Lecture 1: Significant Figures and

Error Calculations

Textbook, paragraph 1.2-1.7

Lab Manual (Measurements, Errors
and Graphs)
Physics is an experimental
science and lab is an integral
part of the course.

I hear and I forget

I see and I remember
I do and I understand
(Confucius, 551-479 BC)
 Measuring Length
When using meter ruler you will be
required to interpolate between scale
divisions.
Estimate the reading error as ± half of
the smallest scale division.

L = (23 ± 1) mm (using meter ruler)

The error interval is 2 mm.

When using digital instruments, the
reading error is ± last stable digit
displayed .

L = (23.27 ± 0.01) mm (using digital

Vernier caliper)

The absolute error is recorded to one

significant figure, which in turn, defines
the last significant digit in a measurement.
The measured quantity have the
last significant digit in the same
decimal position as the absolute
error.

The accuracy of measurement

determines the number of
significant figures.
The reading is recorded in the
form

(L ± ΔL) units

ΔL is called an absolute error

2ΔL is called error interval

∆L
is called relative error
L
Errors in Calculated Quantities

Usually two or more measurements are

used to calculate something.

How are the errors in the measurement

compounded when these measurements
are used in calculations?
RULE 1: Whenever only addition and/or
subtraction occur in a calculation the
square of the resultant absolute error in the
answer is the sum of squares of the
absolute errors of all the measured
quantities occurring in the calculation.

Errors are calculated in quadrature.

Example:
Let x = (2.66 ± 0.02) cm and y = (1.79 ± 0.02) cm.
Find the magnitudes and errors of p = (x + y) and
q = (x – y).
Solution:

p = x + y = 2.66 + 1.79 = 4.45 cm

q = x – y = 2.66 – 1.79 = 0.87 cm

Δp = Δq = ∆x 𝟐𝟐 + ∆y 𝟐𝟐 = 0.02 2 + 0.02 2 =
0.028 ≈ 0.03

Thus, p = (4.45 ± 0.03) cm and q = (0.87 ± 0.03) cm

When rounding off a number with
too many insignificant figures,
retain the last digit unchanged if
the first digit dropped < 5:
increase it by 1 if the first digit
dropped ≥ 5.
The final answer of the calculated
quantity should have the last significant
digit in the same decimal position as
the absolute error.
(26.3 ± 0.5) s
(48 ± 2) m
(36.82 ± 0.06) N
(3.80 ± 0.02) × 103 kg/m3
The only exception to this rule is
when the leading digit in the error is
1. In this case two significant digits
might be justified. For example, the
error 0.14 rounded to one significant
digit would be reduced very
significantly.

(15.34 ± 0.14) mm
RULE 2: Whenever only
multiplication and/or division
occur, the square of the relative
error of the product or quotient is
equal to the sum of squares of
the relative errors of each factor
in the function.
Example:
Let x = (2.66 ± 0.02) cm and y = (1.79 ± 0.02) cm.
Find magnitudes and errors of z = xy and w = x/y
Solution:
z = xy = (2.66 cm) (1.79 cm) = 4.7614 cm2

x 2.66 cm
w= = = 1.4860
y 1.79 cm

∆z ∆w ∆x 2 ∆y 2
= = +
z w x y
∆𝑥𝑥 0.02 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
= = 0.0075
𝑥𝑥 2.66 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

∆𝑦𝑦 0.02 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

= = 0.011
𝑦𝑦 1.79 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

∆z ∆w ∆x 2 ∆y 2
= = + = 0.0075 2 + 0.011 2 = 0.013
z w x y

Δz = (4.7614 cm2)(0.013) = 0.062 ≈ 0.06

Thus, z = (4.76 ± 0.06) cm2

Similarly,

Δw = (1.4860)(0.013) = 0.019 ≈ 0.02

Thus, w = (1.49 ± 0.02)

Observe that the absolute error is rounded to only

one significant figure and the final answer of the
calculated quantity has the last significant digit in
the same decimal position as the error. However, in
intermediate steps, relative errors were kept to two
significant figures and the calculated quantity had
extra digits to make sure that the final answer is
rounded correctly.
How to deal with significant figures when
absolute errors are not specified?
When numbers are added or subtracted, the
number of decimal places in the result should
equal the smallest number of decimal places
of any term in the sum or difference.
For example, P = (8.3 cm) – (3.54 cm) +
(2.283 cm) = 2.477 cm ≈ 2.5 cm
(2.477 cm was rounded to one decimal place)
Example. Ch.1 prob. 26.

Express the answer with the correct number

of significant figures.

12.456 cm – 11.9 cm = 0.556 cm ≈ 0.6 cm

6.542 cm – 0.0092 cm = 6.5328 cm ≈ 6.533 cm

How to deal with significant figures when
absolute errors are not specified?

Whenever only multiplication and/or division

occur, the number of significant figures in the
result is the same as the number of significant
figures in the factor with the least number of
significant figures (least accurate factor)

For example,
(10.77 cm)(3.55 cm) = 38.2335 cm2 ≈ 38.2 cm2
(38.2335 cm2 was rounded to 3 S.F.)
Example. Ch.1, prob. 25

Express the answer with the correct

number of significant figures.

12400 0.02563
= 25.7546 ≈ 25.8
12.34

3.2×105 1.5×104
= 30.72x106 = 3.1x107
6.40×103
 Statistical Error Analysis
Quite often you will be required to make the
same measurement many times in order to
estimate errors correctly.

Imagine that a student measures the period of

revolution using a digital timer

The reaction time, not instrument, is the main

source of the random error.
A histogram is obtained when results
of period measurement are
represented on the horizontal axis
and the number of times a given
result obtained is represented on the
vertical axis.
 ∑
i xi
MEAN x= N
 The standard deviation:

2
∑i xi – x
σ=
N–1

The standard deviation has a very important meaning, namely, that the number of all
measurements in the range (x ± σ) is approximately (68%), in the range (x ± 2σ) – 95% and in
the range (x ± 3σ) more than 99%. These three ranges are illustrated in the figure on the next
page.
A statistical analysis shows that the standard
error often called standard deviation of the
mean (SDOM) is the error of the average. The
standard error is given by the following
expression:

2
σ ∑i xi – x
σx = =
N N(N – 1)

where σ is called standard deviation.

 GRAPHS
• In the era of computers, various software
packages are used to analyse graphs.
• You will use software called Logger Pro and
Method of Least Squares to fit a set of data
to a given equation.
• Computers and appropriate software will be
available in the lab to obtain the fitted
parameters and their errors.
Method of Least Squares
 Method of Least Squares
• The equation of a straight line may be given
by
y = b + mx

• The difference between the fitted y on the

straight line and the actual yi, measured along
the vertical axis, may be given by
(b + mxi) – yi
 Method of Least Squares
• Summing the squares of these differences gives us the total square
error, or, if divided by N, the Mean Squared Error (MSE).:

2
∑[ b + mx − y ]
MSE = i i
N

where ∑ means “the sum over all data points.”

• The squaring is done so that negative values do not cancel positive

values. By dividing by N we obtain the average squared “distance”
of a data point from the fitted line. Obviously, the smaller the MSE
is, the closer the fit to the experimental data. The MSE has the units
squared of the quantity plotted on the vertical axis.
• For the straight line, the fitted parameters, m
and b, and their errors Δm and the intercept
Δb are calculated by the computer.