnl rvltn. Ths
grps wr tlrtd bt wr rqrd t bsrv
lmttns n drss nd t py pll txs; nnthlss,
mny flrshd n crfts, n trd wth st s, r
s hgh-rnkng dmnstrtrs n th srvc f Mslm
rlrs. Thgh w mn n rb-slmc scty
rrly nggd n prdctn r trd, mny prsd
dctn prvtly, pssssd prprty, nd rglrly
RBS
FSTNG ND RMDN
dhrnc t slm s n mprtnt lmnt f rb cltrl dntty, vn
thgh nt ll rbs r Mslms. mng th cntrl tnts f slm s fstng
drng th mnth f Rmdn.
Nxt t pryr th mst mprtnt rlgs bsrvnc n rb
s fstng. vry Mhmmdn mst fst n lnr mnth t f
th tw lv. Th mnth clld Rmdhn s st prt fr ths bsrvnc.
By fstng th rb mns bstnnc frm ll fd,
drnk, nd tbcc frm rly mrnng t snst. Fr m th tm
n th mrnng w hn blck thrd cn b dstngshd frm
wht n ntl sndw n, h my tst nthng. Drng th nght,
hw vr, mn my t nd drnk, nd ths t hppns tht th fst
mnth by dy s fst mnth by nght. t s th ssn pr xcllnc
fr ndgstbl pstrs nd mpssbl cnds. Th bzr
s frqntly pn nd brllntly llmntd th w hl nght.
Mr css f ct ndgstn cm t th hsptl drng ths
mnth thn n ny thr tw . . .
Bt vltns f th sprt nd lttr f ths lw r rr mng
th rbs. Th mnth s tm f grt hrdshp fr cltvtrs
nd thr w rkng mn. Snc th Mhmmdn yr f tw lv
lnr mnths s bt tn dys shrtr thn slr yr, th dffrnt
mnths mv grdlly rnd th crcl f th fr ssns.
Th fst mnth w rks lss hrdshp n wntr thn whn t
cms t smmr. ps rb cnsdrs t nxt t nfdlty t
cmpln f ny hrdshp csd by th fst, nd th mn w h d
th hvy wrk f th cts r frqntly th mst scrpls f
ll n ts bsrvnc. Thr cnstncy rflcts n smll crdt n
thr rlgs dvtn, spclly n smmr w hn th dys r
lng nd ht. Fr m th bgnnng f th fst t rly dwn tll
snst my b sxtn hrs r vn mr, nd hvy wrk ndr
n lmst trpcl sn fr tht prd f tm w tht fd r
drnk s n ndctn f rl rlgs zl. Thr s n dffrnc
btw n Snn nd Shh hr. ll r xmpls f fthflnss.
Src: Pl W. Hrrsn. (1924) Th rb t Hm. Nw Yrk:
Crw ll, 238–239.
9
sght rdrss n slmc crts cncrnng prsnl
nd fnncl dspts.
Th strngth f rb-slmc cltr s ttstd t
by ts prsstnc n wstrn s dspt nvsns by
Chrstn, Trkc, nd Mngl r ms btw n th
lvnth nd fftnth cntrs.
Th ncntr wth th Wst
By th nntnth cntry, th ncrsng nflnc
f rpn cltr nd pltcs n th Mddl st
chllngd th blfs nd nstttns f ths trdtnl
rb-slmc cltr. Th dvnt f mdrn
mthds f ndstrl prdctn nd mr ffcnt
mns f trnsprttn (stmshps, rlrds) ld t
n xpnsn f Mddl strn trd w th rp.
Cncrrnt w th ths tchnlgcl dvncs wr
mprv mnts n th rt f wr nd w pnry tht llw d
rpn rms t cnqr rb lnds, bgnnng
wth Npln’s nvsn f gypt n 1798.
n th fc f ths mltry nd pltcl thrts,
mny f th rb pltcl nd ntllctl lt n
wstrn s mntnd tht slmc scts ndd
t dpt mdrn rpn mthds f gvrnmnt,
thght, nd tchnlgy t lmt th rpn cmmrcl,
cltrl, nd mltry ncrsns n th Mddl
st. Fr scty trdtnlly bsd n th
knw ldg f slm nd th Qr_n, ths ccptnc
f nn-slmc ds rtcltd thrgh rpn
lnggs sgnld prfnd cltrl shft nd n ndrmnng
f th trdtnl rbc-slmc cltr.
rpn mltry pntrtn nt th Mddl st
cntnd ftr Wrld Wr , s th Brtsh nd
Frnch mpsd Lg f Ntns Mndts n
Syr, Lbnn, Plstn, nd rq. Brtn’s prms
t scr hmlnd fr th Jw sh ppl n Plstn
ld t th dclrtn f th stt f srl by
Plstn’s Jwsh cmmnty n 1948 nd w r btwn
th rb stts nd srl n tht yr, th frst
f fv (1956, 1967, 1973, 1982).
Th Chllng t rb-slmc Cltr
Th phvls n Plstn ftr Wrld Wr nd
th cntnd nflnc f Brtn nd Frnc vr
rb cntrs nsprd th pltcl mv mnt knw n
s Pn-rbsm, w hch clld fr grtr nty mng
rb cntrs, ndpndnc frm Wstrn pwrs,
nd sclr rfrms n lw nd gvrnmnt. Bt n th
lst qrtr f th twntth cntry, th dsprty n
wlth mng rb cntrs hs nsprd mny
prr rbs t bndn sclrst dls nd t spprt
slmc pltcl mv mnts tht ddrss thr
grvncs: pvrty, th Plstnn ss, nd th ncrsng
nflnc f Wstrn cltr. Clrly, th
grw ng spprt fr n ndgns src f dntty
n pltcs (slm) sgnls th flr f frgn pltcl
dls (Wstrn sclr ntnlsm) t mblz
rbs nd cnfrnt sss mprtnt t thm. Fr rb
w mn, sch fctrs s clss, stt lgl systms, nd
dffrncs btwn rrl nd rbn lfstyls dtrmn
hw xtnsvly thy cn prtcpt n th mst
mprtnt nstttns n scty, sch s gvrnmnt,
dctn, nd th w rkfrc.
Thgh th rbc-slmc cltr cntns t b
n mprtnt src f dntty fr th rbs f wstrn
s, mdrn tchnlgs, chngs n lw nd dctn,
nd xpsr t vrs cltrl nflncs
hv chllngd hw ths rb-slmc cltr s rcvd
nd ntrprtd by rbs.
wd dd Hlb
S ls: slm—Wst s
Frthr Rdng
Bllt, ss. (1990) Trnds nd sss n Cntmprry rb
Thght. lbny, NY: Stt nvrsty f Nw Yrk
Prss.
spst, Jhn. (1996) slm nd Dmcrcy. Nw Yrk: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
Hrn, lbrt. (1991) Hstry f th rb Ppls. Cmbrdg,
M: Blknp Prss.
Mnsfld, P. (1992) Th rbs. Nw Yrk: Rv. d. Pngn
Prss.
Msllm, Bs m. (1983) Th rbs: Lvng Hstry. Lndn:
Cllns.
Smth, Chrls. (2001) Plstn nd th rb-srl Cnflct.
Rv. d. Bstn: Bdfrd/St. Mrtn’s Prss.
RKN YM MNTNS Th rkn
Ym Mntns r rng strtchng 650 klmtrs
frm nrth t sth n Mynmr (Brm). Th
rng dvds Mynmr nt th rrw ddy Vlly t
th w st nd thn strp f cstl lnd knw n s
rkn t th st. Th vrg lttd s btw n fftn
hndrd nd tw thsnd mtrs, w th th hghst
pnt bng Mnt Vctr t 3,010 mtrs. Th
rkn Ym rng s trvrsbl v thr mjr
psss: th n, th Gw , nd th Tngp.
Th rkn Y m rng s sprsly ppltd.
Chns, Ngs, nd thr grps pplt ts nmrs
vllys nd slps. Prr t Brtsh rl, ths
grps wr nt brght ndr th cntrl f ny f
th prclnl lw lnd kngdms f thr rkn r
th rrw ddy Vlly.
RKN Y M MNTNS
Th rkn Y m rng s mprtnt t Mynmr
hstry chfly fr tw rsns. Frst, th rkn Ym
s "rn brrr" t dry mddl Mynmr, blckng
mnsnl rns cmng frm th sthw st ff f th
By f Bngl. Scnd, th rkn Ym rng hs
hstrclly splt th Brmns nt tw brnchs: th
Brmns f th rrw ddy Vlly nd th rkns,
th lttr lvng lng th thn cstl strp f lnd n
th w strn slp f th mntn rng.
Mchl Wltr Chrny
Frthr Rdng
Chrny, Mchl W. (2000) " Rnvstgtn f Knbng-
r Brmn Hstrgrphy n th Rltnshp
btw n rkn nd v (ppr Brm)." Jrnl f
sn Hstry 34, 1: 53–68.
RK SD (1877–1966), Jpns gnrl nd
pltcn. rk Sd w s gnrl, pltcn, nd
ldr f th mprl Wy fctn (Kdh, n ltrntnlst
grp drng th 1930s). ntv f Tky
nd grdt f th Jpns Mltry cdmy nd
th rmy Wr Cllg, rk srvd n th Rss-
Jpns Wr n 1904 nd w th th Jpns frcs n
Sbr n 1918. Bfr h srvd s prncpl f th wr
cllg, h ws prmtd t ltnnt gnrl n 1927.
n 1931 h brfly srvd s nspctr gnrl f th
rmy dctnl dmnstrtn. Th s m yr h
bcm r my mnstr n th nk Tsysh
(1855–1932) nd St Mkt (1858–1936) cbnts,
rtnng th pstn ntl h rsgnd n 1934.
fld cp d’étt pln gnst th gvrnmnt
n ctbr 1931 sght t vrthrw th cbnt nd
nstll rk s prm mnstr. n Fbrry 1936
grp f jnr-rnkng rmy ffcrs rs p n nsrrctn,
ssssntng St Mkt nd thr cbnt
mmbrs. s rk hd tctly spprtd th
nsrrctnsts, h ws frcd t qt hs pstn. ppntd
mnstr f dctn n 1938, rk rnfrcd
mltry nstrctn t th schls. ftr Wrld
Wr , h w s cnvctd f clss- wr crms nd
sntncd t lf mprsnmnt, bt h w s rlsd n
1955 d t ll hlth.
Nthl Cvsn
Frthr Rdng
Bx, Hrbrt P. (2000) Hrht nd th Mkng f Mdrn
Jpn. Nw Yrk: HrprCllns Pblshrs.
Shllny, Bn-m. (1973) Rvlt n Jpn: Th Yng ffcrs
nd th Fbrry 26, 1936 ncdnt. Prnctn, NJ:
Prnctn nvrsty Prss.
RL S Th rl S s th w rld’s frthlrgst
lk, bt bcs f hmn nflnc, t hs
bn shrnkng snc th 1960s t pc tht s nq
n mdrn tms. Dscctn hs csd spctrm
f svr nvrnmntl nd hmn prblms. Ntnl
nd ntrntnl ffrts r ndrwy t cp
wth thm, bt thy w ll b nrmsly cstly nd rqr
mny yrs t dl w th.
Th rl S s tr mnl lk, tht s, lk w tht
srfc tflw , n th dsrts f Cntrl s. ts
lvl s mnly dtrmnd by th blnc btw n srfc
nflw frm tw lrg rvrs (th m Dr’y nd
Syr Dr’y) nd nt vprtn (vprtn mns
prcpttn). Mst f th s’s drng bsn s lctd
n th trrtry f zbkstn, Kzkhstn,
Tjkstn, Kyrgyzstn, nd Trkmnstn, nw ly ndpndnt
stts tht wr prt f th frmr Svt
nn ntl th nd f 1991.
Fr th frst sx dcds f th tw ntth cntry,
th rl’s w tr blnc ws n qlbrm nd lvl
flcttns mnr. n 1960 th rl hd lvl 53 mtrs
bv s lvl nd n r f 67,381 sqr klmtrs.
t hd n vrg slnty f rnd 10
grms/ltr, nd ts tw nty ndgns spcs f fsh
spprtd mjr fshry. Th rl ls srvd s
ky rgnl trnsprttn rt. Th dlts f th
Syr Dr’y nd m Dr’y rvrs sstnd dvrsty
f ntrl flr nd fn s wll s hvng mjr
cnmc mprtnc fr grcltr, nml hsbndry,
nd fshng.
Chngs n th rl S Rgn snc th 1960s
vr th pst fr dcds, th rl S hs stdly
shrnk s xpndng rrgtn dmnshd nflw t t
RL S
m Dr’y
Syr Dr’y
rl
S
zbkstn
Kzkhstn
N
0
0 50
50 100 Mls
100 Klmtrs
rl S
frm th m Dr’y nd Syr Dr’y. n 1987, th s
splt nt tw bds f wtr. Drng th 1990s, vrg
nnl nflw ws nly 27 prcnt f th 1911–
1960 fgr.
Th rl’s dryng p hs csd svr hrm. Th
s’s ntv fshs dspprd by th rly 1980s s
slnty rs bynd thr blty t dpt. Ths ndd
cmmrcl fshng nd thrw tns f thsnds f
ppl t f w rk. rs w ll bynd th s nd
ts mmdt shrln sffrd s wll. 400,000-
sqr-klmtr rgn rnd th s, w th ppltn
f 3–4 mlln, hs bn dsgntd n "clgcl
dsstr zn" by th Cntrl sn gvrnmnts.
Th rch csystms f th m Dr’y nd Syr
Dr’y dlts hv bn prtclrly hrd ht. Dsrtfctn
hs svrly ffctd bth dlts, s ntv
plnt cmmnts r dsplcd by thrs, mr tlrnt
f sln sl nd dry clmtc cndtns. Th
xtnt f nq tg frsts, prmrly cmpsd f
wtr-cnsmng trs nd shrbs tht nc strtchd
lng th mn rvrs nd dlt chnnls, hs sbstntlly
dmnshd, s hs th dvrsty f nmls nhbtng
th frsts. Lks nd w tlnds, whch
prvd prm hbtt fr vrty f prmnnt nd
mgrtry w trfwl, hv dmnshd sgnfcntly,
lng w th qtc brd ppltns.
Bcs rrgtn nw ss rdcd nd slnzd
rvr flw frm pstrm, crp ylds hv flln. Dclnng
prdctvty f pstrs hs hrmd nml
hsbndry. Slt nd dst blw n frm th frmr s
bttm crrs fr dwnwnd nd sttls vr cnsdrbl
r. Ths hs sbstntlly slw d plnt
grw th nd dprssd crp ylds. vn th clmt n
100-klmtr-w d bnd rnd th s’s frmr
cstln hs chngd, wth stdy trnd twrd
wrmr smmrs nd clr w ntrs. Th grw ng
ssn hs shrtnd, frcng swtch frm cttn t
rc n th nrthrn prt f th m Dr’y dlt.
Th ppltn lvng nr th rl S sffrs
ct hlth prblms drctly rltd t th s’s rcssn.
Ths ncld rsprtry nd dgstv fflctns,
pssbly cncr frm nhltn nd ngstn
f blw ng slt nd dst, nd prr dts frm th
lss f rl fsh. Bctrl cntmntn f drnkng
wtr s prvsv, ldng t vry hgh rts f wtrbrn
dss.
Rhblttn ffrts
n th lt 1980s, th Svt nn nttd prgr ms
t dl w th th rl S prblm, bt thy
stppd w th th cllps nd dssltn f th SSR
n 1991. Rspnsblty fr dlng w th rl sss fll
n th fv nw ly ndpndnt ntns f th rl S
bsn. Th stts sgnd w tr-shrng msr n
1992 tht grntd crtn shr f th flw f th
m Dr’y nd Syr Dr’y t th rl S nd th
rvr dlts. Sbsqntly, thy sgnd n grmnt
tht crtd n ntrstt Cncl n th rl S
(CS) nd th ntrstt Fnd fr th rl S
(FS). Th frmr ws chrgd wth dvlpng nd
mplmntng prgrm fr dlng w th th rl crss
n crdntn w th frgn dnrs. Th lttr’s
rspnsblty ws t rs mny frm th fv mmbr
cntrs fr crryng t th prgrm. Th tw
ntts mrgd n 1997 ndr th FS nm.
ntrntnl hlp bgn n 1990, bt nly bc m
sgnfcnt ftr 1991. Thrgh ts rl S Bsn Prgr m,
th Wrld Bnk hs bn crdntng th mst
mbts ffrts. thr ky plyrs hv bn th rpn
nn, ntd Ntns (thrgh NP nd
NSC), th ntd Stts, nd th sn Dvlpmnt
Bnk.
Prtl rstrtn f th sprtd nrthrn prt f
th rl S s fsbl. Ths w ld ct slnty t lvls
tlrbl by ndgns fshs nd llw cmmrcl
fshng t rsm. Bt rstrng th mch lrgr
sthrn prt w ld b mch mr dffclt. t w ld
rqr sbstntl ncrs n wtr nflw frm th
m Dr’y, w hch n trn w ld rqr mjr mprv mnts
nd rdctns n rrgtn. Nthr s
lkly n th frsbl ftr.
Phlp Mckln
Frthr Rdng
Glntz, Mchl H., d. (1999) Crpng nvrnmntl Prblms
nd Sstnbl Dvlpmnt n th rl S Bsn.
Cmbrdg, K: Cmbrdg nvrsty Prss.
RL S
bt grndd n rcdd r f th th rl S n zbkstn
n 1992. (SHPRD SHRBLL/CRBS)
Mckln, Phlp P. (1988) "Dscctn f th rl S:
Wtr Mngmnt Dsstr n th Svt nn." Scnc
241, 4870 (2 Sptmbr): 1170–1176.
———. (1991) Th Wtr Mngmnt Crss n Svt Cntrl
s, Crl Bck Pprs n Rssn nd st rpn
Stds, n. 905. Pttsbrgh, P: Cntr fr Rssn nd
st rpn Stds.
———. (1994) "Th rl S Prblm." Cvl ngnrng,
Prcdngs f th nstttn f Cvl ngnrs gst:
114–121.
———. (2000) Mngng Wtr n th rl S Bsn. Cntrl
sn nd Ccsn Prspcts. Lndn: Ryl nsttt
f ntrntnl ffrs, Rss nd rs
Prgr mm.
———, d. (1992) "Spcl ss n th rl S Crss."
Pst-Svt Ggrphy 33 ( My): 5.
Mckln, Phlp P., nd Wllm D. Wllms, ds. (1996) Th
rl S Bsn. Prcdngs f n dvncd Rsrch
Wrkshp, My 2–5, 1994, Tshknt, zbkstn.
NT S srs, vl. 12. Hdlbrg, Gr mny:
Sprngr-Vrlg.
Wrld Bnk. (1993) Th rl S Crss: Prpsd Frmwrk
f ctvts. Wshngtn, DC: Wrld Bnk.
———. (1996) rl S Bsn Prgrm, Phs 1, Prgrss Rprt
N. 3. Wshngtn, DC: Wrld Bnk.
———. (1998) rl S Bsn Prgrm (Kzkhstn, Kyrgyz
Rpblc, Tjkstn, Trkmnstn nd zbkstn): Wtr
nd nvrnmntl Mngmnt Prjct. Wshngtn, DC:
Wrld Bnk.
RRT, MNT Mnt rrt (gr Dg),
pstnd t lttd 44°20' st, lngtd 39°20'
nrth, s th hghst mntn n Trky t 5137 mtrs.
Fr m th mn pk, Byk gr, t s lss thn
20 klmtrs sthst t th rnn frntr nd 30
klmtrs nrthst t th Rssn frntr. Grt
rrt s n xtnct vlcnc cn, ccmpnd by
scndry cn, Lttl rrt (Kck gr), whch rss
t 3885 mtrs jst 12 klmtrs sthst f ts lrgr
brthr. Tgthr thy ncmpss bt 250 sqr
klmtrs nd rs spctclrly 4250 mtrs bv
th srrndng pln t Dgbyzt. rrt s th fnl
vlcn n flt-ln chn tht nclds Mnts
rcys, Sphn, nd Nmrt, nd tht crsss Trky
frm th sthwst.
rrt nclds bslt nd ndst nd s mjr
src f bsdn, sd by rly hmns fr th mnfctr
f tls. Frsh lv flw s dt frm th lst
rptn n 2 Jn 1840, w hn hr twn nd
mnstry n th nrthst slps wr brd. Th
smmt s prmnntly glctd; th lngst glcr
dscnds t n lttd f 2500 mtrs nd s rptd
t cntn th rmns f Nh’s rk.
Jsphs, n 70 C, mntnd th xstnc f th
rk. Dr. Nr, rchdcn f Bbyln nd Jrslm,
clmd t hv lctd t n 1893. Rssn xpdtns
drng th tw wrld wrs tk phtgrphs (sbsqntly
lst), nd sghtng w s clmd by n mrcn
rsrchr n 1987. rrt ws nc th fcs f
th rrtn nd ltr th rmnn cvlztns. Th
r s nw ccpd by Krds nd ftrs sngs nd
lgnds dcmntd by Ysr Kml.
RRT, MNT
Mnt rrt w th th vllg f Dgbyzt t ts bs. (DM WLFTT/CRBS)
Cnfndng Mrc Pl (c. 1295), w h thght
tht th snw n th smmt w s s dp tht n n
cld clmb t, rrt ws frst clmbd by Prfssr
Prrt, Gr mn, n 1829. Wth mltry prmssn,
gd, nd tw vrnght cmps n rt, t prsnts
n tchncl prblms, nd mntnrng trsm s
bcmng n mprtnt src f lcl ncm.
Kt Clw
Frthr Rdng
Bryc, Jms. (1996) Trnsccs nd rrt. Lndn:
Mc mlln nd C.
Kml, Ysr. (1990) grdg fsns (Lgnd f Mnt
rrt). stnbl: Trs Yynlr.
Smth, Krl. (1994) Th Mntns f Trky. Cmbr, .K.:
Ccrn.
RT SZK (b. 1931), Jpns rchtct.
Brn n t Cty, Jpn, rt szk tk n pprch
t rchtctr tht ws rtd n pstwr rt
mv mnts. Hs w rk hs bn dscrbd s "cncptl
rchtctr" (Drw 1982: 18). szk ftn sd
qttn t stblsh crtn sns f dsplcmnt;
mny f ths rfrncs wr bscr nd prsnl,
ncldng dstrtd bstrctns rfrrng t Mcky
Ms nd Mrlyn Mnr, bt nmbr ls drw
frm th Wstrn rchtctrl cnn.
n th 1960s szk ws bst knw n fr hs drwngs
f dystpn strctrs rsng frm rns. szk’s
cncrrnt bldngs rflctd fscntn wth tchnlgy,
bt w r dlbrtly cld nd bstrct, rjctng
thr srrndngs. n th 1970s, ths bstrctn
grw prnncd; szk dvlpd srs tht tyd
wth cbc vlms nd brrl vlts t chv ntrl
mptnss. nvtbly, th mrgnc f pstmdrn
rchtctr n th Wst drng th1980s crtd
mny pprtnts fr szk t w rk brd, prtclrly
n Spn nd th ntd Stts, bt hs btng pprch
ws frqntly lst n th trnsltn.
Th 1990s nd bynd sw szk rtrn t crtcsm
f tchnlgy, ftn jxtpsd wth frgmnts
frm Wstrn rchtctr. Thrght hs crr,
szk ws prlf c ssyst, nd hs wrtngs ffr
rmrkbl cmmntry, nt nly n hs w n wrk,
bt ls n th trnds nflncng rchtcts bth n
Jpn nd brd.
Dn Bntrck
Frthr Rdng
rt szk. (1991) rt szk: rchtctr 1960–1990.
Nw Yrk: Rzzl.
———. (1998) rt szk: Fr Dcds f rchtctr. Ls
ngls: Th Ms m f Cntmprry rt.
Drw , Phllp. (1982) Th rchtctr f rt szk. Nw
Yrk: Hrpr & Rw .
Stw rt, Dvd, d. (1991) rt szk, 1960/1990. Tky:
xctv Cmmtt fr rt szk, rchtctr,
1960/1990.
RCHLGY—TRKY rchlgy
bgn n Trky w th Hnrch Schlmnn’s (1822–
1890) drmtc dscvry nd xcvtn f ncnt
Try, w hr h wrkd frm 1870 n, nd hs cntnd
t b dmntd by frgnrs wh, n cnjnctn
wth Trky’s w n rchlgsts, s mr
nd mr sphstctd mthds t nrvl th hstry
f ths ky lnd mss. Trky’s Cltrl Mnstry ttrcts
sm 0.02 prcnt f th stt bdgt, nly
frctn f whch gs t th Msms nd Sts Drctrt
fr th prsrvtn f hg cncntrtns
f prhstrc nd hstrc sts lng Trky’s trd
rts, csts, nd rvr vllys. Trky hs th grtst
cltrl vrty f rchlgcl rmns f ny
cntry n th wrld.
n f th wrld’s ldst tw ns hs bn dscvrd
n Trky—Ctlhyk (dtng frm 6500 t
5500 BC), nd th sppsd rstng plc f Nh’s
rk, Mnt rrt, ls n Trky, s d Vn, cptl
f th ncnt rrtn kngdm (w hch flrshd
frm bt th thrtnth t bt th svnth cntry
BC), nd Bgzky, cptl f th mghty Httt
mpr, w hch flrshd frm bt 1700 t 1380
BC. thr hstrc sts ncld rf, th brthplc
f brhm; Mlts, clnzng Grk cty-stt;
RT SZK
MRC PL DSCRBS
MNT RRT, c. 1295
"n th hrt f Grtr rmn s vry hgh
mntn, n w hch Nh’s rk s sd t hv
rstd. t s s brd nd lng tht t tks mr
thn tw dys t g rnd t. n th smmt th
snw ls s dp ll th yr tht n n cn
vr clmb t. Bt n th lw r slps th hrbg
s s lsh nd lxrs tht, n smmr, ll th
bsts frm fr nd nr rsrt hr nd yt th
spply nvr fls."
Src: Jms Bryc (1996) Trnsccs nd
rrt. Lndn: Mc mlln nd C.
9
th svn chrchs f s rgnlly fndd by Snt
Pl; Cnstntnpl, th cptl f th strn Rmn
mpr; Hg Sph, th w rld’s lrgst chrch;
th mdvl rmnn kngdm f Clc; sprnklng
f Crsdr cstls; nd Trbzn, th lst srvvng
tpst f Byzntm. Th nqly Trksh
Sljk nd ttmn mprs r ls rprsntd lmst
xclsvly n prsnt-dy Trky.
Snc th fshn fr th grnd tr bgn n rp
n th nntnth cntry, ths cltrl strhs
hs bn rdd by wstrn cllctrs nd
ms ms; thrzd xprts ncld th Prgmn
Zs ltr, w hch hs ts wn msm n Brln; th
tmbs f Xnths, n thr w n rm n th Brtsh
Ms m; nd th Hrn frm Myr, n dsply n
Vnn. thr cllctrs tk dvntg f cntry
f ndctd psnts, w h, ntl nly ffty yrs g,
flld th tm btw n swng nd hrvst by tmb
rdng nd trsr skng. Th trsrs f Try
drnd Schlmnn’s wf nd nw rsd n Rss;
s rcntly s 1962, Dmbrtn ks cqrd rly
Byzntn slvr rtfcts tht hd bn smggld t
f Trky llglly, nd th Gtty Ms m hs rcntly
rtrnd prtns f Grk srcphgs. Nt
srprsngly, t prvnt rcrrnc f rt thft, ll
xcvtns n Trky r nw sprvsd by Cltrl
Mnstry stff.
Th frst fms Trksh rchlgst ws smn
Hmd (1842–1910), w h xcvtd th Ryl Cmtry
t Sdn nd brght th srcphg bck t th
nw stnbl Msm. Th nkr Msm (stblshd
n 1921) rsltd frm ttrk’s ntrst n th
Httts. Tgthr ths nstttns sprkd chng
n th prcptn f th dctd pblc. Frgn rgnztns,
n prtclr th Brtsh nsttt f rchlgy
n nkr; th Spnsh rchlgcl
Mssn; th Mddl strn Cltr Cntr, Tky;
th Gr mn rchlgcl nsttt; th nsttt fr
gn Pr-Hstry; th nsttt fr Clsscl rchlgy,
Vnn, s w ll s nvrsts n th
ntd Stts, Frnc, Blgm, tly, nd lsw hr
hv prtcptd n nvstgtns nd xcvtns n
Trky. Th drw nng f mny mprtnt prhstrc,
Rmn, nd rly Trksh sts by th cnstrctn
f twnty-tw dms n th phrts nd
th pln fr smlr sqnc f dms n th Tgrs
hv md rsc rchlgy n mprtnt prt f
th Trksh scn.
Prhstrc Prd
Th xcvtn f ppr Pllthc cv sttlmnts
nr ntly dmnstrtd rly hmnd ccptn
thr. Th Nlthc st f Ctlhyk, nr
Kny, rprsnts n f th wrld’s frst prmnnt
sttlmnts; t w s dscvrd n 1958 by Jms Mllrt.
xcvtn cntns, nd ths twn, wth hss
nd shrns dcrtd wth rlf sclptrs nd w ll
pntngs, s nw Wrld Hrtg St.
RCHLGY—TRKY
Rmns f th Lbrry f Clss n phss, Trky, n 1997. (STPHN G. DNLDSN PHTGRPHY)
Brnz g
Cntrl ntl ws rld by th Htt (rly
Brnz g ndgns nhbtnts f th rgn, p
ntl bt 1800 BC), w hs ryl tmbs t lchyk
wr xcvtd frm 1940 n by th Trksh
rchlgsts Rmz gz rk nd Hmt Ksy.
Thy dscvrd brnz, slvr, nd gld bjcts f xtrrdnry
bty, ncldng th fms dr stndrd
nw sd s symbl f nkr. Th xcvtn
f th ssyrn trd clny t Knsh (whch dts
frm 1950 BC) by Thsn zgc nd Nmt zgc
yldd thsnds f cly tblts nscrbd w th trd
rcrds n cnfrm scrpt, s wll s trcs f rly
Httt ccptn. Lvls cntmprry w th th
Knsh xcvtn t Try hld brnz wpns, slvr
bjcts, nd Schlmnn’s trsr; sphstctd
whl-md pttry ws ls fnd.
rly Cvlztns
xcvtns t Bgzky, th cptl f th Httt
cvlztn, whs physcl rmns wr prvsly
nknw n, wr bgn by Hg Wncklr n 1906, sspndd
drng Wrld Wr , nd rc mmncd frm
1931. Th mgnfcnt rns f th st wr ncvrd,
nd hg stck f cnfrm tblts w s grdlly
dcphrd t rvl rch cd f lw s, lgnds,
nd cstms; cntmprry frt t rtky (Crm)
s ndr xcvtn. N-Httt sts ndr nvstgtn
ncld rslntp, Srkl Hyk, nd Crchmsh
(Krkms, w hch s t b sbmrgd ndr
nw dm n th Syrn brdr).
Frthr st th rrtn st t Tprkkl, Vn,
ws wrckd n th nntnth cntry by stn
Hnry Lyrd’s hsty nprfssnl xcvtn; ltntp,
nr rzrm, ws xcvtd by Trksh rchlgsts
nd yldd mprssv grvs; kty Bll
s crrntly xcvtng pr f rrtn frtrsss
nr Vn.
Fr cntmprns wst ntln cltrs
(c. 700–300 BC), th Phrygn, Lydn, Crn, nd
Lycn, hv yldd mprtnt sts. Grdn, cptl
cty f Kng Mds, ws xcvtd frst by Grmn
thn by mrcn tms; rnt grv gds,
ncldng nld tbls, r nw n th nkr Ms m.
Srds, th cptl f Crss’s Lydn kngdm
(c. svnth cntry–546 BC), s crrntly ndr
mrcn xcvtn. St f th wrld’s frst mntd
cns, t hs yldd smltng frncs. Lycn
Xnths hs bn xcvtd by th Frnch snc 1958,
nd Trksh xcvtns t nrby Ptr hv shwn
tht th st w s ccpd s rly s th ghth cntry
BC.
Grk nd Rmn Prds
Th frst Grk clns wr fndd n Trky’s
wstrn sbrd frm 1000 BC nd bgn t xpnd
n th svnth cntry BC; mst f ths cts cntnd
n ccptn thrgh th prd f cnqst
by lxndr f Mcdn (356–323 BC) nd th Rmn
nnxtn; by th frst cntry C th Rmns
hd bsrbd th ndpndnt stts f th ntrr s
fr s th phrts. Dvlpmnt f th cts f s
Mnr cclrtd prgrssvly ftr lxndr ntl
Mrcs rls (176 C ). Th slw dcln tht fllw d
ws ntrrptd by prds f Byzntn rvvl,
ntl mny sts wr bndnd n th fc f th dvnc
f slm (ghth cntry). Ths glrs cts
r crrntly bng xcvtd nd rstrd s trsm
shwcss nd prvd src f rvn fr th Cltr
Mnstry. Th mst mgnfcnt xmpls r
Prgmn nd Ddym, bth crrntly bng rstrd
by Grmn tms; phss, w th ts hg, nrly ntct
thtr, nd vll sbrb w hr mmbrs f th
strn rchlgcl nsttt r t wrk; th cln
f Sglsss, whr systmtc nd thrgh nvstgtn
nd xcvtn ndr Mrc Wlkns s
spprtd by Blgn fnds; nd phrdss, whr
cnsrvtn nd nw msm mrk cnsdrbl
prgrss ndr th mrcns. n cmprsn, th
Trksh xcvtn f Snt Pl’s cty f ntch n
Psd s ndrfndd nd prly xhbtd.
Rsc rchlgy
t Rmn vll sbrb t Zgm n th phrts,
xcvtrs fght gnst tm t sv mscs frm
drw nng bnth th Brck dm n 2000. Sm f th
rscd mscs r nw n xhbtn n Gzntp ms m;
nw nnx s bng blt t ccmmdt mr.
Bt frscs t th st wr lst nd mch f th st
ls nxcvtd bnth th w tr. Th Chlclthc-
Brnz g-rk sts f Hnb, Tlbs, nd Hr m
Hyk r d t dsppr bnth th s m lk. Rmn
Smst nd svrl mdvl chrchs wr sb-
RCHLGY—TRKY
TRY—WRLD
HRTG ST
Try ws dsgntd NSC Wrld Hrtg
st n 1992. mmrtlzd n Hmr’s
ld, Try s cnsdrd n f th wrld’s
mst mprtnt rchlgcl sts fr ts cntrbtn
t th ndrstndng f rly rpn
cltr.
9
mrgd ndr th ttr k Dm. Ms ms n th r
hv prtcptd n xcvtns f prhstrc sts nd
hv xcllnt dsplys. Thrght Trky ndvdl
ms m drctrs r mpw rd t cndct slvg
prtns drng lcl cnstrctn prjcts, bt
th lss f Trky’s, nd prtclrly stnbl’s, Byzntn
nd Sljk hstrc bldngs s th mst trgc spct
f Trksh rchlgy tdy.
Ltr Prds
Snc mst Byzntn mnmnts wr blt vr
Rmn sts, thy mst b xcvtd t gt t th Grk
nd Rmn rmns bnth; nly n r tw chrchs
hv bn xcvtd fr thr wn mrts. Sljk nd
ttmn sts r smlrly nglctd, lthgh rcnt
rsrch prjcts hv dcmntd sts t rtvn, rdhn,
Hrpt, Bnbr Kls, nd y Tkl, s w ll s
th Grgn chrchs n th r btw n Bybrt
nd rtvn nd chrchs t Ngd nd khsr.
Prspcts
t prsnt, nlss trsm prmss prft, Trky’s
gvrnmnt w ll nt prrtz rchlgy; ths prjcts
ftn dpnd n tsd prssr nd fndng. Frthr
rsc rchlgy s nw rqrd bfr th
Tgrs vlly dms fld th glrs mdvl cv
cty f Hsn Kyf nd thr sts. Hw vr fnd-rsng
s nrly cmplt fr xcvtns t th trsm
dstntn f Nmrt Dg, w hr th tmb f ntchs
Cmmgn ls ndr mntntp tmls
srrndd by pnthn f stn gds.
Kt Clw
Frthr Rdng
krgl, kr m. (1985) ncnt Cvlztns nd Rns f
Trky. stnbl, Trky: Hst Ktbv.
Th Msm f ntln Cvlstns Hndbk. nkr,
Trky: Cltrl Mnstry.
Stnmn, Rchrd. (1993) Trvllr’s Hstry f Trky.
Glcstrshr, .K.: Wndrsh Prss.
RCHTCTRL DCRTN—
CNTRL S Thrght s ndgns
ppls s lcl rsrcs n dvlpng rgnl
typs f rchtctr. Dsrt rgns s cly, db,
nd frd brcks. n Wstrn s, prts f nd,
Chn, Jpn, nd Kr, bldrs sd crvd wd.
Grt stn tmpls w r blt n Vtnm, Thlnd,
nd Cmbd.
n s thr s dstnctn btwn th prvt
nd th pblc sphr. Pblc rchtctr mst cnfrm
t crtn rls. Pblc dcrtv rchtctr
rls hvly n symmtry, w hch hlps plc th
bldng nd ts srs n sctl hrrchy tht dfns
th rnk f bldng tslf. n Chn t s th dffrnc
btw n Tsm nd Cnfcnsm. Ts m
s prvt nd Cnfcnsm s pblc. n th prvt
sphr th symmtry cllpss, nd ntrlstc frms
f flw rs, plnts, nd rprsnttnl rt r sd t
dcrt strctrs. Prvt hms n Chn hv npntd
wd, nd nk pntngs n th rgh plstr
wlls. n Mghl nd, hr m bldngs hv pntngs
f dncng grls tht w ld b strctly frbddn
fr thrn rm.
n Chn, dtng bck t th Shnj dynsty, th s
f clrs dfnd stts. Yllw ws rsrvd fr th
ryl fmly nd blck ws fr psnts, ccrdng t
sctl lw s tht rmnd n frc ntl th nd f th
nntnth cntry. T bms w r crvd wth mtfs
f stylzd drgns, mythcl nmls, nn-tld
trtls, nd lcky symbls (ncldng th spcs
swstk, symbl f th sn r th rllng f tm).
Th glzng f rf tls bgn n th Tng dynsty.
n Mslm cntrs, gmtrc pttrns r sd
t cnfrm t th nnrprsnttnl rt f Qr_nc
lw , nd clrs crt dstnctns btwn rlng pw rs.
Drng th clsscl phs f slmc rchtctr,
th s f mqrns (stlctt r hnycmb vltng)
ws ntrdcd. n th msqs, th frml strctr
s rgnzd wth th rnttn f th mhrb, th
nch tht ndcts th drctn f Mcc. n Bkhr
th nnth- t tnth-cntry mslm f th
Smnds xmplfs th s f pttrnd nd crvd
brck n jw l f gmtrc blnc. n Smrqnd,
plcs, msqs, nd mslms dsplyd fltlss,
xqst bl tls; clr vrtn ws nt llw d. n
Chn, ll dcrtns n th Tmpl f Hvn r
prfct nd gmtrclly prcs; th w dwrk,
bms, brckts, flr tls, nd cblt-bl rf tls
r s cls t prfctn s hmnly pssbl. By cntrst,
n Jpn th hght f styl nd lgnc s ths
wth thtchd rf, npntd psts nd lntls,
nd flr md f rgh brds. Nw hr n s
ws th mprfct vld s hghly s n Jpn.
Mrc Slsr
Frthr Rdng
Hg, Jhn D. (1977) slmc rchtctr. Nw Yrk:
brms.
Pltv, T. nd L. Y. Mnkvskj. (1991) Bkhr: Msm
n th pn. Tshknt, zbkstn: Gfr Gly m.
Wllms, C. . S. (1974) Chns Symbls nd rt Mtfs.
Bstn: Tttl.
RCHTCTRL DCRTN—CNTRL S
RCHTCTR—CNTRL S rchtctr
n Cntrl s hs vry lng hstry—th
ldst vdnc f hmn-md strctrs ws dscvrd
n rly frmng sttlmnts dtd rnd
7000 BC. Ths sts l n th ss nrth f th
Kpt Dg Mntns tht xtnd bt 645 klmtrs
btw n prsnt-dy nrthst rn nd Trkmnstn.
Hr n sthrn Trkmnstn, th
Nlthc vllg f Djtn hd thrty n-rm
hss md f md brcks, w th plstrd flrs,
hrths, nd ftn w ll pntngs. n th sm r, t
th rly Chlclthc st f Chgll Tp, dtd
rnd 5000 BC, wr mltr m hss tht frmd
lrg cmplxs lng strts nd llys.
Lrgr sttlmnts rs n Cntrl s drng th
Mddl Chlclthc g (c. 4000–3500 BC). n th
Tdzhn Rvr dlt n prsnt-dy sth Trkmnstn,
frtfd sttlmnts rs; ths hd crclr
tw rs cnnctd t thck w lls, wth lrg
rctnglr hs n pltfrm n th mddl. Prtrbn
sttlmnts ( Nmzg Tp nd ltyn Tp)
rs n th Lt Chlclthc (c. 3500–3000 BC) nd
xpndd n th rly Brnz g (3000–2500 BC),
rchng rs f ffty nd twnty-fv hctrs, rspctvly.
t ltyn Tp, plstrd rmprts 2.3 mtrs
thck w r flnkd by tw rctnglr twrs n
th nrth, w hl tw rctnglr twrs prtctd th
mn ntrnc, flnkng th 6-mtr-thck w ll n th
sth. Thr w s ls n lt qrtr wth rchly dcrtd
mltrm hss nd w d strts, crfts
qrtr w th pttry klns nd cppr-smltng frncs,
prsts’ qrtr wth shrns, nd mnmntl
tw rlk strctr n stppd pltfrm,
rsmblng Msptmn zggrts (tmpl tw rs).
Svrl lrg sttlmnts w th sqr-shpd
frtrsss pprd n th dlt f th Mrgb Rvr
tht flw s thgh nrthwstrn fghnstn nd
sthstrn Trkmnstn. Lrg sts r ls ntd
nrth nd sth f th m Dr’y Rvr tht flw s
frm th Pmrs t th rl S. n ths rgn, th
frtfd sttlmnt f Spll Tp cnsstd f svrl
mltrm qrtrs w th T-shpd crrdrs clstrd
lng th strts. Smllr frtfd sttlmnts
wth ctdls pprd n th Mrgb dlt drng th
rly rn g (1200–800 BC). rn g (700–400
BC) sttlmnts n th Frgn Vlly, n tdy’s
zbkstn, Tjkstn, nd Kyrgyzstn, hd dfnsv
wlls wth twrs nd mnmntl bldngs.
Th Rs f Cts
Svrl rbn-typ sttlmnts nd frtrsss rs
n sthrn Trkmnstn w hn ths r bcm ncldd
n th Prthn kngdm (c. 250 BC–c. 226
C). Th lrgst sttlmnt, Nw Ns, hd pltl
bldng nd svrl tmpls.
Fllw ng th strn cmpgns f lxndr f
Mcdn (356–323 BC), Cntrl s bcm prt f
n ndpndnt Bctrn kngdm (250–130 BC),
grtly nflncd by Grk cltr. Th cty f
Khnm, lctd n th lft bnk f th m Dr’y
Rvr nd prtctd by thck md-brck w lls, pssssd
mprssv pblc bldngs, ncldng ryl
plc, gymns m, thtr, rsnl, nd Grk-styl
rsdntl hss.
Ltr, Bctr ws ncrprtd nt th pw rfl
Kshn kngdm (78–200), w hs rlrs ncrgd
th sprd f Bddhsm. Th cty f rtm, n th
m Dr’y, hd sgnfcnt Bddhst tmpl w th
