Module 3 - Integration of Rational Functions

A rational function is a ratio of two polynomials P(x) / Q(x) where Q(x) ≠ 0. If the integrand is
in this form and the integral cannot be evaluated by simple methods, the fraction needs to be
expressed in partial fractions before the integration take splace.
In this section, we will be learning about integration by partial fractions. This method allows to
express the integral of a complicated rational function into the sum of integrals of simple functions.
We always assume that we have a proper rational function in which the degree of the numerator is
less than the degree of the demonimator. Otherwise, we need to convert the improper rational
function into a proper one by long division; that is to carry the indicated division until the numerator is
of lower degree than the denominator.
The rational functions that we will consider are those whose denominatros can be factored
into linear and quadratic factors. Hence, the denominators of the partial fractions can contain
nonrepated or distinct linear factors, repeated linear factors, nonrepeated irreducible quadratic
factors, and repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

Lesson 1. Linear Factors

It is shown in algebra that every proper rational fraction can be broken up into so-called
partial fractions. The process of taking a rational expression and decomposing it into simpler rational
expressions that we can add or subtract to get the original rational expression is called partial
fraction decomposition.
This section examines a procedure for decomposing a rational fraction into simpler rational
functions that can be integrated uisng the basic integration formulas. It specifically focuses on
rational functions whose denominator contains distinct linear factors.

Inteded Learning Outcomes

1. Apply concept of partial fraction to decomposition a rational fraction
2. Use partial fraction decomposition with linear factors to integrate rational functions.

1 −1 5
In algebra, you learned how to combine fractions such as + = (𝑥−2)(𝑥+3) . The method
𝑥−2 𝑥+3
of partial fractions shows you how to reverse this process,
5 ? ?
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)
= + . What constants do the two ? represent?
𝑥−2 𝑥+3

1. Partial Fractions
𝑁(𝑥)
Consider the rational expression where N(x) is a polynomial of degree less
𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 −𝑥−1
than 5. The denominator 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 − 1 can be completely factored as

𝑥5 + 𝑥4 − 𝑥 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 2 + 1) .
𝑁(𝑥) 𝑁(𝑥)
Thus, = . We can write the the partial fraction
𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 −𝑥−1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)2 (𝑥2 +1)
decomposition as follows.
𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)2 (𝑥2 +1)
= + + (𝑥+1)2
+
𝑥−1 𝑥+1 𝑥2 +1

NOTE: Before a rational algebraic function can be expressed directly in partial fractions, the
numerator should be at least one degree less than the denominator.
 In general, to decompose a rational fraction into partial fractions, the following guide would
be helpful.

DECOMPOSITION OF N(x) /D(x) INTO PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1. Divide if Improper: If N(x) /D(x) is an improper fraction (that is, if the degree of
the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator), divide
the numerator by the denominator to obtain
𝑁(𝑥) 𝑁1 (𝑥)
= (a polynomial) +
𝐷(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑥)
where the degree of 𝑁1 (𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝐷(𝑥) . The apply steps 2, 3,
𝑁1 (𝑥)
and 4 to the proper rational expression .
𝐷(𝑥)

2. Factor the denominator: Completely factor the denominator into factors of the form
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚 and (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
where 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is irreducible.

3. Linear factors: For each factor of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚 , the partial fraction
decomposition must include the following sum of m partial fractions.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷
+ + (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2 +. . . + (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑚
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
4. Quadratic factors: For each factor of the form (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 , the partial fraction
decomposition must include the following sum of n fractions
𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷 𝐹𝑥+𝐺
+( )2
+ ...+ (𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)𝑛
𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

1. Distinct Linear Factors

For each linear factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) in the denominator of a rational fraction, there is a partial
𝐴
fraction of the form where A is a constant.
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
3𝑥
Fror instance, to express in partial fractions, we set
(2𝑥+1)(𝑥+4)

3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
(2𝑥+1)(𝑥+4)
= + and solve for the values of A and B.
2𝑥+1 𝑥+4

Algebraic techniques for determining the constants in the numerators of a partial fraction
decomposition with linear factors is shown in Example 1.
1
Example 1. Write the partial fraction decomposition for .
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6

Solution. Factoring the denominator of the fraction 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 gives linear factors that are distinct
𝑥 − 3 and 𝑥 − 2.