sclptrd frz. Th cty f Khlchyn n th
Srkhndry Rvr n tdy’s zbkstn ncldd
plc w th gllry f sclptrs f lcl rlrs.
Dlvrzn Tp n th sm rvr hd ctdl, plc,
nd rsdntl rs wthn th cty wlls.
s rly s th ghth r svnth cntry BC,
frstb (Smrqnd bfr th tm f Tmr, th
Trkc cnqrr, 1336–1405) nd Yrkrgn hd dvlpd
s frtfd sttlmnts lng th mddl
strtchs f th Zrvshn Rvr, w hch flw s thrgh
tdy’s Tjkstn nd zbkstn. Drng th thrd
thrgh sxth cntrs, Yrkrgn pssssd pltl
bldng nd t lst tw tmpls. t th s m tm,
Tprk-Ql, nrth f th m Dr’y nd ppst
th cty f rgnch n wstrn zbkstn, ws prtctd
by rctnglr cly wlls; t hd thr twrd
cstls wth rng f pltl hlls. Th s-clld Hll
f Kngs hd pntd w lls nd hsd cllctn f
cly stts f lcl rlrs, thr wvs, nd wrrrs,
sm f thm f ndn ncstry. dffrnt rchtctrl
dsgn cnsstng f cncntrc crcls ws
fnd t th nrby st f Ky-Krygln-Ql.
Th frth nd ffth cntrs sw dcln n rbn
dvlpmnt n Cntrl s fllw ng th cllps
f th Kshn stt n nd nd th cnqst f
th rgn by th Prsn Ssnd dynsty (224/228–
651). n th sxth thrgh ghth cntrs, th ldr
cts sch s Smrqnd, Tprk- Ql, nd Mry (n
tdy’s Trkmnstn) rcvrd, nd nw ns
(Pndjknt nd mny thrs) wr stblshd. Ths
ncldd frtfd sts (sch s cstls, kshk), plcs,
rtl plcs, nd dw llng hss. Pndjknt cnsstd
f blcks f tw-stry hss wth vltd rfs
nd w lls ftn cvrd wth pntngs nd dcrtd
wth crvng. n zbkstn, th cts f frsb,
Vrkhsh, nd Pndjknt hd mnmntl plcs
RCHTCTR—CNTRL S
rctd n lvtd pltfrms, w th svrl lrg hlls
drnd w th w ll pntngs. Rtl plcs rflctd
mlttd f rlgs blfs: Zrstrnsm, Bddhs m,
nd Mnchsm.
slmc rchtctr
Th sprd f slm fllw ng th rb cnqsts
n th svnth nd ghth cntrs ld t th mrgnc
f rchtctr tht ws typclly slmc. Th
ldst msqs n Smrqnd (frsb), Mry, nd
Bshn r dtd t th nnth nd tnth cntrs.
rly mslms r mnmntl tmbs r knw n
n th cty f Bkhr n zbkstn nd Smrqnd,
mng thrs. Drng th Sljk dynsty (1038–1157),
stn-blt crvnsrs rs lng th Cntrl sn
trd rts.
Tmrd rchtctr
Th Mngl nvsn n 1220–1221 ld t lmst
ttl dstrctn f rbn lf n Cntrl s. nly
mslms hv srvvd frm tht prd. Tmr,
hw vr, wh md Smrqnd hs bs f pw r n
1370, cntrbtd t nw rs n rbn dvlpmnt
wth th rctn f nmrs mnmntl bldngs.
rchtctrl trdtns wr nhncd ndr th rgn
f lgh Bg (1394–1449), Tmr’s grndsn, w h
md Smrqnd cntr f Mslm cltr. mprssv
mnmnts f th Tmrd r (frtnth t fftnth
cntrs) ncldd mslms, msqs, nd
mdrshs (rlgs cllgs) n Smrqnd, s w ll s
lbrrs, hsptls, nd w tr-spply fclts.
Trdtnl Cntrl sn rchtctr ncldd
svrl typs f msqs: dm vr sqr chmbr,
n pn brrl-vltd hll, rchly dcrtd
prtl (th wn), nd n pn crt srrndd by rcds;
th mnrts r pryr twrs wr crclr r
cncl. Mslms slly hd dmd strctr
rsd vr sqr bs. Th mdrsh cnsstd f
n nnr crtyrd srrndd by n- r tw-stry
bldngs tht ncldd msq, lctr rms, nd
lvng rms.
Dvlpmnts n th Sxtnth thrgh
Nntnth Cntrs
n th sxtnth nd svntnth cntrs, rbn
dvlpmnt ws rstrctd t lrgr cts sch s
Smrqnd nd Bkhr, w hr mprssv rchtctrl
ssmblgs w r rctd. Lrg msqs hd
mn dm, typclly nn shpd n Cntrl s,
nd n mprssv rchd wn lng th cntrl xs;
smllr dstrct msqs hd pn wns; mdrshs
wr dsgnd w th fr wns, cntrl crt, nmrs
clls, mnmntl pshtk (prtc), nd crnr
mnrts. Dmd bzrs nd w tr rsrvrs ls
dt frm ths prd.
Drng th ghtnth nd nntnth cntrs,
mprssv pltl bldngs w r rctd, prtclrly
n Khv, n th ss wst f th lw r m Dr’y
n zbkstn. ftr Cntrl s bcm prt f th
Rssn mpr n 1860, rpn-typ gglmrtns
dvlpd lngsd th ldr strctrs n mjr
dmnstrtv cntrs sch s Tshknt nd
Smrqnd n zbkstn nd shkhbd n sthrn
Trkmnstn. ndr Svt rl (1920–1991) thr
ws n ntnsv dvlpmnt f rsdntl hsng
thrght Cntrl s, lng w th pblc bldngs
(thtrs, msms, dctnl nd rcrtnl fclts).
ftr ndpndnc n 1991, nw ffcl
bldngs w r cnstrctd, prtclrly n Trkmnstn
nd zbkstn, w th th ntntn f dvlpng
n nfrstrctr fr trsm.
Pvl Dlkhnv
Frthr Rdng
Brnrd, P. N. (1982) "n ncnt Grk Cty n Cntrl
s." Scntfc mrcn 246: 126–135.
Gppnrtr, Vdm vgnvch, nd Rbn Mgw n.
(1989) Fbld Cts f Cntrl s: Smrknd, Bkhr,
Khv. Nw Yrk: bbvll Prss.
Glmbk, Ls, nd Dnld Wlbr. (1988) Th Tmrd
rchtctr f rn nd Trn. Prnctn, NJ: Prnctn
nvrsty Prss.
Hrdr, Kls. (1990) Frml Strctr n slmc rchtctr
f rn nd Trkstn. Prf. by lg Grbr. Nw Yrk:
Rzzl.
Knblch, dgr. (1972) Bynd th xs: rchlgy, rt,
nd rchtctr f Cntrl s. Lndn: rnst Bnn.
RCHTCTR—CNTRL S
TCHN KL—WRLD
HRTG ST
Th lst ss bfr rn fr crvnrs crssng
th dsrt, tchn Kl n zbkstn w s
dsgntd NSC Wrld Hrtg st n
1990. Th st stll cntns fw sprb xmpls
f Cntrl sn rchtctr, ncldng th
Djm Msq nd tw mgnfcnt nntnthcntry
plcs.
9
———. (2001) Mnmnts f Cntrl s: Gd t th rchlgy,
rt, nd rchtctr f Trkstn. Lndn nd
Nw Yrk: . B. Trs.
Pgchnkv, Gln ntlvn. (1983) Srdnyy zy:
Sprvchnk-ptvdtl’ (Mddl s: Dctnry-Gd).
Mscw : sksstv.
Stvssk, Brs kvlvch. (1974) sksstv Srdn z (rt
f Mddl s). Mscw : sksstv.
RCHTCTR—CHN Snc rlst
tms, Chns bvgrnd cnstrctn hs bn
dmntd by w d. Th tmbr frm s Chn’s mjr
tchnlgcl cntrbtn t w rld rchtctr,
nd ts w dn rchtctrl dsgn s nprllld n
ts flxblty, dptblty, vrstlty, nd blty t
wthstnd rthqks.
Th w dn spprt systm cn b trcd thrgh
mr thn fr mllnn f Chns bldng hstry,
frm th Nlthc prd n th frth nd thrd cntrs
BC nt th tw nty-frst cntry C. thr ftrs
f Chns rchtctr wth mltmllnnl
hstry ncld th fndtn pltfrm nd th dcrtv
rf. Th prt f th Chns w dn strctr
n w hch chng cn mst rdly b sn s th
brckt st, th grp f wdn ntrlckng cmpnnts
tht ttch t pllrs t hlp spprt th rf
wtht th s f brsvs r thr ds n jnry.
Chns bldng styls vlvd vr tm, bt th
dvlpmnts ftn d nt crrspnd t th chng
n dynsts. Th Chns mst ftn dfn thr rchtctrl
trdtn ccrdng t rly, mddl, nd
lt prds. rly strctrs r ths frm th bgnnngs
f th Chns bldng systm n Nlthc
tms thrgh th Brnz g (lst tw mllnn BC),
th Hn dynsty (206 BC–220 C), nd th prd f
dsnn knw n s th Thr Kngdms nd Nrthrn
nd Sthrn dynsts (220–589 C). Th mddl
prd bgns w th rnfctn ndr th S dynsty
(581–618 C) n th 580s nd cntns thrgh th
Tng dynsty (618–907) nd th Sng prd
(960–1279). rchtctrl hstrns d nt gr n
th brk btw n th mddl nd lt prds. Mst
ndrstnd th prd f Mngln rl (th Yn dynsty,
1267–1368) s trnstnl, w th ltr, r prmdrn
rchtctr, dfnd s th frtnth thrgh
nntnth cntrs. n ths vltn, th yrs 1103
nd 1734 r bnchmrks. Ths r th dts f ss
f th tw cmplt nd xtnt crt-spnsrd bldng
mnls, th Yngz fsh (Bldng Stndrds) nd
Gngb gngchng zf zl (ngnrng Mnl fr
th Brd f Wrks). Frm ths wrtngs, t s knw n
tht vn thgh gnrl prncpls f Chns cnstrctn
sm t chng lttl vr lng prds f
tm, t ny gvn tm th dffrncs btw n mprtnt,
r hgh-rnkng, rchtctr nd mr hmbl
cnstrctn r lw ys pprnt.
Thr thr ftrs dstngsh th Chns bldng
trdtn frm ths f mst thr prts f th
wrld. Frst, t Chns, th w rd rchtctr mns
nt nly bldngs sch s pgds r tmpls, bt
cts, grdns, nd tmbs. Scnd, Chns bldng
s lmst lw ys prt f cmplx f strctrs,
jnd t n nthr nd ntrrltd physclly by
cvrd wlkwys r sptlly by cnstrctn rnd
crtyrds. Thrd, rrly s th nm f n rchtct
ssctd wth bldng n Chn. Dsgns fr
plcs nd cts nd fr mprl mnstrs nd mprl
grdns wr prdcd t crt, th py scl
nd lltmnts f mtrls fr bldng cnstrctn
wr stndrdzd, bldrs wr crftsmn, nd n
vrrdng mdlr systm md t pssbl fr
grp f crftsmn-bldrs t rct tmbr frm
bsd n prprtnl nts.
rly rchtctr
Mst f r knw ldg f Chns rchtctr bfr
th frst mllnnm C hs cm frm xcvtn.
Sm f th sts sch s th Shng (c. 1700–1100
BC) cptl t nyng (c. 1300–1050 BC) hv bn
stdd fr nrly ghty yrs. thrs hv bn dscvrd
nd pnd w thn th lst dcd. Mst mprssv
bt th Nlthc sts sch s Bnp n
Shnx, Chngzy n Shndng, Hmd n Zhjng,
nd Nhlng n Lnng s tht lthgh
dffrnt Nlthc cltr s rprsntd t ch
f thm, ch hd fr-sdd strctrs dfnd by
xtrr clmns, ch hd grt hll r tmpl,
ch shws vdnc f pltfrms r wlls md by
th trr-ps mthd (ls knw n s th rmmdrth
mthd), nd prbbly ch w s nclsd by n
tr w ll.
nyng ws prcdd by sx Shng cptls, tw
thrs ls n Hnn. Frm th thr sts, w knw
tht Shng cts w r nclsd by w lls s lng s
svn klmtrs n pr mtr, tht lrg strctrs
my hv bn plcs, tht rsdntl rchtctr
ws rsd n bldng fndtns, nd tht tmbs f
mmns prprtns w r dg ndrgrnd nd wr
fcd wth wdn w lls . t s ls knw n tht bldngs,
prsmbly fnrry shrns r tmpls, std
bv grnd n tp f th brl chmbrs.
r frst vdnc f grdns s frm th Zh dynsty
(1045–256 BC). S fr, nfrmtn bt grdns
nd plsr plcs s knw n nly thrgh
ltrry srcs. Zh ws n xtrmly mprtnt p-
RCHTCTR—CHN
rd n th hstry f Chns rbnsm. ch f th
hndrd-pls rlrs f cts r stts hd w lld cptl.
mng thm wr mny w th w ll-nclsd
plc-cty nsd th tr w ll. Ths ftr ws t
bcm trdmrk f Chns mprl plnnng,
prsrvd vn n th lst grt cptl, Bjng, nd ts
Frbddn Cty. mng th plns f Zh cts wr
thr dstnct ns: th plc r cld b nr th
cntr f th tr w ll, n th nrth cntr, r t cld
b djcnt t th tr cty. Smtms ths lst typ
s knw n s dbl-cty nd smtms th tw w lls
rflct mr thn n bldng prd. Fnlly, frm
th Zh w hv txts tht dscrb th dl rlr’s
cty nd rtl hlls. Th rlst r mns f mprl
rtl hlls, s fr, r frm th Hn dynsty.
Fr m th prd f nfctn f th Chns stts
by th mn knw n s th Frst mprr (Qn Sh
Hngd, c. 259–210 BC) n 221 BC ntl th fll f
th sbsqnt dynsty, th Hn, n 220 C, w hv
bth bvgrnd bldng r mns nd xtnsv nfrmtn
bt fnrry rchtctr. Th mst mprssv
rchtctrl chvmnt f th g w s th
Grt Wll, th d fr w hch ws prmlgtd by
th Frst mprr nd cnstrctn f whch ccrrd
ff nd n frm th Qn dynsty p thrgh th sxtnth
cntry. nsd th wlls f th Qn cptl t
Xnyng nd th Hn cptls t Chng’n nd Lyng,
plc cmplxs xtndd fr mls.
Mst f th frstndng rchtctr f th Hn
prd s f frm knw n s q, gt twr. Ths
mltstry, nrrw strctrs std n prs t th ntrnc
t tmbs nd n thr sd f gtwys t cts
nd plc cmplxs nd w r mmckd n strctrs
tp th crnrs f wlls tht nclsd plcs nd
cts. ddtnl vdnc fr th q frm s prsrvd
n cntlss rlf sclptrs tht nc lnd th
wlls f Hn tmbs, spclly n th prvncs f
Schn, Hnn, nd Shndng nd n mrls n tmbs
frm lmst vry prt f Chn. Th ctl brl
chmbrs f th Frst mprr nd mprrs nd mprsss
f th Hn rmn npnd, bt hndrds f
Hn tmbs hv bn xcvtd. Frm thm, t s
knw n tht whl cmmn ppl w r brd n smpl
pts, w lthy ctzns, rstcrts, nd mmbrs f
th ryl fmly blt tmbs w th s mny s nn r
tn rms, th lrg ns cnnctd lng ln nd
jnd t s mllr sd chmbrs by crrdrs. Md f
prmnnt mtrls, prmrly brck nd stn, fr
trnl rsdnc n th ftrlf, ths ndrgrnd
plcs wr blvd t hv fllw d th frms f
rsdntl rchtctr bv grnd tht wr blt
n prshbl w d. Frm th tmbs nd rplcs f
rchtctrl frms, t s knw n tht by th Hn prd,
brckt sts, crmc-tl rfs, nd vltd clngs
wr n wdsprd s.
Th lst prd tht rprsnts rly rchtctr n
Chn w s n n whch Bddhsm, brght t Chn
frm nd nd thr Wstrn rgns, ws th mn
rlgn. cptl cty lk Lyng hd mr thn
1,300 Bddhst mnstrs n th prd f Nrthrn
W rl (493–534). nly fndtns rmn frm
ny f ths tmpl c mplxs. Bddhst rchtctr
f th thrd thrgh sxth cntrs srvvs n th
frm f pgds nd n ntrr cnstrctn nd dcrtn
f wrshp cvs.
Th rlst dtd pgd n Chn, frm 523,
stnds t Sngy Mnstry n Mt. Sng n Hnn
Prvnc. ts ddcgnl shp nd fftn trs f
dnsly spcd vs r nq. Th sngl-stry,
fr-sdd pgd t Shntng Mnstry n Lchng,
Schn, w s blt n 544. n gnrl, Chns pgds
wr fr-sdd n pln thrgh th rly yrs f
th Tng dynsty, bt n prfl thy cld b f nfrm
xtrr dmnsn, sch s w s th cs t Shntng
Mnstry, r thy cld dmnsh n pr mtr
frm bs t rf. Md f thr brck r stn, th
xtrrs wr dcrtd w th clmns, brckt sts,
nd rf vs n mttn f w dn rchtctr.
Pgds f bth shps r fnd nsd Bddhst
cvs knwn s cntrl-pllr cvs.
Mddl Prd
Th ldst xtnt w dn rchtctr n Chn s
hll dtd t 782 f th Tng dynsty (618–907) t
th Nnchn Mnstry n th scrd Bddhst pk
Mt. Wt n Shnx. Th thr thr xtnt w dn
bldngs frm th Tng prd r ls n Shnx,
scnd n Mt. Wt nd tw n th sthrn prt f
th prvnc. Th tmbr frm hd rchd fll mtrty
t ths tm.
N plc bldng srvvs frm th Tng, bt xcvtn
t th cptl cty, Chng’n, lrgst cty n
th w rld n th ghth cntry, wth ppltn f
mr thn 1 mlln, hs bn s xtnsv nd txtl
dscrptns r s xcllnt, tht th plc mnt f
vry bldng n vry Tng plc cmplx s knw n.
Mny hv bn rcnstrctd n ppr. Th sts f
th tmb f ch mprr nd mprss f th Tng
prd r ls knw n, nd th mnmntl sclptrs
tht lnd th pprchs t ths tmbs srvv t
svrl f thm. Scrs f tmbs f Tng prncs nd
prncsss hv bn xcvtd; mny f ths r
stllts t th tmbs f th mprrs nd mprsss.
Fnlly, th rlst pn-spndrl brdg n th wrld,
nj Brdg n Zh cnty, Hb, srvvs frm th
RCHTCTR—CHN
frst dcd f th svnth cntry, jst bfr th
fndng f th Tng mpr.
bt ffty wdn bldngs srvv frm th tw
cntrs fllw ng Tng, ncldng svrl f th
mst xtrrdnry wdn strctrs vr blt n
Chn. n fr Nrth Chn, n nnr Mngl, th
nn-Chns L dynsty (947–1125) cmmssnd
pvlns nd pgds n w d tht sd mr vrts
f brckt sts thn vr bfr n sngl strctr.
Th 67.31- mtr pgd f Fgng Mnstry
n Yng cnty, Shnx, tllst w dn strctr n th
wrld, hs ffty-fr dffrnt typs f brcktng. t
ls xhbts scnd ftr chrctrstc f L
wdn bldngs, cncld ntrr strs tht d
nt crrspnd t ths vsbl tsd. Th pgd
hs fv xtrr strs pls sxth st f rf vs,
nd fr ddtnl mzznn lvls nsd. n msnry
cnstrctn, th L blt fr vrts f
pgds, sm w th bs, shft, nd dnsly plcd
vs lk th pgd dtd t 523 n Mt. Sng nd
thrs wth shft nd rf fr ch stry. Mst pgds
f L nd Nrthrn Sng (960–1126), th
Chns dynsty t L’s sth, wr ctgnl n
pln. ctgns nd hxgns ls bcm w dsprd
n th shps f ndrgrnd rms f bth L nd
Sng tmbs.
Ltr rchtctr
Th mdrn prd f Chns rchtctr ws
shrd n by Mngln rl. n spt f th thnc
bckgrnd f th mprl fmly, mst cnstrctn
drng th prd knw n s th Yn dynsty (1267–
1368) fllw d Chns bldng stndrds. Mr thn
250 w dn bldngs rmn frm th Yn prd.
mng th mst fms r gt nd thr hlls t
Yngl Dst Mnstry n sthrn Shnx.
Th Frbddn Cty s th rchtctrl mstrpc
f Chn’s lst grt g, th Mng (1368–1644)
nd Qng (1644–1912) dynsts. Frst nd frmst,
th Frbddn Cty ws th hm f Chns mprrs
nd th cntr f thr nvrs. ts pln mbds
th 2,000 yrs f rchtctrl hstry ldng p
t t. Th fcs f th Frbddn Cty s th Thr
Grt Hlls, lvtd tgthr n trpl-lyr mrbl
pltfrm. Th cptl- shp f th pltfrm ws
rsrvd fr Chn’s mst mnnt rchtctrl
rrngmnts. t s rplctd drctly bhnd, n th
Thr Bck Hlls, w hr th mprr nd mprss
slpt nd w hr th mprss hld dncs. Srrndng
r n rry f plcs, w hr vry spct
f lf frm th dctn f th prncs t prprtn
f fd t ntrgs ws nctd. Tdy, mst f
th Frbddn Cty s sd fr pblc xhbtn hlls
fr frmr mprl trsrs nd ffcs f th Plc
Ms m. Drctly n frnt, n grnd nc rstrctd
frm pblc pssg, s Tnnmn Sqr.
Mny f Chn’s thr rchtctrl mstrpcs
f th Mng nd Qng dynsts r n Bjng r ts
sbrbs. Mst mprtnt r th Mng Tmbs, w hr
thrtn mprrs nd thr mprsss r brd ndrnth
crclr mnds w th crmnl hlls n
frnt f thm. Sm f th crmnl hlls r rsd
n thr-tr mrbl pltfrms lk th n ndr th
Thr Grt Hlls, nd th ndvdl hlls fllw th
frms f th prncpl hlls f th Frbddn Cty. Srrndng
th Frbddn Cty wr th sbrbn
ltrs, ptmzd by th ltr f Hvn cmplx. ts
thr mn hlls lng nrth-sth ln w r th
lcs f nnl mprl spplctns t hvn n bhlf
f th Chns stt. Crclr n pln bt srrndd
by fr-sdd ncls r, th Hll fr Pryr
fr Prsprs Yr s th nly Chns strctr
wth thr-tr cncl rf. Qng mprl rchtctr
xtndd bynd Bjng t ncld fv smmr
plcs nrth f th Frbddn Cty; Th strn nd
Wstrn mprl Tmbs n Hb; plc nd tmbs
n Shnyng, Lnng; nd Smmr Plc n
Chngd, Hb.
Th lst prds f prmdrn Chns hstry
wr ls tms f rchtctrl ccmplshmnt tsd
th mprl sphr. Prvt grdns f w lthy
ctzns, spclly n sthstrn cts lk Szh
nd Yngzh, hv ttrctd ntrntnl ttntn.
Cntrstng w th th ptcs f lndscp rchtctr
r th rsdntl styls f Chn’s ppltns n th
frngs f th mpr—flt-rfd hss dsgnd fr
mntns sttngs n Tbt, tnts f th Mngln
grsslnds, hss rsd n stlts n th hmd
sw mplnds f th sth, crclr hss f th Hkk
n Fjn, nd tw -stry hss wth skyw lls n th
cntr n nh, fr xmpl. t w s fnlly n th Qng
prd tht thncty bcm pprnt n Chns rchtctr.
ntl mdrn rchtctr ws mpsd by cty
rdnncs r ntnl lw s n th lst hlf f th twntth
cntry, Chns rchtctr rsstd mdrnztn.
Chns-styl rfs stll cp schls, hsptls,
nd gvrnmnt ffcs thrws md f rnfrcd
cncrt. Pblc bldngs rtn crtyrds t thr
ntrncs. Htls nd rstrnts rlnqsh prcs
spc fr mntr rplcs f Mng grdns. nd th
Frbddn Cty hs rmnd th mmtbl fcs f
Bjng nd sy mbl f ll f Chn.
Nncy S. Stnhrdt
RCHTCTR—CHN
S ls: rchtctr, Vrnclr—Chn; Crtyrds;
Grt Wll; mprl Plc
Frthr Rdng
Lng Ss-ch’ng. (1984) Pctrl Hstry f Chns rchtctr.
Cmbrdg, M: MT Prss.
Stnhrdt, Nncy S. (1984) Chns Trdtnl rchtctr.
Nw Yrk: Chn nsttt.
———. (1990) Chns mprl Cty Plnnng. Hnll, H:
nvrsty f Hw Prss.
RCHTCTR—ND Th rchtctr
f nd, frm ll prds n ts hstry, prsnts cmplx
pctr fr th csl bsrvr fr svrl rsns.
Frst, th cntry’s cntns trdtn f sttld cltr,
frm th frth cntry BC ntl th rly 2000s,
s pncttd by nmrs pltcl, scl, rlgs,
nd cltrl chngs, ffctng ts blt nvrnmnt
n sgnfcnt wys. Scnd, th mmns vrty f
frml trtmnts nd sptl rrngmnts w thn
ndn rchtctr hv md ny strghtfrwrd
ctgrztn xtrmly dffclt. Schlrly rsrch
hs, thrfr, cncntrtd n prtclr prds r
phss, rthr thn ttmptng hlstc trtmnt.
Thrd, vrtns n ndn rchtctr (t lst n ts
ncnt nd mdvl phss), nd prtclrly ths
dlng w th stylstc nd cngrphc sss, wr
nthr cltr-spcfc nr rgn-spcfc. n th ndn
cntxt, styls f rchtctr vr hstry wr
nt ncssrly lmtd by ggrphcl, cltrl r pltcl
cnstrnts. Thrfr, nt nly wr thr lrg
vrtns nd smlrts n th rchtctr f dffrnt
rgns wthn lrgr mpr, bt ls n th
rchtctr f sccssv dynsts.
rchtctrl dvlpmnts n nd r clssfd
nt fr chrnlgcl phss, whch, whl bng
stylstclly dstnct, ncrprtd svrl cmmn
frml, sptl, nd c mpstnl chrctrstcs. Th
frst xtndd frm th frth cntry BC t th ffth
cntry C. Th scnd spnnd th ffth t th thrtnth
cntrs. Bldng ctvty btwn th thrtnth
nd ghtnth cntrs cnstttd th thrd,
whl th frth phs bgn w th th clnl prd
nd cntns n th tw nty-frst cntry.
Frth Cntry BC thrgh Ffth Cntry C
Dc mntd r mns frm th rlst prd f ndn
rchtctr wr brght t lght n 1920s,
thrgh th xcvtn f Mhnj Dr nd
Hrpp, tw cts n th nds pln. lthgh mr
thn fr hndrd mls prt, bth wr pprntly
rgnzd n rctnglr pln, nd hd lrgly dntcl
rbn lyts—vdnc tht thy wr prt f
n xtnsv cltr tht nc flrshd vr lrg
rgn. Tht cltr rchd ts pk n th frst qrtr
f th scnd mllnnm BC. Bynd ths,
glmpss f ncnt ndn sttlmnts nd bldng
typs my b gnd frm th nr ms crps f ncnt
ltrtr, ncldng grt pcs sch s th Mhbhrt
nd Rmyn; clltns f flk lgnds,
sch s th Jtks; r th shstrs—ll f whch cntn
dscrptns f ncnt cts nd bldngs. Crrbrtng
rlf nd frsc cycls sn t Snch,
Bhrht, mrvt, nd jnt dscrb grt dl
mr, shw ng xctly wht knds f bldngs w r
cnstrctd n ths r, nd hw thy vrd n sz,
fnctn, cmplxty, nd cntxt. ls pprnt r
cnvntns tht dfnd th physcl lyts f strctrs
(mnly scrd sts), sttlmnts, mltry cmps,
nd lrg cts.
Wthn ths vst gmt, tw spcfc knds f bldngs
stll srvv fr s t xmn n mr dtl.
Ths r th stp (brl mnd), nd th rck-ct
snctry, bth strctrs srvng th nds f th tw
prdmnnt r lgns f th tm, Bddhsm nd Jns m.
Fr m rly vrsns cnstrctd frm mpctd
md nd cly, nd srvng s smpl dmrctn f
th dcsd’s rmns, th stp dvlpd ts typcl
hmsphrcl frm, fxd t th crdnl pnts by frml
gts r trns. t th Mhstp t Snch, ths
mnd w s nlrgd t nrly twc ts rgnl sz
vr hgh drm-lk plnth nd cld n brck nd
stn. dbl-rmp ld t trrc tht rn rnd
th drm, nd ws tslf cntnd wthn n lbrtly
crvd rlng. Th Mhbdh tmpl t Gy
fllw d smlr prncpls, lthgh th vrtcl ttntn
f th tmpl-twr, nsl fr stp, rsmbld
tmpl shkhr. Th Snch c mplx ls
hs sbstntl rmns f snctrs r mnstrs.
rgnzd thr s rms rnd bldng crtyrd
r rnd cntrlzd, nclsd spcs sch s
ths n rck-ct chty hlls, thy srvd s hstls
fr trvlng mnks. Wthn th rchtctrl dtls
f th stp nd snctry, pssbly th mst strkng
ftr s th rndtn f tmbr dtls n stn,
strngly sggstng tht smlr strctrs hd xstd
n th pst, cnstrctd f wd. n svrl xmpls,
fk stn bms nd vrhngng vs smngly
spprtd brrl-vltd, rck-ct hlls. Th Lms
Rsh Hll, fr nstnc, ws gvn fcd rprsntng
tmbr strctr w th nclnd psts, prlns,
rftrs, frzs, nd bwd rf nd pt fnl, ll
crvd t f sld rck. Smlr dscvrs hv bn
md t Bhj, Nsk, Jnnr, Bds, Kr l, Knhr,
Kndn, Ptlkhr, rngbd, llr nd jnt.
RCHTCTR—ND
Ffth thrgh Thrtnth Cntrs
Hstrclly n f th mst cmplx fr dvlpmnts
n ndn rchtctr, ths prd ws chrctrzd
by th grw ng pplrty f Hndsm n lrg
prts f th ndn sbcntnnt. Th xpnsn f
Hnds m cncdd w th n lbrtn f th physcl
strctr f th tmpl tslf, w hch bgn t b
cntrlld by systm f prprtns nd mtphyscl
rhythms n pln nd lvtn cntnd w thn
th scnc f Vstshstr.
rly frstndng strctrs, sch s Tmpl Svntn
t Snch nd th Mhdv Tmpl t dypr,
wr rltvly smpl, cnsstng f prtc
cnnctd t flt-rfd sqr cll. n ltr cnstrctns,
n ddtn t n lbrt, stppd plnth
tht srvd t pstn th bldng, n ppr shrn
chmbr ws ntrdcd bv th cll. t th Drg
nd Mgt Tmpls t hl, frthr prccptn
wth th psdl frm f tmpl bldngs ccrrd,
llw ng fr tw sprt zns f mbltn—n
wthn th cll, nd th thr tsd. Mnw hl, xtnsv
xprmnttn hd ls mdfd th tmpl
strctr, s dmnstrtd n th rchly dcrtd
shkhr f th Lkshmn Tmpl t Srpr.
Rck-ct snctrs f th rlr prd wr
lbrtd pn n s mlr mnnr. Th rltvly
smpl, psdl, pr mrly rsdntl chty-grh ws
mdfd nt n lbrt rctnglr hll w th srrndng
clls nd prtc, bsd t sm xtnt n
th nn-sqr frml tht w s ls dptd fr th
lyts f frstndng tmpls. Ths w s t b th
chrctrstc ftr f mst f th mjr cnstrctns
t jnt, llr, nd lphnt. Fnlly, thr
wr ls pnts w hn tmpl cnstrctn nd rckct
snctrs mrgd. Prhps nsprd by th lbrt,
ggntc rck-xcvtd cnstrctns, thr ws
sgnfcnt mv tw rds bldng clssl strctrs,
whch srvd s physcl vctns f th mnptnt
sblm. Th rths, crvd frm sld rck t Mhblpr m,
th Vrpksh Tmpl t Pttdkl, nd
th Kls Tmpl t llr, r mprtnt n ths rspct.
qlly w-nsprng fr thr sz nd
grndr r th tmpl cmplxs t Trvrr, Chdmbr m,
Drsrm, nd Tnjvr.
Thrtnth thrgh ghtnth Cntrs
Spnnng th thrtnth thrgh th ghtnth
cntrs, th thrd phs f dvlpmnts cmprsd
tw sprt trnds: th ctvts f th Dlh sltnt
(1192–1526), nd rchtctrl ptrng ndr
th Mghl mpr (1526–1857). Fr bth trnds, th
cty f Dlh (th cptl f prsnt-dy nd) ws
prmry cntr f ctvty nd rtnd ts stts s th
mprl cptl, lthgh th ctl st f th cty r
sttlmnt chngd sbstntlly, gvng rs t th clbrtd
lgnd f svn cts cmprsng Dlh.
Th Dlh sltnt bgn w th th Ghrd nd
Ghznvd nvsns f nrthrn nd, spclly
Dlh, btw n 940 nd 1150. Wthn th ccpd
cty f Dlh, th gnrl Qtb-d-dn bk blt th
Qww t-l-slm Msjd (th Mght f slm Msq)
n 1192. ncrprtd w thn ts cnstrctn wr
lrg prts nd rmns f ldr Hnd nd Jn bldngs;
t dpr lvl, hwvr, t xpndd n th
frml, sptl, nd cngrphc vcblry prvlnt
n pr-Sltnt-prd cnstrctns. Cnsqntly,
lcl msns mplyd fr ts cnstrctn, nd fr
th svrl thr mnmnts cmpltd n ths rly
prd, w r bl t rcycl ldr bldng lmnts
(clmns, cptls, bms, crbld brckts, nd
dms) t crt nw nsmbls fllw ng thr wn
dcrtv nd strctrl trdtns. n ffct, mnmnts
sch s th Qwwt-l-slm Msjd nd th
hr-dn-j Jhmpr t jmr, w hl bng mprvsd
vrsns f th hypstyl pryr-hll (pryr hlls
whs rfs wr spprtd by rws f clmns) prttyps
typcl n rn nd Cntrl s, wr vdnc
f n mrgng sthtc n th mkng. Stcc nd
tl wr rplcd by xtnsv stn crvngs f vgtl
mtfs. xprmnttn w th th ndgns systm
mplyng clmns (psts), bms, nd crbls
rplcd th shll nd vlt cnstrctns prvlnt n
lrg prts f rn nd Cntrl s. Thr w s ls
grt dl f nnvtn, prtclrly s slmc bldng
cnvntns blndd w th ndn trdtns. Sgnfcnt
xmpls ncld th fcd f fv-crbld
g rchs scrnng th Qwwt-l-slm Msjd’s
pryr hll; th rd sndstn, gry qrtzt, nd
wht-mrbld crclr nd ct-ngld prjctns
n th Qtb Mnr; lttmsh’s rchly crvd, dmd
mslm; nd th Sltn Ghr mnmnt— nvl
cmbntn f n ctgnl, sbtrrnn tmb nd
msq.
n ddtn t bldngs, svrl nw rbn fndtns
n nd rnd Dlh w r stblshd n ths
prd: Sr, w th ts lgndry Hzr Stn (thsndpllrd)
plc, fndd by l-d-dn Khlj (1296–
1316); th mprgnbl cty f Tghlqbd, blt fr
Ghys-d-dn Tghlq t f mssv msnry; th
ryl st f Mhmmd Tghlq (1325–1351) t Jhnpnh
wth th Bgmpr Msq; nd Ktl
Frz Shh, th frt plc f Frz Shh. ddtnlly,
thr rs f th ndn sbcntnnt cm ndr
Mslm (rb- Prsn) nflnc. Ths ncldd
Gjrt, w hr spctclr cptl nd ncrpls
RCHTCTR—ND
wr crtd t hmdbd (1411–1442) nd Srkhj
(1442–1451) rspctvly, bth rryd wth sprb
msqs, wvs (pblc w lls), nd rzs (mrtry
cmplxs). n Bngl, th cty f Gr ws stblshd
t Lkhnt. rchtctrl nnvtns ntrdcd
thr ncldd n nrms wn (rch) t dn
Msjd, th msq f Skndr Shh (1358–1389) t
Hzrt Pnd, nd th dbly crvd bngldr (bwr
bt-shpd) rf n th klkh Mslm—lmnts
tht w ld rccr n Mghl rchtctr n
th cntrs t cm. t Jnpr, stblshd by Mlk
Srw r, th Tghlq vcry, th xtrrdnry
tl Msjd w th ts mssv, pylnlk wn frntspcs
cm clsst t th rchtctr f Bb-
Khnm Msq, cmpltd n 1394 t Smrqnd
fr Tmr (1336–1405).
Sm f th Hnd kngdms tht sccssflly
hltd th nslght f th Mslms ls prdcd mprtnt
rchtctr. Th kngdm f Vjyngr
(1397–1565) w s frst mng ths, nd ts cptl cty
(Hmp) ws mbllshd w th ryl cmplx nd fr
mgnfcnt tmpls. thr xmpls w r th Rjpt
cptl t Chttr ndr Rn Kmbh (1433–1468),
th ncnt hll-frt f Gw lr, nd th grt plcs
f rch nd Dt blt btw n 1501 nd 1627.
Fw trnds n Sltnt-prd rchtctr, hwvr,
prfgr th lbrt dvlpmnts f th
Mghl prd. Th mpr’s Tr k-Mngl lng
frm th Tmrds f Cntrl s prvdd nq
stylstc lmnt t thr xprmnts n rchtctr
nd rbn plnnng. Fr m th tm f Bbr (1483–
1530), n vdnt bsssn wth lbrt grdns,
rnnng w tr, nd mprssv pvlns s bsrvd.
Bbr’s sccssr, Hmyn (1508–1556), w tnssd
th frst f th rchtctrl hybrds crtd by ths
prcss. hg Mghl ctdl, w th th ctgnl
Shr Mndl ( mntr drvtv f th Prsn
hsht bhsht), dmntd hs cptl t Dnpnh, tslf
bsd n nn-sqr, rbn mxgrd schm.
Th thr mprtnt strctr frm ths prd,
thgh fghn nd nt Mghl n ts ptrng, w s
th mslm f Shr Shh t Ssrm (1545). n
ctgnl strctr, t ws pstnd t th cntr f
sqr pl f wtr.
Th hybrd styl ws frthrd by kbr (1556–
1605), w h prvdd sbstntl dgr f mprl
ptrng drng hs lng rgn. Cnsqntly, rbn
fndtns t gr, Lhr, Fthpr Skr, nd
Brhnpr dvlpd vry mch n th lns f th
grt Tmrd cptls n Cntrl s, w hl rtnng
dstnct lcl chrctr n bldngs nd rbn
nsmbls. Th Jhngr Mhl n th gr Frt ws
xmplry n drw ng ts nsprtn frm th Mn
Mndr t Gw lr, Tmr’s q Sry t Shrsybz,
nd th grt clpht trdtn f plc plnnng.
xprmnttn w th lcl bldng tchnqs, mtrls,
nd crftsmn w s ls dmnstrtd t th
Fthpr Skr cmplx. Hr c mplx rrngmnt
f crtyrds, pn nd clsd spcs, nd srvc nd
prvt rs ffctvly ntrmshd t prdc n rbn
nvrnmnt w th nw bldng prttyps, whch
wr mltd vr th nxt fw cntrs.
kbr’s grndsn, Shh Jhn (1628–1658), mprvd
n ths chvmnts, crtng sm f th
mst mprtnt rchtctrl mstrpcs f th
Mghl prd. Th plnnd cty f Shhjhnbd,
wth ts grnd bzrs, rbn sqrs, msqs, crvnsrs,
bths, nd mprssv ctdl, ws cmpltd
btw n 1639 nd 1648. Sbstntl ddtns t th
rbn strctrs t gr nd Lhr fllw d. n ddtn
t cts, Shh Jhn’s rgn ws chrctrzd
by grt rfnmnt n th dsgn f svrl mprtnt
bldngs, prtclrly msqs nd mslms.
Whl th Jm Msjd ( Frdy Msq) t Shhjhnbd
(1650–1656) w s grnd nd lrg, bng n
mprl nstttn mnt t srv th rbn ppltn,
ths t Lhr nd gr—th Mth nd Ngn
Msjds (1645 nd 1654)—w r smll nd gm-lk
nd mnt fr prvt pryr. mng mslms, th
Tj Mhl (1632–1643), blt fr Shh Jhn’s wf,
hs chvd lstng wrldwd rnwn.
n ddtn t bldng fndd by ryl ptrng,
n mny prts f th mpr ncnt trdtns f tmpl
rchtctr stll srvvd, s dd rgnl vstgs f
ldr nd-slmc styls. Crs hybrds, drwng n
prvncl Mghl, nd-Mslm, nd trdtnl frms
flrshd n rs wy frm th Mghl crt, spclly
s th mpr dclnd n th ghtnth cntry.
Clnl Prd t th rly 2000s
Th rrvl f rpns n th ghtnth cntry
nfsd ndn rchtctr wth frsh lmnts, lthgh
ldr prctcs nd trdtns wr nt ntrly
dscrdd. Brtsh clnl rchtctr crtd thrgh
ths ntrctn ws trmd th nd-Srcnc. t ws
thr rndm mx f lmnts, r cmplx hybrd
tht ffctvly cmbnd frgn nd ndgns styls.
Whl ts vltn dpndd prtlly n th fncy f
th ndvdl rchtcts, t mbdd bv ll vsn
th Brtsh hd f thmslvs s th rlrs f nd,
lnkd drctly t th Mghls, nd hnc t nd’s
glrs pst. Wthn ths prcss, th mst sgnfcnt
clnl strctrs wr blt t Clctt, Mmb
(Bmby), Mdrs, nd Bnglr, nd t th mprl
cptl t Nw Dlh. n ddtn t chrchs, nmrs
mnr strctrs wr blt crss th cntry n
RCHTCTR—ND
blndr, stndrdzd styl, trmd th Pblc Wrks
Dprtmnt ( PWD) styl.
Tw dstnct phss hv chrctrzd mdrn ndn
rchtctr snc th cntry’s ndpndnc n
1947. Th frst, btw n 1947 nd th rly 1980s, rld
mr n trnds f th ntrntnl styl prvlnt
n rp nd th ntd Stts t mt th
grw ng nds f bldng dsgn nd cnstrctn n
th cntry. Th gvrnmnt bldngs blt t
Chndgrh by Frnch rchtct L Crbsr (1887–
1965) xmplfd ths trnd. Th scnd stg,
strtchng btwn th 1980s nd nt th 2000s,
vlvd t ncld mr c mplx sss sch s mdrnty,
trdtn, th vrnclr, nd nw ntrprttns
f nstttns. Th grwng dmnd fr nw rchtctr,
nd cnsqntly mr rchtcts, s rflctd
by th prlfrtn f rchtctrl schls crss th
cntry, wth ths t hmdbd, Dlh, nd Mmb
rnng ntrntnl cclm. Sm f th mst
mprtnt ndn rchtcts tdy ncld B. V. Dsh,
nnt Rj, nd Chrls Crr.
Mn P. Sbt
S ls: Tj Mhl
Frthr Rdng
Btly, Cld. (1973) Th Dsgn Dvlpmnt f ndn rchtctr.
3d d. Nw Yrk: St. Mrtn’s.
Bhtt, Vkrm, nd Ptr Scrvr. (1990) ftr th Mstrs.
hmdbd, nd: Mpn.
Brw n, Prcy. (1942) ndn rchtctr: Bddhst nd Hnd
Prds, Th slmc Prd. 2 vls. Mmb, nd: D. B.
Trprvl.
Hrdg, Kls Wltr. (1967) Frml Strctr n ndn rchtctr.
thc, NY: Rzzl.
Kch, bb. (1991) Mghl rchtctr. Mnch: Prstl.
Krmrsch, Stll. (1954) Th rt f nd: Trdtns f ndn
Sclptr, Pntng, nd rchtctr. Nw Yrk: Phdn.
Mtclf, Thms R. (1989) n mprl Vsn: ndn rchtctr
nd Brtn’s Rj. Bstn: Fbr & Fbr.
Mchl, Grg, nd Phlp Dvs (1989). Th Pngn
Gd t th Mnmnts f nd. Nw Yrk: Vkng.
Tdgll, Chrstphr. (1994) Th Hstry f rchtctr n
nd. Lndn: Phdn.
Tlltsn, G. H. R. (1989) Th Trdtn f ndn rchtctr:
Cntnty, Cntrvrsy, nd Chng Snc 1850. Nw
Hvn, CT: Yl nvrsty Prss.
Vlw hsn, ndrs. (1969) Lvng rchtctr: ndn.
Trns. by nn . Kp. Nw Yrk: Grsst & Dnlp.
RCHTCTR, SLMC —WST S
T ndrstnd slmc rchtctr n th rgn cmprsng
prsnt-dy rn, rq, nd Trky, n mst
frst ndrstnd ts rts. Th bldrs f slmc cts
tht rs n th dsrt whr n cty xstd bfr
sd rchtctrl styls tht thy knw frm thr
plcs. Nvrthlss, thy dptd ths ldr styls
t xprss nw ds bt th mnng f slm, ts
vls, nd ts pwr. ldr cts nvlpd nt slm
cntnd ldr strctrs tht wr rsd nd
rdptd t st th nw rlrs.
Symblsm n slmc rchtctr s ftn cnvyd
by th s f smpl vrydy gmtrcl frms n
spcl wys. Th dm plcd vr cbc spc s
smtms smply cnvnnt mns f rfng nd
smtms n w-nsprng symbl f th hvns
bv th rth, w hch crrs th frthr mssg f
th ll-pw rfl nnss f Gd. Th rch my b
sd t ndct th drctn n w hch n s t pry,
bt t my ls b sd n clnnds t plc r s
wndws n cty hs. Vrnclr rchtctr (th
rchtctr f th cmmn ppl s ppsd t scrd
r cvc rchtctr) shrd mny f th rchtctrl
lmnts fnd n scrd bldngs sch s
msqs nd mdrshs (rlgs schls).
Th K_b
Th frst slmc bldng ws th K_b, scrd
mnmnt tht ws th cntr f pgn plgrmg nd
wrshp n Mcc, th "Hs f Gd," tht, ccrdng
t Mhmmd’s rvltns, w s blt by brhm
nd shml t dmnstrt thr fth n th n Gd.
Th K_b s rctnglr stn bldng pprxmtly
14 mtrs hgh. Th scrd blck stn blt
nt n f th w lls hd bn vnrtd by rbs snc
bfr slm nd w s st fr plgrmg nd w rshp.
ll Mslms fc th blck stn n th K_b w hn
thy pry, nd ll msqs fc th K_b. Th Grnd
Msq f Mcc tht srrnds th K_b hs bn
blt nd rblt mny tms vr th cntrs nd s
nt n tslf ntbl xmpl f slmc rchtctr.
Dvlpmnt f th Msq
lthgh th frst msq n lngr stnds, ssntlly
t w s smply n mpty rctlnr nclsr f
sm ffty-sx sqr mtrs. Nn s mll rms lng
th tsd f n f th w lls srvd s hmbl qrtrs
fr Mhmmd’s fmly. shdd spc fcng
th blck stn cntnd n th K_b n Mcc ws
cnstrctd f dbl rw f plm trnks cvrd
wth rf f plm lvs plstrd w th md, nd nthr
shdd spc ws cnstrctd t prtct th pr
frm th blzng sn f th Hjz. ts sz nd flx bl
chrctr ndcts tht th crtyrd ws mnt fr
cmmnl w rshp. n ddtn, th frst msq ws
sd fr pblc gthrngs nd s plc t mk n-
RCHTCTR, SLMC—WST S
nncmnts, djdct lgl css, nd ldg vstrs,
nd srvd s th cntr f th mrgnt stt.
t sm pnt mhrb (pryr nch) ws ddd n
th qbl (th wll ndctng th drctn f pryr)
t mrk th plc w hr Mhmmd hd ld pryrs.
n slm, pryrs r sd fv tms dy, nd th wy
tht Mhmmd cndctd ths pryrs wld st
th pttrn fr Mslms thrght hstry. Th rchtctrl
hstry f slmc hstry hs ts rts n
ths pttrns.
bt cntry fllw ng th dth f Mhmmd,
tw dstnct typs f msq mrgd. n, th
msjd, ws plc fr wrshp, nd ftn cm t b
cnstrctd s prt f cmplx ncldng frtfd
grrsns hsng th sldrs f n xpndng mpr,
nd thlgcl schls mnt t trn th fthfl n
th slmc scncs. scnd typ f msq, clld
th Cngrgtnl, Frdy, r Cthdrl Msq
( jm), ws dsgnd fr lrg-scl pblc w rshp n
Frdys. Rthr thn hvng ngh spc fr hndrds
f wrshpprs, t cld cntn thsnds.
Smtm fllw ng th dth f Mhmmd, drng
th xpnsn f th slmc mpr, Mslms bgn
t dd mnrts t thr msqs. Fr m ths hgh
pnt, th mzzn w ld chnt th cll t pryr. Ths
cmbntn f th hmn vc nd th lfty pstn
f th mzzn dffrnttd th slmc cll t
pryr frm th Chrstns, w h sd blls r wdn
clpprs, nd Jw s, wh sd th shfr ( rm’s hrn
trmpt) n thr wrshp.
Th Dm f th Rck
Th clph (ldr f th slmc fthfl) _bd l-
Mlk (646–705) rdrd th cnstrctn f th
Dm f th Rck n th Hrdn pltfrm f th
Jw sh Tmpl n Jrslm, w hch ws knw n t
Mslms s th Hrm l-Shrf, r Nbl Snctry.
t w s cmpltd n 691 C, mkng t th rlst srvvng
slmc mnmnt. t w s ls th frst mjr
rtstc chvmnt f th rlst f th slmc mprs,
th myyd (661–750). Th mthds f dsgn
nd dcrtn wr drwn drctly frm th Ssnn
nd Byzntn trdtns, bt th rchtctr f th
Dm f th Rck chvd dstnct xprssn f
slmc fth nd trmph.
Th Dm f th Rck w s dsgnd s plgrmg
st nd nvts cmprsn t th K_b, w th ts
wn scrd rck (frm w hch Mhmmd scndd
nt hvn, nd w hch brs hs ftprnt) nd trdtn
f wrshp. Wth ts drs pnng t th fr
pnts f th cmpss, th d f plgrmg s
strngly sggstd. Th dcrtn f th bldng’s
ntrr w th mscs dpctng Byzntn nd Ssnn
crwns nd jw ls , vgtl mtfs sggstv f prds,
nd Qr’nc nscrptns ssrtng th vctry
f slm vr Chrstnty nd ts cmpltn f Gd’s
rvltn t mn mphsz th trmphnt stnc f
th myyds n th frmr strnghld nd brthplc
f Chrstnty.
Th nsl pln f th bldng mks t nq
n w rld rchtctr. Th ctgnl frm crwnd by
dm w s sd n Byzntn rchtctr t ndct
whr spcl vnt hd ccrrd. Th Dm f th
Rck s nt msq, bt mshhd, plc f wtnss,
mrkng th st f Mhmmd’s scnsn t
hvn ftr hs mrcls jrny n l-Brq. ts
gldd cntrl dm rsts pn drm prcd w th
sxtn wndws, whch n trn rst pn crclr rcd
f fr prs nd sxtn mrbl clmns. rnd
ths s n ctgnl rcd f ght prs nd sxtn
clmns. Th ctgnl xtrr ws fnshd wth
mrbl, bt drng th ttmn prd ths w s rplcd
wth mgnfcnt crmc tls. Th lvsh mscs
dpct n nmls r hmn bngs. n f th
mst strkng spcts f th Dm f th Rck s tht
th dmtr f ts dm s ql t ts hght, mkng
fr prfct ntrr spc. Dcrtd n rds nd
glds, th Dm f th Rck glws wth n tmsphr
f snctty.
bbsd rchtctr n rq
Whn th dmnstrtv cntr f th slmc mpr
shftd frm Dmscs t rq, cnmc dvlpmnt
nd slmc cltr bcm xtrmly rch.
Th grw th n trd nd grcltr ws sstnd by
th nrms ggrphcl sw p f th bbsd mpr
(749–1258).
Prhps th mst tstndng ftr f bbsd
rchtctr ws th cty f Bghdd tslf . vr th
yrs ts rgnl pln hs bn bscrd, bt wrttn
dscrptns gv s frly dtld vw f wht th
cty my hv lkd lk. Bghdd w s fndd n
762 by th clph l- Mnsr (rgnd 754–775). t ws
blt n th shp f crcl t symblz th nvl f
th nvrs. Th tr rng f th cty ws md p
f shps nd hss wth stt wlls md fr dfns.
Ths crcl ws dvdd nt qdrnts by fr lng
strts cvrd w th brrl vlts. ch strt pnd
t th tsd w th mgnfcnt tw-stry gt nd
cmplx f vlts nd brdgs vr mts. n th
tp stry f ch grt gt ws dmd rcptn
hll w hr trvlrs cld b mt nd ntrvw d bfr
bng llw d t pss nt th cty. Ths gts
wr mr symblc thn mltry, hw vr, rflctng
th grt sns f scrty flt by th rly bbsds.
Th lrg cntrl r f th cty ws mstly mpty,
fcsng ttntn pn th msq nd plc t th
vry hrt f th crcl. Th msq ws jnd t th
plc nd lrg ngh t cntn ll th nhbtnts
f th cty.
Th Grt Msq t Smrr (nrth cntrl rq),
blt by l- Mtw kkl (rgnd 847–861) s th lrgst
knw n n th Mslm w rld. ts tstndng ftr s
th nsl sprl mnrt tsd ts w lls. scnd
Smrr msq s b Dlf, w hch rsmbls th
Grt Msq bt s nt qt s lrg.
Th Sh_t tmbs t Kf, Njf, nd Krbl r
rgnl strctrs bt thy hv gnrlly bn nccssbl
fr schlrly stdy. Th Grt Msq f
Msl, blt btw n 1120 nd 1122, s ntbl
strctr, s r th Cngrgtnl Msq f
Dnysr nd th Msq f Dyrbkr, ls blt n
th tw lfth cntrs.
bbsd rchtctr n rn
Th mgrtn f Trkc trbs frm th st nt
th slmc w rld hd n nrms nflnc pn rbn
scty. Th rchtctrl styls tht thy brght
wth thm vntlly mldd w th slmc dsgns s th
sldrs nd trbsppl bcm slmczd, ldng
t th cnstrctn f ntbl msqs nd tmbs dcrtd
wth rntly crvd stcc ppld t brck cnstrctns
nd lbrt brck strctrs n w hch th
dsgn s ntgrtd nt th strctr tslf. n f th
mst strkng f ths msqs ws t Nyn (st f
sfhn) nd dts t th tnth cntry. Smnd
tmb blt rnd 914 n Bkhr s nthr rmrkbl
strctr dtng frm ths prd; thr brck s
sd n mst lbrt wy, flf llng bth strctrl
nd rnmntl fnctns smltnsly. Th nflnc
f Trkc brck twrs nd stcc rnmnttn
n th mnrts f Dmghn nd Jm n rq, s w ll
s n lctns n Cntrl s, s rdly pprctd.
Th Grt Msq ( Msjd- Jmh) f sfhn s
n f th mst clbrtd f slmc mnmnts.
Blt by th fmd Sljk vzr Nzm l- Mlk
(1018–1092) btw n 1072 nd 1092, t s vst cmplx
f bldngs w th 476 vlts, mst f thm tppd
by dms, w hch hs bn ltrd nd ddd n t
mny tms thrgh th cntrs. t cntns lrg
rctnglr crtyrd, bt ls ftrs n mprtnt
nw dsgn lmnt: th wn. Th wn s vltd
r flt-rfd hll tht s pn t n nd. Ths msq
hs fr wns fcng th nnr crtyrd nd th ntr
cmpstn s frml nd lgnt. ch f th
wns frms pshtq, lfty rch w hch mrks mnmntl
ntrnc.
rchtctr n rn ftr th Mngl nvsns
Fllw ng th Mngl nvsns f 1253–1258, th
rchtctr f rn ws nrchd by vbrnt tls tht
wr sd t dcrt th xtrr srfcs f bldngs.
n f th rlst bldngs t srvv frm th
l-Khnd prd (1256–1355) n rn s th Tmb f
ljyt, n nr ms ctgn tppd by dm,
whch hd bn prt f n lrg ctdl cmplx hsng
mny strctrs, ncldng msq, mdrsh,
hspc, hsptl, nd gsths. t Ntnz n cntrl
rn, th shrn f _bd l-Smd (1307) hs mgnfcnt
brck dm tht mstrflly ss vltng md
p f ndvdl clls r smll nchs t brdg th trnstn
btw n dm nd pdstl, tchnq frst
sd n gypt nd Nrth frc n th tw lf th cntry.
Whn Tmr dstryd Dmscs n 1401, h dprtd
mny f th ngnrs nd rtsns f tht cty
t hs cptl, Smrqnd (n prsnt-dy zbkstn),
whr thy w ld wrk n Tmrd prjcts. Khrsn
ls bcm cntr fr rchtctrl nnvtn,
s vdncd by th rnvtn f th shrn f
mm Rz (1416–1418) t Mshhd. Th rchtct
Qvm l-Dn Shrz dvlpd nw knd f ntrr
vltng knw n s sqnch-nt vltng, w hch llw d
th w ght f th rf t b dstrbtd nt
ntrsctng pnts f th vlts thmslvs, llw ng
th prcng f th w lls by wndws t lt n lght.
Ths knd f vltng dspnsd w th th nd fr prs,
pnng th r ms p nd llw ng fr thr wys t
dvd ntrr spcs. Th Cmplx f Ghr Shd
n Mshhd (1417–1438) s gd xmpl f ths knd
f dsgn. Th clr nd tchncl prfcncy f th
sprb trqs bl tls tht dcrt th Bl
Msq f Tbrz (1465) n nrthwstrn rn hv
nvr bn srpssd. lthgh mny Tmrd bldngs
hv bn lst, thr nflnc pn th ltr slmc
rchtctr ws nrms. Th Sfvd,
ttmn, nd Mghl dynsts ll ncrprtd
Tmrd dls nt thr rt nd rchtctr.
slmc rchtctr n ntl (Trky)
Th frst ttmn cptl f Brs bsts sm f
th fnst rly xmpls f ttmn rchtctr. n
1339 rhn Gz (c. 1288–c. 1360), th scnd ttmn
mprr, blt plc n th ctdl, pblc
sp ktchn, bth, crvnsry (rstng plc fr
crvns), nd svrl msqs. Lk th Mmlks (w h
rld gypt nd Syr frm 1250 t 1517), ttmn
rlrs blt pblc w rks s bth srvc t thr sbjcts
nd s wy t lgtmz thr thrty.
thr Trkc prncplts n ntl blt ntbl
strctrs drng th frtnth cntry. mng
ths wr th Mntshds (rld sthwstrn ntl
frm th ghth cntry t 1421, w hn thy wr
cnqrd by th ttmns), w h blt th Msq
f Frz Bg t Mls n 1394 nd th Msq f lys
Bg n Blt n 1404. Ths bldngs r ntw rthy
fr thr lbrt nd fn stn crvngs. Th Qrmnds,
Trksh dynsty tht rld th r rnd
Kny nd Ngd frm 1262 t 1475, blt th k
Mdrsh t Ngd n 1409. Ths msq ws mdld
ftr Sljk hsptl blt n th frtnth cntry
n msy: t hd n pn crtyrd w th tw
wns flnkd by rms n tw strs. t ls hs btfl
msnry typcl f th Qrmnds.
n cntntn w th th Chrstn Byzntn mpr,
th ttmn sltns ls hd t dmnstrt th vtlty
nd sprrty f slm vr th dftd Chrstn
thrts. Ths dsr fnd xprssn n thr
rchtctr. Fllw ng th pln f n rly ttmn
bldng n znk ( Nc), thy crtd msqs w th
cntrl dm, dmd vstbl, nd fv-by
prch. Ths bldngs ls ftrd wns, nd th
strctr ws dsgnd t shltr th Mslm-w rrr
brthrhds rspnsbl fr th xpnsn f th
ttmn stt. Th ttmn rlr Byzd (c.
1360–1403) ls blt lrg cngrgtnl msq
n Brs’s cntrl cmmrcl dstrct n 1399–1400
wth bty frm n f hs vctrs vr th Hngrns.
Ths msq ftrd mltpl dmd bys,
chrctrstc tht ncrsngly bcm mrk f ttmn
styl.
n th fftnth cntry th nw ly rsrgnt ttmn
stt gn blt mprssv mnmnts. n
f th frst f ths, nd crtnly mng th mst mprtnt
ttmn bldngs, ws th Yshl Jm, r
Grn Msq, bgn by Mhmd (rgnd 1412–
1421) t Brs n 1412 nd c mpltd n 1424. Th
cmplx ncldd mdrsh, sp ktchn, bths, nd
tmbs. Ths msq ls ftrd th btfl tls
md n prcss knw n s crd sc, r dry crd.
Ths tchnq, rvvd by th ttmns bt dvlpd
rlr, llws fr th frng f nmrs glzs
n n tl, sprtd by thn ln f grsy mngns
tht, w hn frd, lvs mtt blck ln, gvng
th tl n ffct smlr t stnd glss.
Sltn Mhmd (1432–1481) w s knwn s th
Cnqrr fr hs cnqst f th Byzntn cptl
f Cnstntnpl (1453). n ddtn t hs mltry
sccsss, h s knw n fr hs ptrng f th rts
nd hs ntrst n lrnng frm Trksh, Prsn, nd
rpn schlrs, rtsts, nd wrtrs wh grly
cm t stnbl t ssst n hs mny bldng prjcts,
prhps th mst fms f w hch s th Tpkp
Plc. Ths nr ms cmplx vrlks tw
ss nd tw cntnnts. t tk vr dcd t cmplt
nd hs bn rprd nd rmdld mny
tms. ts rrngmnt pprs hphzrd, w th ksks,
pvlns, hlls, grdns, ktchns, nd stbls rrngd
n n prtclr wy, bt n fct th bldngs w r
plcd t tk dvntg f th vws nd th brzs.
Th nm f th plc, w hch mns "cnnn gt,"
nd th symblc lctn vrlkng th Drdnll
Strts rflct th scrty nd cnfdnc f wrld
pw r t th hght f ts mltry sccsss.
Tdy, th plc s trsr trv f grt wrks
f ll prds f slmc rt. Th btfl tl w rk
thr—spclly th fmd znk tls, w th thr dp
rd glz, brllnt w ht slp, nd glw ng trqs
hs tht hv nvr bn rprdcd—s stnnng.
n ths plc n cn pprct th nrmty f th
jbs ndrtkn by th sltn n prvdng fd fr hs
ntrg nd fr th cty f stnbl: th mssv
ktchns nd w rkrms n th plc cld prvd
fd fr thsnds t tm. Th plc hd brrcks
nd stbls fr lrg mltry cntngnt, mscl
bnds, nd thr ffcls rspnsbl fr th fnncl
rcrds nd th mssv rprts wrttn by plc brcrts
cncrnng thr fr-flng mpr. Wthn
n f th plc bldngs th sltn cld st nsn
bhnd w dn grt t hr th pttns f hs sbjcts.
Plc schls trnd th sltn’s srvnts n th
wys f th brcrcy, s wll s n crtly mnnrs,
th slmc scncs, hstry, ltrtr, nd rt. Ths
ws th dmnstrtv nd rtstc cntr f n f th
grtst mprs n hmn hstry.
nthr f Mhmd’s grt bldng prjcts ws
th Fth ( Cnqrr’s) Cmplx, rctd btw n
1463 nd 1471. t w s blt n ccrdnc wth th ttmn
mprl msqs n Brs, nd ws nflncd
by th Hg Sph Chrch. cntrl msq dmnts
th symmtrcl cmplx, w hch nlk th
Tpkp plc ds nt tk th lndscp r vws
nt ccnt t ll. Hr th fcs s pn th msq,
srrndd by mprl tmbs, prmry schl, lbrry,
mdrshs, bths, rsdncs, ltrns, hsptl,
hspc, sp ktchn, crvnsry, mltry
brrcks, cvrd mrkt, nd n pn-r mrkt
fr hrss, stbl wrkrs, nd qstrn trds.
t w s drng th rgn f Slymn th Mgnfcnt
(1494–1566) tht ttmn rchtctr rchd
ts pk. Th mst mprtnt f ll Sly mn’s mny
bldngs w s th Slymny Cmplx n stnbl,
blt frm 1550 t 1557 by th fms rchtct Snn
Psh (1489–1588). Th Sly mny Cmplx mltd
th Mhmd Fth Cmplx. t nclds grt
cngrgtnl msq, tw mslms, hsptl,
sx mdrshs, chldrn’s schl, bth, hsptl,
hspc, pblc ktchn, crvnsry, rws f
smll shps t prvd rntl ncm fr th cmplx,
nd smll zwy (wrrrs’ ldg). n th ndw mnt
dd, Sly mn spcfd tht ths cmplx w s
t bcm th cntr fr rlgs lw n th ttmn
mpr.
Th ntr cmplx sms t b mntn, ts
smmt n nr ms dm. Th nr ms ntrr
spc f th msq, nntrrptd by ny clmns
r prs, s trly w -nsprng sght. Th fr slm
mnrts, w th thr strng Trksh chrctr, r lgnt
cntrpnts t th mss f dms scndng
t th tpmst dm. Th cllgrphc dcrtns r
n f th mst rmrkbl ftrs f th msq.
Slymn s brd bhnd th msq n tmb tht
ws mdld ftr th Dm f th Rck.
rnn rchtctr n th Sxtnth nd
Svntnth Cntrs
n rn th Sfvd dynsty (1501–1722/36) rgnd
ts strngth ndr Shh bbs (1571–1629), w h stblshd
nw cptl n sfhn n th 1590s, nd n
th prcss dvlpd nw styl f rchtctr. Th
nw cptl n sfhn ftrd n nrms sqr
(mdn) fr sprts, prmnds, nd prcssns. Fr
mnmntl ntrncs fc th mdn, n ldng t
th bzr, n ldng t th Msq f Shykh
Lftllh, n ldng t th Msjd- Shh ( Msq
f th Shh), nd n ldng t th ryl plc.
mgnfcnt blvrd w s blt, lnd w th th fn
mnsns f Sfvd ntbls. n sctn f th blvrd
ws rsrvd fr nmls nd crts, whl th thr
ws rsrvd fr pdstrns. Srrndng th mdn,
nd hsd n th lgnt rchd fcds, wr th stlls
nd shps f sklld crftsmn nd mrchnts f vlbl
cmmdts. spcl crvnsry fr txtl
mrchnts, glds mths, jw lrs, nd ngrvrs ws
hsd cls t th ryl mnt. Th vrll pprnc
f th crmnl sqr srrndd by th hbbb f
th mr kt nchntd rpn vstrs t th ryl
cty. Ffty thsnd crmc lmps sspndd frm
lng w dn pls llmntd th sqr t nght.
Thr ws msc pvln w hr th ryl bnd w ld
ply drng th dy.
ch f th ndvdl bldngs n ths mssv cmplx
ws rchly rnmntd w th tls, crvd wdn
scrns, nd ll f th trdtnl lmnts f slmc
rchtctr: wns, mqrns (th nts sd t crt
th typclly slmc hnycmb r stlctt vltng),
vlts, dms, nd rchs. n sfhn ths lmnts
chv mrvls blnc, s tht th rch rnmnttn
crts n tmsphr f trnqlty nd rps.
Jdth Mndlshn Rd
Frthr Rdng
slnp, . (1971) Trksh rt nd rchtctr. Lndn:
Fbr & Fbr.
tl, sn. (1987) Th g f Slymn th Mgnfcnt. Wshngtn,
DC: Ntnl Gllry f rt.
Blr, Shl S., nd Jnthn M. Blm. (1995) Th rt nd
rchtctr f slm 1250–1800. Yl nvrsty Plcn
Hstry f rt Srs. Nw Hvn, CT: Yl nvrsty
Prss.
ttnghsn, Rchrd. (1972) Frm Byzntm t Ssnn
rn nd th slmc Wrld. Ldn, Nthrlnds: Brll.
ttnghsn, Rchrd, nd lg Grbr. (1989) Th rt nd
rchtctr f slm: 650–1250. Yl nvrsty Plcn
Hstry f rt Srs. Nw Hvn, CT: Yl nvrsty
Prss.
Glmbk, Ls, nd Dnld Wlbr. (1988) Th Tmrd
rchtctr f rn nd Trn. Prnctn, NJ: Prnctn
nvrsty Prss.
Gdw n, Gdfry. (1971) Hstry f ttmn rchtctr.
Lndn: Thms & Hdsn.
Grbr, lg. (1990) Th Grt Msq f sfhn. Nw Yrk:
Cmbrdg nvrsty Prss.
Hllnbrnd, Rchrd. (1994) Th rt f th Sljqs n rn
nd ntl. Cst Ms, C: Mzd.
———. (1994) slmc rchtctr. Nw Yrk: Clmb
nvrsty Prss.
Hg, Jhn D. (1977) slmc rchtctr. Nw Yrk: brms.
Krn, ptllh. (1968) Th Msq n rly ttmn rchtctr.
Chcg: nvrsty f Chcg Prss.
Mchll, Grg, d. (1978) rchtctr f th slmc Wrld.
Lndn: Thms & Hdsn.
Ncpgl, Glr. (1991) rchtctr, Crmnl, nd
Pwr: Th Tpkp Plc n th Fftnth nd Sxtnth
Cntrs. Cmbrdg, M: Hrvrd nvrsty Prss.
’Kn, Brnrd. (1987) Tmrd rchtctr n Khrsn.
Cst Ms, C: Mzd.
Rsn-yln, Myrm. (1996) "rt nd rchtctr n
Jrslm n th rly slmc Prd." n Th Hstry f
Jrslm: Th rly slmc Prd 638–1099, dtd by
Jsh Prw r nd Hgg Bn-Shmm. Nw Yrk:
Nw Yrk nvrsty Prss, 386–412.
RCHTCTR—JPN Jpn’s rchtctrl
chvmnts, bth sclr nd scrd, rflct th
frgn nd ntv nflncs tht shpd Jpns cltr
s w hl.
Th rly Prd
Th Jmn cltr (10,000–300 BC) ffrs th
frst vdnc f rchtctr n Jpn. rchlgcl
rmns tll f sqr pt-dwllngs, s nmd bcs
thr flr ws pprxmtly hlf mtr blw
RCHTCTR—JPN
grnd lvl. thtchd rf spprtd by psts nd
bms lnd nt th mddl f th strctr, wth
n pst t th vry cntr. Th mr dvncd Yy
cltr (300 BC–300 C) sw th dvnt f rc cltvtn,
nd nw bldngs wr dvlpd fr grn
strg. Cnstrctd f wdn brds wth
thtchd rf, th rctnglr grnry ws rsd ff
th grnd nd hd stppd plnk ldng nt t.
Ths styl f bldng w ld hv n nflnc n th
shrns f ltr prds.
mprtnt rly vdnc cncrnng rchtctr
n Jpn, hw vr, cms frm rthnw r fgrns
knw n s hnw (ltrlly, "cly cylndr") tht wr
plcd rnd tmb mnds n th Kfn prd
(300–710 C). Th hnw dpctd bldngs f dffrnt
typs, ncldng sngl-stry hms nd twstry
grnrs. Thy shw mn hm cnjnd by
smllr scndry strctrs wth hppd rfs cvrd
n thtch; sm hd rdg-crssng cylndrs,
lkly sd fr hldng th rftrs n plc. Whtvr
thr fnctn, ths strkng rchtctrl lmnts
ltr bcm mrk f bth mprl bldngs nd
Shnt shrns.
Tw xmpls f rly Shnt rchtctr my b
fnd t th s nd zm shrns, whch dt t th
thrd nd frth cntrs. Thr smpl styl nd lvtd
flr rcll th Yy grnrs. Th dstnctv
ftrs r th xtnsns f th trmst rftrs
(chg) tht xtnd p lk hrns frmng lrg V, nd
th rw f wght-blcks (ktsg) st lng th rdg
t rght ngls t t.
Bddhst nflnc
Th rrvl f Bddhsm n th sxth cntry hd
trmnds nflnc n Jpns rchtctr, prtclrly
th bldng f tmpl c mplxs. Bsd n
Chns mdls, rly tmpls cnsstd f n ntrnc
gt (chmn) tht ws prt f rfd nclsr ncrclng
th mn prcnct, th pgd, nd th gldn
hll (knd), s n th Hryj tmpl nr Nr,
Jpn’s rlst srvvng tmpl, w hch dts frm th
lt svnth cntry. Th bldngs n Hryj r th
RCHTCTR—JPN
TH VRTY F JPNS RCHTCTR
Ths lt nntnth cntry dscrptn f Jpns hms mks clr th cnsdrbl
dvrsty tht xstd t th tm w hl ls ntng tht th ntrnd
Wstrnr mght sly mss th dvrsty.
Whtvr my b sd rgrdng th rchtctr f Jpn, th frgnr,
t lst, fnds t dffclt t rcgnz ny dstnct dffrncs
mng th hss, r t dstngsh ny rdcl dffrncs
n th vrs typs f dw llngs h ss n hs trvls thrght
th cntry. t my b pssbl tht ths xst, fr n sn gts
t rcgnz th dffrncs btw n th ncnt nd mdrn
hs. Thr r ls mrkd dffrncs btwn th cmpct
hs f th mrchnt n th cty nd th cntry hs; bt s
fr spcl typs f rchtctr tht w ld prlll th dffrnt
styls fnd n r cntry, thr r nn. vrywhr n ntcs
mnr dtls f fnsh nd rnmnt w hch h ss mr flly
dvlpd n th tmpl rchtctr, nd w hch s vdntly drvd
frm ths src; nd f t cn b shwn, s t nqstnbly
cn, tht ths ftrs wr brght nt th cntry by th
prsts wh brght n f th tw grt rlgns, thn w cn
trc mny ftrs f rchtctrl dtl t thr hm, nd t
th vns thrgh w hch thy cm.
Src: dwrd S. Mrs. ([1896] 1961) Jpns Hms nd
Thr Srrndngs; Nw Yrk: Dvr, 47.
9
wrld’s ldst wdn strctrs. Th knd, fllw ng
Chns prcdnts, s st n pltfrm nd tlzs
pst-nd-lntl cnstrctn whrby th rf s
spprtd by systm f brckts. Th md-ghthcntry
Tdj c mplx, ls t Nr, rflcts th
grnd styl f Chns Bddhst rchtctr f th
Tng dynsty (618–907 C). Th mgnfcnt Dbtsdn
(Grt Bddh Hll) s pprxmtly 47 mtrs
hgh, 87 mtrs lng, nd 47 mtrs dp, mkng
t th w rld’s lrgst wdn bldng. Th grnd styl
f th Nr prd (710–794), hw vr, s bst sn t
Tshdj. Th bldng s lw nd lng, mprtng
flng f stblty; th hppd rf wth ts xtndd
vs s spprtd by thr-trd st f wdn
brckts.
Wth th mprttn f strc Bddhsm frm
Chn n th Hn prd (794–1185), tmpls w r
lctd n mntns rs wy frm th mn cntrs
f Nr nd Kyt. Th tmpl cmplx f
Mrj, f th lt ghth r rly nnth cntrs, xmplfs
ths mntn-tmpl rchtctrl styl.
Th bldngs r scld dw n nd st nt th trrn,
nd thy mk s f rstc mtrls sch s cyprss-
brk fr rfng (n cntrst t th tld rfs f
th rlr tmpl bldngs). Ths nflnc s ls
sn n shndn zkr, th Hn-prd sclr mnsn
fvrd by crt nbls, cnsstng f cmplx
f bldngs w thn n xpnsv grdn. Th mn
hll, shndn, w s th mstr’s rsdnc nd ws srrndd
n thr sds by scndry lvng qrtrs.
Th grdn ws lctd t th sth nd cntnd
lrg rtfcl pnd. Cvrd vrndh crrdrs cnnctd
th bldngs t th grdn, mphszng th
mprtnc f ths ntrl sttng.
Th Kmkr prd (1185–1333) s knw n fr
bth ld nd nw rchtctrl styls. Th rbldng
f th Dbtsdn f th Tdj, w hch ws dstryd
by fr n 1180, w s mjr prjct n th rly
yrs. Ts wth Chn t ths tm r vdnt n th
styl knw n s dbtsy (Grt Bddh styl), n
whch brckts prjct t rght ngls frm th w ll n
sx ncrsng lvls, wth tw mr lvls t spprt
th rf. Th thr mn rchtctrl styl drng ths
prd, ls mprtd frm Chn, w s tht f th Zn
tmpl, w hch fllw d cnvntns f strct symmtry
n cntrl xs. Ths rchtctrl styl ws knwn
s kry (Chns styl). By cntrst, th ldr styls
cm t b knw n s wy (Jpns styl). Kry sd
dcrtv dtls sch s bll-shpd wndws,
wdn lttcwrk n trnsm w ndws, nd cmplctd
pttrns f brckts. Th spprt clmns tprd
t th tp nd wr st pn stn bss.
Mmym nd Tkgw Prds
Th nxt mjr rchtctrl nnvtn ccrrd n
th Mmy m prd (1573–1600) nd ws nflncd
by th ntrsts f th smr clss. n typ
f bldng t dvlp w s dstnctly Jpns frm
f cstl. Cnstrctd n th frst hlf f th sxtnth
cntry, th Jpns cstl rchd th hght f ts
frm n th rly svntnth cntry. Dsgnd s
plc t lv, cndct bsnss, nd njy cltrl ctvts,
t w s tstmny t th sprr stts f ts
ccpnts. Th mst btfl cstl n Jpn s Hmj,
ls knw n s th Wht Hrn Cstl (1601–1609).
Bcs Hmj ws ddd t by srs f sccssv
wnrs, th cmplx cnssts f nmbr f ntrlckng
bldngs plcd n mzlk rrngmnt.
Ths ncld th fv-stry mn bldng, svrl
thr-stry strctrs, nd w tchtwrs. Th w ht
bldngs nd hp-gbld rfs wth Chns-styl p-
RCHTCTR—JPN
Jpns mn n hs grdn. (HRC BRSTL/CRBS)
HMJ—WRLD
HRTG ST
prstn sxtnth-cntry Jpns cstl,
Hmj’s lbyrnthn ghty-thr bldngs nd
dfns rchtctr stll vk Jpn’s clssc
Shgn fdl prd. Hmj-j w s dsgntd
by NSC s Wrld Hrtg St n 1993.
9
trnd vs gv th mprssn f lrg nd grcfl
wht hrn. Th thr nnvtn f ths prd
ws th shn zkr, grnd rsdnc chrctrzd
by ts symmtry nd s f sldng drs (fsm) nd
fldng scrns (byb) t dlnt ntrr spc. Th
mn r m cnsstd f tw lvls, th ppr lvl rsrvd
fr th hghst-rnkng smr. ttchd t ths
rm ws stdy (shn) nd nmbr f thr rms,
dpndng n th nds f th w nr.
Drng th d r Tkgw prd (1600/1603–
1868), th nw shgnt rfrbshd nd rblt ldr
strctrs nd rctd nw ns. mng th typs f
bldngs cnstrctd t ths tm w s th Cnfcn
tmpl, th nd fr w hch ws ndrscrd by th
grw ng mphss f Tkgw shgnt plcy n
th stdy nd prctc f Cnfcnsm by th smr
clss. Hwvr, th nxt mjr nnvtn n rchtctr
ccrrd n th Mj prd (1868–1912),
whn Jpn bgn t dpt Wstrn rchtctrl
styls. rchtcts frm brd ntrdcd nw mtrls
nd tchnqs t th Jpns. Th mst nflntl
rchtct n shpng Jpn’s vsn f Wstrn
bldngs w s Jsh Cndr (1852–1920), n nglshmn
rspnsbl fr sch strctrs s th n
mprl Ms m nd th Rkmkn ( Dr Cry
Pvln), nthr f w hch s xtnt. Cndr’s chf
lgcy my b fnd n th w rk f hs stdnts, wh
cntnd Cndr’s vsn nt th rly tw ntth
cntry.
Cthrn Pgn
S ls: rchtctr—Mdrn Jpn
Frthr Rdng
lx, Wllm. (1963) Jpns rchtctr. Nw Yrk:
Grg Brzllr.
Hshmt Fm. (1981) rchtctr n th Shn Styl.
Trns. nd dptd by H. Mck Hrtn. Nw Yrk: Kdnsh.
Krby, Jhn B. (1962) Frm Cstl t Ths. Rtlnd, VT:
Chrls . Tttl.
Pn, Rbrt Trt, nd lxndr Spr. (1981) Th rt
nd rchtctr f Jpn. 3d d. Nw Hvn, CT nd
Lndn: Yl nvrsty Prss.
Wtnb Ystd. (1974) Shnt rt: s nd zm Shrns.
Trns. by Rbrt Rcktts. Nw Yrk: Wthrhll.
RCHTCTR—KR rly frms f
cnstrctn n Kr, n th frm f shltrs md f
nml hds strng frm psts nd cvrd by
brnchs, g bck t th ppr Pllthc prd
(40,000–10,000 BC). lthgh ths cnstrctns
vlvd n shp nd mtrls drng th Nlthc
prd (6000–1000 BC), t ws nt ntl th Brnz
g (1000–300 BC), w hn nhbtnts f th Krn
Pnnsl strtd t bcm sdntry, tht sgnfcnt
sgns f rchtctr pprd. Th strctrd scty
f tht tm, w th ts dmnnt nd dmntd clsss,
gv brth t dffrnt typs f hss nd ls t thr
cnstrctns lk dlmn (w hch ndd sgnfcnt
mnt f lbr) r rmprts t prtct hmn sttlmnts.
rly Srcs f Chrctrstcs
prt frm th fw rchlgcl trcs f ths rmt
prds, ncldng rmns f ncnt Kr (ls
knw n s "ld Chsn," r K Chsn), th trdtnl
Krn rchtctr tht cn b sn tdy dts
mstly frm th svntnth nd ghtnth cntrs.
Thr r tw rsns fr ths: th frglty f th
bldng mtrl, w d, w hch nds frqnt
rstrtn nd rcnstrctn bcs f ntrl ltrtns
s w ll s ccdntl ns lk frs; nd th
rcrrnt nd dvsttng nvsns, frst by th Mngls,
thn by th Jpns, nd lst by th Mnch
(th lst nt ndng ntl 1636).
Dspt ths nvsns nd mr bngnly ntrdcd
nflncs (spclly frm Chn), Krn rchtctr
hs ts wn chrctrstcs. Tmpls, cvl
bldngs lk cdms, nd vn plcs r f smll
scl nd sbr n styl cmprd w th ths f Kr’s
nghbrs. Wth th flrshng f Bddhsm n
th Krn Pnnsl, spclly drng th nfd
RCHTCTR—KR
Bddhst pgd n Ksng, Nrth Kr, dtng bck t
th tw lfth cntry. (WRNR FRMN/CRBS)
Shll prd (668–935 C), rchtctr f grt qlty
pprd, w th rlgs cnstrctns sch s th
Skkr m grtt r th Plgk tmpl n th Kyngj
r. Th frst f ths, th nly xstng Bddhst
grtt n Kr, s rtfclly cnstrctd f grnt
blcks nd cvrd wth n rthn mnd, s s t
lk lk ntrl lmnt n ts nvrnmnt. stt
f Bddh stnds n th mddl f th crclr mn
hll, w hs crvd w lls rprdc th fgrs f bdhsttvs
nd grdn dts. Th Plgk tmpl s
fms fr ts lgnt stn strwys ldng t th
trrc whr th tmpl stnds, s w ll s fr ts tw
stn pgds symblzng Bddhs m’s cntmpltn
f nd dtchmnt frm th wrld.
Ltr, w hn Cnfcnsm bcm Kr’s ffcl
dctrn (ndr th Chsn dynsty, 1392–1910 C),
th cnstrctn f tmpls dclnd w hl th cnstrctn
f Cnfcn shrns nd cdmc bldngs
ntbly ncrsd. Th rchtctr f ths prd xprssd
th prncpls f Cnfcnsm, w th ts rgr,
symmtry, nd hrrchy, w ll dmnstrtd n th
Chngmy Plc n Sl. Gmncy (bldng
strctrs n ccrdnc wth csmlgcl prncpls),
whch bcm pplr n Kr thrgh th mnk
Tsn (rly tnth cntry C), ld t snd ntgrtn
f cnstrctns nd lndscp, s th rltnshp
f th bldng t th st w s gdd by th
d f csmlgcl blnc. Lst bt nt lst, th
hypcst, r flr htng systm (ndl), fnd n
hsng s nq n s nd gs bck t th rn
g (200 BC–200 C), w th prttyps dvlpd
cpl f cntrs rlr.
Cnstrctn Tchnqs
Fr m tchncl pnt f vw, bldngs r strctrd
vrtclly nd hrzntlly. cnstrctn slly
rss frm stn sbfndtn t crvd rf
cvrd wth tls, hld by cnsl strctr nd spprtd
n psts; w lls r md f rth (db) r r
smtms ttlly c mpsd f mvbl w dn
drs. rchtctr s blt ccrdng t th k’n nt,
th dstnc btw n tw psts (bt 3.7 mtrs), nd
s dsgnd s tht thr s lw ys trnstnl spc
btw n th "nsd" nd th "tsd."