Since 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2), you should include one partial raction for each factor
1 𝐴 𝐵
and write = + where A and B are to be determined.
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥−3 𝑥−2
Simplifying the fractions, multiplying this equation by the least common denominator (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2)
yields the basic equation
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵 (𝑥 − 3). Basic equation

Simplifying gives 1 = 𝐴𝑥 – 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 – 3𝐵.

Combining similar terms, 1 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (−2𝐴 − 3𝐵)
Equating coefficients of like terms in the equation,
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 Eq. 1 (Since the coefficient of x in the equation is zero.)
−2𝐴 – 3𝐵 = 1 Eq. 2 (Since −3𝐴 – 2𝐵 is represents the constant term.)
Solving the equations simultaneously for the values of A and B, yields 𝑨 = 𝟏 and 𝑩 = −𝟏.
Eq. 1 times 2 : 2𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 0
Eq. 2 : −2𝐴– 3𝐵 = 1
Adding the two equations : –𝐵 = 1 𝐵 = −1

From Eq. 1, 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 , therefore 𝐴 = 1

Thus, the decomposition is
1 1 −1 1 1 1
= + or = − .
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥−3 𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥−3 𝑥−2

Alternate Solution. For denominators containing distinct linear factors, subsitute the roots of the
distinct linear factors in the basic equation to sol;ve for A and B.
1 𝐴 𝐵
= + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵 (𝑥 − 3) Basic equation
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥−3 𝑥−2
To solve for A, let 𝑥 = 3 and obtain
1 = 𝐴 (3 – 2) + 𝐵 (3 – 3)
1 = 𝐴 (1) – 𝐵 (0)
𝐴 = 1

To solve for B, let 𝑥 = 2 and obtain

1 = 𝐴 (2 – 2) + 𝐵(2 – 3)
1 = 𝐴 (0) + 𝐵(– 1)
𝐵 = −1

1
Example 2. Evaluate ∫ 2 .
𝑥 −5𝑥+6
Solution. It is easy to evaluate the given integral by expressing the given integrand as a sum of
partial fractions.
1 1 1
∫ 𝑥2−5𝑥+6 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥−3 − 𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ∫( ) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−3 𝑥−2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ - ∫
𝑥−3 𝑥−2
(𝒙 −𝟑)
= 𝒍𝒏 (𝒙 − 𝟑) – 𝒍𝒏 (𝒙 − 𝟐) + 𝑪 or 𝒍𝒏 + 𝑪 (applying the property of logarithm)
𝒙−𝟐
 𝑥2 +2
Example 3. Evaluate ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 −𝑥
Solution. The numerator and denominator of the rational expression are of the same degree. By
𝑥2 +2 𝒙+𝟐
division, 2 = 1 + 𝟐 .
𝑥 −𝑥 𝒙 −𝒙
𝑥+2
First, let us express only the fraction 2 as a sum of partial fractions.
𝑥 −𝑥
Let us express the denominator 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 as a product of the prime factors 𝑥, 𝑥 + 1, and 𝑥 – 1 .
Since all the factors are linear and distinct, we can write the fraction as
𝑥+2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + + where A, B, and C are constants to be determined.
𝑥2 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
Clearing of the fractions, multiply the equation by the LCD 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏) (𝒙 − 𝟏) and obtain
𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 − 1) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
Simplifying and combining like terms,
𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 − 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥
𝑥 + 2 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 + (−𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + ( – 𝐴 )
Equating coefficients of like terms yields the following three simultaneous equations:
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 = 0 Eq. 1 (since there is no 𝑥 2 term in the left member of the equation)
−𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1 Eq. 2 (since the coefficient of x in the left member is 1)
−𝐴 = 2 Eq. 3 (since the constant term in the left member is 2)
Solving for the simultaneous solution,
From Eq. 3 𝑨 = −𝟐
Adding Eq. 1 when 𝐴 = −2 and Eq. 2,
−2 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 𝐵+𝐶 =2 New Eq. 1
−𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1 Eq. 2
2𝐶 = 3
𝟑
𝑪=
𝟐
Using Eq. 2 to solve for B,
−𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1
𝟑
−𝐵 + = 1
𝟐
𝟑 𝟏
−𝐵 = 1 − 𝐵 =
𝟐 𝟐
1 3
𝑥+2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝒙+𝟐 −𝟐
Therefore, = + + becomes 𝟐 = + 2 + 2
𝑥2 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥−1 𝒙 −𝒙 𝒙 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
𝑥2 +2 𝒙+𝟐
and = 1 + 𝟐 becomes
𝑥2 −𝑥 𝒙 −𝒙
1 3
𝑥2 +2 −𝟐
= 1 + ( + 2 + 2
)
𝑥2 −𝑥 𝒙 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
1 3
𝑥2 +2 −𝟐
Thus, ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [1 + ( + 2 + 2
)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 𝒙 𝑥+1 𝑥−1