Th cnsl, r brckt strctr, s spcfc rchtctnc
lmnt tht hs bn dsgnd n vrs
wys thrgh tm. f th smpl brckt systm ws
lrdy n s ndr th Kgry kngdm (37 BC–
668 C)—n plcs n P’yngyng, fr nstnc—
crvd vrsn, wth brckts plcd nly n th clmn
hds f th bldng, w s lbrtd drng th
rly Kry dynsty (918–1392). Th mt Hll f
th Psk tmpl n ntng s gd x mpl. Ltr
n (frm th md-Kry prd t th rly Chsn
dynsty), mltpl-brckt systm, r n ntrclmnr-
brckt st systm, w s dvlpd ndr th
nflnc f Chn’s Yn dynsty (1279–1368). n ths
systm, th cnsls wr ls plcd n th trnsvrs
hrzntl bms. Sl’s Nmtmn Gt—Kr’s
frmst ntnl trsr—s prhps th mst symblc
xmpl f ths typ f strctr.
n th md-Chsn prd, th w nglk brckt
frm pprd (n xmpl s th Yngnyngjn Hll
f Chngmy, Sl), w hch, ccrdng t sm thrs,
bttr std th pnnsl’s pr cnmc sttn
tht rsltd frm rpttv nvsns. nly n
bldngs f mprtnc lk plcs r smtms
tmpls (Tngts, fr nstnc) wr th mltclstr
brckts stll sd. Cnfcnsm ls ld t mr
sbr nd smpl sltns.
Tmpl Styls
Dffrnt styls f tmpls ls rs n ch prd
r cltr. Drng th Thr Kngdm prd
(Kgry, Pkch, nd Shll; 57 BC–668 C), th
"n-pgd" styl prvld, n w hch nly n
pgd w s rctd n tmpl’s hll. Smtms,
hw vr, vrtns ccrrd: th Kgry kngdm
s fms fr ts "thr-hll, n-pgd" styl (tht
s, n pgd stndng n th cntrl hll). mng th
tmpls f th Pkch prd (18 BC–663 C),
Mrks s w ll knw n fr ts rrngmnt f thr
pgds, ch n frnt f n hll, lng n st-w st
xs, gvng th mprssn f thr sprt tmpls.
Drng th nfd Shll prd, th "tw -pgds"
styl ws fvrd, w hl drng th Kry prd, bth
th n- nd tw -pgd styls lmst dspprd s
spcfc shrns wr ddd t tmpls.
thr Cnstrctn
Kr ls hs rch rchtctrl hrtg f
tmbs nd tw n-wll cnstrctn. Th brck tmb f
Kng Mryng (501–523 C) s rmrkbl fr ts
vltd clng nd rch cnstrctn. Th mst fms
tw n w lls r ths f Sl nd Sw n. Th cptl’s
stn w ll, cnstrctd n 1396 nd rblt n 1422,
ws sxtn klmtrs lng (nly trcs rmn tdy)
nd hd ght gts (ncldng Nmtmn, th Sth
Gt); Sw n’s twn wll, cmpltd n 1796, w s
mdl f cnstrctn mthds n s t tht tm, s
t bnftd frm Wstrn nflnc nd tchnqs.
Mdrn rchtctr
Mdrn rchtctr n Kr hs bn rld by th
pltcl cntxt ntl vry rcntly. Drng Kr’s
RCHTCTR—KR
clnztn (1910–1945), th Jpns ntrdcd
Wstrn-styl rchtctr (mnly md f stn,
brcks, nd cncrt). ftr th Krn Wr (1950–
1953), Nrth Krn rchtctr fllw d mnmntl
Stlnst styl, w hrs Sth Krn rchtctr
hs bn nflncd by th s-clld (Wstrn)
ntrntnl styl. Nvrthlss, fllw ng th xmpls
f nnvtv lcl rchtcts sch s Km Sgn
(1931–1986), w h ws stdnt f th Jpns rchtct
Knz Tng, nd Km Chng-p (1922–
1988), dscpl f th mdrnst Sw ss rchtct L
Crbsr, tdy’s yng Sth Krn rchtcts r
dvlpng lngg f thr w n, wr f wrldw d
thrtcl nd sthtc rchtctrl dbts,
nd r ttmptng t cnstrct mr spcfclly Krn
cntmprry rchtctr.
Mr-Hélèn Fbr-Fstn
Frthr Rdng
Clémnt, Sph, Prr Clmnt, nd Yng-hk Shn.
(1987) rchtctr d pysg n xtrêm-rnt. Prs:
Écl ntnl spérr ds Bx-rts.
ckrt, Crtr, K-bk L, Yng ck L, Mchl Rbnsn,
nd dw rd W. Wgnr. (1990) Kr ld nd Nw:
Hstry. Sl: lchkk.
Fbr, ndré. (2000) Hstr d l Cré. Prs: L’sthèq.
Mcn, Frncs. (1998) Pvllns t mnstèrs d l Cré
ncnn. Prs: Fndkly.
Pr k, T-sn. (1991) Ch’g (Th Ch’g, Strw-Rfd
Krn Cttgs). Sl: Yl Hw Dng.
RCHTCTR—MDRN JPN n
th md-nntnth cntry, th prfssn f rchtctr
ws ntrdcd t Jpn frm brd, nd th
frst rchtcts wr trnd t s Wstrn hstrcl
styls n thr wrk. t th bgnnng f th tw ntth
cntry, hwvr, th rchtct nd rchtctrl hstrn
t Cht (1867–1954) ndrtk t dvlp
mdrn lcl rchtctr, dfnng sn trdtns
stylstclly nd thrgh prprtn. t rmnd td
t hstrcl clctcsm. H mvd c mfrtbly btw n
qs-Jpns frms, llstrtd by hs rthqk
Mmrl Hll (1930), nd rpn styls,
xmplfd by hs n-Rnssnc Knmts Lctr
Hll t Httsbsh nvrsty (1927). Hwvr,
hs grtst mpct ws n ncrgng th rchtcts
wh fllw d hm t drw n Jpn’s trdtns; th
mst sccssfl nvrbly blndd ths w th Wstrn
bstrctn nd tchnlgy.
mrgng Jpns pprchs t rchtctr
t w s prtclrly n th 1920s nd th rly hlf
f th 1930s tht Jpn’s rchtcts strggld t bld
lcl rchtctr whl ls nggng n dscrs
wth thr prs brd. Fr sm, th sltn ws t
mrry hvy rf, nsprd by Jpns tmpls, t
bldngs tht wr ssntlly cntmprry n thr
strctr nd bldng mtrls. Ths "mprl Rf
Styl" prsstd ntl th nd f Wrld Wr . By
cntrst, Jpn’s frst ntllctl mv mnt, th 1920s
Bnr-h (Scssnst Schl), dvctd n rchtctr
bsd n prsnl xprssn, lnkd mr t th
fn rts thn t hstry.
s rchtcts ttmptd t dvlp mr nncd
fsns f Jpns nd Wstrn rchtctrl prctcs,
mny trnd t th sky styl, ssctd wth
Jpns thss, mphszng rch mtrls w thn
smpl, strctrd rgnztn. Thss ls drw
n th rstc bty f Jpn’s vrnclr rchtctr,
ntly cncdng w th th rts nd Crfts nflncs
n rpn mdrn mv mnts. Th r mrkbl
prms f ths prd, hwvr, ws ct shrt by srs
f hstrcl vnts. By 1927, Jpn ws n rcssn
tht w s fllw d by th Grt Dprssn.
Sbsqntly, Jpn nttd w r wth Chn tht
ld t Wrld Wr ; cnstrctn mtrls, spclly
stl, w r dvrtd fr mltry s. Stm Hrgch
(1895–1984), rgbly n f th mst sklld dsgnrs
f th prwr prd, cmpltd nly ghtn
bldngs btw n 1920 nd 1945, nd mst f ths
wr hss. Jnz Skkr (1901–1969) dsgnd
th Jpn Pvln fr th 1937 Prs xpstn. t rcvd
ntrntnl cclm, bt Skkr hd fw
thr pprtnts t bld drng th wr.
Th prd frm 1937 t 1947 sw lttl cnstrctn.
Th prfssn f rchtctr srvvd thrgh
th pblctn f cmpttns nd th cnstrctn
f nstttnl bldngs n Jpn’s clns. Thr
RCHTCTR—MDRN JPN
Hss n Sth Kr’s Chj-d slnd n 1986 shw ng
th dstnctv hs shp nd rf styl. (MCHL S.
YMSHT/CRBS)
ws dvsn btwn thry nd bldng; vrtlly
nn f th cmpttns ld t cnstrctn nd lttl
f th clnl w rk dmndd sphstctn.
Cnsqntly, fw rchtcts wr bl t nrtr
thr blty t xct wrk tht ws bth ntllctlly
rfnd nd w ll crftd. Kn Mkw (1905–
1986) w s n xcptn.
Th rptr csd by cnmc dprssn nd th
ltr cllps f cnstrctn dstryd th crrs f
mny pr msng rchtcts. Mst hd dffclty rvv-
RCHTCTR—MDRN JPN
JPNS NFLNCS N TH WST
9
Th Ms m f Mdrn rt ( MM) n Nw
Yrk Cty s n nlkly sttng fr hs dsgnd
n th styl f sxtnth-cntry Jpns
vll, bt n 1954 nd 1955, jst sch hs ws
xhbtd n th MM crtyrd.
Jpn’s nflnc n ndvdl rchtcts s ftn
cntrvrsl, bt mst schlrs gr tht
sm ffct cn b sn n th wrk f dsgnrs
s dvrs s Chrls Rn Mckntsh (1868–
1928) nd Mrgrt Mc Dnld (1865–1933), th
strn émgré Rdlph Schndlr (1887–1953),
nd th Clfrn rsdntl dsgnrs Chrls
Grn (1868–1957) nd Hnry Grn (1870–
1954). Prtclrly mprtnt, thgh, s th mpct
f Jpn n Frnk Llyd Wrght nd ts xplttn
by Mdrnsts.
Frnk Llyd Wrght (1867–1959) mnmzd
th ffct f Jpns rchtctr n hs wrk, n
fvr f hs nthssm fr Jpns w dblck
prnts. Hs xpsr t bth cm qt rly, w th
th Hdn nd smllr Jpns "ths" t
th 1893 Wrld’s Clmbn xpstn n Chcg.
Hstrns rlt Jpns rchtctr t
Wrght’s hvy rfs, pn plnnng, sptl hrzntlty,
nd vn th clrs sd n hs "Prr
Schl" rchtctr. ltmtly, hs pssn fr
wdblck prnts nd ltr pprtnts fr wrk
rsltd n Wrght mkng fr trps t Jpn. Drng
hs lst, lngst trp, h dsgnd th mprl
Htl n Tky (1922) nd svrl mnr bldngs.
Wrght md n ffrt t nflnc th drctn
f Jpns rchtctr. By cntrst, Brn
Tt (1880–1938) sgnfcntly ffctd w hch
bldngs Jpns nd Wstrn rchtcts cnsdrd
mprtnt w hl n Jpn n th 1903s.
Tt rjctd th pplrty f Nkk’s Tshg
(1636) n fvr f th ndrsttd chrctr f
Ktsr Rky (1625), n nknw n vll n Kyt,
nd pblshd hs cnvctns n nglsh, Grmn,
nd Jpns.
t s nt srprsng tht Tt fvrd Ktsr’s
rstrnt. Th Grmn Mdrnsts prmtd
stndrdztn nd mdlrty, smplcty, nd
th rtcltn f clr strctrl frm; thr
wr mrkd smlrts btw n thr wrk nd
Jpn’s shn-nsprd rsdncs. Hw vr, thr
sms t hv bn n ttmpt t pr mt ths
cnnctns ntl Wltr Grps (1883–1969),
frmr drctr f th Grmn Bhs, mgrtd
t th ntd Stts.
mrcns rsstd th rdty f Mdrnsm,
nd ntllctls cntrd by drw ng ttntn
t Mdrns m’s rsmblnc t Jpn’s trdtnl
hms. Grps md hghly pblczd trp t
Jpn n 1954. Wrtng bt tht trp n Ktsr:
Trdtn nd Crtn n Jpns rchtctr (
clbrtd nglsh-lngg bk n Ktsr
pblshd n 1960), Grps ntd, " hd fnd
. . . tht th ld hndmd Jpns hs hd ll
th ssntl ftrs rqrd tdy fr mdrn,
prfbrctd hs." (Ths ws hrdly dscvry,
s Grps’s frst cntct wth Jpns
rchtcts ccrrd vr thrty yrs rlr.)
t w s t ths tm tht th Jpns hs w s
blt n MM’s crtyrd. MM’s crtr
rthr Drxlr (1925–1986) ls pblshd bk
n Jpn’s rchtctr, rgng tht th ndrnc
f rsdntl styls cnfrmd th tmlssnss
f Mdrnst rchtctr. rnclly, jst
s th Wst st bt dlzng trdtnl Jpns
hss, th Jpns ppl w r mr nd
mr lkly t mv nt cntmprry cncrt
prtmnt bldngs, cntrdctng th smlrts
prmtd by Wstrn thrsts.
Dn Bntrck
ng thr prctcs ftr th wr. vn sm f th ntbl
lndmrks f th mmdt pstw r prd, sch
s Skkr’s Msm f Mdrn rt (1952) r ntnn
Ry mnd’s (1888–1976) Rdr’s Dgst Bldng
(1951), w r sltd nmls. nly Mkw
prdcd wrk pprctd fr bth ts thrtcl nd
cmmrcl strngths. H rcvd cclds rnd
th w rld fr hs Hrm prtmnts (1959) nd th
sptlly cmplx Tky Mtrpltn Fstvl Hll
(1961). Th Jpn ndstrl Bnk f Tky (1974)
dmnstrts Mkw ’s cntnd prwss.
rchtcts n Pstwr Jpn
Fw rchtcts wr trnd drng Wrld Wr .
nt th brch stppd Knz Tng (b. 1913). Hs
cmpllng dsgn fr th Hrshm Pc Mmr l
Pr k ws cmpltd n 1955, nd h sbsqntly
wnt n t prdc vrtlly ll f th mjr w rks
symblzng Jpn’s ntrntnl hps (th ly mpc
Stdm cmplx f 1964), tchncl ptms m (th
1960 pln fr 10 mlln ppl t b hsd vr
Tky By), nd crtcl pltcl shft t lcl gvrnnc
(fr xmpl, th Kgw Prfctrl ffcs
f 1958). Tng ls rspndd t th nflnc f
pr-wr thrsts by dvlpng mdrn rchtctr
tht drw n spcfc Jpns cns, spclly s
Shrn nd Ktsr mpr l Vll.
Mny f th ldng rchtcts f th nxt gnrtn
wr Tng’s stdnts, ncldng Fmhk Mk
(b. 1928), Kynr Kktk (b. 1928), rt szk
(b. 1931), nd Ksh Krkw (b. 1934). Thy pblshd
mnfst n 1960 cllng fr n ntrly nw
mv mnt t rs frm th shs f th wr. schwng
trdtn, th "Mtblsts," s thy wr knw n,
prpsd n rchtctr tht clbrtd th ntn’s
nw tchnlgcl prwss. n f th bst-knw n
wrks f ths prd ws th Nkgn Cpsl Htl
(1972) by Krkw ; wth nsl prcsn, tny
slpng nts md frm shppng cntnrs wr ttchd
t th sd f cncrt cr hldng vrtcl
trnsprttn nd bldng srvcs. Glmr rprsnttns,
sch s szk’s drwng nttld "Dstrctn
f th Ftr Cty" (1968), prsgd th
cllps f Mtbls m fllw ng th crtcl flr f
th sk xpstn (1970).
szk nd Krkw hv std s wthrvns
f sbsqnt rchtctrl trnds. s Krkw
mvd t th s mpl grphc styl f hs Rky prd,
nmd fr th sxtnth-cntry t mstr Sn n
Rky, szk dptd pp bstrctn nd th
cngrphy f Mrlyn Mnr. Ths rchtcts,
dstrctd by thr ttmpts t dvlp chrnt thrtcl
cnstrcts, r bttr knwn fr shpng th
prctc f rchtctr thn thy r fr thr bdy f
wrk. Hw vr, szk prdcd th Gmm Prfctrl
rt Ms m (1974), w hch rnks mng th
fnst bldngs f th prd. By cntrst, thr cllg
Fmhk Mk cncntrtd n cnstrctn.
Hs bst w rks, sch s th Hllsd Trrc cmplx
(1969–1992) nd th Spr l Bldng (1985), dmnstrt
n ntrst n rbn frm, sptl xprnc, nd
mtrls, lthgh h hs smtms bn dsmssd
s t dcrtv n hs pprch.
lthgh rchtcts n th 1950s nd 1960s w r xpctd
t prfrm ntrntnlly, tw ldng dsgnrs,
Kynr Kktk (b. 1928) nd Kz Shnhr
(b. 1925), dvctd mr ndvdl pprch. Thr
nflnc bcm clr s th rchtcts thy dctd
nd trnd mrgd, ncldng Ty t (b. 1941) nd
tsk Hsgw (b. 1941). Th rchtct nd crtc
Hjm Ytsk (b. 1948) hs rfrrd t ths grp s
th Sprfcl Gnrtn; thr rly wrk, mstly
rsdntl, xplrd dtchd rchtctrl lngg
RCHTCTR—MDRN JPN
Tky Cty Hll n th Shnjk Dstrct. t w s dsgnd by
Knz Tng nd s th tllst bldng n th cty. (MCHL
S. YMSHT/CRBS)
nrltd t trnds t hm r brd nd ntndd t
b drvd frm prsnl cncts rthr thn prfssnl
cncrns. s ths rchtcts mtrd, hw vr,
thy strggld t fnd mr pblc rl fr thr bldngs.
Hsgw ’s Shnnd Cltr Cntr (1991) nd
Hr’s Ymt Bldng (1987) bth dd s thrgh xplct
rfrncs t vllg lf nd ntr.
s fl t th prsnl dspstn f mst rchtcts
f hs gnrtn, th pgncs Td nd
(b. 1941) dvlpd n str mnmlst styl tlzng
n ncmpr msng cncrt cnstrctn. Lss
wll rcgnzd s th wy nd dfnd crflly
mdltd sptl prgrssns nd shfts frm hmn
t mnmntl scl. Hs w rk ws rcgnzd
ntrntnlly t n rly stg, nd lng w th Mk,
nd s n f th fw Jpns rchtcts t hv rcvd
th prstgs Prtzkr Prz, th qvlnt f
Nbl Prz fr rchtctr.
n th 1990s, s Jpn’s cnmy gn ntrd
prlngd rcssn, rchtcts rtrnd t dgnfd
mdrns m. Ysh Tngch (b. 1937, Yshr
Tngch’s sn) nd Rkn Ymmt (b. 1945) hv
srpssd thr mr flmbynt chrts n ths sttng.
Tngch’s crsp xcttd s bst sn n hs
Ks Rnk Prk Vstr’s Cntr (1996) nd n th
Gllry f Hryj Trsrs (1999). Ymmt c m
nt hs w n wth hs Stm nvrsty cmps
(1999). Yngr rchtcts wrkng n smlr vn
ncld th prtnrshp Kzy Sjm (b. 1956) nd
Ry Nshzw (b. 1966), nd Kng Km (b. 1954).
Whl clrly dsgnng n n ntrntnl styl, thr
ttntn t dtl, snstvty t th s f lght nd
trnslcnt mtrls, nd vrlppng sptl zns rmn
rtd n rlr ffrts t drw pn Jpns
trdtns s w ll.
Dn Bntrck
S ls: rchtctr—Jpn
Frthr Rdng
Bgnr, Btnd. (1985) Cntmprry Jpns rchtctr:
ts Dvlpmnt nd Chllng. Nw Yrk: Vn Nstrnd
Rnhld.
Kltr mnn, d. (1960). Nw Jpns rchtctr. Nw
Yrk: Prgr.
Rynlds, Jnthn. (2001) Mkw Kn nd th mrgnc
f Jpns Mdrnst rchtctr. Brkly nd
Ls ngls: nvrsty f Clfrn Prss.
Stw rt, Dvd B. (1987) Th Mkng f Mdrn Jpns
rchtctr: 1868 t th Prsnt. Tky nd Nw Yrk:
Kdnsh.
Szk Hryk, t l. (1985) Cntmprry rchtctr n
Jpn, 1958–1984. Nw Yrk: Rzzl.
Tmpl, gn. (1969) Nw Jpns rchtctr. Nw Yrk
nd Wshngtn, DC: Prgr.
RCHTCTR—STHST S
By ntr th rchtctr f Sthst s s lw ys
hybrd nd clctc, s pn s ts ggrphcl cntxt,
nd s rcptv s ts ppl’s wy f lf. Lctd
t th crssrds f wrld trdng rts,
Sthst s hs bn vry pn twrd vrs nflncs
frm tsd: ndn, rb, Chns, rpn,
Jpns, nd frm th rst f th wrld. ll f
ths nflncs wr bsrbd nd dptd nt lcl
cltr, thn xprssd n nq rchtctrl
frms nd styls. Dvrsty, clctcsm, fsn, ccltrtn,
nd dpttn cn prhps dscrb th ntr
f Sthst sn rchtctr nd rbnsm.
Vrnclr Trdtn
Vrnclr rchtctr n Sthst s s lrgly
md f w d nd thr prshbl bldng mtrls.
Pst-nd-bm frms, rsd lvng flrs, nd
dmnnt nd lbrt rf frms r dntfyng
chrctrstcs.
Thr s strng ndctn tht th vrnclr stlt
hs n th Sthst s nd Pcfc rgns, whch
hs sm bsc smlrts, dvlpd t f th rcgrwng
cltr n th trpcs. t pprs t hv rgntd
frm grnry rchtctr nd dvlpd nt
dw llng plc. Th ttc ndr th rf s th plc
fr gds nd vlbls, th mddl spc s th lvng
r, nd th ndrnth spc btw n th flr nd
th grnd s fr tlts. Fr symblc prtctn th
rf ws dcrtd wth shrp bjcts, hrns, drgns,
r thr nmls. Th sddl rf typ s ftn ntrprtd
s n mttn f th ncstrl bts.
ndn Lgcy
rnd th frst cntry C ndn csmlgy bgn
t nflnc th frml nd sptl rdrng prncpls
f Sthst sn rchtctr nd sttlmnts.
Hnds m nd Bddhs m wr sprdng frm nd
nrthstwrd t Cmbd, Ls, nd Vtnm nd
sthstwrd t Smtr, Jv, nd Bl.
Fr m th frtl Mkng dlt rgn, th src
f th rc cltr f Sthst s, th frst kngdm
f Fnn w s stblshd n th Mkng dlt rnd
100–600 C, fllw d by th Chnl (600–790 C),
Pgn (849–1287), nd Khmr (790–1431) kngdms.
T th st nd nrthst, th Chmp kngdm flrshd
frm 192 t 1471. Th w t-rc cltr, rvr
systms, nd ntrntnl trd lnks w th nd nd
Chn tht ths kngdms mntnd nflncd th
rchtctr nd sttlmnt pttrns f th Chms,
Khmr, nd Sms. Thr r stll mrvls rtfcts
frm ths prd n th stn tmpls f ngkr
RCHTCTR—STHST S
n Cmbd nd th brck tmpls f Chmp n
sthrn nd cntrl Vtnm.
Th dcln f ths nlnd rc-grwng kngdms
ws sn fllw d by th rs f th Srvjy mpr
f th Mly rchplg (600–1290), w hch tk ffctv
cntrl f th mn trdng rts f th
Mlcc Strt nd th Jv S. Th physcl rmns
f ths grt cltrl, pltcl, nd mltry Bddhst
kngdm hv lmst vnshd, d t th s f nndrbl
cly brck nd tmbr mtrls, xcpt fr
sm rchlgcl sts nd svrl rndd tmpls,
sch s Mr Tks tmpl n sthrn Smtr. n
Jv mny Bddhst nd Hnd stn tmpls frm
rnd th ghth cntry stll srvv. Th Mndly
plc cmplx n Mynmr (Br m) nd th ngkr
tmpl c mplx nr Smrb n Cmbd x mplfy
th trnsfrmtn f bsc Hnd dsgn prncpls n
Bddhst rchtctr. Th nrms Bddhst stps
f Brbdr nd th rtcltd Hnd prtn f th
Pr mbnn tmpl n cntrl Jv r th bst rtfcts
frm ths prd.
Plcs nd rdnry bldngs frm ths prd
hv nt srvvd, bt rchlgcl fndngs sggst
tht th lyts f th ryl cptls frm ths prd
(sch s ytthy nr Bngkk nd Mjpht n
strn Jv) clrly shw th ndrlyng rdrng
prncpl f th ndn mndl. Th sm clr nd
strng sptl hrrchy, xlty, nd rnttn f
strctrs stll chrctrz cntmprry Blns
dw llngs nd vllg rchtctr; th shrns nd
RCHTCTR—STHST S
SN CSMLGY ND RDRNG PRNCPLS
Hmnty ccps th mddl pstn btw n th tw pls f th nvrsl
rdr (gd nd vl, ppr nd lw r, mntn nd s, nrth nd sth; r
btw n snrs nd snst, st nd wst, nd s frth). Th hrrchy f ths
thr csmlgcl dvsns srvs s mtphr fr prts f th hmn bdy:
th hd, th trs, nd th ft. t s ls th mtphr fr lmnts f th nvrs:
th sky, th srfc f th rth, nd th grnd ndrnth.
Trdtnl sttlmnts crss Sthst s fllw ths csmlgcl pttrn,
by sttng vllg n btw n mntn nd th s r rvr. Th
mst mprtnt bldng r st (tmpl f rgn, chf’s hs, ncstr’s grv)
s plcd n th hghst pnt f th vllg r t th drctn f th mntn.
Th bjcts r fnctns ssctd wth dth r mprty (tmpl f dth,
drt, wst dspsl) wr plcd dwn nr th wtrfrnt. n mny css th
rc brns—ssntl n rc-grwng cmmnty—wr sttd n th st
sd f th vllg fcng th snrs.
Ths ndgns csmlgy ws thn lbrtd frthr by th ndn mndl
prncpl. ( mndl s grphc symbl f th nvrs.) n gmtrcl
sns, mndl cn b drw n s sqr sbdvdd nt nn sbsqrs.
t cn b prcvd s tw sprmpsd hrrchs f spc (ppr nd lw r)
fcng twrds th Nrth nd th st (th tw prmry rnttns). Th mddl
spc s th ntrl, th nvl, th w mb, r th cntr. Th ppr-rght
crnr spc s th hd, th nnr snctm, r th mst rspctd plc. Th
lw r-lf t crnr spc s th ft, th lw st, th drtst, r th thrshld t
th mpr tsd w rld. cty, vllg, hs, r rm cn b rrngd
ccrdng t ths hrrchy f vls nd mnngs. Ths bsc sptl pttrn
cn b fnd n ndn cts nd tmpls, Blns vllgs nd hss, Chns
crthss, nd vn n Jpns trms.
Jhnns Wdd
9
tmpls f Mynmr, Thlnd, nd Cmbd; nd
Jvns hss nd plcs. Th vrnclr trdtn
hs ntrnlzd ndn csmlgy.
Bddhsm sprd frm nd nrthstwrd t
Npl, Bhtn, Tbt, Chn, Kr, nd Jpn, stw rd
t Mynmr, Sm, Smtr, nd Jv, nd
sthwrd t Cyln, gnrtng nq frms f
stp rchtctr (tmpls, mnstrs, nd plcs).
Th bst xmpls f ths knd f rchtctr n
Sthst s cn b fnd n Mynmr, Thlnd,
Cmbd, Ls, nd Vtnm. Th s mpl rndd
dm shp f stp rchtctr n nd nd Cyln
bcm hghly lbrt nd cmplx n Sthst
s. Th lrgst Bddhst stn rchtctr n th
wrld s Brbdr tmpl n cntrl Jv, ndns.
vn thgh Bddhst rtls nd symbls m dtr mnd
ts shp, th tmpl ncrprtd vrs
Hnd rnmnts nd sptl pttrns s w ll.
slmc Lgcy
slm ntrd nd sprd thrght Sthst s
lng tw mn rts. Th frst n ws thrgh
Chn lng th Slk Rd, nd thn by th vygs f
th Mng-dynsty dmrl Zhng H (1371?–1435)
frm sthrn Chn t th nrthrn cst f Jv, thn
t Mlk nd thrght th ndnsn rchplg.
Th scnd rt ws thrgh nd, nd w s tkn by
Gjrt nd Tml trdrs t th Mly pnnsl, t
th w st cst f Smtr, nd fnlly t th nrthrn
cst f Jv nd th ntr ndnsn rchplg.
rb nd Prsn trdrs ls pnd drct trdng
rts t Sthst s, cnnctng rp w th s.
slm ntrdcd nw rnttn (th qblt r
pryng rnttn twrd Mcc) nd nw typlgy
n rchtctr nd rbn spc (sltns’ plcs,
msqs, rbn cntrl pn spc) nt th vcblry
f Sthst sn rchtctr nd rbn plnnng.
gn th fsn prcss s clrly vdnt. Th
trnstn nd trnsfrmtn prcsss tk plc
pcflly nd ntrlly t sch sts s Dmk (th
frst slmc sltnt n Jv nd th pr mry slmc
mssn n Sthst s), Kds, nd Crbn
(bth rly slmc cts n th nrthrn cst f Jv).
Th Jvns msq typlgy, w th thr lyrs f
pyrmd rf, ls xstd n Mlk n th Mly
Pnnsl, n ld Sngpr, nd n dffrnt prts
f th ndnsn rchplg. t rprsntd blnd
f Hnd-Jvns rchtctr wth ndn, Chns,
Mly, nd vn Grk nd Prsn rchtctrl
lmnts.
n th Brtsh Strts Sttlmnts f th Mly
Pnnsl, msqs rctd by th Mslm cmmnty
frm sthrn nd—ls n clctc rchtctrl
styl—cn b fnd n Mlk nd Sngpr. Lctd
n th mddl f Chntw n, n th sm rw s thr
rlgs bldngs (Chns tmpls, Hnd shrns),
ths sthrn ndn msqs rflctd th csmpltn
nd tlrnt ntr f Sthst sn rbn
cltr n mbrcng nd ncrprtng nw
frgn lmnts. Crftsppl frm dffrnt rcl
nd cltrl grps w rkd tgthr nd blndd thr
rtstry nd skll t crt nw nd nq bldng
trdtn nd rchtctrl ttlty.
Chns Lgcy
Th Chns dmntd nrthrn Vtnm frm
th scnd cntry BC t th tnth cntry C.
Thng Lng (th rgn f Hn) w s blt s nw
cptl n 1010, fllw ng th trdtnl Chns
mdl fr cptl cty. Chns sptl rdr ws
sprmpsd n th prvs vrnclr rgnc sttlmnt
strctr. Thng Lng w s dmntd by
Bddhst, Tst, nd Cnfcn prmry lmnts
(tmpls, pgds, mnstrs, pblc bldngs,
plcs). Ths ncnt rbn tss prssts spclly
n th Thrty-Sxth Strt dstrct f Hn, rnd
th Ctdl, w hr svrl tmpls nd pgds cn b
fnd scttrd rnd th ld qrtr.
Th vygs f Zhng H lft trcs lng th
cstl rgns f Sthst s n th frm f rly
sthrn Chns trdng psts nd clns. Mny f
ths clns wr sttd nr rvr strs bsd
th prxstng ntv vllgs. Sm f ths rly
sttlmnts thn grw nt flrshng ntrpts (fr
xmpl, Pttn, Mlk, Plmbng) bcs f ntrntnl
mrtm trdng ctvts. Th mn ftrs
frm ths prd wr th Chns tmpl
ddctd t Mz (gddss f th s, prtctr f
slrs), th fsh mrkt n frnt f th tmpl nr th
hrbr, nd th rly typlgy f shp hss.
Th Chns rchtctrl lmnts blndd w th
lcl vrnclr dsgn pttrns nd ftrs nd crtd
nmrs vrtns f fsn bldng styls.
n gd xmpl s th typcl trdr’s hs n
Plmbng, sth Smtr. Th bldng pln nd
sm f ts cnstrctn mthds r ths sd fr
th sthrn Chns crths, bt th sddl rfs,
pn vrndh, tmbr mtrl, nd rsd flr r
dfntly lcl.
Th wvs f Chns mmgrnts frm sthrn
Chn n th nntnth nd rly tw ntth cntrs
frthr nhncd th dvlpmnt f nq rchtctr
nd th prtclr pttrn f th cts w thn
ths rgn. Mr tmpls w th dffrnt fnctns nd
RCHTCTR—STHST S
dffrnt gds wr rctd, lng w th th cnstrctn
f nw gnrtns f shp hss, cmmnty
hlls, nd clstrs f rbn rw hss fr cln mmbrs.
Drng ths tm, th Chns plyd strtgc
cnmc rl s mddlmn btw n th rpn
clnlsts nd th lcl ppltns, nd bc m
prsprs. Thr prsprty ws xprssd n th
dptn f rpn dsgn ftrs nt thr rchtctr.
Th knd f rchtctr dvlpd by th
Chns n Sthst s dvrgd frm rchtctr
n mnlnd Chn, rflctng nstd th rchtctr
f thr dptd plcs.
rpn Lgcy
Th rpns mplmntd thr hgmnc mbtns
bgnnng n th lt fftnth cntry, strtng
wth th Prtgs (n nd, Mlk, Jv,
strn ndns, th Phlppns, Tw n, nd
Jpn), fllw d by th Dtch (n nd, Mlk, ndns,
Tw n, nd Jpn), th Brtsh (n nd, th
Mly pnnsl, Bngkl, Jv, nd Chn), th
Spnsh (n th Phlppns), th Frnch (n ndchn
nd Chn), nd th Gr mns (n Chn). lthgh
Thlnd rmnd n ndpndnt kngdm, t t
bsrbd nflncs frm rp. Th rpns
cm frst s trdrs nd mssnrs nd styd s clnzrs
spprtd by mltry pw r, grdlly nd ffctvly
pntrtng nd dmntng th w hl f
Sthst s fr lmst fv cntrs.
Th rpns ntrdcd sch nw rchtctrl
lmnts s blvrds, strtscps, nd fçds,
lng w th nw bldng tchnqs nd nw typs f
bldngs (mltry stblshmnts, pblc bldngs,
chrchs, rbn sqrs nd plzs, mrkts, rlrds,
sttns, plnttn hss, nd mny mr). Th mg
f Prs ws trnsplntd t ndchn n sch cts
s Phnm Pnh, Vntn, Hn, Sgn, nd Dnng
n th frm f w d blvrds nd rbn prks, mltstry
prtmnt blcks, mnmntl pblc bldngs,
vlls nd bnglws, nd s frth. Th Dtch trnsplntd
th cnls f mstrdm nd ts rw hss nd
lt vlls nt th ld cty f Btv (prsnt-dy
Jkrt). Th Brtsh blt splnds nd crckt flds
n th Strts Sttlmnts ( Mlys, Sngpr). Th
Prtgs nd Spnsh crtd plzs, chrchs, nd
cthdrls n strn Tmr nd th Phlppns.
t frst rpn dsgn ws drctly ppld n
trpcl Sthst s w th nly mnr mdfctns.
Bt thn mr rspnsv dsgn sltns wr nvntd,
t dpt bldng nd rbn dsgn t lcl clmtc,
sthtc, nd scl-cltrl cndtns. Thr
r rpn-styl bldngs w th dp vrnds nd
vntltn hls, fr xmpl, nd grdlly Chns,
ndn, Mly, rb, nd thr nflncs md thmslvs
flt. s hd hppnd w th rlr nflncs,
th rpn nflncs wr ntrlly nd pnly ccptd
nt th vcblry f Sthst sn rchtctr
nd rbnsm.
Th Lgcy f Mdrnsm
Th ds f mdrnsm w r brght nt Sthst
s by rpn-dctd rchtcts n th rly
tw ntth cntry. Thy dvlpd nw gnrtn f
mdrn bldngs n vrs rchtctrl styls ncldng
rntlsm ( mxtr f ll stylstc lmnts f
th st) nd mdrn-rpn-ndgns clctc
styls. n th 1920s nd 1930s grdn-cty cncpts—
mdfd t st lcl clmts nd nvrnmnts—w r
mplmntd n mjr cts n Jv, Smtr, th Mly
pnnsl, Thlnd, Cmbd, Ls, nd Vtnm.
T crt rdr nd hlthr nd sfr cts, bldng
cds nd rgltns wr mplmntd. Jck
rfs, lght w lls, nd sffcnt pnngs n bldngs
wr rqrd n rdr t prvd ngh vntltn.
Srvc rs wr lctd n th bckyrd, cnnctd
t th bck lly. Prty w lls wr blt btw n
dw llng nts t prvnt th sprd f fr, nd 1.5-
mtr rcd, knw n s fv-ft wy, ws prvdd
btw n rws f shps t prtct pdstrns frm
trpcl rn nd ht, prtclrly n th Strts Sttlmnts
(Mlys, Sngpr) nd sm cts n ndns.
Dnsty nd znng rgltns w r
mplmntd t cntrl rbn grw th.
Nw mdrn rgnl styls dptd t lcl nvrnmntl
nd cltrl cntxts gv strng sns f
dntty t Sthst sn rchtctr nd cts ntl
th Grt Dprssn f th 1930s nd th tbrk f
Wrld Wr . Th Dprssn nd th w r dstryd
mny prts f Sthst s’s cts nd ndd crtv
prd f nq mdrn rchtctrl dscrs.
Sn ftr th wr, ttlly nw knd f mdrnsm—
th ntrntnl Styl—pprd vryw hr.
n Hn strng nd rgd Svt sclst
tpn mdl f rbn plnnng nd rchtctrl
styl chngd th ctyscps. hg mslm nd
vst prd grnd wr rctd n th cvc cntr,
lmntng th prvs clnl plc xs. Stndrdzd
pblc hsng rplcd ldr styls f
dw llng. n th nw ly ndpndnt ntns f ndns,
Mlys, th Phlppns, nd Mynmr, th
ntrntnl Styl ws sd s symbl f dprtr
frm th pst. Jpns w r rprtn mny nd d
plyd n mprtnt rl n th mplmnttn nd
rlztn f ths ntnlstc mbtns n sm
Sthst sn cntrs.
RCHTCTR—STHST S
n Srch f dntty
n Sthst s, dvrsty nd hrmns nty
r trdtns, pssd frm gnrtn t gnrtn.
ll srts f tsd cltrl nflncs hv bn cnsdrd
s pstv npts nd hv nrchd ndvdls,
fmls, trbs, clns, ppls, nd vn ntns.
Ths hs bn xprssd clrly n ll lvls f rchtctr,
frm rnmnts nd frntr t bldngs,
sttlmnts, nd cts.
Th mmns cnmc grw th n Sthst s
wthn th lst tw dcds hs chngd th crs f
ts rchtctr nd rbnsm drmtclly. Th mdls
dvlpd n mrc nd rp hv bn
brdly nd crlssly ppld t Sthst sn
cntrs, crtng cnflcts, tnsns, cnfsn, nd
lss f dntty. Nw rchtctrl styls, sd fr crprt
ffc twrs, cmmrcl sprblcks, nd
hsng clstrs fr th nw ly rch, stnd bsd vst
slm rs nd shntytw ns.
md ths cntrdctns, Sthst s’s wn
rchtcts r crtng mny xcllnt dsgns. Nw
nd nprcdntd dscrss n Sthst sn
rchtctr nd rbn stds r flrshng crss
th rgn n rchtctrl schls nd th rchtctrl
prfssn. Wth ts lng hstry f plrlty
nd crtvty, nd ts lng xprnc f blndng
vrythng hrmnsly, Sthst sn rchtctr
hs vry prmsng prspcts f fndng ts wn
dntty.
Jhnns Wdd
S ls: ngkr Wt; Brbdr; Mndly Plc
Frthr Rdng
Dmrcy, Jcqs. (1991) Th Plcs f Sth-st s: rchtctr
nd Cstms. Sngpr: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Dmrcy, Jcqs, nd Mchl Smths. (1998) Cltrl
Sts f Mlys, Sngpr, nd ndns. Kl Lmpr,
Mlys: xfrd nvrsty Prss.
Hll, Knnth R. (1985) Mrtm Trd nd Stt Dvlpmnt
n rly Sthst s. Hnll, H: nvrsty f
Hw Prss.
Khn, Hsn-ddn. (1995) Cntmprry sn rchtcts.
Clgn, Gr mny: Tschn.
Mjr, ndrw . (2000) Th Lvng Pst: Hstry f ncnt nd,
Chn, nd Sthst s. Sngpr: MPH.
Smth, Brdw ll, nd Hlly Bkr Rynlds, ds. (1987) Th
Cty s Scrd Cntr: ssys n Sx sn Cntxts. Ldn,
Th Nthrlnds: . J. Brll.
Wtrsn, Rxn. (1998). Th rchtctr f Sth-st s
thrgh Trvllrs’ ys. Kl Lmpr, Mlys: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
———. (1990) Th Lvng Hs: n nthrplgy f rchtctr
n Sth-st s. Lndn: Thms & Hdsn.
Wdd, Jhnns. (1998) "Th rbn Hstry f th
Sthst sn Cstl Cts." Ph.D. dss. nvrsty
f Tky.
RCHTCTR, VRNCLR—
CHN Chn hs vrty f clmts nd lndfrms
s w ll s ffty-sx dvrs thnc grps n n
r nrly ql t tht f th ntd Stts. Cnsqntly
Chn’s vrnclr rchtctr pprs t frst
glnc bw ldrng n vrty. Hwvr, cls r xmntn
rvls rmrkbly smlr lmnts n lyt
nd mtrls crss spc nd thrgh tm. Th
bqts, smpl -shpd dw llngs r cmplmntd
by strkngly dstnctv bldngs f grt
cmplxty. Strctrs ncld xtrrdnrly btfl
cntrs-ld dw llng cmplxs blt fr mrchnts,
qdrnglr rsdncs n th Bjng r,
mssv mltstrd frtrsss n th hlly sth, nd
nq blw-grnd cv-lk dw llngs n th nrth,
s w ll s tnts nd pl dw llngs ccpd by mnrty
ppltns n rmt rs f th cntry.
Dvsns f Spc
Thrght Chn, hss xhbt lmtd rng
f cnvntnl sptl frms n thr pln nd gnrl
lyt. Ths fndmntl bldng lmnts r rtd
dply n Chns bldng trdtns, nd thy hv nflncd
th sptl cncptlztn nd bldng trdtns
f Jpn nd Kr s w ll. Chns bldrs r
ttntv nt nly t strctrs—tht s, nclsrs wth
rf—bt ls t pn spcs fr lvng, wrkng, nd
lsr ctvts. Th cmmn dnmntr f ny
Chns bldng, w hthr plnt plc r hmbl
hm, s mdlr nt knw n s jn, fndmntl
msr f w dth, th spn btwn tw ltrl clmns
tht cnsttts by. Jn ls rprsnt th twdmnsnl
flr spc btw n fr clmns nd th
vlmtrc msr f th vd dfnd by th flr nd
th w lls. Smtms jn frm rm, lthgh qt
ftn rm s md p f svrl strctrl jn. s
mdlr frm, jn cn b crtd nd lnkd rltvly
sly s fmly’s crcmstncs nd rsrcs chng
vr svrl gnrtns.
Mst Chns dw llngs cnsst f t lst thr jn
lnkd ltrlly lng trnsvrs ln t crt hrzntl,
-shpd strctrs. n nrthrn Chn jn
rng btw n 3.3 nd 3.6 mtrs n w dth, whl n
sthrn Chn thy r typclly btw n 3.6 nd 3.9
mtrs. Th bys r slly dpr n sthrn Chn,
rchng s mch s 6.6 mtrs, w hl ths n th
nrth rrly xcd 4.8 mtrs. Jn gnrlly r clstrd
n dd mltpls, sch s thr, fv, r svn,
RCHTCTR, V RNCLR—CHN
snc th Chns blv tht dd-nmbrd nts
prvd blnc nd symmtry. Th trdtnl Chns
smptry rgltns cntrbtd t th stndrdztn
nd mdlrztn f Chns hss by
dcttng th dmnsns f tmbr. Dcrtv dtls
nd clrs lng th rf rdg, ndr th vs, nd
n th gt, w hch ndctd pstns n th scl hrrchy,
wr ls wrttn nt smptry rgltns.
Th cntrl jn f thr- r fv-by rctnglr
dw llng typclly s wdr thn th flnkng jn, snc
th cntrl jn s slly th prncpl crmnl r
tlty rm n th dw llng. Sy mblc f nty nd
cntnty, ths spc ftn s ccnttd by th trdtnl
plcmnt f lng, nrrw tbl fcng th
dr. Tht tbl hlds ncstrl tblts, mgs f gds
nd gddsss, fmly mmnts, nd crmnl
prphrnl.
ncvrd pn rs f vrs dmnsns, ftn
rfrrd t s crtyrds, r crtcl dvsns f xtrr
spc n ny flly frmd Chns dw llng. Whl
pn spcs r xmtc lmnts f Chns dmstc
spcs, thr scls dffr t sch dgr tht
nthr th cmmn tr m "crtyrd" nr ts Chnslngg
qvlnts dscrb thm clrly. Frm
nrthst t sthst Chn, th prprtn f pn
spc t nclsd spc dmnshs sgnfcntly. Whl
crtyrds my b xpnsv n nrthrn Chn, n
sthrn Chn thy r slly cndnsd, s th
Chns tr m tnjng, trnsltd s “skyw ll,” ctchs
thr ssnc.
Th qntssntl Chns crtyrd n th nrthst
s n th Bjng shyn, n pn spc nd th
srrndng qdrngl f lw bldngs, whs trdtns
g bck t th lvnth cntry BC. Th crtyrd
f shyn rprsnts bt 40 prcnt f th
ttl r f th dw llng. Th bck w lls f th shyn
lck w ndws nd drs, nd thy r rntd
t th crdnl drctns. Frthr cmmn chrctrstcs
f shyn ncld xlty (blncd sd-t-sd
symmtry), hrrchcl rgnztn f spc, nd
sth- r sthst-fcng mn hll (sth s cnsdrd
th mst spcs drctn n gmncy [fng
sh]). Skyw lls n sthrn Chn r rctnglr pn
spcs r vds tht r s smll nd c mpct tht thy
d nt qlfy s tr crtyrds. ngns snkn ntrr
cvts whs scl rstrcts thr pnnss t
th sky, skyw lls r w ll dsgnd fr th ht nd hmd
cndtns f sthrn Chn s thy ctch pssng
brzs nd rls ntrr ht. Sthrn
dw llngs ftn hv mltpl skyw lls, ch n trmlk
nclsd vrtcl spc. Th sz, shp, nd nmbr
f skywlls vry ccrdng t th scl f th
rsdnc. lthgh dw llngs w th skyw lls r fnd
thrght sthrn Chn, prhps th mst dstnctv
r ths n th mltstrd dw llngs tht srvv
frm th Mng dynsty (1368–1644) n nh, Jngx,
nd Zhjng prvncs. nlk nrthrn strctrs
tht mphsz hrzntlty nd pnnss t th sky,
ths sthrn dw llngs rsmbl sqt bxs r lngtd
lvs w th sld w lls nd lmtd w ndws.
Whl thr bldng mtrls ppr mdst frm th
tsd, th brck w lls nd xpnsv wds n th nsd
r rnmntl s w ll s strctrl.
Th crtyrd vlvd vr thsnds f yrs t
mt chngng nvrnmntl nd scl cndtns.
n bth ts xpnsv nd ts cndnsd frms, t rmns
n dptbl c mpnnt f th sptl cmpstn
f Chns rsdncs thrght th cntry.
Bldng Mtrls nd Strctrl Systms
Chns hss gnrlly ncrprt cnvntnl
st f lmntry bldng prts (fndtns,
wlls, nd rfs) nd cmmnly vlbl strctrl
mtrls (w d, rth, nd stn). Th w lls f Chns
dw llngs smtms d nt drctly spprt th
wght f th rf bv bt rthr srv s crtns
btw n cmplctd w dn frmw rks. Ths
wdn frmw rks lf t th rf nd r ndpndnt
f th w lls, crtng knd f sss strctr, whch
Lng Schng, Chn’s pr mnnt rchtctrl hstrn
f th twntth cntry, chrctrzd s nlgs
t th hmn skltn. Tw bsc typs f
tmbr frmw rk r mplyd w dly, hvy pllrs
nd bms n th nrth nd pllrs nd trnsvrs t
bms nvlvng mrts nd tnn jnry n th
sth. Th lttr s mprtnt n rs w hr rthqks
r cmmn.
Trdtnl Chns dw llngs r blt drctly n
cmpctd rth r r rsd slghtly n sld
pdm f rth, stn, r brck t crry th sbstntl
wght f bldng sfly t th grnd wtht
llw ng t t bcm dfrmd. Bsmnts r xtrmly
rr. Flly dvlpd strctrs, whthr
dw llngs r plcs, lw ys ncld w dn skltn
f strctrl pllrs nd bms t lft th rf
rthr thn rlyng n th w lls t prfrm ths tsk.
Sm hss hv rltvly smpl frmw rk, bt
thrs r lbrt strctrl nsmbls. Fr ny
Chns hs, th frmwrk s th mst cstly nd
dffclt bldng cmpnnt t rplc, w hl w lls
r rcnstrctd frly sly frm nxpnsv lcl
mtrls. Bcs w dn skltn f strctrl pllrs
nd bms lfts th rf, th srrndng w lls
prvd nly nclsr nd r nt ld-brng cmpnnts.
Mny typs f mtrls, ncldng tmpd
RCHTCTR, V RNCLR—CHN
rth, db brck, frd brck, stn, w dn lgs r
plnks, bmb, nd w ttl nd db, my b ddd
t th tmbr frmng t ncls nd prtct th ntrr
spc.
Th prfl f hs cnstrctd w th pllrnd-
bm frmw rk pprs rghly smlr t tht
f hs n th Wst cnstrctd wth rf trsss.
Hwvr, th crss sctn f Chns pllr-ndbm
strctr, nlk tht f th rgd trnglr rf
trss systm, llw s dgr f fnctnl nd sthtc
crvtr n th rfln. Th sthrn frmng
systm f pllrs nd trnsvrs bms prmts
mr crvtr thn th nrthrn systm f pllrs nd
bms. Trdtnl w dn frmw rks rrly r scrd
wth mtl fttngs, sch s nls nd clmps, bt
s dw ls nd wdgs t nsr sng ft.
Wlls tht ncls nd srrnd spc ls prtct
nd dvd t. Wlls thr ncrcl th w dn skltn
r smply fll th gps btw n th pllrs. n
sthrn Chn nn-ld-brng w lls r ftn rltvly
wk, cmpsd f grsss, grn stlks, nd cb
(snd mxd w th strw) tht cnnt spprt mr thn
thr w n wght. Hw vr, sm w lls ncld swd
tmbr nd bmb nd r qt strng.
Strdy, ld-brng w lls, w hch r fr mr cmmn
n th cnstrctn f Chns dw llngs thn s
gnrlly cknw ldgd, r md f vrty f ntrl
mtrls tht r tmpd, frmd, r hw n. Mxtrs
f cly-txtrd sls nd mlgmtns f thr
sbstncs r tmpd. Blcks f cly r mldd nt
brcks tht r thr sn-drd r kln-frd. Hw n
stn r tmbr mst b shpd w th tls. Ld-brng
wlls ftn cmbn ths frmd mtrls w th
ntrlly ccrrng mtrls, sch s rcks, whch
hv nt bn ltrd.
Tmpng r pndng cly sl r thr mtrls
nt sld w lls, clld th hngt mthd f cnstrctn,
hs bn sd fr mch f Chns hstry t rct
hss nd thr bldngs, t ncls cmpnds nd
pn rs, nd t frtfy vllgs nd cts. n th thrd
cntry BC th Qn mprr sprvsd th cnstrctn
f n mmns tmpd rthn w ll, th prcrsr
f Chn’s lgndry Grt Wll. Frng brcks
ws cmmn by th thrd cntry BC bt dd nt bcm
cnmcl nd w dly vlbl fr hsng cnstrctn
ntl th frtnth cntry C.
Th Chns nvst mch ffrt n tchnq nd
symblsm w hn dvsng th frm f th rf, nlk
Wstrn bldrs, w h slly strss bldng’s fcd.
Dstnctv rf prfls xhbtng pwrfl lgnc
n thr crvtrs nd cvrngs r mr
cmmn n th rsdncs f ppl w th mns thn
n hmbl dw llngs.
nprcdntd rrl prsprty drng th lst
tw nty-fv yrs f th twntth cntry ld t th
ndscrmnt dstrctn f mch f Chn’s rchtctrl
ptrmny n spt f ffrts t prsrv th
rsdncs f mprtnt hstrcl prsngs. Nw
styls f vrnclr rchtctr n rrl, rbn, nd
sbrbn rs s mtrls nd plns tht dffr sgnfcntly
frm trdtnl pttrns. Bldrs nw ccpt
th s f rnfrcd cncrt clmns nd bms
whr wd nc ws sd xclsvly, cmpllng
nd n cntry stll plgd by shrtg f tmbr.
Nw rrl dw llngs r ll t ftn rltvly
nndscrpt blcksh strctrs tht hv mpsd
mntns rhythm t vllgs. Pblc pthy, lck f
crdntn f cnsrvtn nrgs, nd ndqt
fnncl ncntvs fr cnsrvtn frstrt ffrts
t prsrv Chn’s vrnclr rchtctrl hrtg.
Rnld G. Knpp
S ls: rchtctr—Chn; Crtyrds; Fng Sh;
Grt Wll
Frthr Rdng
Blsr, Wrnr. (1995) Crtyrd Hs n Chn: Trdtn nd
Prsnt/Hfhs n Chn: Trdtn nd Ggnwrt. Blngl
d. Bsl, Sw tzrlnd, nd Bstn: Brkhäsr Vrlg.
Bry, Frncsc. (1997) Tchnlgy nd Gndr: Fbrcs f
Pwr n Lt mprl Chn. Brkly nd Ls ngls:
nvrsty f Clfrn Prss.
H Py-png. (1995) Th Lvng Bldng: Vrnclr nvrnmnts
f Sth Chn/Gchng jnx: Zhngg mnjn
shnghfngsh. Blngl d. Hng Kng: Chns nvrsty
f Hng Kng, Dprtmnt f rchtctr.
Knpp, Rnld G. (1999) Chn’s Lvng Hss: Flk Blfs,
Symbls, nd Hshld rnmnttn. Hnll, H:
nvrsty f Hw Prss.
———. (2000) Chn’s ld Dwllngs. Hnll, H: nvrsty
f Hw Prss.
———. (1989) Chn’s Vrnclr rchtctr: Hs Frm
nd Cltr. Hnll, H: nvrsty f Hw Prss.
L K-Yn, nd H Py-png, ds. (1999) Lvng Hrtg:
Vrnclr nvrnmnt n Chn. Blngl d. Hng
Kng: Yngmngtng.
Lng, Dvd. (1991) Chns Trdtnl Vrnclr rchtctr.
Blngl d. Hng Kng: Rgnl Cncl.
Rtnbk, Kls. (1993) Bldng nd Crpntry n Lt mprl
Chn: Stdy f th Fftnth-Cntry Crpntr’s
Mnl "L Bn Jng." Ldn, Nthrlnds: . J. Brll.
RCHTCTR—WST S Th Wst
sn ntns f rn, Trky, nd rq hv rch nd
vrd rchtctrl hrtg dtng bck thsnds f
RCHTCTR—WST S
yrs. Mny cvlztns hv lf t thr mrk n ths
rgn, nd rchtctr hs lw ys bn mprtnt t
ths rgn. n fct, mny bldngs f Wst s hv
plyd n mprtnt rl n th dvlpmnt f wrld
rchtctr. Th hstry f rchtctr n Wst s
cn b brdly dvdd nt thr prds: rchtctr
prdcd bfr th ntrdctn f slm t th rgn
n th md-svnth cntry C, rchtctr prdcd
ftr th ntrdctn f slm, nd mdrn
rchtctr (prdcd ftr 1850). Ths rtcl dscsss
mdrn rchtctr. vn thgh th rchtctr
f ths thr ntns ds nt hv prmnnt
pstn ntrntnlly, n th pst cntry mny f
thr mprtnt strctrs hv hlpd shp th dntty
f ths cntrs thrght th mdrn prd.
rn
Th bgnnng f mdrn rchtctr n rn gs
bck t th prd frm 1921 t 1941, s xmplfd
n sch wrks s th Msm f ncnt rn, dsgnd
by frgn rchtcts hrd by th gvrnmnt. Drng
ths prd mny rnn cts wr trnsfrmd t ncld
sch nw bldng typs s ffc bldngs, fctrs,
bnks, nd rlwy sttns. Ths bldngs
wr rgnlly dsgnd by frgn rchtcts, bt
vntlly frgn-dctd rnns nd thn, w th th
stblshmnt f th frst schl f rchtctr n rn
n th rly 1940s, rnn-dctd rchtcts jnd
ths grp. n mst f th rchtctr f ths prd,
lmnts tkn mstly frm bldngs frm pr-slmc
rnn rchtctr wr mxd w th nw rpn
lmnts.
Th scnd prd n mdrn rnn rchtctr
ws frm 1941 t th lt 1960s. Drng ths prd,
mst rchtctrl prjcts wr crrd t by fw
rnn rchtcts. n ths prjcts, grtr ttntn
ws pd t th pst rchtctr f rn, spclly.
th gmtrcl pttrns tht r chrctrstc f slmc
rnn rchtctr. n f th mst prmnnt
wrks f ths prd s th mslm f th slmc
scntst nd phlsphr bn Sn (vcnn, 980–
1037) n Hmdn, by Hshng Syhn.
Th thrd prd ws frm th lt 1960s ntl th
rly yrs ftr th slmc Rvltn f 1980. Drng
ths prd, th trnd f nfsng mdrn cncrt
bldngs w th lmnts frm pr-slmc nd slmc
rn ws cntnd. Th 1970s w r chrctrzd by
th w rks f sch rchtcts s Ndr rdln nd
Kmrn Db, w h sght t prsrv rnn rchtctr
by rstrng svrl prjcts thrght rn.
Th frth prd, w hch strtd jst ftr th rvltn
nd cntns tdy, s chrctrzd by sch
wrks s th Ntnl Ms m f Wtr by Syyd
Hd Mr mrn, th Ntnl rnn Lbrry by
Kmrn Sfbkhsh, nd th cdms f th slmc
Rpblc f rn. Th rchtctr f ths prd
rls hvly pn th nclsn f slmc mtfs,
sch s gmtrc pttrns nd rchs, n ts dsgn
nd dcrtn.
Trky
Th bgnnng f mdrn rchtctr n Trky cn
b trcd t th nntnth cntry w hn th Blyn
fmly f rchtcts ntrdcd nt th rchtctr f
stnbl (thn th cptl f th ttmn mpr) mtfs
nsprd by cntmprry rpn rchtctr.
rpn rchtcts wr ls cmmssnd. n th lt
nntnth nd rly tw ntth cntrs, rpn rchtcts
wr ls rcrtd t tch rchtctr t th
cdmy f Fn rts (fndd n 1883) nd th Cllg
f Cvl ngnrng (fndd 1884). Lt ttmn
rchtctr n stnbl bcm dpndnt n
Wstrn fndng, tchnlgy, nd ds. Mst f th
bldngs tht wr blt n th lst dcds f th nntnth
cntry cmbnd lmnts f n-clsscl rpn
rchtctr wth lmnts frm slmc
rchtctr. Ths styl f rchtctr cntnd n th
rly tw ntth cntry wth bldngs dsgnd by
Trksh rchtcts. Ths styl bcm knw n s th Frst
Ntnl rchtctrl styl.
Fr m th lt 1920s, ndr th Rpblcn gvrnmnt,
nw styls mrgd, nsprd by rpn
Mdrns m. nmbr f rpn rchtcts wrkd
n nkr, th nw cptl f Trky, nd nflncd
ts rchtctrl pprnc. n 1931 th frst Trksh
rchtctrl jrnl, Mmr, ws fndd, nd t dscrbd
wrks n th mdrn styl by Trksh rchtcts.
Drng th 1930s, w th th ncrgmnt f
th Rpblcn gvrnmnt, mnmntl bldngs
nsprd by Grmn nd tln rchtctr wr
cmmssnd.
Fr m th lt 1930s, hwvr, thr ws shft n
mphss‚ knw n s th Scnd Ntnl rchtctrl
styl‚ n w hch rchtcts bgn t xprss n thr wrk
n w rnss f vrnclr Trksh rchtctr bt
wtht ttl rjctn f Mdrnsm. n f th
mst nflntl rchtcts f ths mvmnt w s Sdd
ldm, w h dfndd lcl styls vr ntrntnl
ns nd ncldd lcl ftrs n hs rchtctr.
Th mn bldng f ths prd, th mslm f
th sldr nd sttsmn Kml ttrk (1881–1938)
n nkr (1944), by th rchtcts mn nt nd
rhn rd, ls xprssd th prccptn w th
ths nw styl.
RCHTCTR—WST S
n th 1950s mrcn nd rpn rchtctrl
nflncs bcm mprtnt n Trky. Th Hltn
Htl (1952) n stnbl, by th mrcn rchtctrl
frm Skdmr, w ngs, nd Mrrll w th th cllbrtn
f ldm, ws nflntl s n xmpl f
th ntrntnl styl ( mv mnt n mdrn rpn
nd mrcn rchtctr, fms fr ts s f
glss, stl, nd rnfrcd cncrt nd fr ts prccptn
wth nrnmntd pln srfcs). Th
1950s ls brght ndstrl dvlpmnt nd rbn
grw th, spclly n th cts f stnbl, nkr, nd
zmr. Skyscrprs wr ntrdcd nt cty cntrs,
nd nplnnd nghbrhds grw rnd th vrs
cts. Frm th 1960s nw rd, nw mtrls, sch
s xpsd cncrt, nd nw cnstrctn tchnqs
hv bcm ncrsngly cmmn n Tr ksh rchtctr.
thr prvlnt trnds n mdrn Tr ksh
rchtctr ncld th ntgrtn f ldr rchtctrl
frms nt mdrn bldngs, s w ll s rnvtn
nd rstrtn f ldr bldngs, spclly n
stnbl.
rq
Th md-tw ntth cntry mrks th bgnnng f
mdrn rchtctr n rq. t ws ntrdcd by frgn
rchtcts nd ltr tkn p by rq rchtcts
sch s Mhmd Mky, Mhmd l-l, nd Rft
Chdrj. n 1959, Mhmd Mky (w h dsgnd
mny rsdntl nd c mmrcl bldngs n
rq) fndd th frst dprtmnt f rchtctr n
rq t Bghdd nvrsty.
n f th frst xprssns f mdrn rchtctr
n rq ws mnfstd n rbn rnw l prjcts n
th cptl f Bghdd, w hr mny trdtnl nghbrhds
wr dstryd t mk w y fr nw cmmrcl
bldngs nd nw cvc cntr (cmpltd
n 1986). Th cvc cntr nclds th Mncplty
Bldng by Hshm Mnr, th nc m Tx Bldng
by Mhd l-Hssn, nd th Wtr Brd Bldng
by Mhmd l-l. ntl th 1970s, mch f th
mdrn rchtctr f rq rld hvly pn Wstrn
styls. Hw vr, sm rchtcts (mst prmnntly
Rft Chdrj) bc m cncrnd w th th
dspprnc f trdtnl rq rchtctr nd st
t t cmbn prncpls f trdtnl rchtctr
wth mdrn tchnlgs. Ths ttmpt t prsrv
trdtnl rq rchtctr ls ld t prjct
(hdd by Chdrj, th rq frm Mhmd l-l
nd Prtnrs, nd th rchtctr nd Plnnng Pr tnrshp)
t cnsrv nd rstr sm rsdntl
nghbrhds nd mprtnt slmc shrns rnd
Bghdd (thr w rk stppd n 1984, nd th prjct
ws nt cmpltd).
Snc th md-1980s, th mjrty f rq rchtctr
hs bn stt-spnsrd mnmntl rchtctr
md t prmtng nd vldtng th rl f
Sddm Hssn (b. 1937), rq’s crrnt ldr.
Lr G. Thm
Frthr Rdng
Bzly, lsbth, nd Mchl Hrvrsn. (1982) Lvng
wth th Dsrt: Wrkng Bldngs f th rnn Plt.
Wrmnstr, K: rs & Phllps.
Bzdgn, Sbl. (2001) Mdrnsm nd Ntn Bldng:
Trksh rchtctrl Cltr n th rly Rpblc. Sttl,
W: nvrsty f Wshngtn Prss.
Fth, hsn, nd Jhn Wrrn. (1982) Trdtnl Hss n
Bghdd. Hrshm, K: Cch.
RDBL (2000 st. pp. 500,000). cty n
rn’s mntns nrthwst nd prvncl cptl
snc th 1993 frmtn f rdbl Prvnc,
rdbl (rdbl) w s prvsly th mst nrthstrn
cty f rn’s st zrbjn prvnc. Th vst
mjrty f th ppltn r zr Trks. Snc ts
gnss, stmtd t b t lst s rly s th ffth
cntry C, th cty hs bn n vrlnd jnctn.
Ths w s spclly tr whn th slk trd flrshd,
drng svrl cntrs whn rdbl ws cptl f
th zrbjn rgn f Prs. Cls tdy t rn’s
Cspn prvnc f Gln nd t th ntrntnl
brdr btw n rn nd zrbjn, rdbl cntns
t b sgnfcnt vrlnd pnt n th rgn.
n hstrc trms, rdbl s knw n s th hrth f
th Sfvd dynsty. ts mst sgnfcnt lndmrk s
crclr, dmd tw r knw n s th shrn nd mslm
f th Prsn snt Sf-d-Dn (1252–1334),
fr whm th dynsty s nmd. n ddtn t hs
tmb, ths mslm s ls th rstng plc f hs
sns nd thr ntbls, ncldng Shh sml .
Nnthlss, by th rly-sxtnth cntry, Tbrz
hd clpsd rdbl s th cntr f th zrbjn
rgn. Yt rdbl shld ls b ntd fr ts cpcty
t rsrrct tslf . Rzd by Mngl rms n
1220, th cty hs bn dvsttd nmrs tms
thrght ts hstry by rthqks. Th lt-nnthcntry
rthqk cntrd n rdbl ccntd fr
rghly 150,000 dths, mkng t n f th tp tn
mst dstrctv rthqks n rcrdd hstry.
Kyl vrd
Frthr Rdng
Chhb, H. . (1997) "rdbl Bc ms Prvnc: Cntr-
Prphry Rltns n rn." ntrntnl Jrnl f
Mddl st Stds 29, 2: 235–253.
RDBL
Mrtn, . H. (1974, 1975) "Th rdbl Shrn n th
Rgn f Shh Thmsp ." rn 12: 31–64; 13: 39–58.
Zrnbf-Shhr, Frb. (1998) "cnmc ctvts f
Sfvd Wmn n th Shrn-Cty f rdbl." rnn
Stds 31, 2: 247–261.
RQ WTR SYSTM Th trdtnl
mthd f dstrbtng rrgtn wtr t flds n pr-
Svt Cntrl s, rq n zbk s mply mns rrgtn
cnl. Ths dstrbtn systm ws rrngd
rnd th slmc pr ms tht w tr, lk thr ntrl
gds, ws th gft f Gd nd cld nt b w nd.
qtbl dstrbtn f w tr t flds ws thrfr
cmmnl rspnsblty, lthgh n w hch n th
mrt f Bkhr ws rgltd by th stt. Cnls
wr cnstrctd nd mntnd by hnd s prt f
cmmnl ntrprs, w hch t ws ncmbnt n ll
mn n cmmnty t prfrm n pn f lsng thr
fld hldngs. Bfr th Svt tkvr, Cntrl
sns (n wht w ld b th rpblcs f Kzkhstn,
Kyrgyzstn, Tjkstn, Trkmnstn, nd zbkstn)
hld w tr s cmmn gd t b dstrbtd
ccrdng t nd, w th wtr thrtclly bng sppld
n n qtbl bss ccrdng t sz f hldng,
frtlty, r thr cnsdrtns.
Th cnstrctn f cnls ws vrsn by n st
(xprt) wh sd n srvyng qpmnt bynd y,
thmb (t stmt lvtn), nd t (t mr k vntl
crs). Cnsqntly, cnls w r ftn ndlssly
lng, nd sffrd frm vprtn nd lkg.
Chnnls w r ls prn t sltng. Tw c yr (t
th nd f Fbrry fr mjr cnls, Mrch fr mnr
ns) thy wr clnd cmmnlly nd th slt
sd s frtlzr.
t th vllg lvl, w tr spply ws cntrlld by
mrb (ltrlly "wtr cntrllr") w h chnnld w tr
t ch hldng by trn, jdgng th qntty ndd
by y. Chnnls t ndvdl flds w r mntnd
by th frmr, bt th systm s whl ws sprvsd
by n qsql (thrty) rspnsbl fr clnng nd
mntnnc nd lctd by ll th vllgs sng mn
cnl. n thry ths prvntd pstrm vllgs tkng
mr thn thr shr f w tr, bt n prctc th
systm ws pn t bs t bth qsql nd mrb
lvl. By th tm f th Svt tkvr ths systm
hd flln nt cnsdrbl nfrstrctrl dcy, nd
t w s rplcd by mr mdrn tchnqs.
Wll Myr
Frthr Rdng
Rmr, B. (1989) Svt Cntrl s. Bstn: nw n-Hymn.
Pr khrv, . M., d. (1973–1983) Grt Svt ncyclpd.
Trnsltn f Bl´sh svtsk ntsklpd. Nw
Yrk: Mcmlln.
RJ rj, whch dvlpd frm gmbh, Blns
dnc, s frm f Blns mscl cmdy ncrprtng
sng, dnc, drm, cmdy, nd pntmm.
t s cmmnly ccmpnd by gmln (ndnsn
prcssn nstrmnt) gng rchstr, lthgh
rly vrsns pprntly hd ll-ml csts nd n
gmln ccmpnmnt. vrsn w th ll-w mn
csts ls pprntly xstd t n tm, bt mdrn
csts r mxd, lbt w th cmc fml rls ftn
plyd by mn. vr th yrs, th cmc lmnts
hv grw n cnsdrbly n prprtn t th drmtc
ctn.
Th mn dffrnc btwn gmbh nd rj s
tht th lttr plcs mch grtr mphss n
drm nd sng rthr thn n dnc nd msc, nd
rj’s rprsnttn f drmtc ctn s cnsdrbly
mr flxbl thn tht f th ldr gnr. Th mscl
ccmpnmnt f rj s nt cntns, llw ng
lng pssgs f dlg, ftn cmc. Th plts tnd
t b strtypd rmntc r sntmntl nrrtvs
bt ls ncld strs frm th mdvl Jvns
Pnj r mncs, th Mhbhrt pc, nd Chns
srcs. s n thr Blns gnrs, th clw n srvnts
Pnt nd Wjl srv th fnctn f ntrprtng
th ctn frm th spch frms f clsscl
thtr nt th vrnclr.
Tm Byrd-Jns
Frthr Rdng
smn, Frd B., Jr. (1990) Bl: Skl nd Nskl, Vl. 1:
ssys n Rlgn, Rtl, nd rt. Hng Kng: Prpls.
Ysf, Ghlm-Srw r. (1994) Dctnry f Trdtnl
Sth-st sn Thtr. Kl Lmpr, Mlys: xfrd
nvrsty Prss.
RMNNS Th rmnns mrgd s ppl
n bt 600 BC, ccpyng rggd rgn n
th Trnsccss n wstrn s. lthgh t vrs
tms th r mnns crtd n ndpndnt stt,
whch ndr th rlr Tgrns th Grt (c. 140–
c. 55 BC) xtndd frm th Cspn t th Mdtrrnn,
th strtgc mprtnc f th Trnsccss
nd Ccss nsrd tht frgn pwrs cntnlly
strggld t cntrl th rgn. Ths th chmnd
Prsns, Rmns, Byzntns, rbs, Sljk Trks,
Mngls, ttmns, nd Rssns, mng thrs, sccssvly
cntrlld th rmnn ppls, nd th
RMNNS
rmnns, svrly trtd by th vrs frgn nvdrs,
gn nd gn mgrtd t vd prsctn.
lthgh r mnns r thght t hv dscndd
frm bth ntv Trnsccsn ppltns nd
frgn nvdrs, th rmnn lngg s nd-
rpn, w rttn wth nq thrty-ght-lttr lphbt.
Th r mnn pstlc (rthdx) Chrch
s n f th ldst Chrstn chrchs, hvng bn
stblshd n th rgn tw dcds bfr Cnstntn
md Chrstnty th ffcl rlgn f th
Rmn mpr (c. 313).
rly rmn nd Prsn Dmnnc
Prsnt-dy rmn, lctd n th Trnsccss,
ccps bt frctn f th trrtry f ncnt rmn,
thn knw n s strn rmn. Mst f th
lnd f th ncnt kngdm (wstrn rmn) s nw
lctd n strn Trky. smll prt f Grg,
nthr Trnsccsn cntry, flls wthn th rgn
nc ccpd by ncnt rmn.
f ll th frgn pwrs tht cntrlld th rmnns,
th Prsns wr th mst nflntl ntl
th thrd cntry C. Prsn dmnnc ws w knd,
hw vr, by th cnvrsn f th rmnns t
Chrstnty nd th cnqst f Prs (rn) by th
rbs, Sljk Trks, nd Mngls. n th lvnth
cntry, th Sljk ccptn f rmn drv mny
rmnns nt rn.
ttmn Rl
Th ttmns bgn thr pntrtn nt rmn
n th sxtnth cntry, bt thr cntrs ftr
th ttmn mpr ws stblshd, nd drng
nmrs w rs n th sxtnth nd svntnth cntrs,
th ttmns cnqrd nd nnxd prts f
th rmnn lnd nw lctd n strn Trky.
Ths w rs ld t th frcbl rlctn f mny
rmnns, w h mvd t rn; thr rs f th
Trnsccss, ncldng th crrnt rmn nd
zrbjn; nd prts f th ttmn mpr. s th
nghbr f rmn, rn bcm th hm t th
lrgst rmnn dspr, cncntrtd n th crrnt
prvncs f sfhn, Thrn, nd w strn nd
strn zrbjn. Mch smllr cmmnts w r
RMNNS
_
Svn
Lk
Krvkn
Svn
Kfn
Yrvn
z rb j n
zrbjn
Grg Grg
Tr k y
r n
0
0 25
25 50 Mls
50 Klmtrs
N
rmn
crtd n prsnt-dy Trky, spclly n th rs
cls t th Trnsccss nd n stnbl. n 1639,
th Trty f Zhb prttnd rmn btw n th
ttmns nd th rnns. Th frmr tk w strn
rmn (nw prt f strn Trky), nd th lttr
tk strn rmn (prsnt-dy rmn). Trky
hs kpt ts prt t ths dt. Th prsctn f th
rmnns n th ttmn mpr nd thr frcbl
rlctn n th nntnth nd rly tw ntth cntrs
ld t th mgrtn f mny rmnns frm
wstrn rmn t rn.
Strggls wth Rss
Th fll f th rnn Sfvd mpr n th rly
ghtnth cntry llw d th Rssn mpr t xtnd
ts nflnc t th Ccss. Ths ls ncrgd
th ttmn mpr t cnqr th ntr
rgn. Cnsqntly, th Ccss nd Trnsccss,
ncldng rmn, bcm th scn f wrs nd
rvlry btwn Rss, th ttmns w h w ntd t
xpnd thr trrtrs, nd th rnns w h wntd
t rgn thr lst lnds. Fr mst f cntry ntl
1828, th r mnns w r rld by thr mprs
whs trrtrs n th rgn xpndd nd cntrctd
svrl tms.
Tw lng srs f wrs btw n rn nd Rss
ld t th Trkmnch Trty f 1828. Ths cnfrmd
Rss’s nnxtn f th Ccss nd Trnsccss,
ncldng prsnt-dy rmn. Th
Blshvk Rvltn gv rs t shrt prd f ndpndnc
fr rmn, w hch mrgd n 1918 s
th ndpndnt rpblc f rmn.
ftr crshng th rmnn rpblcn frcs, th
Svt nn rgnd cntrl vr rmn n Nv mbr
1920 nd ncrprtd th rmnns nt th
Svt nn s prt f th Trnsccsn fdrtn,
whch ls ncldd th zrbjns nd th Grgns.
n 1936, r mn bc m fll rpblc f th
Svt nn. t rgnd fll ndpndnc nly ftr
th cllps f th Svt nn n 1991.
rmnns Tdy
t th prsnt tm, th r mnns lv n r mn
nd mny thr cntrs. Thr vlntry nd nvlntry
mgrtns hv crtd lrg rmnn dsprs
thrght th w rld. Th ppltn f rmn
s bt 3.5 mlln, bt btw n 800,000 nd 1.5 mlln
rmnns hv mgrtd t thr cntrs snc
ndpndnc n 1991 bcs f cnmc rsns, pltcl
nstblty, r bth. bt 1 mlln rmnns
lv n th cntrs f th frmr Svt nn, nd
thr r bt 4 mlln r mnns n lrg c mmnts
n rn, nd, Lbnn, Syr, Trky, th ntd
Stts, Cnd, rgntn, nd Wstrn rp.
Th rltns btw n th rmnns nd th
Trks hv bn prtclrly hstl. Th ttmns’
prsctn nd th frcbl mgrtn f th rmnns
lvng n w strn rmn hv bn tw mjr
RMNNS
tnth-cntry rmnn chrch n wstrn Trky. (. LMNY & . VCNS/CRBS)
fctrs n ths hstlty. Th rmnn dspr cntns
t prss th Trksh rpblc t ccpt rspnsblty
fr th gncd f 1915, stmtd t cstng
500,000 t 1.5 mlln rmnn lvs.
Hmn Pmn
Frthr Rdng
Cntry Prfl 2000: Grg-rmn. (2000) Lndn:
cnmst ntllgnc nt.
Hvnnsn, Rchrd G. (1997) Th rmnn Ppl frm ncnt
t Mdrn Tms. 2 vls. Nw Yrk: St. Mrtn’s Prss.
RMY F TH RPBLC F VTNM
n 26 ctbr 1955, w hn Ng Dnh Dm prclmd
th Rpblc f Vtnm (RVN) w th hmslf
s prsdnt, ll f th RVN’s r my nts bcm
knw n cllctvly s th rmy f th Rpblc f Vtnm,
r RVN. Th RVN, sccssr t th Frnchld
Vtnms Ntnl r my f th Frst ndchn
Wr, hd n ntl strngth f 150,000 trps nd
vntlly grw t lmst n mlln t th tm f ts
dms n 1975. rgnzd n th md-1950s by Ltnnt-
Gnrls Jhn W. ’Dnl nd Sml T.
Wllms, sccssv hds f th .S. Mltry
ssstnc dvsry Grp, mdld ftr th .S.
rmy, nd dsgnd t mt Ppl’s rmy f
Vtnm ( PVN) ttck crss th dmltrzd
zn (th DMZ: stblshd 22 Jly 1954 lng th svntnth
prlll n Vtnm), th RVN ntlly ws
md p f fr fld dvsns nd sx lght dvsns
wth thrtn trrtrl rgmnts fr rgnl scrty.
Grw ng s th .S. mltry prsnc n Sth
Vtnm grw , th RVN w s bst by mltpl
prblms, sch s crrptn, lw mrl, nd pr
ldrshp, w hch svrly lmtd ts ffctvnss
s fghtng frc. Th RV N lckd ffcrs, spclly
n th hghr rnks, nd mny ffcrs wr
ppntd ccrdng t scl rnk nd pltcl fvr
rthr thn blty nd ntgrty. Th rslt ws n
lmst ntrly Cthlc ffcr crps tht ld
fghtng frc tht ws mr thn 60 prcnt Bddhst.
Lgstcs nd tchncl srvcs wr crppld by snr
ffcrs’ crrptn. Mny ffcrs prtd thr nts
fr fnncl gn by vrrprtng prsnnl nmbrs
nd pcktng th srpls py, shrng th nt’s cnfsctd
mtrls w th thrs w h ftn sld th gds
n th blck mrkt, nd smgglng drgs.
Prhps th mst srs prblm w th th RVN
ws tht t ws mdld n th .S. r my nd, lk
th .S. r my, ggd t fght cnvntnl w r n
n ncnvntnl w r ml, lrgly gnrng th
cntrnsrgncy ntr f th cnflct. n ddtn,
th RVN grw t dpnd n th mrcn mltry’s
ssstnc n vrythng frm cmmnd nd cntrl t
lgstcs nd mtrl spprt. Sch dpndnc w knd
th RVN t th pnt tht t cld nt stnd
p t PVN sslt w tht sbstntl mrcn ssstnc.
n 1975, drng th fnl prtn t lbrt
Sth Vtnm, PV N sly crshd th RVN
frcs, wth th xcptn f lt rbrn nd rngr
nts, nd rntd th tw Vtnms.
Rchrd B. Vrrn
Frthr Rdng
Spctr, Rnld H. (1983) dvc nd Spprt: Th rly
Yrs, 1941–1960. Wshngtn, DC: .S. r my Cntr
f Mltry Hstry.
Tckr, Spncr C. (1999) Vtnm. Lxngtn, KY: nvrsty
Prss f Kntcky.
———, d. (1998) ncyclpd f th Vtnm Wr. xfrd:
xfrd nvrsty Prss.
RNS rns s Flpn mrtl rt nd th ntnl
sprt f th Phlppns. t s bsd n th ncnt
Flpn mrtl rt f kl, th trdtnl mrtl
rt f skrm, thr sn mrtl rts, nd Wstrnstyl
bxng. rns mrgd ftr Wrld Wr s
dstnctv Flpn mrtl rt, w th trnng nd rtl
rqrmnts rsmblng thr sn mrtl rts
nd cmpttns s mlr t bxng mtchs. rns
cmpttrs s 76-cntmtr-lng rttn stcks nd
scr pnts by clnly strkng r dsrmng th ppnnt.
Cmpttrs wr hlmt nd bdy pddng
t mnmz njry. lthgh th sprt rmns pplr
nly n th Phlppns, th ntrntnl rns
Fdrtn pr mts th sprt n sm thrty ntns.
Dvd Lvnsn
Frthr Rdng
Wly, Mrk. (1998) Mrtl Cltr f th Phlppns. Tky:
Tttl.
RNCHL PRDSH (2001 st. pp. 1.1
mlln). "Th lnd f th dw n-lt mntns,"
rnchl Prdsh bcm stt n nrthstrn nd
n 1987. Fr m 1947 t 1972 t ws knw n s th
Nrth st Frntr gncy (NF), thn n 1972 t
bcm nn trrtry. rnchl Prdsh strtchs
nrth t th mn crst f th strn Hmlys nd
st t n rrglr ln tht psss thrgh srs f
lfty pks tht wr knw n s "th Hmp" drng
RMY F TH RPBLC F VTNM
Wrld Wr , w hn sppls t Chn w r rlf td
vr t. rnchl Prdsh brdrs Chn nd Tbt
t th nrth nd Bhtn t th wst wth vrdnt
mntn rngs slpng dw n t th plns f ssm,
nd, t th sth.
ccrdng t lgnd, Prsrm, th sxth f th
tn ncrntns f th Hnd gd Vshn, crtd
pssg thrgh th hlls fr th Brhmptr Rvr
wth strk f hs x t Brhm Knd (n strn
rnchl Prdsh), nw pplr plgrmg dstntn.
rnchl Prdsh’s rcrdd hstry dts
nly frm th sxtnth cntry, whn th hm kngs
bgn thr rl n ssm. By 1826 th Brtsh hd
md ss m prt f Brtsh nd, nd n 1882 pltcl
dvsr ws ppntd t brng th r ndr
Brtsh dmnstrtv cntrl. n gnrl th ndgns
ppls f th rgn, lbld "hll trbs," w r
lft t thmslvs ntl Wrld Wr . ftr ndpndnc,
Pr m Mnstr Jw hrll Nhr (1889–
1964) spprtd ffrts t prpr th trbs fr th
mpct f th mdrn w rld. Dvlpmnts twrd
vllg dmcrcy ncrsd ftr Chn nvdd
Tw ng (n wstrn rnchl Prdsh) n 1962. Th
rvr vllys, sprtd by frbddng nrth-sth
rdgs, hv nbld dstnct mcrcltrs t flrsh
n rnchl Prdsh. Th rgn hs t lst fftn
dstnct trbl grps knw n cllctvly t tsdrs
s th br. mng th prncpl trbs, w hs blfs
blnd Bddhsm nd trdtnl rlgns, r th p
Tns, k, Dfl, nd th Shrdkpn.
rnchl Prdsh, n f th lst w ldrnss rs
n nd, xhbts grt bdvrsty n flr nd fn,
ncldng vr fv hndrd spcs f rchds, n sttngs
rngng frm glcl trrn t lpn mdw s
nd sbtrpcl rn frsts. Nmdph Ntnl Prk
s hm t th rr hlck gbbn, th lgndry
snw lprd, tgrs, brs, pnds, nd lphnts. Th
cptl, tngr, ftrs th Jwhrll Nhr Stt
Ms m nd Bddhst tmpl cnscrtd by th
Dl Lm.
C. Rgr Dvs
Frthr Rdng
Bhttchrj, Trn Kmr. (1992) ntcng Frntrs. Nw
Dlh: msns.
lw n, Vrrr. (1965) Dmcrcy n NF. Shllng, Mghly,
nd: Nrth-st Frntr gncy.
Fürr-Hmndrf, Chrstph vn. (1962) Th p Tns nd
Thr Nghbrs. Nw Yrk: Fr Prss f Glnc.
RNCHL PRDSH
nrrw sspnsn ft brdg crsss vr th frst n rnchl Prdsh. (LNDSY HBBRD/CRBS)
Mshr, Krn. (1992) Wmn n Trbl Cmmnty: Stdy
f rnchl Prdsh. Nw Dlh: Vks.
RYN Th ryns, fr frm bng "rc," wr
spkrs f Vdc Snskrt n nd, th rlst frm
f tht clsscl nd-rpn lngg. Ths ppl
ntrd nd frm th nrthw st bt 1500 BC,
nd thr dscndnts tdy frm mst f th ppltn
f Pkstn, Bngldsh, Npl, Sr Lnk, nd
nrthrn nd, lthgh ths ppl d nt dntfy
thmslvs prmrly s ryns.
Th tr m ry n Snskrt mns "nbl" nd dbtlss
rfrs t ths ppl’s hgh pstn n th rn
g scty thy stblshd. Ths trm hs bn sd,
nd lrgly mssd, by rpn wrtrs snc 1835
nd hs flln nt dsfvr mng schlrs bcs f
th Nz prpgndsts’ ssmptns tht c mmnty
f spkrs ws qvlnt t blgcl rc nd tht
th mxd ppltns f nrthrn nd cntrl rp
wr th prst rprsnttvs f n "ryn rc."