𝒅𝒙 1 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝒅𝒙 − 𝟐 ∫ + 2 ∫ 𝑥+1 + 2 ∫ 𝑥−1
𝒙

1 3
= 𝑥 − 2𝑙𝑛𝑥 +
2
𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 1) + 2 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
2. Repeated Linear Factors
If the denominator contains a factor of the fom (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 , the above method fails since there
would be n corresponding partial fractions with degree 1 to n. These fractions could be combined
into a single fraction with denominator 𝑥 − 𝑎. Corresponding to the factor (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 in the
denominator, we assume n partial fractions of the form

𝐴 𝐵 𝐷
+ (𝑥−𝑎)2
+. . . + (𝑥−𝑎)𝑛
𝑥−𝑎

5𝑥 3 +7𝑥−9
For example, the partial fractions for will be of the form:
(𝑥+1)4
5𝑥 3 +7𝑥−9 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
(𝑥+1)4
= + (𝑥+1)2 + (𝑥+1)3
+ (𝑥+1)4
𝑥+1
2
5𝑥 +20𝑥+6
Example 4. Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥3 + 2𝑥2 +𝑥
Solution. First, let us write the given fraction as a sum of partial fractions before performing
integration over it. Since the fraction is a proper one, let us proceed to factor the denominator. The
factors are 𝑥 and (𝑥 + 1)2 with 𝑥 + 1 as repeated factor.
Because
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)2
you should include one fraction for each power of x and (x+1). We write the fraction as
5𝑥 2 +20𝑥+6 5𝑥 2 +20𝑥+6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 +𝑥
=
𝑥(𝑥+1)2
= + + (𝑥+1)2 where A, B, and C are constants to
𝑥 𝑥+1
be determined.
Multiplying by the LCD 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)2 yields the basic equation
5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥 Basic equation

Simplifying and combining like terms yields

5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥
5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴) + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥
5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 = (𝐴+𝐵)𝑥 2 + (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + 𝐴
Equating coefficients of like terms yields the following three simultaneous equations:
𝐴+𝐵 =5 Eq. 1 (since the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is 5)
2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 20 Eq. 2 (since the coefficient of 𝑥 is 20)
𝐴=6 Eq. 3 (The constant term is 6.)
Solving this system of equations simultaneously yields 𝑨 = 𝟔, 𝑩 = −𝟏 and 𝑪 = 𝟗 .
So, it follows that
2
5𝑥 +20𝑥+6
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (6𝑥 − 𝑥+1
1
+ (𝑥+19 )2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 2𝑥2 +𝑥
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
= 6∫ − ∫ + 9 ∫ (𝒙+𝟏)𝟐
𝒙 𝒙+𝟏
= 6𝑙𝑛𝑥 – 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 + 1) + 9 ∫(𝑥 + 1)−2 𝑑𝑥
9 𝑥6 9
= 6𝑙𝑛𝑥 – 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 + 1) − + 𝐶 or 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑥+1 + 𝐶
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
Assessment:
Evaluate the integrals of the following rational fractions using partial fractions.
(2𝑥+11)𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 2−4𝑥−1)𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 2 +4)𝑑𝑦 (𝑥+1)𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 2 +1)𝑑𝑥
1. ∫ 2. ∫ 3. ∫ 4. ∫ 5. ∫
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 𝑦(𝑦+1) 𝑥 2 (𝑥−1) 𝑥 3 −3𝑥+2