ryn spkrs wr crtnly mjr cvlzng
frc n nd (s thy wr n rn), thgh nt th
frst. Thy blt th cts f th nrth frm bt 700
BC nd ld th fndtn fr th ltrgy nd thlgy
f Hndsm, th cst rgnztn f ndn scty,
nd th flw rng f th frst mng mny ndn
ltrtrs. Thr mrk hs bn ndlbl.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Brrw , Thms. (1975) "Th rly ryns." n Cltrl
Hstry f nd, dtd by . L. Bshm. xfrd: Clrndn,
20–29.
Chld, Vr Grdn. ([1926] 1987) Th ryns: Stdy f
nd-rpn rgns. Rprnt d. Nw Yrk: Drst.
SHGBT (1999 st. pp. 606,700). shgbt s
th cptl nd lrgst cty f th rpblc f Trkmnstn,
Cntrl sn stt. t s sttd t th
nrthrn ft f th Kpt-Dg mntns, n th dg
f th Kr-Km ("blck snd") dsrt, nly 19 klmtrs
frm th cntry’s sthrn brdr wth rn.
Th cty ws fndd n 1881 s Rssn mltry
frt nd ws nmd shkbd ftr nrby Trkmn
sttlmnt. t bcm th dmnstrtv cntr f Rss’s
Zkspsk blst (Trnscspn prvnc),
frmd n 1881. n 1919 w hn Svt pwr ws stblshd
n ths prvnc, th cty ws rnmd
Pltrtsk, ftr th Rssn rvltnry Pvl
Pltrtsky (1888–1918). n 1927 Pltrtsk ws rnmd
shkhbd. Fr m 1924 t 1991 th cty ws
th cptl f th Trkmn Svt Sclst Rpblc,
prt f th nn f Svt Sclst Rpblcs.
Snc th dssltn f th Svt nn n 1991,
shgbt hs bn th cptl f th rpblc f Trkmnstn.
n ctbr 1948 th cty ws lvld by
pw rfl rthqk, w hch klld 110,000 ppl
(tw-thrds f th ppltn). Prsnt-dy shgbt
s Trkmnstn’s bggst ndstrl, dmnstrtv,
nd cltrl cntr.
Ntly Y. Khn
Frthr Rdng
Ry, lvr. (2000) Th Nw Cntrl s: Th Crtn f
Ntns. Nw Yrk: Nw Yrk nvrsty Prss.
SN DVLPMNT BNK Th sn
Dvlpmnt Bnk s dvlpmntl fnncl nstttn
tht prvds lns, qty nvstmnts, nd
tchncl ssstnc t ts mmbr w nrs. Ths w nrs
r vrs ntn-stts wth cmmrcl ntrsts
n s. Thy rfr t thmslvs s Dvlpng Mmbr
Cntrs (DMCs), lthgh svrl, mst prmnntly
th ntd Stts nd Jpn, r mng th
wrld’s mst dvncd cnms.
Th bnk pnd fr bsnss n 1966 nd mst
b ndrstd w thn th cntxt f wrld pltcs
t tht tm. Th mtvtng frc ws th ntd
Stts, dply nvlvd n s thrgh vrs nt-
Cmmnst mltry llncs bt ls, nd mr mprtntly,
thrgh ts mltry dvntr n Vtnm.
Tht cnflct md s th mjr frgn-plcy cncrn
fr th prsdntl dmnstrtn f Lyndn
Jhnsn. Tht dmnstrtn w s svrly crtczd,
t hm nd brd, fr ts dtrmntn t sk
mltry sltn t th vrs rmd cnflcts thn
rgng n Sthst s. Thr w s spcl cncrn
tht lttl w s bng dn t mprv th lf f th
thn-mpvrshd msss f sns nd, frthrmr,
tht ths vrsght cld nly strngthn th ppl f
Cmmnst dlgy n st s.
fnncl nstttn ddctd t sn cnmc
prgrss ths ffrd svrl dvntgs t .S. plcymkrs.
t w ld dmnstrt tht th dmnstrtn
hd pstv plcy twrd s nd dd nt jst
rly n mltry sltns. Ths mght plct dmstc
crtcsm f .S. plcy, w hl t cld ls ntc
vrs sn ntns t thrw thr lt w th th Wst
n th Cld Wr. Rl cnmc prgrss n s
wld, t ws blvd, mk tht rgn f th wrld
RYN
rsstnt t Cmmnst pntrtn. Fnlly, thr w s
cmpnnt f hmntrnsm, lngtm stpl f
.S. frgn plcy, whch gnnly lkd t mprv
th cmmn lt n st s. Ths smw ht
wkwrdly mxd cllctn f mtvs ftn
prmptd th chrg tht th bnk w s fndd
mrly s ct’s-pw fr .S. frgn plcy r tht t
ws mplctly dsgnd t xpdt .S. cmmrcl
pntrtn n s.
Hstry
Tw nty-n cntrs, prtng ndr spcs f
th ntd Ntns, fndd th bnk drng cnfrnc
n Mnl (w hr ts hdqrtrs rmns t
ths dy). t ws ntlly cptlzd t $1 blln, w th
th ntd Stts sbscrbng t sm 20 prcnt f tht
mnt. N Cmmnst cntrs prtcptd. Th
bnk ws t b tnms n ntr, w th gvrnnc
smlr t tht f th ntrntnl Mntry Fnd.
Whn th bnk ws stblshd, s, wth th sl
xcptn f Jpn, w s mrd n mllnn-ld pvrty.
Whn cmprd w th rpn nd Nrth mrcn
cntrs, ntns sch s Thlnd, Mlys, Tw n,
nd Krn w r lrgly rrl, tchnlgclly bckwrd,
ndrdctd, nd nndstrlzd. Lttl mr
thn gnrtn ltr ths sm stts cntd mng
th mst dvncd cnms n th plnt, lthgh
mny fctrs bsds th bnk brght ths bt.
s n nstttn ddctd t sn dvlpmnt,
th bnk tk brd vw f ts mssn nd sght
t prvd fnncng fr prjcts tht mght stmlt
lng-trm cnmc grw th. t ws nt stblshd t
prvd hmntrn d s sch, ths bng th prvnnc
f ntrntnl d rgnztns r thr frgn
d. s n bnk pblctn pt t, "Th shr
nmbrs f th pr n sn cntrs s sffcnt
rsn fr blvng tht prgrm cnsstng f fw
wlf r prjcts w ld hv n prcptbl mpct n
pvrty" (sn Dvlpmnt Bnk 1978: 215). Th
bnk, thrfr, drctd ts ttntn wy frm th
rdnry crdt vntrs ssctd wth prvt lndng
nd tw rd ndrwrtng ths thngs tht mght
fndmntlly mlrt th nqtbl dstrbtn
f w lth r, vn bttr, crt nw srcs f wlth.
grcltr, fr nstnc, ws prm cncrn f
th bnk frm ts rlst dys. Th bnk lkd t
ncrg lnd rfrm n ths scts whr grcltrl
prprty ws cncntrtd n fw, ftn nffcnt,
hnds. Frthrmr, t w s spclly
ntrstd n fndng ntrprss tht w ld ltr th
trdtnl sbsstnc r lcl mrkt cnmy frmng
f mch f s. Ths ncldd sch rs s frtlzr
prdctn nd gntc rsrch. Fnlly, th
bnk ws ttntv t th crdt nds f smll frmrs
wh cld lkly grtly ncrs yld f mdst
cptl w s md vlbl t scr vn lw lvl
f mchnztn nd thr mprv mnts. Ths, th
bnk’s lndng ws n sm nstncs drctd twrd
rstrctrng f trdtnl scts.
Rl n th sn Fnncl Crss
Th bnk hs ls prfrmd sm f th fnctns
f cntrl bnk, thr by tslf r n cnjnctn wth
thr lndng nstttns. Ths nclds ssstng n
crrncy stblztn, dbt mngmnt, nd mrgncy
lns t svrgn stts. ts nvlvmnt n th
svr sn fnncl crss f th lt 1990s ws prmr
xmpl f ths. Wrkng w th th ntrntnl
Mntry Fnd nd vrs ntnl bnks, th bnk
ndrw rt lns t, mng vrs cntrs, ndns,
Kr, nd Tw n. Ths lns rlvd th
lqdty crss nd ssstd n stmmng th prcpts
drp n vl f crtn sn crrncs. Th bnk ls
ctd s smtm "plcmn" t mntr ntnl
cmplnc w th blt plns pt tgthr by vrs
fnncl nstttns ctng n cncrt.
By th rly tw nty-frst cntry, th bnk hs
grw n sbstntlly frm ts mdst bgnnngs t bcm
sgnfcnt fctr fr cnmc dvncmnt
nd stblztn n s. ts mmbrshp hs grw n t
nrly sxty ntns, nd t mntns ffcs n frtn
cntrs. ts mplys nmbr mr thn tw
thsnd, sm f w hm r dstrbtd n lcl lsn
ffcs tht spplmnt th frml brnch strctr
f th bnk. ts nnl lns pprch $6 blln,
mst f w hch hs bn lnt t pblc ntts n s
fr vrs prjcts md t llvtng pvrty r prmtng
sstnbl grw th n nw r xstng ndstrs
tht mght bnft lrg sctrs f th ppltn.
Ths sm s rltvly mdst w hn cmprd w th
cptl md vlbl frm prvt lndrs bt stll fr
frm nsgnfcnt. n ddtn, th bnk cts s rsrc
fr sclgcl nd fnncl schlrshp n
prblms nd pprtnts mng mmbr cmpns.
ts pblshng hs s prm src fr nfrmtn
n cntmprry trnds n sn cnms.
Rbrt K. Whln
Frthr Rdng
sn Dvlpmnt Bnk. (1978) Rrl s: Chllng nd
pprtnty. Nw Yrk: Prgr.
Chw , C. Y., nd Bts Glls, ds. (2000) Wthrng th
Strm: Twn, ts Nghbrs, nd th sn Fnncl Crss.
Wshngtn, DC: Brkngs nstttn Prss.
SN DVLPMNT BNK
Dtt, Ntsh K. (1997) "Th ntd Stts nd th sn Dvlpmnt
Bnk." Jrnl f Cntmprry s 97: 71–84.
McLd, Rss H., nd Rss Grnt, ds. (1998) st s
n Crss: Frm Bng Mrcl t Ndng n? Lndn:
Rtldg.
SN DSPR. S Chns, vrss;
Krns, vrss; Rfgs—Sth s
SN CNMC CRSS F 1997 By
"sn crrncs" n nrmlly mns ths f Jpn
nd f th frmr sn "tgr" cntrs—Kr
(w n), Chn (yn), Hng Kng (dllr), Tw n
(dllr), th Phlppns (ps), Thlnd (bht),
Mlys (rnggt), Sngpr (dllr), nd ndns
(rph)—ll f whch hv bn strngly mpctd by
th prfnd crrncy nd bnkng crss tht hs
grppd s nd mch f th w rld snc 1997. t
bgn n th smmr f tht yr w th th dcsn f
dsprt Th gvrnmnt t flt th bht ftr
xhstv ffrts t spprt t n th fc f svr
fnncl vrxtnsn tht ws n prt rl-stt drvn.
t snk lk rck nd tk Thlnd w th t. t
th tm Thlnd hd cqrd brdn f frgn
dbt tht md th cntry ffctvly bnkrpt vn
bfr th cllps f ts crrncy. Th drstclly
rdcd mprt rnngs tht rsltd frm th frcd
dvltn thn md qck r vn mdm-tr m
rcvry mpssbl w tht strns ntrntnl
ntrvntn.
Fr m Thlnd, cntgn qckly sprd sth, ll
bt clsng dw n th ndnsn cnmy nd svrly
mpctng th Mlysn. n ndns, w hch
ws prtclrly hrd t, t rsltd n th 1998 fll f
ndns’s Shrt, w hs pwr hd nc smd
prmnnt fxtr. ls svrly mpctd, nc th
cntgn trnd nrth, ws Kr, w hch sffrd
fnncl mltdw n cmprbl t ths f Thlnd
nd ndns. n Hng Kng, w hch hd th dbs
bnft f stbl crrncy pggd t th dllr nd
th spprt f Chn, th crrncy nd bnkng systm
srvvd bt t th cst f mjr rcssn. n
th Phlppns grw th drppd t vrtlly zr n
1998. nly Sngpr nd Tw n prvd rltvly
nsltd frm th shck, bt bth sffrd srs hts
n pssng, th frmr mr s d t ts sz nd ggrphcl
lctn btw n Mlys nd ndns.
vn bfr th crss, Jpn hd bn n stt f
prfnd rcssn d t hghly nffcnt bnkng
systm lbrng ndr mntns f bd dbt, mch
f whch p t tht pnt hd bn rltvly nvsbl
bcs f th stblshd Jpns bnkng prctc
f hdng th lsss f mjr cstmrs. Th rppl ffct
ltmtly sprd t Brzl nd thrtnd t tk
Ltn mrc dw n lk hs f crds, t. f t
hd flln, th ntd Stts mght w ll hv bn
plld dw n s wll.
dntfyng th Css
Th css f th dbcl r mny nd dsptd.
Clrly Thlnd ws n cnmc ctstrph w tng
t hppn w th n cnmy tht ws lttl mr
thn bbbl fld by "ht mny," tht s, shrttrm
cptl flw tht s xpnsv nd ftn hghly
cndtnd (fr qck prft), nd w th mr nd
mr rqrd s th sz f th bbbl grw . Mch
th sm cn b sd f Mlys, lthgh Mlys
hd bttr pltcl ldrshp, nd ndns, w th th
ddd cmplctn f w ht hs bn clld "crny
cptlsm." Dvlpmnt mny w nt n lrgly ncntrlld
mnnr t crtn ppl nly, nt prtclrly
th bst std r mst ffcnt, bt ths
clsst t th cntrs f pwr. n Kr, n th hst
t bld grt, Jpns-styl cnglmrts t tk n
th w rld, Krns frgt tht th prps f cptl
nvstmnt n bsnss s ltmtly t nsr rtrn
nd prftblty. Th grt Krn cnglmrts,
mr r lss cmpltly cntrlld by th
gvrnmnt, s mply bsrbd mr nd mr cptl
nd nvr lkd bck.
thr fctrs wr glblztn, n ths cs, th
sprd f mrcn- nd rpn-styl cptlsm t
th ntr w rld ftr th nd f th Cld Wr,
whthr th wrld ws rdy fr t r nt, nd cnmc
shfts tht hv md mch f th trdtnl
sn pprch t bsnss bslt. n sch shft
hs bn th mv t mrchndsng n w hch th cnsmr,
nt th prdcr, dtrmns th prdct, cntrry
t rcnt Jpns nd Krn prctc. nthr
lngr-trm nflnc hs bn th chngng rltnshp
btw n th ntd Stts nd Jpn, w th
th ntd Stts n lngr pnly spprtng th
hghly rtfcl trd nvrnmnt nd xchng rts
tht gvrnd cnmc rltns btw n th tw
cntrs fr lmst fr dcds ftr Wrld Wr .
ntrntnl Rspns
Sch ws th scp nd th svrty f th cllpss
nvlvd tht tsd ntrvntn, cnsdrd by th
Mlysns, mng thrs, s nw knd f clnlsm,
bcm rgntly ndd. Snc th cntrs
mltng dw n wr mng nt nly th rchst n thr
rgn, bt n th wrld, nd snc hndrds f bllns
f dllrs wr t stk, ny rspns t th crss
hd t b cprtv nd ntrntnl, n ths cs
SN DSPR
thrgh th ntrntnl Mntry Fnd (MF). Th
MF crtd srs f blt pckgs fr th mst
ffctd cnms, tyng th pckgs t rfrms tht
wr ntndd t mk th rstrd sn crrncy,
bnkng, nd fnncl systms s mch lk ths f
th ntd Stts nd rp s pssbl.
bv ll, cptl hd t b dmnstrd dmcrtclly
n th ftr, wth n fvrd prts rcvng
fnds by prfrnc. Thr hd t b dqt
gvrnmnt cntrls st p t sprvs ll fnncl
ctvts, ns tht wr t b ndpndnt, n thry,
f prvt ntrst. nslvnt nstttns hd t b
clsd, nd nslvncy tslf hd t b clrly dfnd.
n shrt, xctly th sm knds f fnncl nstttns
fnd n th ntd Stts nd rp hd t b crtd
n ndns, Kr, nd lsw hr, s prc fr
MF spprt. n ddtn, fnncl systms hd t bcm
"trnsprnt," tht s, prvd th knd f rlbl
fnncl nfrmtn sd n th Wst t mk
snd fnncl dcsns. N mr mssv lsss ndr
th tbl, s n Jpn, r lns ff th bks.
lthgh sch rfrms w r, n mst css, lng
ndd, th cntrs mst nvlvd—Kr, Thlnd,
nd ndns—hv ndd p ndrgng n lmst
cmplt pltcl nd fnncl rstrctrng.
Thy hv sffrd prmnnt crrncy dvltns,
mssv nmbrs f bnkrptcs, cllpss f whl
sctrs f nc-bmng cnms, rl stt bsts,
hgh nmply mnt, nd scl nrst. vn th
Phlppns, w hch cm thrgh th strm lss dmgd
thn thr cnms, hs ls hd t sffr svr
MF ntrvntn, w hl Mlys hs w lld tslf
ff frm th w rld nd gn ts w n wy (nly Sngpr,
wth ts rgd cntrl systm, nd Chn nd
Hng Kng, sltd frm th tr ml by th cntrls
f th Chns crrncy systm, hv cm thrgh
th strm rltvly nffctd). Fr mst f th cntrs
nvlvd, MF ntrvntn hs bn bttr pll
fr whch th ntrntnl gncy hs bn rndly
crtczd nd bttr pll tht my r my nt rslt
n th rgnl rnw l th MF xpcts.
ssssmnt
Th stry f sn crrncs rcntly hs bn th
stry f th dcln nd fll r nr-fll f th sn
"tgrs," bt thr prblms r by n mns nq
t thm, nd th rcnt crss my b jst th frst f
mny. Th ntd Stts, fr xmpl, hs hd ts w n
fnncl bbbl fld by cnsmr dbt nd vrprcd
stcks (lthgh th rpd dprctn f mny
stck vls rcntly hs nw rdcd ths dngr),
nd .S. mltdw n cld nvlv mny f th rcvrng
sn stts (spclly Kr) n nw rnd
f cllps, ncldng, ths tm, sm tht wr rltvly
sprd by th lst crss. Ths spctr ws rsd
gn ftr 11 Sptmbr 2001, w hn th cnmc
rppls f th shck nd .S. rcssn wr flt s fr
fld s Mngl.
Chn, w hch kpt tslf bv th fry n 1997 nd
1998, dpnds hvly n trd w th th ntd Stts
nd sffrs frm nrms fnncl w knsss, ncldng
prmtv nd nffcnt bnkng systm w th
t mny bd lns, lvng sd th ss f pblc
sctr tht s jst t bg nd t nffcnt. nthr
cs f cntgn my b Rss, w hch hs
bsrbd msss f d fnds, ncldng ggntc MF
lns. lthgh cnmc grw th hs rsmd gn
ndr Ptn, th cnmy rmns frgl, nd Rssn
mltdw n wld tk mch f rp w th t—
nd rp, w th th ntd Stts, s mjr fndr
f th MF. Dprvd f mst f ts fnds, th MF
wld thn b nbl t ntrvn n vn mnr
sn stt wth crrncy r thr fnncl prblms.
Pl D. Bll
Frthr Rdng
ntrntnl Mntry Fnd. (2001) "Th ntrntnl
Mntry Fnd Hmpg." Rtrvd 17 Dc mbr
2001, frm: http://www.mf.rg/xtrnl/ndx.htm.
Nlnd, Mrks, L-gng L, Shrmn Rbnsn, nd Zh
Wng. (1998) Glbl cnmc ffcts f th sn Crrncy
Dvltns. Plcy nlyss n ntrntnl cnmcs,
n. 56. Wshngtn, DC: nsttt fr ntrntnl
cnmcs.
Pmpl, T. J. (1999) Th Pltcs f th sn cnmc Crss.
thc, NY: Crnll nvrsty Prss.
Rs, Phlpp. (2000) Th sn Strm: s’s cnmc Crss
xmnd. Trns. by Ptr Strr. Bstn: Tttl.
SN GMS Th sn Gms r th mjr
Pn-sn sprts fstvl n w hch thlts frm nrly
ll sn ntns r llw d t cmpt. Bgnnng
n 1954 w th th scnd Gms, th Gms hv bn
hld vry fr yrs, n th yr mdwy btw n th
Smmr lympcs. Th Gms wr stblshd t
nd’s sggstn ftr Wrld Wr . Th frst
Gms w r hld n th ndn cptl f Nw Dlh
n 1951, w th nly lvn ntns sndng thlts nd
nly sx vnts (ll Wstrn n rgn): Jpn w s th
mjr cntndr. Snc thn, Wstrn sprts hv
dmntd th prgr m, lthgh ttmpts hv bn
md t dd ndgns sn sprts ncldng mrtl
rts nd th ndn prst sprt f kbbd. Jpn
wn th mst mdls frm th frst fstvl, sccss
tht cntnd ntl 1982 w hn Chn mrgd s th
mjr rgnl sprts pwr. Th Thrtnth sn
SN GMS
Gms w r hld frm 6 t 20 Dc mbr 1998 n
Bngkk, Thlnd. Thy wr th lrgst Gms t
dt, w th 9,469 thlts nd ffcls frm vr frtyn
ntns. nlk mny rlr Gms, thy wr
fr f mjr pltcl prblms n th sprt f ts
mtt: Frndshp Bynd Frntrs. n thr crrnt
frm, th sn Gms r th mjr ly mpc "tnp"
fstvl, w th mst wrld-clss thlts cmptng
n prprtn fr th lympcs.
dfnng ftr f th Gms fr mch f thr
hstry hs bn th ffct f pltcl cnflcts crss
nd bynd th rgn tht hv ftn rsltd n sm
ntns bng xcldd r rfsng t prtcpt n th
Gms. Fr xmpl, srl hs ftn bn xcldd
bcs f ts ts t th Wst; Tw n sffrd th
sm ft n 1962. Mnlnd Chns thlts dd nt
cmpt ntl 1974, nd rq w s brrd n 1990. Th
Gms hv ls bn sd by pltcl ldrs n th
hst ntn t bld ntnl prd nd t nhnc
thr w n nd thr ntn’s pwr n s nd bynd.
n 1962, Prsdnt Skrn f ndns sd th
Jkrt Gms t ssrt ndnsn ldrshp n th Thrd Wr ld, nd ngrd bth rvl nd nd th ntrntnl
lympc Cmmtt s rslt. Hs rspns
ws t fnd "Th Gms f th Nw ly
mrgng Frcs," w hch fndrd ftr hs pltcl
dms n 1965. Smlrly, fr th 1982 Gms, w hch
nd hstd, ndr Gndh spnt nrly $1 blln t
cnstrct nw sprts fclts, nd th Sth Krn
gvrnmnt crtd gvrnmnt mnstry fr sprts
whn t hstd th 1988 Gms. Tht ctn hlpd
t mk Sth Kr lgtmt pw r n svrl
sprts. t th sm tm, Kr w s crtczd fr ts
rprssn f stdnt prtstrs drng th Gms.
n ddtn t th sn Gms, thr r svrl
thr mjr rgnl sprts fstvls n s. Th lrgst
s th Sthst sn Gms, bnnl fstvl fr th
ntns f Sthst s. Th frst ght fstvls (p
t nd ncldng 1975) w r clld th Sthst sn
Pnnsl Gms. Snc 1977, ntns frm tsd th
pnnsl hv prtcptd s w ll. ls mprtnt r
th st sn Gms nd th rcntly ngrtd
Wst sn Gms, w hch wr frst hld n Thrn,
rn, n Nv mbr f 1997. s w th th sn Gms,
mst sprts r Wstrn lympc sprts nd th fstvls
r nw mr bt prprng thlts fr ntrntnl
cmpttn thn ntn bldng.
Dvd Lvnsn
Frthr Rdng
Trvthck, ln. (1996) "sn Gms." n ncyclpd f
Wrld Sprt: Frm ncnt Tms t th Prsnt, dtd by
Dvd Lvnsn nd Krn Chrstnsn. Snt Brbr,
C: BC- Cl, 56–59.
SN GMS
NDGNS SPRTS
T TH SN GMS
Pr mtng sn cltr s n f th gls f
th sn Gms nd tw rd tht nd n ffrt
s md t ncld ndgns sprts. n sch
sprt s spk tkrw (knw n s ftbg n th
wst), dscrbd blw s t ws plyd n
Brms vllgs n th lt 1800s.
vry cmmn ms mnt mngst Br mns,
rrr mngst Tlng nd stll rrr
mngst Krng, s gm f bll clld
khy-ln. Th bll s md f pn wckrwrk
nd s strck wth th sl f th ft,
th lbw r ny prt f th bdy xcpt th
ts nd hnds. Thr r n sds bt hlf
dzn lds r mn jn nd stndng n
rng ndvr t kp th bll ff th grnd,
ny n nr w hm t dscnds strkng t
pw rds.
Src: Gzttr f Brm. (1983) Nw
Dlh: Cltrl Pblshng Hs, 394.
9
HST CTS F
TH SN GMS
1951—Nw Dlh (nd)
1954—Mnl ( Phlppns)
1958—Tky (Jpn)
1962—Jkrt (ndns)
1966—Bngkk (Thlnd)
1974—Thrn (rn)
1982—Nw Dlh (nd)
1986—Sl (Kr)
1990—Bjng (Chn)
1994—Hrshm (Jpn)
2002—Psn (Sth Kr)
9
Wgnr, rc . (1989) Sprt n s nd frc: Cmprtv
Hndbk. Nw Yrk: Grnw d.
SN–CHRSTN RLGS DLG
Fr cntrs Chrstnty nd th rlgns
f s xstd wth lttl r n mtl cntct
r gnn dlg. Thr w s nt vn dsr
fr dlg, f by "dlg" s mnt rspctfl,
mpthtc cnvrstn md t ndrstndng th
thr rlgn s t ndrstnds tslf . Sch dlg
wld vn prmt prtcpnts t b chngd by w ht
thy lrnd. ntl rcntly cntcts btwn rlgns
wr mr mnlgc thn dlgc, mr md t
cnvrsn r dbtng thn mtl ndrstndng.
Sm rly cntcts dd tk plc. Jst mssnrs
frm rp, sch s d Nbl, Rcc, nd Frncs
Xvr, brght th Chrstn mssg t nd,
Chn, nd Jpn. Thy rspctd th trdtnl cltrs
thy ncntrd nd sght t ntrprt Chrstn
thlgy thrgh th lns f lcl rlgs
trdtns. Mr cmmnly, hwvr, Chrstn mssnrs
dsmssd th cltrs nd rlgns thy ncntrd,
prclmng tht Chrstn blfs shld
b ndrstd n th cntxt f rpn cltr—
n pprch nmcl t thntc dlg.
Th sn rlgns f Hndsm, Bddhs m, nd
Tsm r nhrntly tlrnt f vrty f rlgns,
tndng nt t clm tht ny n s th sl pth t
trth, slvtn, r lbrtn. Chrstnty s dffrnt;
t s rlgn f rthdxy (rght blf) mphszng
th prcs prpstnl xprssn f thlgcl
trths. slm, w hch s n strn rlgn n tht mst
f ts dhrnts lv n th Mddl st nd s, s
ls rlgn f rthdxy, bt Chrstn-Mslm dlg
wll nt b dscssd n ths rtcl.
n st nd Sth s, bndrs btw n rlgns
cld b crssd, llw ng prtcptn n th
blfs nd prctcs f mr thn n rlgn. n th
Wst, hw vr, th bndrs rnd prtclr rlgn
tnd t prcld prtcptn n ny thr.
rpn prslytzng n s ctlly cnvrtd
vry fw, nd Chrstnty rmns sttstclly smll
prsnc thr t ths dy. sn rlgns r, hwvr,
grw ng rpdly n th Wst thrgh mmgrtn nd
cnvrsn, lthgh dhrnts f sn rlgns stll
mk p s mll prcntg f th ppltn.
Prld t Dlg
Dlg btw n st nd Sth sn rlgns
nd Chrstnty frmlly bgn t th 1893 Wrld’s
Clmbn xpstn n Chcg w th th Wrld’s
Prlmnt f Rlgn. Whl mst prtcpnts wr
frm th Wst, sn rlgs trdtns wr rprsntd.
t w s rdcl fr th tms nd gv nw scl
nd ntllctl rspctblty t ll r lgns nvlvd.
Mny vnts nd ndvdls n th nntnth cntry
md th Prlmnt ntllctlly pssbl.
Wstrn clnlsm nd th pnng f Jpn xpsd
th Wst t th hstrs, cltrs, nd rlgns f
s. Fstr trvl nd cmmnctn gmntd
st-Wst cntcts, s dd crtn mnt f mmgrtn,
prtclrly frm st t Wst, fld by
grw ng Wstrn cnms, spclly tht f th
ntd Stts.
Mr fndmntlly, th ntd Stts sw th mrgnc
f rlgs nd ntllctl mv mnts thr nflncd
by r cmptbl w th spcts f sn thght.
s dssmntd by Rlph Wld mrsn (1803–1882)
nd Hnry Dvd Thr (1817–1862), Trnscndntlsm
clmd ssctn w th ncnt ds cnnctd
wth Hndsm nd Bddhs m, ds sch s th dvnty
r nfntd f ch prsn. lthgh prmrly
phlsphcl nd ltrry rctn t th prcvd lmttns
f th nlghtnmnt w th ts rtnl nd mprcl
bs, Trnscndntlsm ws dply nflncd by
nw ly trnsltd sn rlgs txts.
thr mrcn mvmnts ls cntrbtd t
clmt fvrng dlg. Thsphy (dvn w sdm)—
ssctd wth Hln Blvtsky (1831–1891),
Hnry Stl lctt (1832–1907), nd th fndng f
th Thsphcl Scty n Nw Yrk Cty n 1875—
tght tht th dvn mst b drctly xprncd t
b knw bl. Bhnd Thsphy ly rng f hstrcl,
phlsphcl, mystcl, nd rlgs nflncs,
t th hrt f whch ws th sprtl hrtg
f nd s fnd n th rly Vds, th pnshds,
nd ltr w rtngs. Bddhsm nd Ts m ls cntrbtd
t th cntnt f Thsphy. Nw Thght,
prpsd by Phns Qmby (1802–1866), lkw s
tght th nfntd f th ndvdl, bt mntnd
tht vl nd llnss wr mnfsttns f wrng
thnkng nd lck f sprtl nsght. Whl nflncd
by Pltnsm, Sw dnbrgnsm, phlsphcl
dlsm, nd mrcn Trnscndntlsm, mn
src f Nw Thght ws ncnt Hndsm, spclly
ts mnstc ndrstndng f ltmt rlty.
Th nw vlblty f sn rlgs txts n
trnsltn llw d sn rlgns t hv n nflnc.
prm src f sch txts ws th wrk f th
Grmn rntlst nd phllgst Mx Müllr
(1823–1900). Müllr pblshd trnsltns f mprtnt
Vdc txts nd btw n 1879 nd 1904 dtd
ffty-n-vlm srs nttld Th Scrd Bks f
SN- CHRSTN RLGS DLG
th st. Th nglsh schlr T. W. Rhys Dvds
(1843–1922) nd hs Pl Txt Scty md Thrvd
Bddhst txts vlbl t cmplmnt vlbl
Mhyn Bddhst txts.
Tw frthr schlrly dvlpmnts wr ls vtl:
bblcl crtcsm nd th nw fld f cmprtv
stdy f rlgn. Bblcl crtcsm tk vrs mdrn
crtcl mthdlgs tht w r ppld t ncnt
txts nd sd thm n stdyng th Bbl s hstrcl
nd ltrry wrtng. Ths pprch trtd th
Bbl nd sn rlgs txts lk s bjcts f cdmc
nvstgtn, skng smlrts nd dffrncs
btw n thm n cntxt, prps, s, nd
mnng. Th cdmc stdy f rlgn mrgd n
th nntnth cntry s n ntrdscplnry mns
fr ntrcltrl stdy f th ntntns, mnngs,
strctrs, nd ds f rlgn. Ths ncldd srch
fr th rgns bth f rlgn nd f th rng f
myths fnd n ll rlgns—strtng pnts fr dscssn
btw n sn nd Wstrn rlgns.
Th rpd nd vrw hlmng sccss f scnc nd
tchnlgy n th nntnth cntry ws ls fctr
ntng dffrnt rlgns. ll fths wr chllngd
by sss sch s th ntr f th csms, th
src f knw ldg nd th mns f knw ng rlty,
hmn vls nd th sgnfcnc f th ndvdl,
nd th w rth f ncnt rlgs wsdm.
Twrd th nd f th cntry th cmncl
mv mnt rs w thn Prtstntsm t ttmpt t
rvrs dnmntnl splntrng nd sk cprtn
nd vn rnfctn mng dffrnt chrchs.
n th tw ntth cntry cmnsm xpndd t nvlv
Rmn Cthlcsm nd strn rthdxy.
Ths cmncl dspstn ffctd hw nd why dlg
rs btwn sn nd Wstrn rlgns.
Dlg Bgns
Th 1893 Wrld’s Prlmnt f Rlgn—rcgnzd
s pchl t th tm—w s pssbl nly bcs
f rlr hstrcl, cltrl, nd ntllctl
dvlpmnts n th nntnth cntry. t th pnng,
Sw m Vvknnd (1863–1902), Hnd frm
nd, hld th sprt f tlrnc nd plrlsm mbdd
n th gthrng. Rbb ml Hrsch f Sn
Tmpl, Chcg, nd th hgh prst f th Shnt
rlgn n Jpn, th Rt. Rv. R. Shbt, bth prsd
th rslts f th Prlmnt.
Prfssr Mx Müllr rgrttd mssng th Prlmnt.
Jbz Sndrlnd (1842–1936), ntrn
nvrslst wh ttndd th Prlmnt, ntd ts
sgnfcnc. Tw ntth-cntry cmmnttrs n th
Prlmnt cntnd t s t s pvtl n st-Wst
dlg. Th Wstrn schlr Crl Jcksn sd tht
ftr mrsn spk hghly f strn rlgns, srs
f vnts nd mvmnts gv sn rlgns
grw ng prmnnc n th Wst tht rchd pnncl
t th 1893 Prlmnt.
Wrld Wr shttrd th nntnth-cntry blf
n nvtbl scl vltn pw rd by scntfc
nd tchnlgcl prgrss. Jst s th pstwr
vsn f Lg f Ntns fltrd, s dd th cll
f th rlgn schlr Rdlph tt (1869–1937) fr
n ntr-Rlgs Lg. Nvrthlss, th Wrld
Cngrss f Fths strtd n th 1930s, nd thr ws
Wrld llnc f Rlgns n th 1950s. Th gncd
f rpn Jwry drng Wrld Wr md
t bvs tht n spt f mdrn scntfc dvncs,
rlgs htrd cld stll b sd t jstfy sttsnctnd
mrdr. Th cmncl mv mnt ntnsfd,
nd th Rmn Cthlc Chrch’s Vtcn
Cncl xprssd pstv tttd twrd sn
rlgns nd th nd fr dlg nd ndrstndng
btw n Wstrn rlgns nd ths f th st.
Ky ndvdls hghtnd th dsr fr ntrrlgs
dlg. Mhnds ( Mhtm) Gndh (1869–
1948), dvt Hnd w h prctcd nnvlnt ppstn
t th Brtsh rl f nd, ws dply drwn
t lmnts f th Chrstn gspls, spclly Jss’
Srmn n th Mnt. H sd tht thr w ld nt
rlly b pc n th w rld ntl thr w s pc
mng th rlgns. D. T. Szk (1870–1966),
Jpns Bddhst, wrkd fr yrs t ntrdc Bddhsm—
prtclrly Zn—t th Wst. Th fth f
th mrcn Chrstn mnk Thms Mrtn (1915–
1968) w s prfndly ffctd by hs dvlpng ndrstndng
f sn rlgns, spclly Bddhsm.
Whl n th trp t s drng w hch h nxpctdly
dd, Mrtn hd trnsfrmtv rlgs xprnc
t Bddhst shrn n Sr Lnk nd hd
wrm mtngs w th th Dl Lm, th ldr f Tbtn
Bddhsm. Th Dl Lm hs dvctd
st–Wst dlg fr dcds nd s n f th fw
nvrsl vcs f cmpssn nd mrl vsn lstnd
t n bth s nd th Wst.
Mn Tpcs f th Dlg
mn prps f th dlg hs bn t fnd
wys fr rlgns cllctvly t prmt pc, jstc,
nd rdctn f hmn sffrng. Th dlg
hs ls ddrssd ntllctl nd thlgcl tpcs,
frm th mnng f th ltmt/Gd, th tr slf,
thcl vls, nd slvtn/lbrtn, t mystcl xprnc
nd th ndrstndng f th scrd n sclr,
scntfc g.
SN- CHRSTN RLGS DLG
Whl Hnds m’s vw f th ltmt hs bn
thght f s ncrprtng spcts f bth plythsm
nd mnthsm, t ctlly tnds mr tw rd
mns m, r blf n snglr, ll-prvdng rlty
clld Brhm. Hnds m sys tht Brhm s rlly bynd
ll hmn ctgrs f thght nd s nffbl.
Th ndvdl slf, clld tmn, s sn s n w th
Brhm, nd hmn lf s th pssg bynd gnrnc
f n’s tr dntty s dvn. Th rncrntn
cycl s bsd pn krm, r ctn— nvrsl mrl
lw bsd pn n’s qlty f vrt nd nsght n
skng lbrtn frm th cycl f brth nd dth.
Ths cycl nds wth th fll rlztn f n’s dvnty
(mks).
Bddhsm dvlpd t f Hnds m nd c m t
s tht thr s n ndrng, sprt slf (tchng
f th n-slf , r ntt). wrnss f ths, r w knng,
frs n frm th cycl f sffrng tht blf
n prmnnt slf mks nvtbl. Ths frdm s
clld nrvn r th xtngshng f crvngs, spclly
th crvng t b n tnms slf. s n Hndsm,
rlgs xprnc nd mdttn r vtl t
sprtl grw th, lng w th cmpssn nd dvtn
t th scrdnss f xstnc.
Tsm, w th ts mphss pn th Wy f ntr
(th T), smplcty, hrmny w th th ntrl w rld,
nnctv ctn (ww), nd spntnty, hs ttrctd
th ttntn f th Wst, bt hs nt xplctly
prtcptd n ntrrlgs dlg thr thn
t gv nw prspctvs pn wsdm fr lvng.
Th vry dffrnt vws f Hndsm, Bddhs m,
nd Ts m n th n hnd nd Chrstnty n th
thr mk fr ntrstng dlg. Chrstnty rjcts
th ntn f rncrntn n fvr f thstc
ntrprttn f th ltmt s crtr Gd. Whl
bng th crtv src f hmn lf nd th slf,
Gd nd th hmn slf rmn dstnct ntts. hmn
slf s thght t ndr; slvtn s th ctn
f Gd n frng ppl t b flly thmslvs n th
dvn prsnc.
Mr gnrlly, th ntrrlgs dlg hs hd
t grppl w th th dffrnc btwn th st nd
Sth sn fcs n nthngnss nd mptnss s sgnfcnt
spcts f rlty nd th Wstrn fcs n bng
nd fllnss s cntrl. r th dffrncs rl r
pprnt? Dlg mks clr w hch dffrncs cnnt
b glssd vr nd whr thr r cmmnlts.
Prspctvs nd Prspcts
Th sn-Chrstn ntrrlgs dlg hs
hghlghtd vrs tttds twrd rlgn tslf nd
ts clms. xclsvsm hlds tht n’s w n rlgn,
r nly n rlgn, s vld nd s th pth t trth.
nclsvsm tnds t dvct syncrtsm—th dvlpmnt
f nvrsl rlgn shpd by ll ndvdl
rlgns—r t clm tht n’s w n rlgn s
xpnsv ngh t ssmlt r cnstrctvly ccpt
thr rlgs pths. thrd prspctv s rlgs
plrlsm, w hch mntns th vl f thr
rlgns w tht dmnshng thr th cntrlty r
hstrcl, thlgcl nqnss f n’s wn. n
rspcts thr rlgns nd sks t lrn frm nd
ndrstnd thm mpthtclly.
Th cntnnl f th Wrld’s Prlmnt f Rlgn
ws bsrvd n 1993, gn n Chcg, t mrk
th smtms-drmtc dvlpmnts n sn-
Chrstn ntrrlgs dlg tht tk plc drng
th tw ntth cntry. s Hndsm, Bddhsm,
nd Ts m gn nflnc n th Wst, th Wst w ll
lrn nt nly thr w ys f sng, bt nw wys t
ndrstnd tslf. nd sn rlgns cn lrn frm
Chrstnty nt nly dffrnt ndrstndngs f th
ntr f th csms nd tm, bt ls hw t rntrprt
thmslvs n th cntmprry wrld.
ln ltny
Frthr Rdng
Cw rd, Hrld. (1990) Hnd-Chrstn Dlg: Prspctvs
nd ncntrs. Mryknll, NY: rbs.
Ksmw , Hrld, nd Byrn Shrw n, ds. (1999) Jhn Pl
nd ntrrlgs Dlg. Mryknll, NY: rbs.
Krnfld, Jck, t l., ds. (1998) Bddhsm n th Wst: Sprtl
Wsdm fr th Twnty-frst Cntry. Crlsbd, C:
Hy Hs.
Kng, Hns, nd Krl-Jsf Kschl, ds. (1993) Glbl
thc: Th Dclrtn f th Prlmnt f th Wrld’s Rlgns.
Nw Yrk: Cntnm.
Kng, Hns, Hnz Bchrt, Jsf Vn ss, nd Hnrch
Vn Sttncrn, ds. (1993) Chrstnty nd Wrld Rlgns:
Pths f Dlg wth slm, Hndsm, nd Bddhsm.
Mryknll, NY: rbs.
Th rgn Wb Ntw rk. (1996) "Th Dlg Dclg."
Rtrvd 12 Nvmbr 2001, frm: http://www
.slcm.cm/~rgn/sbcr/sbcr265.
Smrt, Nnn, nd B. Srnvs Mrthy, ds. (1996) st-
Wst ncntrs n Phlsphy nd Rlgn. Lng Bch,
C: Lng Bch Pblctns.
ntrn nvrslst Hstrcl Scty. (1999) "Th
Wrld’s Prlmnt f Rlgns." Rtrvd 12 Nv mbr
2001, frm: http://www3.dgnt.nt/fcrpntr/
prlm.html.
S–PCFC CNMC CPRTN
FRM Tdy, th s–Pcfc cnmc
Cprtn ( PC) frm s cmmnly
rfrrd t pjrtvly s "fr djctvs n srch f
S-PCFC CNMC CPRTN FRM
nn." Hstrclly, th PC frm ws fndd
s n nfrml mnstrl mtng f tw lv Pcfc
Rm cnms (strl, Brn, Cnd, ndns,
Jpn, Mlys, Nw Zlnd, th Phlppns, Sngpr,
Sth Kr, Thlnd, nd th ntd Stts)
mtng n Cnbrr, strl, n Nv mbr 1989.
Th strln pr m mnstr Bb Hw k nttd
th cll t crt th frmw rk fr th PC. n lght
f th ncrsng pc f rgnl cnmc ntrdpndnc,
th mnstrs cknw ldgd nd fr mr
cnslttns t hlp strngthn th mltltrl trdng
systm, t fstr grtr pprtnts fr rgnl
trd nd nvstmnt, nd t dntfy cmmn cnmc
ntrsts. Th mnstrl c mmnqé nd th
rprt f th chrmn (Grth vns, strln mnstr
fr frgn ffrs nd trd) hv prvdd sbstntl
scp fr n mbts prgrm. Dspt
sgnfcnt rslts n th rly mtngs f th PC
frm, th prspcts fr PC r nclr. Nvrthlss,
tw mjr dvlpmnts hv cmpltly
chngd PC.
n w s tht th frmr .S. prsdnt Bll Clntn
nvtd ll PC mmbrs t smmt n Sttl,
Wshngtn, n 1993 t dscss wrld cnmc sss,
sch s th rdctn f trd nd nvstmnt brrrs,
cnmc cprtn nd ntrdpndnc, nd th
xpnsn f th wrld cnmy nd spprt fr n
pn ntrntnl trdng systm. Snc thn, th
PC s mmt mtng hs bn hld yrly. Th thr
mjr dvlpmnt ws cnmc. t th 1994 mtng
n Bgr, ndns, PC st tslf th mbts
gl f chvng fr nd pn trd nd nvstmnt
mng PC mmbrs by 2010 fr dvlpd
cnms nd by 2020 fr dvlpng mmbrs.
By 2002, PC mmbrshp hd grw n t twntyn
cntrs (strl; Brn Drsslm; Cnd;
Chl; Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn; Hng Kng,
Chn; ndns; Jpn; Rpblc f Kr; Mlys;
Mxc; Nw Zlnd; Pp, Nw Gn; Pr;
Phlppns; Rss; Sngpr; Chns Tp; Thlnd;
ntd Stts; nd Vtnm). By th nd f th
tw ntth cntry, PC cnms hd c mbnd
grss dmstc prdct f vr $18 trlln, mr thn
hlf f th ttl wrld cnmy. Th PC Scrtrt
s lctd n Sngpr nd hs n ffcl w bst
(www.pcsc.rg.sg/bdy.htm). nmbr f
PC mmbrs hv crtd thr wn wbsts, ncldng
Cnd (www.dft-mc.gc.c/cnd-pc),
Chn (www.pc-chn.rg.cn), Nw Zlnd
(www.pc.gvt.nz), nd th ntd Stts (http://snf.
stt.gv/rgnl//pc/).
lthgh th PC s mmt mtng slly fcss
n cnmc sss, t th 17–18 ctbr 2001
mtng n Shngh th glbl pltcl gnd, ncldng
nttrrrst ctvts, ws ls ddrssd.
Dspt th vnts f 11 Sptmbr 2001 n th
ntd Stts, th .S. prsdnt Grg W. Bsh
ttndd ths smmt. PC’s cndmntn f trrrst
cts ws ncldd n th cmmnqé f th
smmt.
PC mmbrs, hw vr, hv thr dsgrmnts.
Pr m Mnstr Mhthr f Mlys, fr xmpl,
prpsd tht n st s cnmc Ccs
(C) md p nly f st sn ntns mt. Th
ntd Stts strngly bjctd t ths prpsl.
Mrvr, rpn cntrs cnsdrd thr ntrsts
nrprsntd by PC. Cmpttn btw n
th tw cntnnts (Nrth mrc nd Wstrn rp)
vr s hs scltd. n Mrch 1996, rp
nd st s ngrtd th SM (s–rp
Mtng) n Bngkk, Thlnd. Bth th PC nd
th SM rprsnt ttmpts by th stt plcy-mkng
lts f st s t cnsldt th chnnls f
cnmc nd pltcl c mmnctn w th th thr
tw dvlpd rgns f th wrld.
nry Sgnm
Frthr Rdng
bggln, Jms. (1994) S Chng: Pcfc s s th Nw
Wrld ndstrl Cntr. Nw Yrk: Fr Prss.
ggrw l, Vnd K., nd Chrls dwrd Mrrsn, ds.
(1998) s Pcfc Crssrds: Rgm Crtn nd th Ftr
f PC. Nw Yrk: Plgrv.
s-Pcfc cnmc Cprtn ( PC) Scrtrt.
(2000) PC Gttng Rslts fr Bsnss. Sngpr:
PC.
S-PCFC CNMC CPRTN FRM
Sngpr Pr m Mnstr Gh Chk Tng, Thlnd Pr m
Mnstr Thksn Shnw tr, nd . S. Prsdnt Grg
W. Bsh t th PC s mmt n ctbr 2001 n Shngh,
Chn. Th ky sss wr trrrsm nd trd. (RTRS
NWMD NC./CRBS)
Grnt, Rchrd L., ms . Jrdn, rnst H. Prg, nd
Jsf Wnnd. (1990) s Pcfc cnmc Cprtn:
Th Chllng hd. Wshngtn, DC: Cntr fr Strtgc
nd ntrntnl Stds.
Hggtt, Rchrd. (1998) "Th Pcfc nd Bynd: PC,
SM, nd Rgnl cnmc Mngmnt." n cnmc
Dynmsm n th s-Pcfc: Th Grwth f ntgrtn
nd Cmpttvnss, dtd by Grhm Thmpsn.
Lndn: Rtldg.
Lw rnc, Rbrt, lbrt Brssnd, nd Tktsh t.
(1996) Vsn fr th Wrld cnmy: pnnss, Dvrsty,
nd Chsn. Wshngtn, DC: Brkngs nstttn.
Rlnd, Jrgn, d. (2002) s-Pcfc cnmc Cprtn
(PC): Th Fnl Dcd. Rchmnd, .K.: Crzn.
STC SCTY F JPN mng th
vrs lrnd scts tht sprng p n s t th
nd f th nntnth nd thrght th tw ntth
cntry, th mst ctv nd prstgs hs bn th
stc Scty f Jpn. Th scty ws stblshd
n Ykhm n 1872 nd hs cntnd ts wrk dspt
fnncl nd thr dffclts, vrcmng vn
th rdl f th Pcfc Wr. n 1997, th scty’s
125th nnvrsry ws clbrtd n Tky n th prsnc
f fr prncs f th Jpns mprl fmly.
Th scty ws fndd by grp f lrnd nd
ddctd frgnrs, mnly Brtsh. n th crs f
tm, hw vr, mmbrshp xpndd t ncld thr
frgnrs s wll s svrl Jpns. Th scty s
nw pn t ll ppl w h r ntrstd n stdyng
nd dssmntng Jpns cltr n cnnctn w th
thr sn cltrs.
Th scty hs lw ys hd tw mn pllrs f ctvty:
mnthly lctrs by dstngshd spkrs fllw d
by dscssns, nd th pblctn n nglsh
f wdly cclmd cdmc jrnl, Trnsctns f
th stc Scty f Jpn.
cncl, lctd by th mmbrs vry yr, vrs
spclzd cmmtts, nd th brd f dtrs
f Trnsctns r th drvng frc f th scty.
mnthly blltn hlps t kp mmbrs n Jpn nd
brd n tch w th n nthr nd w th th vrs
vnts nd pblctns.
Th nms f th scty’s pst prsdnts rd s
knd f w h’s wh f rly Wstrn schlrs f Jpn:
Rbrt Grnt Wtsn, Jn C. Hpbrn, Wllm G.
stn, Bsl Hll Chmbrln, Sr rnst Stw , Sr
Chrls lt, Grg B. Snsm, Dr. Rbrt Hs
vn Glk, nd mny thrs.
n th rly 2000s, th scty fcd fnncl dffclts
s dnrs bcm scrc; t hd t rly n th
mdst mmbrshp f s th bsc src f rvn.
Nvrthlss, t hs srvvd nd cntns ts ddctn
t cdmc w rk.
Grg . Srs
Frthr Rdng
Knrck, Dgls Mr. (1978) " Cntry f Wstrn
Stds f Jpn." n Trnsctns f th stc Scty f
Jpn 3,14: 101–105, 353, 359–361.
SK (d. c. 232 BC), Mry mprr. sk,
r shk (n fll, skvrdhn), thrd mprr f
th Mry mpr (c. 325–180 BC), rld n nd
frm bt 269 t 232 BC. H w s ls th kng f
Mgd. Thr s mch fbl bt hs lf, n bth
Snskrt nd Pl srcs, nd th Bddhst txts n
prtclr pnt hs lf n glw ng mgs. H ws th
grndsn f th fndr f th Mryn mpr,
Chndrgpt, nd nly cm t th thrn hmslf,
t w s tld n Sr Lnkn srcs, by frst kllng ff
SK
w rshpr bfr th sk Stp n Ptn, Npl n 1996.
(MCDFF VRTN/CRBS)
nnty-nn f hs brthrs nd hlf-brthrs n wr.
H hd tw r mr qns nd svrl sns.
Hs mpr cvrd mst f th ndn sbcntnnt,
xcpt th fr sth, nd ws mrkd rchlgclly
by th crtn f svrl dzn dcts,
wrttn n Brhm scrpt, n rcks nd pllrs lctd
ll vr th cntry, mny f whch stll xst. Tw
fnd n fghnstn r n nthr lcl scrpt. Ths
nscrptns gv pctr f crng rlr wh wntd
t xtnd th lw nd th sns f dhrm t ll hs
sbjcts. lthgh hndrds f thsnds hd bn
klld n hs rly w rs wth th Klngs f strn nd,
n ltr lf h thr bcm Bddhst r t lst
spprtd thr mssnry ffrts. H dd s vn t
th xtnt, t s blvd, f sndng hs dghtr Snghmtr
nd hs sn Mhndr t ntrdc Bddhs m
t Sr Lnk.
sk’s dcts shw mch cncrn fr hs ppl,
cllng fr rlgs tlrnc nd fr rspct twrd
prnts, ldrs, prsts, nd mnks. H stblshd rst
hss fr trvlrs nd clncs fr sck ppl nd nmls
nd hd rdw ys plntd w th shd trs. H
s sd t hv gn n trs f hs rlm nd t hv
snt mssnrs t frgn lnds, vn t Syr nd
gypt. H md dntns nt nly t Bddhst scts
bt ls t thr rlgs rvls. sk s ls sd t
hv stblshd th mn ftrs f Bddhst plgrmg
by hvng st p thrght hs rlm 84,000
stps (rlqry mnds) n w hch rlc s f th Bddh
wr prsrvd, nd by frmltng th bsc tnrry
f plgrmg sts.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Gkhl, B. G. (1966) sk Mry. Nw Yrk: Tw yn.
Strng, Jhn S. (1983) Th Lgnd f Kng sk: Stdy nd
Trnsltn f th skvdn. Prnctn, NJ: Prnctn
nvrsty Prss.
SSM (2002 st. pp. 27.2 mlln). Wth n r
f 478,524 sqr klmtrs, ssm s th lrgst f
nd’s nrthstrn stts nd prdcs 60 prcnt f
nd’s t. t s cnnctd w th th rst f th cntry
by nrrw sbmntns crrdr btw n
Bhtn nd Bngldsh. Nmd frm th Snskrt
sm (prlss), ssm ffrs bty nd rch lgcy
f cvlztn. Hm t svrl dffrnt ppls—
strstc, Mngln, Drvdn, nd ryn—ssm
dvlpd cmpst cltr. Th stt s
dmntd by th rvr Brhmptr, w hs lsh 700-
klmtr vlly s sndw chd btwn th Hmlyn
fthlls t th nrth nd th hlls nd plt f
Mghly t th sth.
Th rly hstry f ssm s bscr. Th Mhbhrt
nd th Prns rfr t grt kngdm
knw n s Kmrp n ths rgn, rld by lgndry
kng Nrksr. Th frst rlbl dscrptn
f th kngdm w s tht f th Chns plgr m Xnzng,
wh n 640 ttndd th crt f Bhskrvrmn,
n lly f th Gpt mnrch Hrsh nd
ptrn f Hndsm. Stn nd cpprplt nscrptns
ndct sccssn f Hnd dynsts, bt ny
cntrlzd kngshp hd cllpsd nt ls cnfdrcs
f Hnd rjs by th rly thrtnth cntry.
Th hm kngs frm Mynmr (Br m) dptd
Hnds m nd prvdd ncrsng pw r nd prsprty,
clmntng ndr Kng Rdr Sngh (1696–
1714), th rnw nd mltry strtgst nd ptrn f
th brnj, r hm chrncls, w h stblshd n
xtnsv trd w th Tbt, rplsd svntn Mghl
nvsns, nd blt th grt cts f Nw gng nd
Rngpr. Hnds m rjctng th cst systm nd
bsd n cmmnty pryr ws sprd n mnstrs
tht bcm cntrs fr dnc, msc, nd mnscrpt
pntng. Th Brtsh vntlly drv t th
Mynmr nvdrs nd md th r prt f Brtsh
nd n 1826.
Fllw ng ndn ndpndnc n 1947, ssm
shrnk thrgh cssns t Pkstn nd th crtn
f nw stts nd trrtrs—n 1963, Nglnd; n
1972, Mghly; n 1986, rnchl Prdsh nd Mzrm.
Fr m th 1960s t th 1990s, ssm w s th
scn f rcrrnt rts nd vlnc by mnrty thnc
grps ncldng th Bd, Mz, Ngs, nd
Trpr, nd by th ssms gnst tsdrs, sch
s mmgrnts frm Bngldsh. Th ntd Lbrtn
Frnt prss th ndpndnc f ssm, nd
svrl mltnt Bd grps prmt sprt stt.
C. Rgr Dvs
Frthr Rdng
Brh, Snjb. (1999) nd gnst tslf: ssm nd th Pltcs
f Ntnlty. Phldlph: nvrsty f Pnnsylvn
Prss.
Mhnt, Prfll Kmr. (1986) Th Tssl btwn th Ctzns
nd Frgnrs n ssm. Nw Dlh: Vks.
SSMS ssms s smlr t th Bngl lngg
nd s n f th stt lnggs f nd. ssms
spkrs ccpy th prsnt stt f ssm,
whch ls n th mddl vlly f th Brhmptr
Rvr n nrthstrn nd. Bfr th g f xpl-
SSM
rtn th ssms wr th mst strly-dw llng
ppl w h spk n nd-rpn lngg. Th
ppltn f th stt f ssm ttls bt 22 mlln;
thr r bt 15 mlln ss ms (s f 1991),
s w ll s nmrs trbl grps nd rcnt mmgrnts
wh spk thr lnggs.
Th rgnl ssms w r hms frm th Shn
stts n strn Brm w h mgrtd frm Mynmr/
Brm n th thrtnth cntry, ftr whch thy
bgn t rl vr th Brhmptr vlly rgn.
"ssm" nd "hm" r vrnt nms fr th cntry.
Th hms mntnd chrncls f th mn
vnts tht ccrrd drng th rgn f ch rlr. n
1822 th rgn cm ndr Brtsh cntrl nd rmnd
s ntl 1947.
Th mjrty f ssms r Hnds, w h lv n
rrl sttngs n mltcst vllgs. ssms mstly
ngg n rc grcltr, lthgh t s th mprtnt
crp n th nghbrng hlls. Whl plythstc
Hnds m s th dmnnt rlgn, thr r ls gltrn
Hnd scts tht r mnthstc nd n w hch
mmbrshp s by nvttn. Hr, s n sm Prtstnt
chrchs, ppl ngg n cngrgtnl w rshp,
hv drct ccss t scrptrl rvltn, nd
blv n slvtn thrgh fth nd mystcl nn.
mng th ssms thr r ls mny Mslms nd
sm Bddhsts nd Chrstns.
Pl Hckngs
Frthr Rdng
Cntl, dry. (1984) Th ssms. Lndn: Crzn.
SSCTN F STH-ST SN
NTNS Th ssctn f Sth-st sn
Ntns (SN) w s stblshd n 7 gst 1967
by ndns, Mlys, th Phlppns, Sngpr,
nd Thlnd. Th rgnztn’s gls r splld t
n th SN Dclrtn, dptd n th s m dt.
SN w s frmd t prmt rgnl cllbrtn
n Sthst s nd, n s dng, t cntrbt
t pc, dvlpmnt, nd prsprty n th rgn.
Th rltns btw n th mmbr stts r gvrnd
by tw fndmntl dc mnts dptd n 1976: th
Trty f mty nd Cprtn n Sthst s
(TC, ls knw n s th Bl Trty) nd th Dclrtn
f SN Cncrd. Th cr lmnt f th
strctr f frml cllbrtn n SN s th nnl
SN Mnstrl Mtng, w hch hs bn rgnzd
by mmbr-stts n rttn bss snc th
stblshmnt f th ssctn. s cllbrtn n
SN hs xpndd, th nmbr f mtngs hs
cnsdrbly ncrsd, nd nw thr r hndrds f
mtngs ch yr n vrs fld f cprtn. n
1981, th SN Scrtrt w s stblshd, nd t
hs ssmd crdntng rl.
Frmtn
SN w s stblshd n 1967, bt t ws nt th
frst ttmpt t stblsh sbrgnl ssctn n
Sthst s. n 1961, th ssctn f Sthst
s (S) ws stblshd, brngng tgthr w ht
ws thn Mly, th Phlppns, nd Thlnd. n
1963, ndns, Mly, nd th Phlppns stblshd
MPHLND ( trm frmd frm th c mbnd
frst lttrs f th mmbr ntns’ nms) n n
ttmpt t pr mt cprtn mng th thr
cntrs. Cprtn w thn bth S nd
MPHLND w s srsly hmprd by th cnflcts
btw n Mlys nd ndns nd Mlys
nd th Phlppns, rspctvly, vr th frmtn
f Mlys n 1963. Th dcsn t crt SN
grw frm th ncssty t mng th rltns btw n
th fv fndng mmbrs.
Dvlpmnt
n 1967, SN’s xprssd gl w s t prmt
scl nd cnmc cprtn mng th mmbr
stts f th ssctn. Hw vr, t s gnrlly rcgnzd
tht SN hs chvd mr n tr ms f
cprtn n th pltcl nd scrty flds thn n
th cnmc fld. Thrgh systm f nfrml nd
frml mtngs btw n ldrs, mnstrs, nd snr
ffcls, th SN stts hv mngd t bld
cnfdnc, fmlrty, nd ndrstndng f th pstns
f n nthr n dffrnt sss. SN s
rnw nd fr ts dcsn-mkng prcss, w hch rqrs
tht ll dcsns b rchd by cnsnss. Prtclr
mphss hs bn pt n pr mtng nd
chvng rgnl rslnc—bsd n th ntrnl
rslnc f ch f th mmbr-stts—thrgh cnmc
dvlpmnt. Ths shld rslt n grtr pltcl
spprt fr th gvrnmnts nd ld t
nhncd pltcl stblty.
chvng hgh lvl f ntrctn, cprtn,
nd ndrstndng mng th rgnl mmbr stts
f SN w s grdl prcss nflncd by bth
ntr-SN dvlpmnts nd dvlpmnts n th
brdr Sthst sn rgn. Th cnflcts n Vtnm,
Ls, nd Cmbd nd th prgrss f th lf tst
frcs n th rly 1970s ldng t ttl vctry by
1975, cpl w th th grdlly dmnshng .S. nvlv mnt
nd thn ttl w thdrw l, crtd nw
sttn n Sthst s, brngng th prcvd
thrt f ntrntnl Cmmns m t th drstp f
SSCTN F STH-ST SN NTNS
SN mmbrs, prtclrly Thlnd. Th SN
cntrs rspndd t ths dvlpmnts by ssng
th Kl Lmpr Dclrtn n 27 Nv mbr 1971,
whch clld fr th crtn f Zn f Pc, Frdm,
nd Ntrlty (Z PFN) n Sthst s.
Th nxt stp cm n 24 Fbrry 1976 w th th
sgnng f th TC (w hch hd bn frmltd n rspns
t dvlpmnts n th rgn) nd th Dclrtn
f SN Cncrd (w hch grw frm th
vlvng ntr-SN cllbrtn drng th sclld
frmtv yrs f 1967 t 1976), n cnnctn
wth th frst SN Smmt n Bl.
SN hs ls chvd hgh dgr f sccss
n ts rltns w th cntrs tsd th ssctn.
Th strngth btnd frm ctng tgthr s n pltcl
frc stms frm cllctv stnd n mjr frgn
plcy sss. Th mst bvs xmpl s
SN’s sccss n gnng w dsprd ntrntnl
spprt fr ts stnd n th Cmbdn cnflct.
SN xprssd pn cndmntn f Vtnm’s
mltry ntrvntn n Cmbd, ttmptd t
scr ttl wthdrw l f Vtnms trps frm
tht cntry, nd spprtd Cmbdn grps ppsng
th Vtnm prsnc. n th pst-Cmbdncnflct
r, SN hs nttd tw mjr nttvs,
n ldng t th crtn f th SN Rgnl
Fr m (RF) nd th thr t th xpnsn f mmbrshp
n SN w thn th Sthst sn rgn.
Th RF grw t f n ncrsd wrnss
mng th SN stts tht thr w s nd fr
mltltrl frm t dscss scrty sss wthn th
brdr Pcfc sn cntxt s rslt f th nd f
th Cld Wr nd ndctns f rdctn n th
.S. mltry prsnc nd f ts cmmtmnt t st
nd Sthst s.
Th xpnsn f mmbrshp n SN n th
1990s (Brn hd lrdy jnd n 1984) grw t f
th rpprchmnt btw n SN nd th thr ndchns
stts (Vtnm, Cmbd, nd Ls) fllw ng
th sttlmnt f th Cmbdn cnflct n
1991 nd th SN plcy f "cnstrctv nggmnt"
tw rd Mynmr (Brm). Ths tw prcsss
ld t th ccssn t th Bl Trty by th fr
stts. Ths ws fllw d by SN bsrvr stts
nd mmbrshp n RF fr th fr stts. Fnlly,
Vtnm (n 1995), Ls nd Mynmr (n 1997), nd
Cmbd (n 1998) ccdd t fll mmbrshp n
SN. Th ntgrtn f th nw mmbrs s
chllng t SN nd s ldng t th grdl
mrgnc f mr htrgns ssctn.
Th rly 1990s ls w tnssd strngthnng f
cnmc cprtn w thn SN thrgh ncrsd
ntr-SN trd nd nvstmnt. n 1992,
n grmnt w s rchd n th stblshmnt f n
SN Fr Trd r (FT) w thn fftn yrs.
Th mmbr stts ls sgnd n grmnt n th
Cmmn ffctv Prfrntl Trff, whch s th
ky nstrmnt n th prcss thrgh w hch FT
wll b stblshd. Bgnnng n 1997, th xpnsn
f cnmc cprtn ws cnsdrbly slw d
dw n by wht cm t b clld th sn fnncl
crss f 1997, w hch csd rgnwd cnmc
rcssn. Sm SN mmbrs hv stll nt rcvrd
frm th crss, w hch hs bn mjr ss
f cncrn fr thm.
Chllngs
Sm bsrvrs rg tht SN ws sccss
stry p t th md-1990s bt tht thrftr ts mg
ws trnshd by th chllngs brght bt by
ts xpndng mmbrshp, th mpct f tht xpnsn
n th ssctn’s chrnc, nd th mpct f
th sn fnncl crss tht bgn n 1997. mr
blncd pctr s tht SN ws nt sch sccss
stry by th md-1990s nd tht cprtn
wthn SN hs nt bn w knd t th xtnt
rgd by ts crtcs. Nvrthlss, SN fcs mny
chllngs, bth ntrstt (rltns mng th mmbr
stts) nd ntrstt (prblms w thn th mmbr
stts).
Rmss mr
Frthr Rdng
mr, Rmss. (1999) "Cnflct Mngmnt nd Cnstrctv
nggmnt n SN’s xpnsn." Thrd
Wrld Qrtrly. Spcl ss n Nw Rgnls ms, 20,
5 (ctbr): 1031–1048.
mr, Rmss, nd Dvd Hghs. (1999) "Th sn Crss
nd cnmc Cprtn: mplctns fr n xpndd
SN." n Sthst sn-Cntrd cnms r
cnmcs? dtd by Msn Hdly. NS Rprt Srs,
n. 39. Cpnhgn, Dnmr k: Nrdc nsttt f
sn Stds, 113–136.
rnl-Srn, Mr Lrds, nd Jsph Sdfry S. Sntg,
ds. (1997) Th SN: Thrty Yrs nd Bynd.
Qzn Cty, Phlppns: nsttt f ntrntnl Lgl
Stds, nvrsty f th Phlppns Lw Cntr.
"Spcl ss n SN." (1997) sn Jrnl f Pltcl
Scnc 5, 1 (Jn).
STN (1999 pp. 319,300). stn (kmlnsk
ntl 1961, Tslngrd frm 1961 t 1992, nd qml
frm 1992 t 1998) s th cptl f Kzkhstn
nd s lctd n th shm Rvr n nrth-cntrl
Kzkhstn. t s n mprtnt trnsprttn ntrpt
STN
n th Trns-Kzkhstn nd Sth Sbrn Rlwys,
nd s Kzkhstn’s sxth-lrgst ndstrl nd
cmmrcl cntr.
kmlnsk w s fndd n 1830 s Rssn mltry
sttlmnt ftr Rssns cqrd th lnd frm
lcl Kzkh trbs, nd grdlly t bc m n mprtnt
ntrpt fr trd btwn Trkstn nd Rss.
n 1868 t bc m prvncl cntr. ftr th
dlmttn f brdrs btwn th Rssn Fdrtn
nd th Kzkh tnms Rpblc n 1925,
th cty bcm n dmnstrtv cntr f th qml
Prvnc f Kzkhstn. n 1929 t 1931 th
strtgclly mprtnt rlwys wr blt, cnnctng
th cty wth Ptrpvlvsk nd Krgnd. kmlnsk’s
mprtnc ws nhncd drng th Vrgn
Lnd Cmpgn, s t bcm cntr f Tslnny
Kr nd w s rnmd Tslngrd. t bc m n ndstrl
nd cltrl cntr, w th th ppltn grw ng
frm 31,000 n 1939 t 180,000 n 1970 nd t
222,000 n 1977. ftr ndpndnc n 1991, th cty
ws rnmd qml. n 1994 Kzkhstn’s gvrnmnt
dcdd t mv th cptl frm lmty t qml,
nd n 1998 t chngd th nm f th cty t
stn. ccrdng t vrs stmts, drng th frst
fv yrs th gvrnmnt nvstd pprxmtly $2
blln t pgrd nfrstrctr nd t bld nw gvrnmnt
fclts n th cty.
Rfs bzv
Frthr Rdng
Cmmngs, Slly. (2000) Kzkhstn: Cntr-Prphry Rltns.
Lndn: Th Ryl nsttt f ntrntnl ffrs.
vrz. (1998) Prns stltsy Kzkhstn v zrkl prssy
kmmntrkh nltkv. Sbrnk stt (Th Trnsfr f
th Cptl n Mrrr f Mss-Md nd nlytcl
Cmmntrs). Mscw : vrz.
TTRK (1881–1938), fndr f th Rpblc
f Trky. Kml ttrk, th fthr f mdrn
Trky, w s brn n Thsslnk, mdrn Grc, th
sn f mnr gvrnmnt ffcl. Hs gvn nm
ws Mstf; th ncknm Kml (prfctn) ws
gvn hm t schl. n 1934 h tk th ptht
ttrk (fthr f Trks).
ttrk ttndd th Scnd Mltry Schl n
Thsslnk frm 1893 nd ws cdt t th Mltry
cdmy t Mnstr (nw Btl, Frmr Ygslv
Rpblc (FYR) f Mcdn) frm 1895 t
1899 bfr grdtng frm th Stff Cllg, stnbl,
n 1905. Pstd n Dmscs, Syr, ttrk spprtd
th Yng Trk rvltn f 1908 bt fld
t mk n mpct s pltcn nd rtrnd t th
mltry. H sw ctn n th Trk-tln Wr n
1911–1912, w hn th Ddcns wr cdd t tly,
nd th Scnd Blkn Wr f 1913, w hn Trky
lst vrtlly ll f ts rpn trrtry, ncldng
Thsslnk nd Mnstr.
TTRK
Th pblc sqr n stn, th cptl f Kzkhstn. (LB
TYLR/CRBS)
ttrk n hs mltry nfrm, c. 1900. (HLTN-DTSCH
CLLCTN/CRBS)
ttrk rs t prmnnc drng Wrld Wr ,
whn h dfndd th Drdnlls (Gllpl) frm
cmbnd strln–Brtsh–Nw Zlnd sslt.
Fr ths ctn, h w n th hnrfc Ghz (Wrrr
f th Fth).
gnrl t th cls f th wr, ttrk rfsd
t ccpt th pc trms mpsd n th ttmn
sltn nd stblshd rvl gvrnmnt, th Grnd
Ntnl ssmbly f Trky, n nkr n 1920.
ftr drvng t n nvdng Grk frc n 1922,
ttrk blshd th sltnt, lthgh Trksh
Rpblc w s nt frmlly dclrd ntl ctbr
1923.
n 1923, ttrk ngttd th Trty f Lsnn,
grntng Trksh ntgrty nsd ts prsnt brdrs,
nd n 1925 h sgnd Trty f Frndshp w th
th Svt nn, prtctng th ntn frm Svt
trrtrl clms n bhlf f th rmnns. H w s
nw fr t prs dmstc plcy bsd n sx prncpls,
whch wr nshrnd n th Cnstttn n
1937. Ths w r rpblcnsm, ntnls m, sclrsm,
sttsm, ppls m, nd rvltns m.
ttrk’s m w s t crt rpn-styl sclr
ntn-stt. T ths nd ll trcs f th pst wr
ttckd nd xprssns f nn-Trksh dntts
spprssd. ttmn pltcl nd rlgs nstttns
wr blshd nd rplcd by Wstrn mdls
n lw (th Swss cd dptd n 1926), ltrtr (th
Ltn lphbt ntrdcd n 1928), nd drss (rpn
clthng nfrcd n 1925). n prtclr, slm
s th bss f trdtnl Trksh scty ws ttckd,
wth th bltn f th clpht, rlgs crts,
nd Sf rdrs nd wth th mncptn f w mn.
Sclrztn n Trky w nt frthr thn nywhr
tsd th SSR. ttrk’s rfrms rmn th bss
f th Trksh stt.
ttrk sffrd frm kdny dss frm 1919.
Fmd fr hs lv f w mn, pr, nd lchl, h
dd f crrhss. Dscrbd by Ypp s "rthlss, mbts,
ngnrs, ntlrnt, nd gvn t mplsv
rgs," h ws nvrthlss mn f xcptnl dtrmntn
nd ntllctl blts, w h slvgd mdrn
Trky frm th wrckg f th ttmn mpr.
Wll Myr
Frthr Rdng
Shw , S., nd . Shw . (1977) Hstry f th ttmn mpr
nd Mdrn Trky. Cmbrdg, K: Cmbrdg nvrsty
Prss.
Ypp, Mlc m. (1991) Th Nr st snc th Frst Wrld
Wr. Lndn: Lngmn.
THSM, FFCL—CHN Snc rlgn
hs prmtd th fbrc f Chns scl lf
frm tm mmmr l, th rs t pwr f mdrn
pltcl frcs, spclly th vwdly thst Chns
Cmmnst Prty (CCP), n 1949 s md lkly
t hv prfnd mpct n th stt nd scty.
Wld th Cmmnst Prty stt prs plcy f
rcklss spprssn f rlgs lf , r wld t tlrt
rlgn, t lst tmprrly? xcpt drng th
Cltr l Rvltn (1966–1976), th r lgs plcy
f th CCP hs bn gdd by prctcl cnsdrtns
rthr thn by ts thst dlgy.
thsm s Mdrn Cncpt
n th cntxt f ths rtcl, thsm w ll b ndrstd
s cncpt tht rjcts ny frm f rlgs
blf. Ths dfntn ds nt ncld crtn strnds
f Cnfcnsm nd Bddhsm tht r smtms lbld
s thst n th grnds tht thy r nt bsd
n th cncpt f prsnl dty. n fct, thr s n
rsn t ssm tht thy r ncmptbl w th thr
frms f rlgn, nd by nd lrg thy dd nt ntrfr
wth scrfcs nd thr frms f wrshp. s
fr s rlgs plcy ws cncrnd, th mprl thrts
trd hrd t spprss "htrdx" tchngs
nd prctcs tht wr rgrdd s thrt t th stt;
t th sm tm, thy sght t prmt s w ll s
cntrl "rthdx" frms f wrshp.
thsm s hrn dfnd s mdrn cncpt bsd
n strctly sclr wrldvw. t ntrd Chn rnd
1900, lng w th nmbr f thr dlgs mprtd
frm th Wst. Fr mst mng ths wr Scl Drw nsm,
ntnlsm, nd sclsm/c mmns m. Thy
wr bsd n spcfc ntn f hmn prgrss nd
prsd sclr gl ( vgrs ntn-stt r clsslss
scty) tht srvd s sbsttt fr rlgs tttds.
Trnsmssn f ths ds ws ntmtly
lnkd t th mrgnc f mdrn Chns ntllgnts.
Yng rbn ntllctls w h wr ttrctd
by th nw dlgcl crrnts bcm hstl t ny
frm f Chns rlgn, ncldng flk rlgn, Ts m,
Bddhsm, slm, Chrstnty, nd, thgh t s nt
rlgn n th strct sns f th trm, Cnfcnsm,
whch cm ndr fr fr ts ssctn wth th ffcl
clt f th stt. Snc ths ntllctls frmd
th bckbn f rvltnry mvmnts nd f th
mrgng pltcl prts, thsm plyd n mprtnt
rl n th pltcl trnsfrmtn f Chn.
thsm n th Rpblcn Prd
Chns ths m ws frst nd frmst drctd
gnst rlgn’s mst "sprstts" frm: flk, r
pplr, rlgn, w hch ls nclds crtn lmnts
THSM, FFCL—CHN
f Bddhsm nd Tsm. Th Rpblcn Rvltn
f 1911 w tnssd th frst lrg-scl cmpgn
gnst pplr rlgn, n w hch mny tmpls nd
shrns wr dstryd. lthgh th prvsnl cnstttn
f th nw ly fndd Rpblc f Chn grntd
rlgs frdm, ttmpts t w kn th
nstttns ssctd wth pplr rlgn (tmpls,
rlgs ssctns, tc.) cntnd ntl bt 1915.
Th My Frth Mv mnt f 1919, pr-Wstrn
ntllctl mv mnt, gv rs t th nxt w v f
ntrlgs ctvty. n ddtn t th gnrl crtq
f rlgn (whch ws gdd by blf n mdrn
scnc), tw spcfc trgts wr sngld t:
Cnfcnsm, rgrdd s th mn cs f Chn’s
cnsrvtsm nd stgntn, nd Chrstnty, by thn
rgrdd s n lly f Wstrn mprlsm.
Th Gmndng (GMD), w hch stblshd ntnl
gvrnmnt n 1925, t sm xtnt sccdd
th ntrlgs mv mnts f th 1920s bt w s nt
clrly thst. Th GMD dd clm th sprmcy f
ts dlgy, th "Thr Prncpls f th Ppl," vr
ll frms f rlgn. Hwvr, sm f ts ldng
mmbrs (ncldng Sn Yt-sn, Chng K-shk,
nd thr fmls) w r Chrstns, nd n th 1930s
ttmpts w r md t rvv Cnfcn dctrns.
Ths mbgty ntw thstndng, GMD gvrnmnts
t vrs lvls cmpgnd gnst "sprsttn,"
thgh w th lmtd sccss.
thsm n th Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn
Th CCP tk th Mrxst vw tht rlgn w s
th pt f th msss, bt tht t w ld ltmtly
dsppr n th prcss f trnstn t clsslss scty.
Hwvr, th prty dlt wth rlgn w thn th
frmwrk f ts ntd frnt plcy, strtgy dsgnd
t ncrprt nncmmnst scl frcs nt th
prcss f rvltn nd stt bldng. Wthn ths
frmwrk, th prty cld frm llncs w th rlgs
ppl dspt ts dspprvl f rlgs dctrns.
Th rlgs plcy f th CCP ws thrfr
gdd by prctcl cnsdrtns rthr thn by nrrw
dlgcl pprch. lthgh th prty ws
clrly thst, th stt tht t mnplzd w s nt.
Ths s rflctd n cnstttnl lw , whch bnds th
stt rgns, thgh nt th prty. Th cnstttn f
1954 grntd th ctzns "frdm f rlgs blf"
wtht bng vry spcfc bt wht ths xctly
mnt. Th mphss n blf rthr thn rlgs
prctc gv stt nd prty th pprtnty t spprss
pplr rlgn. nstttnl rlgns w r tlrtd
bt brght ndr th sprvsn f th stt.
Fr tht prps, nmbr f s-clld ptrtc rlgs
ssctns wr st p t rprsnt th fv ffclly
rcgnzd rlgns: Bddhsm, Ts m, slm,
Cthlcsm, nd Prtstnts m (th lttr tw bng
rgrdd s sprt rlgns rthr thn s dffrnt
brnchs f th sm rlgn). Th Br f Rlgs
ffrs, fndd n 1954, srvd s lnk btw n
th stt nd th ptrtc rlgs ssctns bt ws
ls t gd nd cntrl th lttr. n spt f th cnstttnl
grnts, ll rlgs rgnztns wr
ndr hvy prssr frm th thrts. Ths ws
spclly tr f ths rlgns sspctd f frgn
dmntn, prtclrly th tw Chrstn ns, vn
thgh ll Wstrn mssnrs hd bn xplld
frm Chn drng th Krn Wr (1950–1953).
Drng th Cltrl Rvltn, ll rlgns sffrd
frm prsctn nd dstrctn. Ldrs nd ctvsts
wr dtrmnd t rdct rlgn, w hch ws vwd
s prt f th "Fr lds" (ld cltr, ld thnkng, ld
hbts, nd ld cstms) tht w r t b dstryd. t
th sm tm, cnstttnl lw mvd nt th drctn
f stt thsm. Th cnstttn f 1975 dclrd
tht ctzns njyd "frdm t blv n rlgn nd
frdm nt t blv n rlgn nd t prpgt thsm."
n thr w rds, thst prpgnd ws cnstttnl,
whl rlgs prpgnd ws nt.
THSM, FFCL—CHN
CNSTTTN F
TH PPL’S RPBLC F
CHN F 1982
rtcl 36
Ctzns f th Ppl’s Rpblc f Chn
njy frdm f rlgs blf.
N stt rgn, pblc rgnztn r ndvdl
my cmpl ctzns t blv n, r
nt t blv n, ny rlgn; nr my thy
dscrmnt gnst ctzns wh blv n,
r d nt blv n, ny rlgn.
Th stt prtcts nrml rlgs ctvts.
N n my mk s f rlgn t ngg
n ctvts tht dsrpt pblc rdr, mpr
th hlth f ctzns r ntrfr wth th dctnl
systm f th stt.
Rlgs bds nd rlgs ffrs r nt
sbjct t ny frgn dmntn.
Src: Knnth Lbrthl. (1995)
Gvrnng Chn. Frm Rvltn thrgh
Rfrm. Nw Yrk: Nrtn, 363.
9
n th crs f th plcy f pnng nd rfrm
nttd n 1978, th CCP hs rssssd ts rlgs
plcy. lthgh th prty rmns cnvncd tht
rlgn w ll vntlly dsppr s th rslt f th
trnstn frm sclsm t cmmnsm nd hnc
frbds ts mmbrs t hv ny rlgs ffltn,
t cknw ldgs tht rlgn w ll cntn t xst
fr sm tm. Th Cnstttn f 1982, thrfr,
nt nly cnfrms th rght t frdm f rlgs
blf, bt ls stblshs frmw rk fr rlgs
prctc. Th stt prtcts "nrml" rlgs ctvts,
bt t s ncnstttnl t s rlgn t dsrpt
pblc rdr. f crs ths prvsn lvs
mpl r m fr th thrts t dcd whch rlgs
ctvts r "nrml" nd w hch r nlw fl.
Th hrsh trtmnt f Prtstnt "hs chrchs"
nd th prsctn f Fln Gng ( scl mv mnt
wth Tst nd Bddhst vrtns) nd ts
dhrnts, fr xmpl, mst b vw d s ttmpts
t mntn cntrl vr rlgs ffrs nd t spprss
rlgs grps rgrdd s thrt t Cmmnst
rl.
Hstrcl Rvw
vr snc Wstrn sclr dlgs fnd thr
wy t Chn rnd 1900, thsm hs hd n nrms
mpct n th rlgs plcy f th Chns
stt. Hwvr, lthgh th pltcl lts tht rld
tw ntth-cntry Chn w r frqntly nflncd
by thsm, thy hv rrly trd t mplmnt thrghly
thst plcy. Thy tk msrs t cmbt
sprsttn n th frm f pplr rlgn, bt fr
th mst prt dd nt ttmpt t lmnt rlgn n
gnrl. Rthr, thy sght t cntrl rlgs ctvts
by ffclly rcgnzng nmbr f rlgs
rgnztns. Ths s tr f th mst xplctly thst
pltcl prty, th CCP. Th Cmmnsts hv
trd t ncrprt th mjr nstttnlzd rlgns
nt th stt (th trml f th Cltrl Rvltn
bng th xcptn rthr thn th rl). n
th 1980s nd 1990s, nt nly th ffclly rcgnzd
rlgns, bt vn pplr rlgn hs xprncd n
stnshng rvvl, by nd lrg tlrtd by th thrts.
t s tr tht th Chns stt stll hs sffcnt
pw r t crck dwn n rlgs grps chrgd wth
thrtnng pblc rdr. f n th ftr t w ll tghtn
r lsn ts grp n rlgn rmns yt t b sn.
Tht t w ll tk stps t ctvly prmt thsm, by
frc, f ncssry, s fr frm lkly.
Thrlf Kln
Frthr Rdng
Chng, Jl. (1990) Prbng Chn’s Sl. Rlgn, Pltcs, nd
Prtst n th Ppl’s Rpblc. Sn Frncsc: Hrpr & Rw .
Chn, Myrn. (1992) "Rlgn n Stt Sttng: Chn."
n s: Cs Stds n th Scl Scncs. Gd fr
Tchng, dtd by Myrn Chn. r mnk, NY: M. .
Shrp, 17–31.
Dr, Prsnjt. (1991) "Knw ldg nd Pw r n th Dscrs
f Mdrnty: Th Cmpgns gnst Pplr
Rlgn n rly Tw ntth-Cntry Chn." Jrnl f
sn Stds 50, 1: 67–83.
H Gngh. (1998) "Rlgn nd Hp— Prspctv
frm Tdy’s Chn." Ztschrft fr Mssnswssnschft
nd Rlgnswssnschft 82, 4: 245–254.
L Zhfng, d. (1991) Rlgn ndr Sclsm n Chn.
rmnk, NY: M.. Shrp.
Mcnns, Dnld, d. (1989) Rlgn n Chn Tdy: Plcy
nd Prctc. Mryknll, NY: rbs.
Ps, Jln F., d. (1989) Th Trnng f th Td: Rlgn n
Chn Tdy. Hng Kng: Hng Kng Brnch, Ryl
stc Scty/xfrd nvrsty Prss.
TS T SHRN Lctd n Ngy, Jpn (n
ch Prfctr), tst Jng (tst Shrn) s n
f th fftn prstgs shrns nttld t rcv vsts
frm mprl mssngrs t fstvls. t prprtdly
nshrns Ksng n Tsrg (Grss-Mw ng
Sw rd), n f th thr mprl rgl. Ths sw rd
s sd t hv bn rmvd frm th tl f srpnt
by mtrs’s brthr (Ssn n Mkt) nd ddctd
t hs sstr s sgn f sbmssn t hr rl.
Th shrn nshrns tst n km, mtrs, Ssn
n Mkt, nd Y mttkr, th pssssr f
th swrd w h dd n th r.
Sttd n 200,000 sqr mtrs f lnd, w th
grvs f thsnd-yr-ld cmphr trs, th shrn
ws rgnlly blt n th Tsh styl, s ws th
zm Shrn, w th slghtly cncv thtchd rf
nd stp w dn stps t th ntrnc. t ws rblt