Lesson 2. Quadratic Factors

Rational functions may have denominators containing quadratic factors. With quadratic
factors, a system of linear equations usually have to be solved. It should be remembered that only
proper fractions can directly be decomposed into partial fractions. Otherwise, the long divison
process has to be performed.
Inteded Learning Outcomes
1. Use partial fraction decomposition with quadratic factors to integrate rational functions.

Corresponding to any quadratic factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) in the denominator, there will be a

𝐴𝑥+𝐵
partial fraction of the form .
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
𝑥 3 −2
For example, to express in partial fractions first we need to factor the denominator. As a
𝑥 4 −1
difference of two squares twice
𝑥 4 − 1 = (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)
= (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) )(𝑥 2 + 1

𝑥 3 −2 𝑥 3 −2
So 4 = . The partial decomposition will be of the form
𝑥 −1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1) )(𝑥2 +1

𝑥 3 −2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
= 𝑥+1 + 𝑥−1 + 𝑥2+1 where A, B, C, and D are constants to be
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−1) )(𝑥2 +1)
determined.

1. Distinct Quadratic Factors

𝟐𝒙𝟑 −𝟒𝒙−𝟖
Example. Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥 .
(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒)

Solution. Factoring completely the denominator,

(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙)(𝒙𝟐 + 4) = 𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 + 4).

2𝑥 3 −4𝑥−8 2𝑥 3 −4𝑥−8
So, = and its partial fraction decomposition will be
(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒) 𝒙(𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙𝟐+4)

2𝑥 3 −4𝑥−8 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
= + + .
𝒙(𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 +4) 𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +4

Multiplying by the least common denominator 𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 + 4) yields the basic equation

2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 − 8 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 2 + 4) + 𝐵𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷)𝑥(𝑥 − 1) Basic equation

Expanding the left member and combining similar terms

2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 − 8 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥3 + (−𝐴 − 𝐶 + 𝐷)𝑥2 + (4𝐴 + 4𝐵 − 𝐷)𝑥 = (−4𝐴)

Equating coefficients of like terms will result to the following system of linear equations:
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =2 Eq. 1
−𝐴 − 𝐶 + 𝐷 = 0 Eq. 2
4𝐴 + 4𝐵 − 𝐷 = −4 Eq. 3
−4𝐴 = −8 Eq. 4
From Eq. 4, 𝑨 = 𝟐. Substituting this value in Eq. 1, Eq. 2, and Eq 3 consequently yields
𝑩 = −𝟐, 𝑪 = 𝟐, and 𝑫 = 𝟒.
It follows that
𝟐𝒙𝟑 −𝟒𝒙−𝟖 2 2 2𝑥 4
∫ (𝒙𝟐−𝒙)(𝒙𝟐+𝟒) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥−1 + 𝑥2+4 + 𝑥2+4) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2∫ −𝟐∫ +2∫ + 4∫
𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑥2 +4 𝑥2 +4
𝑥
= 2𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 2𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 1) + 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 + 4) + 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 +𝐶
2

2. Repeated Quadratic Factors

Repeated quadratic factors in the denominator are dealt wth in a similar way to repeated
linear factors. For example

𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
= + 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒙+𝟏)𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝒙+𝟏
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒙+𝟏)
Use the above concept to show that

𝟖𝒙𝟑 +𝟏𝟑𝒙 𝟖𝒙 −𝟑𝒙

∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝒙𝟐+𝟐 + (𝒙𝟐 +𝟐)𝟐) 𝑑𝑥
(𝒙𝟐 +𝟐)𝟐
3
= 4𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 + 2) + 2(𝒙𝟐+𝟐) + 𝐶

Note: Show your solution on a sheet of paper.

Assessment:
Use partial fractions to evaluate the integrals.
(4𝑥+5)𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1. ∫ 2. ∫ 𝟐
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+20
(𝟒+𝒚𝟐 )