n 1893 nd gn n 1935 n th Shnm styl, lng
n frntg nd shrt n dpth, w th lgs plcd t ntrvls
crss th rdgpl. Prtly dmgd drng
Wrld Wr , t ws rprd n 1955 nd nw s pplr
fr frst vsts t th Nw Yr.
Jms M. Vrdmn, Jr.
Frthr Rdng
Bckng, Brn. (1995) Pplr Dctnry f Shnt. Srry,
.K.: Crzn.
Hltm, D. C. (1965) Th Ntnl Fth f Jpn: Stdy
n Mdrn Shnt. Nw Yrk: Prgn.
Pckn, Strt D. B. (1994) ssntls f Shnt: n nlytcl
Gd t Prncpl Tchngs. Wstprt, CT: Grnw d.
TST SHRN
ZV, MKH TR (1897–1961), Kzkh
wrtr, pt, drmtst, scl ctvst, schlr. Brn n
1897 n strn Kzkhstn, Mkhtr zv rcvd
hs rly dctn t th lcl slmc schl. H grdtd
frm th Rssn Tchrs’ Smnry n Smpltnsk
n 1908. Whl cmpltng hs stds h
bcm ctv n th Kzkh pltcl mv mnt lsh
rd (Th Hrd f lsh). lsh rd w s Kzkh
pltcl prty tht prclmd ndpndnc drng
th Rssn Cvl Wr. t fght gnst th Blshvks;
hw vr, n 1920 t w s frcd t ngtt, nd
vntlly srrndrd nd dsbndd. Mst mmbrs
jnd th Blshvks, bt w r prgd frm th Cmmnst
Prty n th 1920s fr "ntnlst tndncs."
zv dd nt fght, bt ws pltclly ctv.
ftr th Rssn Cvl Wr, zv ttndd th
nsttt f Lngg nd Mtrl Cltr t
Lnngrd nvrsty. H cntnd hs dctn t
th Cntrl sn Stt nvrsty n Tshknt, rcvng
hs dgr n rntl lnggs. Hs ltrry
crr bgn n 1918 w th th pblctn f th drm
Bbsh Tql (Rspctbl Scnd Wf). Ths wrk
nd thrs cntn lmnts f Kzkh flklr nd
trdtnl thms. Drng th prgs f th 1930s,
zv vdd rrst by pblcly dmttng hs mstks
nd "ntnlst tndncs." H cntnd t
wrt, nd n 1939 h pblshd th srlzd vrsn
f hs grtst wrk, tw-prt fctnl bgrphcl
wrk f th w ll-knw n Kzkh pt b Knnbyv,
b zhly (Th Pth f b), w hch ws pblshd
n Rssn n 1958. Drng hs lf h rcvd
nmrs hnrs frm th Svt gvrnmnt, ncldng
th rdr f Lnn. H dd n 1961.
Stvn Sbl
Frthr Rdng
zv, Mkhtr. (1989) b zhly (Th Pth f b). lmty,
Kzkhstn: Zhzshy.
———. (1960) Pt’ b (Th Pth f b). lmty, Kzkhstn:
Kzkhsk Gsdrstvnn zdtl’stv.
Kmsbv, tgn. (1997) Mkhtr zv zhn dbt
lm (Mkhtr zv nd th Ltrry Wrld). lmty,
Kzkhstn: Kzk nvrsty.
Tzhnv, lt. (1997) Mrvzzrn Mkhtr zv
(Th Wrldvw f Mkhtr zv). lmty, Kzkhstn:
Gylym.
GST RVLTN n Vtnms
hstry, th gst Rvltn ws th prclmtn f
svrgn Vtnms gvrnmnt n gst 1945.
Th Jpns ccpd Vtnm drng Wrld Wr
nd llw d th Frnch, w h wr th clnl pw r
n ndchn (prsnt-dy Vtnm, Ls, nd Cmbd),
t cntn t dmnstr th rgn. n My 1941,
t Pc B n nrthrn Vtnm, th Vtnms Cmmnsts,
ld by H Ch Mnh (1890– 1969), frmd
ntnl frnt rgnztn, th Lg fr ndpndnc
f Vtnm, t fght gnst bth th Frnch nd
th Jpns. Th Lg, bttr knw n by ts Vtnms
bbrvtd nm, th Vt Mnh, sght t nlst
ny Vtnms ctzn wh w ld fght fr ntnl
lbrtn frm th Frnch nd Jpns.
Whn Jpn srrndrd t th nd f Wrld
Wr n th w k f lld vctry, H stppd n
n 16 gst 1945 nd prclmd hmslf prsdnt
f th prvsnl gvrnmnt f "fr Vtnm."
Th lls hd thr plns: thy hd grd tht
Brtn w ld ccpy th sthrn prt f Vtnm
nd th Ntnlst Chns w ld ccpy th nrthrn
prtn f th cntry. Bfr th Chns trps
rrvd, th Vt Mnh mrchd n nd szd pwr
n Hn n 19 gst. Th mprr f Vtnm, B
D (1913–1997), cmpld w th H’s dmnds nd
bdctd nd lft fr xl n Frnc. n 24 gst
n Sgn (prsnt-dy H Ch Mnh Cty), Trn Vn
G dclrd nsrrctn ndrwy n th sth. n
27 gst H cnvnd hs frst cbnt mtng n
Hn, t w hch t ws grd tht 2 Sptmbr w ld
b st s Ntnl ndpndnc Dy. n tht dy H
pblcly nnncd th frmtn f th Prvsnl
Gvrnmnt f th Dmcrtc Rpblc f Vtnm
(DRV) w th ts cptl t Hn. n sbsqnt ngttns
wth th Frnch, w h wr llw d t rccpy
Vtnm, H grd t th rtrn f 25,000
Frnch clnl trps n th nrth fr fv-yr prd
rthr thn fc ccptn by th Ntnlst
Chns. H plctd hs dsgrntld c mrds w th
rssrncs tht clnlsm ws dyng nd tht th
GST RVLTN
H CH MNH N
FRGN DMNNC
"H [H Ch Mnh] blntly sttd, ' prfr t
snff Frnch sht fr fv yrs thn t Chns
sht th rst f my lf.'"
Src: Stnly Krnw . (1991) Vtnm:
Hstry. Nw Yrk: Vkng, 169.
9
Frnch w ld hv dffclt tm rstblshng pr mnnt
rl, nd rmndd thm tht th Chns hd
ccpd Vtnm n th pst fr vr thsnd yrs
nd w r th grtr thrt. Th DRV nd th Frnch
sn clshd vr dmnstrtv nd mltry sss ftr
th Frnch rtrnd t Vtnm, rsltng n th
rptn f th Frst ndchns Wr.
Rchrd B. Vrrn
S ls: Frnc-Vt Mnh Wr; H Ch Mnh
Frthr Rdng
Krnw , Stnly. (1991) Vtnm: Hstry. Nw Yrk:
Vkng.
Mrr, Dvd. (1981) Vtnms Trdtn n Trl, 1920–
1945. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty f Clfrn
Prss.
———. (1996) Vtnm, 1945: Th Qst fr Pwr. Brkly
Ptt, rchmds L. . (1980) Why Vtnm? Prld t
mrc’s lbtrss. Brkly nd Ls ngls: nvrsty
f Clfrn Prss.
M SHNRKY SCNDL n Mrch
1995, nrv gs ttck by dvts f th Jpns
rlgn m Shnrky klld tw lv nd njrd thsnds
f cmmtrs n th Tky sbwy. Plc nvstgtns
sbsqntly fnd tht bsds ths
ttck, m hd nggd n cr mnl ctvts snc
th 1980s, ncldng nrv gs ttck n th tw n f
Mts mt n Jn 1994, mrdrs f ppnnts nd
dssdnt mmbrs, nd ttmpts t mnfctr blgcl
nd chmcl w pns.
Ld by ts fndr, shr Shk, chrsmtc
ldr w h clmd t pssss psychc pwrs, m
ws mllnnl mv mnt tht blvd th w rld ws
vl; nly thrgh sctc prctc cld n scp ts
ngtv nflncs nd ttn slvtn. shr
prchd tht ctstrph wld nglf th wrld t
th nd f th tw ntth cntry, rsltng n w r
btw n th frcs f gd nd vl n w hch h nd
hs dscpls wld ld th frcs f gd nd crsh
vl mtrls m. Ths mssg, lng w th m’s
prmss f nhncd sprtl pw rs, ttrctd tn
thsnd fllw rs, th mjrty f whm wr yng,
wll dctd, nd dlstc. rnd lvn hndrd
fllw rs rnncd th wrld nd svrd ll ts w th
thr fmls t lv t m’s cmmns.
m’s zls fllw rs fld t prsd th
wdr pblc f th vldty f thr mssg f mmnnt
ctstrph, nd ths flr, cpld w th strng
crtcsm frm ppnnts, ncldng prnts f mmbrs,
md th rgnztn ncrsngly ntrvrtd
nd hstl t th tsd w rld. t sd vlnc
gnst mmbrs sspctd f lckng fth, ttckd
crtcs, nd cnfrntd lcl thrts tht mpdd
th dvlpmnt f ts cmmns. shr’s tchngs
bcm mr xtrm, mphszng tht m ln
tght th trth, w hch hd t b dfndd t ll csts;
ths w h ppsd ths trth dsrvd t d nd g
t hll. Sch dctrns vntlly lgtmtd th mrdr
f ppnnts, whl th blf n th mmnnc
f fnl wr, cpld w th shr’s prn n
whch h blvd th wrld ws cnsprng t prsct
nd dstry hs mvmnt, fld n scltng
cycl f vlnc.
m ttmptd t stblsh pltcl prty nd
cmpgnd n lctns n 1990, bt lst. ftr ths,
th grp bndnd ll hp f nflncng th
wrld, whch t cndmnd s nw rthy f slvtn,
nd bgn t mnfctr blgcl nd chmcl
wpns fr s n th nvtbl fnl wr tht shr
prphsd. By Mrch 1995, plc rds w r
plnnd gnst th mv mnt. Lrnng f ths,
shr rdrd prmptv strk n th Tky
sbwy t stll th plc nd strk blw gnst th
mtrlst scty h htd.
mmdtly ftrwrd, th plc mvd n m,
ncvrng vdnc f ts xtnsv crmnlty.
Nrly tw hndrd m dvts wr chrgd w th
srs ffnss, ncldng mrdr. Sm wr mprsnd
r sntncd t dth, w hl thrs, ncldng
shr, stll w t trl. Pntv lws hv bn
nctd gnst th rgnztn, nd th mjrty f
fllw rs hv rnncd thr fth. rnd n
thsnd dvts cntn t prclm thr fth n
shr nd spprt m.
Th m ffr prvkd dbts n Jpn bt
th ntr f Jpns scty. Whl pblc ntrprttns
prtryd shr s crzd mnpltr w h
bgld nv nd dlstc ppl nt shrng hs
prnd vsns, thy ls rcgnzd tht hs crtcsms
f scty hd prtclr rsnnc fr mny
ppl. Ths, th m ffr ws sn nt nly s
prdct nd xprssn f th prblms nd flrs
f Jpns scty, bt ls s n xprssn f th
nd fr rfrm.
n Rdr
Frthr Rdng
Ksl, Rbrt J., nd Mr k R. Mllns, ds. Rlgn nd Scl
Crss n Jpn: ndrstndng Jpns Scty thrgh
th m ffr. Bsngstk, .K., nd Nw Yrk: Plgrv
nd St. Mrtn’s.
M SHNRKY SCNDL
Rdr, n. (2000) Rlgs Vlnc n Cntmprry J-pn:
Th Cs f m Shnrky. Rchmnd, .K., nd Hnll,
H: Crzn nd nvrsty f Hw Prss.
NG SN (1915–1947), Brms rsstnc
ldr. ng Sn s pplrly r mmbrd n Br m
s prncpl ldr f th rsstnc gnst frgn ccptn,
s hr-mrtyr n th strggl fr ndpndnc,
nd s nfr f mdrn Brm.
dctd t mnstc schl nd ntnl hgh
schl, h jnd Rngn nvrsty n 1932. By
1935, ftr bng lctd t th Stdnts’ nn xctv
cmmtt nd bc mng dtr f th nn
mgzn, h w s xplld frm th nvrsty fr nt
rvlng th nm f cntrbtr. H jnd N,
wh hd ls bn dsmssd, n ldng th 1936 nvrsty
strk. Th sm yr, ftr gttng hs B.., h
lft th nvrsty nd jnd th ntnlst Thkn
mv mnt. H strtd Mrxst stdy grp, thn
wth B Mw , h cfndd th Frdm Blc nd
bcm ts gnrl scrtry, ldng rsstnc gnst
th Brtsh n 1939. H pprchd th Jpns nd,
s ld mmbr f th Thrty Cmrds trnd n
Jpn, thn bc m fndr nd frst cmmndr f
th Brm ndpndnc r my tht sprhdd th
Jpns nvsn f Brm n 1941. nhppy w th
Jpns ntntns tw rd Brm, h cfndd th
nt-Fscst Ppls’ Frdm Lg (FPFL) n
1943 t rsst th Jpns.
ng Sn ngttd th 27 Jnry 1947 ttl–
ng Sn gr mnt tht w s t scr Brm ts
ntnl ndpndnc n 1948. Hwvr, h ws ssssntd
n 13 Jly 1947 lng w th sx thr cllgs
whl n chrg f th Cnsttnt ssmbly
nggd n wrtng cnstttn fr ndpndnt
Brm. Hs fnctns n th FPFL w r tkn vr
by N. s hr nd mrtyr, t w hm pstndpndnc
cvln pltcns nd rmy chfs lk lk
bck fr nsprtn, ng Sn prvdd th bss fr
N’s pltcl pth. Hs spchs nd slgns ls
nflncd th dclrd dlgy f th Brm Sclst
Prgr mm Prty ftr th 1962 cp. Hwvr,
ftr 1988 hs pltcl lgcy bcm
prblmtc ndr th Stt Lw nd Rstrtn
Cncl–Stt Pc nd Dvlpmnt Cncl
rgms, w hn ng Sn S Ky chllngd mltry
cntrl vr th cntry n th nm f hr fthr,
clmng tht h hd std fr dmcrcy nd nt fr
mltry cntrl. ng Sn cntns t b n nsprtn
t gnrtns f Brms stdnts nd th
Brms n gnrl.
Gstf Htmn
Frthr Rdng
ng Sn S Ky. (1991) ng Sn f Brm : Bgrphcl
Prtrt. 2d d. dnbrgh: Kscdl.
ng Sn, , nd Slvrstn, Jsf. (1972) Th Pltcl
Lgcy f ng Sn. thc, NY: Sthst s Prgr m,
Crnll nvrsty.
Kn ng. (1993) Wh Klld ng Sn? 1st d. Bngkk,
Thlnd: Wht Lts.
Mng Mng, . (1962) ng Sn f Brm. Th Hg,
Nthrlnds: Pblshd fr Yl nvrsty, Sthst
s Stds by M. Njhff.
———. (1962) Trl n Brm: Th ssssntn f ng
Sn. Th Hg, Nthrlnds: M. Njhff.
Nw , ngln. (1988) "ng Sn nd th Strggl fr th
ndpndnc f Brm." Ph.D. dss. nvrsty f
Hw .
Sttn, Wltr D. (1948) " ng Sn f Brm." Sth
tlntc Qrtrly 47, 1 (Jnry): 1–16.
NG SN S KY (b. 1945), Brms pltcl
ldr nd ctvst. Dghtr f ntnl hr
nd mrtyr ng Sn (1915–1947), w h ws ssssntd
whn sh ws nly tw yrs ld, ng Sn S
Ky ws brght p n Mynmr (thn Br m) ntl
1960, w hn hr mthr, Dw Khn Ky, ws ppntd
mbssdr t nd. n 1964 sh strtd B.. dgr
n phlsphy, pltcs, nd cnmcs t St. Hghs
Cllg, xfrd. ftr cmpltn, sh ssstd Hgh
Tnkr n hs rsrch n Brm t th Schl f
NG SN S KY
ng Sn S Ky spkng t prss cnfrnc n Yngn n
Sptmbr 1996. (STPHN G. DNLDSN PHTGRPHY)
rntl nd frcn Stds n Lndn nd thn
mvd n 1969 t Nw Yrk, whr sh wrkd t th
ntd Ntns Scrtrt. n 1972 sh mrrd
Mchl rs, jnng hm n Bhtn, w hr sh
wrkd fr tw yrs s rsrch ffcr n ntd Ntns
ffrs fr th Bhtn frgn ffrs mnstry. ftr
hr rtrn t nglnd, sh gv brth t tw sns,
lxndr, n 1973, nd Km, n 1977. Sh brfly ctlgd
Brms bks n th Bdln Lbrry t th
nvrsty f xfrd nd thn jnd rs t th dvncd
Rsrch nsttt n Sml, nrthrn nd.
Sh tk p n-yr vstng fllw shp n Kyt n
1985–1986 t rsrch th Jpns dmnsn f hr
fthr’s bgrphy, ftr w hch sh rtrnd t Sml
n fllw shp. Shrtly ftr rtrnng t xfrd n
1987, sh nrlld t th Schl f rntl nd
frcn Stds fr n dvncd dgr.
ng Sn S Ky hs bn prccpd wth
Mynmr thrght hr lf n trms f rsrch ntrsts
nd thrgh fmly nd scl cntcts. t ws
hr mthr’s strk n Mrch 1988 tht tk ng Sn
S Ky n vst t Mynmr frm w hch sh dd
nt rtrn, nt vn fr hr hsbnd’s fnrl n
Mrch 1999. n th w k f N Wn’s rsgntn, th
pnt-p dsr fr chng wthn th cntry ftr
thr dcds f mltry cntrl thrst hr nt th
rl f pltcl ldr brngng frsh ds t hthrt
clsd cntry. Hr spch t th Shw dgn
Pgd n 26 gst 1988 mr kd hr pblc ccptnc
n Mynmr s th mst prmsng ntnl
ldr, mch s hr fthr’s Shw dgn spchs hd
dn n th 1940s. Sh sbsqntly cfndd th
Ntnl Lg fr Dmcrcy, whch wn th My
1990 lctns by lndsld mjrty nd fr w hch
hr pplrty hd bn nstrmntl. Th rgm gnrd
th lctn tcm nd sh nd hr prty
mmbrs wr sbjct t hrssmnt nd hs rrst.
ng Sn S Ky w s kpt ndr hs rrst by th
mltry-ppntd Stt Lw nd rdr Rstrtn
Cncl (SLRC) btw n 1989 nd 1995 nd hs
bn prvntd frm trvlng tsd Yngn (Rngn)
fr mst f th tm ftr tht. Sh ws wrdd
th Nbl Pc Prz n 1991 nd cntns t dvct
nnvlnc.
n Sptmbr 2000, ng Sn S Ky nd thr
ldrs f th Ntnl Lg fr Dmcrcy wr
cnfnd t thr hms by mltry thrts. n 6
My 2002, th Mynmr gvrnmnt frd ng Sn
S Ky frm hs rrst. Th ctn ws sn by
dmcrcy dvcts n Mynmr nd tsd bsrvrs
s vdnc tht Mynmr’s rprssv rgm
mght b ntrng nw r, gvng rs t xpcttns
tht t lst sm pltcl prsnrs mght b
frd nd tht rstrctns n th prss my b lftd.
Gstf Htmn
NG SN S KY
Th Bb- k-Mqbr, mdld n th Tj Mhl nd blt s th mslm fr Rb Drtrn,
th wf f rngzb. (HLTN- DTSCH CLLCTN/CRBS)
Frthr Rdng
ng Sn S Ky. (1998) "Hvnly bds nd Hmn
Dvlpmnt." lvnth Pp Pl V Mmrl Lctr
(dlvrd by Mchl rs n 3 Nv mbr 1997 t th
Ryl nstttn f Grt Brtn, Lndn). Bngkk Pst
(4 Jnry).
———. (1997) Lttrs frm Br m. Lndn: Pngn.
ng Sn S Ky, ln Clmnts, Ky Mng, nd
Tn . (1997) Th Vc f Hp: Cnvrstns wth ln
Clmnts w th Cntrbtns by Ky Mng nd Tn .
Lndn: Pngn.
ng Sn S Ky, nd Mchl rs, ds. (1991) Frdm
frm Fr nd thr Wrtngs. Nw Yrk: Vkng.
Htmn, Gstf. (1999) Mntl Cltr n Br ms Crss
Pltcs: ng Sn S Ky nd th Ntnl Lg fr
Dmcrcy. Tky: nvrsty f Tky Frgn Stds
nsttt.
Vctr, Brbr. (1998) Th Ldy: ng Sn S Ky, Nbl
Lrt nd Brm’s Prsnr. Wnchstr, M: Fbr &
Fbr.
RNGBD (2001 pp. 828,000). Nmd ftr
th Mghl mprr rngzb (1659–1707), th
ndn cty f rngbd srvd s vc rgl cptl
f th Mghl mpr (1526–1857) n th Dccn
rgn f Sth nd. Prr t th dvnt f th
Mghls, t ws knw n s Khdk ("rcky plc") nd
ltr rnmd Fth Ngr. t s lctd n th Mrthw d
rgn f th stt f Mhrshtr. Mdrn rngbd
s n ctv cty nd ntd trst cntr,
wll cnnctd wth th stt cptl, Mmb (Bmby),
nd th cty f Pn.
Th ttrctns n rngbd ncld th Bb-k-
Mqbr nd th Pn-chkk. Th frmr s tmb
blt by rngzb’s sn n 1679 n mmry f hs
mthr, Rb. Th rchtct t llh mdld t n
th Tj Mhl, bt t s hrdly cmprbl t th rchtctrl
splndr f th rgnl. t s, hwvr, th
nly xmpl f Mghl rchtctr n th Dccn.
Th Pn-chkk (w tr mll) s sd fr grndng
flr fr th rsdnts f mdrsh (smnry) blt
by Sf snt, Bb Shh Mzzfr, n 1624.
rngbd s fms fr th prdctn f hmr,
typcl fbrc f th rgn, w hch hs n ntrct
pttrn w vn n cttn nd slk nd s sd fr
drpry, tpstry, nd thr tms.
Snjkt Ds Gpt
Frthr Rdng
Brksn, Cr ml. (1986) Th Cvs t rngbd: rly
Bddhst Tntrc rt n nd. Nw Yrk: Mpn.
Mchll, Grg, nd Phlp Dvs. (1989) "rngbd."
n Pngn Gd t th Mnmnts f nd. Nw Yrk:
Vkng, 347–348, 420–423.
RNGZ B (1618–1707), Mghl mprr.
rngzb ws n nscrpls svntnth-cntry
ndn prnc w h, s th thrd sn f th Mghl mprr
Shh Jhn (1592–1666), c m t pwr by mprsnng
hs fthr nd dftng nd kllng hs
brthrs—ncldng th hr pprnt, Dr Shkh.
Hvng spnt mny yrs n th Dccn, h bcm
bsssd wth xtndng th Mghl mpr
(1526– 1857) sthw rd. Bt n s dng, h vrxtndd
th mltry nd pltcl rsrcs f th
Mghl stt. Hs lng bsncs frm th cptl f
Dlh ncrgd ntrncn cnflct nd prvd pltclly
dstblzng. H fndd nw cty, rngbd,
bt vrll ths cmpgns nly srvd t
ndrmn Mghl thrty nd dplt th ryl
cffrs wtht prvdng lng-lstng gns f trrtry
r prstg. Hs thr mjr nmss w s th
Mrth kngdm n w strn nd, w hr th Hnd
RNGZ B
prtrt f rngzb by Prr Dfls n 1780. (STPLTN
CLLCTN/CRBS)
kng Shvj sccssflly rsstd sbjgtn thrgh
sstnd grrll cmpgn.
Thgh cltvtd nd lrnd mn, rngzb’s
fntcl dvtn t th Snn Mslm fth ld hm
t mk pltcl dcsns bsd n rlgs prjdc.
H r mpsd th jzy, r pll tx, n nn-
Mslms, nfrcd strct rthdx Mslm pltcl
cltr, snctnd th dstrctn f Hnd nd Skh
rlgs shrns nd th rctn f msqs nstd,
rmvd Hnds frm ky dmnstrtv psts, nd
lntd sbstntl sgmnts f th ppltn. H
s gnrlly rcgnzd s th mst ntlrnt f ll th
Mghl mprrs.
Chndrk Kl
Frthr Rdng
Ll, Mn. (1988) rngzb. Nw Dlh, nd: Vks.
Rchrds, Jhn F. (1993) Th Mghl mpr. Cmbrdg,
STRL–S RLTNS t s ftn
sd tht cltr nd ggrphy cntrdct ch thr
wth rspct t strl’s plc n th sn rgn.
rslt f rpn, prmrly Brtsh, sttlmnt jst
t th sth f th sn lndmss, th rltnshps
btw n strl nd s r bnd t b cmplx.
Th sttn s ls cmplctd by th vrty f
sn cntrs t strl’s nrth, rngng frm
sm f th prst ntns n th wrld t sm f
th rchst, frm Chrstn t Bddhst t Hnd, nd
frm rsnbly dmcrtc t ttltrn. t s lttl
wndr tht thr hv bn, nd cntn t b, frctns
btw n strl nd s.
Ths rltnshps, hw vr, hv ndrgn drmtc
chngs n th lttr hlf f th twntth cntry.
Fr m bng cntry dmntd by Brtn nd
dlng w th mltpl rpn clns w thn s,
strl—nd ts rltnshp t s—hs mtrd
sgnfcntly, w th sccssv strln gvrnmnts
hvng t cm t tr ms w th mny nw ly ndpndnt
sn cntrs. Tdy th cnnctns btwn strl
nd s, w hl stll ftn dffclt, r n mst
css stdly bcmng mr chsv nd drbl.
rly Cnnctns
Whn rpns frst sttld n strl sm tw
hndrd yrs g, t ws prmrly fr th prps f
rddng nglnd f nw ntd cnvcts. Th gl w s
t mv thm s fr wy frm nglnd s pssbl,
nd strl smd n pt chc. Bng lctd n
th sthrn frng f s, hwvr, lf t th dscndnts
f th nw rrvls wth th lng-trm chllng
f dlng w th nghbrs f vry dffrnt cltrl
bckgrnds.
n th rly dys, thr ws rltvly lttl ntrctn
wth s. Th rgnl nhbtnts f strl
wr th brgns. Th grps f brgns w h
lvd n th nrthrn prts f th cntry hd, fr hndrds
f yrs, crrd t lw -lvl trd wth th rgn
tht s nw strn ndns. Bynd sm
lmtd trd w th th rpn clns f s, strl
rmnd n rltv sltn.
Th gld rshs f th md-1800s bgn t mr
clrly dfn th rltnshp btwn strl nd
s. lng w th prspctrs frm rnd th wrld
cm sgnfcnt nmbrs f Chns. Thy w r bth
flng th pvrty f thr hmlnd nd bng
ttrctd, lk thr nwcmrs, by prspcts f strkng
t rch. Prblms sn fllw d. Th ky cnsdrtn
sms t hv bn n f cmpttn. Th
Chns wr sn t b thrt by vrt f thr
hrd w rk nd mbtn. Ths w s cmplctd by cltrl
chrctrstcs tht wr nt shrd by th dmnnt
rpn nhbtnts.
Cmpttn btw n sns nd th rpn sttlrs
ws cmplctd by th qstn f lbr. ftr
th gld rshs hd sbsdd, th cnmy n w ht s
nw strl grw by fts nd strts. Prtclrly w hn
thr w r rcssns, th frctns cm t th fr.
strln wrkrs rsntd bng plcd n cmpttn
wth lw -cst sn lbr, prmrly frm Chn,
Jv, nd th Pcfc slnds. Ths cnmc prblm
ws xcrbtd by ntlrnc nd rcsm. Ths ws
tm w hn scl Drw nsm w s n th scnt, nd
rpn trtmnt f nnw ht sttlrs s w ll s
brgns ws, n th w hl, dplrbl. Rcsm w s
brdly ccptd tttd f th dy. ndd, n f
th frst cts f th nw gvrnmnt f strl n
1901 w s th mmgrtn Rstrctn ct, whch
sght t cls th cntry t nnwht, prtclrly
sn, mmgrtn.
t th sm tm, s ffrd llrng pprtnts
fr trd. n th lt 1800s nd rly 1900s, thr
wr strln trd cmmssnrs sttnd n s
wh spk lqntly bt th pssbl mr kts fr
strln prdcts, prtclrly w l. n th whl,
hw vr, ths vcs wr rr, nd strl’s cnmc,
pltcl, nd scl systms rmnd clsly
ntrtw nd wth ths f Brtn.
Wrld Wr nd ts ftrmth
Th vnt tht dr mtclly chngd s-strl
rltns ws Wrld Wr . ntl tht tm, s-
STRL-S RLTNS
trlns hd rstd, prhps cmplcntly, ndr th
prtctn f th ntd Kngdm. Th Jpns nvsn
f Sthst s, dlvrng th wr rght t
strl’s drstp (ncldng rptd bmbngs f
Drw n), brght hm t strlns thr vlnrblty.
Thy w r smll, mstly w ht, rltvly rch
cntry sttng bsd cntrs tht wr ppls,
nnw ht, nd mstly pr. Th mg f th yllw
prl tk hld f th strln mgntn nd ws
rnfrcd by th mnc f Cmmns m n th pstw r
prd. Pvrty nd nstblty n mch f s
kpt mny strlns n fr f s.
Ths fr drv strln gvrnmnts t ndrtk
mssv mmgrtn prgr m. "Pplt r prsh"
ws th slgn f th tm, w th mgrnts ndd
bth fr prtctn f strln sl s w ll s lbr
t bld p n ndstrl cnmy. strln mmgrtn
ffcls wnt t Brtn n rcrtng drv.
nfrtntly fr thr gls, nsffcnt nmbrs f
nglsh ppl w r ntrstd n mgrtng t strl,
nd th srch r hd t b xpndd. tly nd
Grc wr sbsqntly trgtd, nd mssv nmbrs
f ppl frm ths cntrs rrvd n strl.
Th nw mmgrnts hd prfnd ffct n strln
scty, trnsfrmng t frm n ssntlly nglsh
clnl bckw tr t mr csmpltn,
mltcltrl scty. t th sm tm, thrgh th
1950s nd 1960s, th dmnnt rpn pw rs gv
p mst f thr clnl pssssns, nd tttds f
ccptnc nd tlrnc twrd sns bgn t tk
rt. Th ntd Stts nd Cnd dsmntld thr
rstrctv mmgrtn cts, nd strl w s frcd t
fllw st, thgh bltdly. t ws nt ntl 1973 tht
th mmgrtn Rstrctn ct ws fnlly rpld,
mkng pssbl rpd rs n mmgrtn frm s.
Th pstwr prd ws ls tm f pstv rltnshp-
bldng n thr rs. Th Clmb Pln
f 1950, n nttv f strl tht ws crrd t
n prtnrshp w th hlf dzn thr frmr Brtsh
clns, brght stdnts frm th dvlpng cntrs
f s t strln nvrsts. Whl thr ws
bvs slf -ntrst n rsng th stndrd f lvng
n th prr cntrs f Sthst s (spclly
wth Cmmnsm tkng hld), t ls brght strlns
nt drct cntct wth sns, hlpng t rdc
cltrl brrrs nd pvng th wy fr chngs
n th mmgrtn systm.
mr c mmn strln rspns n th 1950s
nd 1960s w s cntnd fr f s. lthgh strl
snt trps t th Krn Wr nd ws nvlvd
n lw-lvl wr (nttld Cnfrnttn) w th ndns
n th rly 1960s, th bst-knw n rspns
ws th dcsn n 1965 t snd strln trps t
Vtnm. Ths w s prd f wht th strln mltry
trmd "frwrd dfns," w th th d bng t
fght wrs n s bfr thy cld spll vr t th
strln mnlnd. strln trps w r cnscrptd,
nd th rctn n strl fllw d th
mrcn pttrn—gnrl ccptnc fllw d by
dsllsnmnt nd thn w dsprd ntwr dmnstrtns
s th cnflct cntnd.
cnmc Rltnshps
n cld rg tht strln ntgrtn w th
s frm th 1960s t th prsnt hs bn drvn by
cnmc mprtvs. strl’s cnmy thn, s
nw , ws dmntd by prmry prdctn—grcltrl
prdcts nd mnrl rsrcs. Th mn mrkts
fr ths mtrls w r th rpdly grwng sn
cnms. spclly mprtnt hr ws th bgnnng
f th Cmmn Mrkt n rp. Whn th
Brtsh jnd ths rgnztn, w th ts systm f prfrntl
trffs fr rpn trd, strl ws frcd
STRL-S RLTNS
KY VNTS N
STRL–S RLTNS
1800s n md-cntry, Chns mmgrt t strl
t prtcpt n gld rshs.
1901 strl ncts th mmgrtn Rstrctn
ct, w hch sks t cls th cntry t
nnw ht, prtclrly sn, mmgrtn.
1940–1945 Drng Wr ld Wr strng fr
f s mrgs n strl.
1950 Th Clmb Pln brngs stdnts frm
th dvlpng cntrs f s t strln
nvrsts.
1960s strl nd Jpn bc m trd prtnrs
nd Jpn bc ms mjr mrkt fr strln
rw mtrls.
1965 strl snds trps t Vtnm s prt
f strtgy t kp sn wrs n s, nt n
strl.
1973 Th mmgrtn Rstrctn ct s rpld,
mkng pssbl rpd rs n mmgrtn
frm s.
1989 strl jns th s–Pcfc cnmc
Cprtn grpng t nsr ts cntnd
ccss t sn nd Nrth mrcn mrkts.
1990s mmgrnts frm s ccnt fr 50 prcnt
f ll mmgrnts t strl.
1999 strln trps r sttnd n st Tmr
t prtct ts ndpndnc frm ndns.
9
t lk lsw hr t fnd mrkts fr ts prdcts.
Jpn, w hch xprncd rpd cnmc grw th
strtng n th 1950s nd w hch lckd rw mtrls,
ws lgcl prtnr. ndd, th frst trd grmnt
ws md w th Jpn n th lt 1950s, nd Jpn hs
bn, fr sm yrs, strl’s lrgst mrkt.
Trd w th Jpn xmplfs th cmplxts f
strl’s nggmnt w th s: crss-cltrl dffclts
nd w rnss n th n hnd nd cnmc
nd n th thr. f ll sn cntrs, ntgnsm
tw rd Jpn rns th dpst n strl. Ths w s
drct rslt f Jpns ggrssn n Wrld Wr
, prtclrly ts trtmnt f strln prsnrs f
wr (PWs). Mny strln sldrs wr trppd
n Sthst s, spclly Sngpr, w th th rpd
dvnc f Jpns trps dwn th Mly pnnsl
n lt 1941. Th mltrtmnt nd dths f strln
PWs n Chng prsn n Sngpr nd w hl
hlpng t bld th Th-Br m Rlw y (mmrtlzd
n th flm Brdg vr th Rvr Kw ) cntn t
crt nt-Jpns sntmnt n strl, prtclrly
mng th ldr gnrtn.
cnmc mprtvs hv tkn prcdnc n th
strl–Jpn rltnshp, hwvr, nd n th
dcds snc th wr th trd cnnctn hs bcm
mprtnt t bth cntrs. Jpn s n f th lrgst
nvstrs n strl, prtclrly n mnrl-xtrctn
ndstrs, tmbl mnfctrng, nd trsm,
nd Jpn s strl’s lrgst trdng prtnr (20 prcnt
f xprts nd 13 prcnt f mprts n 2000).
Th rltnshp hs nt bn n sy n, hwvr.
n ddtn t lngrng w rtm hstlty, thr hs
bn th ggrssv ntr f Jpns trd nd nvstmnt.
Jpns cmpns, lk thr pwrfl
mltntnl crprtns, sk th bst rtrn fr
thr shrhldrs. Thy r tgh ngttrs nd ply
th w rld mrkt fr th bst prcs. Cl hs bn
prtclr pnt f cntntn hr. Jpns cmpns
wll pt, fr xmpl, Cndn cl cmpns n
cmpttn w th ths n strl t scr th bst
xprt prc. Th rslt s chrgs f nfr trd prctcs
frm bth Cnd nd strl, thgh frm th
Jpns sd ths s smply gd bsnss prctc.
nvstmnt s scnd r f frctn. Jpns
cmpns nvst n th rs n w hch thr s dmnd
n Jpn, hnc thr ntrst n cl, plp nd
ppr prdcts, nd trsm. Th rspns n strl
s tht strl hs bcm cmbntn f
Jpn’s qrry nd plygrnd. strlns cmpln
tht f Jpns trsts fly t strl n Jpns
rlns, sty n Jpns htls, nd vst Jpnswnd
trst fclts, thn strln cmpns r
nt gnng sbstntlly n ths r f srvcs trd.
Th chrg n th strln sd s vrtcl ntgrtn
n th trsm ndstry. Jpns nvlvmnt n
ths sctr ws prtclrly vdnt n th lt 1980s
whn, n th w k f th strngthnng f th Jpns
crrncy, mssv nvstmnts wr md n strln
rl stt n trst rs. Ths strlns
wh wr sllng lnd nd bldngs bnftd, w hl
strlns skng rl stt wr prcd t f th
mrkt by th nfltd prcs tht th lnd spcltn
gnrtd. n th thr hnd, th Jpns bcm
th mst nmrs trsts n strl (nrly thrqrtrs
f mlln vstrs nnlly n 2000) nd th
bggst spndrs n dly bss, nvtbly rsltng
n pstv cnmc bnfts fr strl n spt f
Jpns nvstmnt n ths r.
fndmntl prblm n s–strl trd s
tht strl hs rmnd spplr f prmry prdcts
whl mprtng vl-ddd prdcts frm s.
n thr w rds, strl xprts mnrls nd fdstffs
nd mprts crs nd cnsmr lctrncs. n
cld rg tht sn nvstmnt n rs f prmry
prdctn hs skwd nvstmnt prrts s tht
mnfctrng hs flln bhnd. Sccssv strln
gvrnmnts cld b chrgd w th shrt-sghtd cnmc
plcs. Th rslt, hw vr, s tht strl
fcs sgnfcnt prblm tdy. Whl th .S.
cnmy dd w ll n th lt 1990s s rslt f th
grw th n th cmptr nd ssctd hgh-tchnlgy
ndstrs, strl s bng chrgd wth hvng
prmry-prdcr cnmy, w th grcltrl prdcts
nd mnrls stll dmntng xprts. t th sm
tm, strln mnfctrng ndstrs cnnt cmpt
wth th lw -w g cntrs f s, nd prgrssvly
mr ndstrs r gng bnkrpt r
lvng th cntry. n rcnt yrs, ths hs bn prtclrly
vdnt n th clthng nd txtls ndstrs.
Th mthmtcs n prdctn csts s smpl: t my
cst $25 t mk shrt n strl, w hrs th sm
cmpny cn shp ts mchnry t ndns r th
Phlppns nd mk th s m shrt fr $2. f crs,
ths prblm s ls fcd by Jpns nd mrcn
cmpns, nd thy t r rspndng by rlctng
thr prdctn systms ffshr, bt thy hv thr
ndstrs t rplc thm, n th hgh-tchnlgy
r. strl s xprncng dffclts n mkng
ths nxt tchnlgcl lp.
scnd mjr fr n th prt f strln cmpns
s tht, s th wrld pprs t b dvdng nt
trdng blcs, thy w ll b lft t. strln cmpns
lrnd hrd lssn w hn Brtn jnd w ht
bcm th rpn nn, nd th Nrth mrcn
Fr Trd gr mnt s csng frthr nxty.
STRL-S RLTNS
Th rslt ws th s–Pcfc cnmc Cprtn
grpng, n nttv f th Bb Hw k Lbr
gvrnmnt n 1989. strl’s gnd n spprtng
th dvlpmnt f ths rgnztn s t nsr ts
cntnd ccss t sn nd Nrth mrcn mrkts.
Th dsdvntg, frm th pnt f vw f strln
crprtns, s tht thy w ll hv t lrn t
fnctn n lw -trff nvrnmnt, w hrs ntl rcntly
strln ndstry ws hghly prtctd. Glblztn
s, thrfr, lrdy hvng, nd w ll
cntn t hv, prfnd ffct n strln bsnss
nd cmmnty tttds.
Pltcl Rltnshps
Whl th 1950s nd 1960s cld b chrctrzd
by fr f s, th fllw ng dcds sw mtrng
f th pltcl rltnshps btw n strl nd
s. By th md-1970s, th Cmmnst nsrgncy n
Mlys ws t n nd, s ws th wr n Vtnm.
Th sltn f Chn w s ls ndng, nd tht ntn
ws mrgng s bth prmsng nw mrkt
nd pw rfl nw cmpttr. Wth n ncrs n
sn mmgrtn (rsng t hlf f ll nw mmgrnts
by th rly 1990s), strlns wr bcmng mr
cmfrtbl n th rgn.
Ths s nt t sy tht strl’s frgn rltns
r nw thr smth r sy. ts dffclts r, n
prt, rslt f th mltpl typs f pltcl systms
wth whch t hs t dl. n pnt f cntntn hr
s th wy n w hch strl blncs ts pstn n
hmn rghts w th trd cnsdrtns. Smtms
ths s rltvly strghtfrwrd, s n th cs f
Mynmr (Brm). s ths cntry s nt mprtnt
t strl n n cnmc sns, th hgh grnd f
hmn rghts s clrly strl’s pstn. Th cmplxts
cm t th fr n th cs f Chn. Wth
th rpd grw th n Chn’s cnmy nd ncrsng
ntrcnnctdnss wth rgnl cnms, strl
mst trd fn ln btw n ts pltcl nd cnmc
gls. Gvn th dlct rltnshp btw n
Chn nd Tw n, fr xmpl, r th Chns gvrnmnt’s
snstvty vr Tbt, strl hs t b
crfl n ts dplmtc pstn. t ds nt hv th
cnmc, pltcl, r mltry pwr f th ntd
Stts nd thrfr tnds mr t mddl rd n
dplmtc trms.
Ths s lss th cs wth th mprtnt strl–
ndns rltnshp. Dplmtc rltns btw n
th tw cntrs hv bn n rllr cstr snc
th 1940s, nd prtclrly dffclt ss hs bn
tht f st Tmr. Prtgs clny tht w s nnxd
by ndns n 1975, st Tmr hs rmnd
stckng pnt n strl-ndns rltns (prtclrly
n th r f hmn rghts) snc thn. Th
ss ws cmplctd by th llgd kllng f sx strln
jrnlsts w hn ndnsn trps nvdd th
clny n 1975. Th rslt hs bn dvsn w thn
strl, w th dplmtc ffrts t dds wth th
STRL-S RLTNS
n ndnsn sldr ccmpns strln sldrs rrvng fr pckpng dty n st Tmr
n Sptmbr 1999. ( FP/CRBS)

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nsprng ppl t cr bt th plnt

Smk rss frm srfc l

Bttlns dlphns slp

“ Mx tw prts sgr wht

TH SPLL’S NSN TLL

Thr w trs clsd by th

n md- My pls f l mvd

Rst-clrd crd l cts

brw n plcn rsts t th

Pr k gds sct bn-rch sdmnt

GNT SHRT- FCD KNGR

Pssbly th frst drct vdnc f

“ Y cnnt shr yr lf wth ny nml

STPHN STHL, MNTN, 2005

PHT: WD WRLD PHTS/NTNL GGRPHC STCK

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