Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University

Visakhapatnam

Study Material

For

Sociology 2

Theoretical Perspectives of Sociology (Society in India)

Prof. M. Lakshmipathi Raju

Adjunct Professor

(Sociology)

DSNLU

1|Page
 Contents

UNIT 1 ( Pioneers of Social Thought )

1. Auguste Comte……………………………………………………………..7
2. Emile Durkheim …………………………………………………………..11
3. Karl Marx- Dialectic Materialism………………………………………..14
4. Max Weber- Sociology of Religion ……………………………………….17
5. Max Weber- concept of Power and Authority…………………..………19

UNIT 2 ( Schools of Criminology )

1. Criminology………………………………………………………….……22
(i) Definition of Crime………………………………………….……22
(ii) Penology…………………………………………………….……..22
(iii) Victimology ……………………………………………….……...23
2. Schools of Criminology…………………………………………….……..23
(i) The Classical School……………………………………….……..23
(ii) Neo Classical School……………………………………….……..24
(iii) Positive School …………………………………………….……..25
(iv) Clinical School of Criminology…………………………….…….27
(v) Sociological School of Criminology ……………………….…….27
(vi) Modern labeling Theory of Crime …………………………..…..28

UNIT 3 ( Structure and Composition of Indian Society )

1. Indian Tradition Characteristics…………………………………….……..31

2. Unbroken Continuity of Indian Cultural Heritage ……………………….31
3. Unity in Diversity…………………………………………………………….31
4. Dharma as the life Centre of the Society …………………………………..31
5. Scientific Aspect of the Indian Heritage ……………………………..…….32
6. Spirit of Tolerance……………………………………………………..…….32
7. Harmony with Nature ………………………………………………..……..32
8. Purusharthas Representing Hindu way of Life ……………………..……..33
(i) The Concept of Purusharthas………………………………….…….33
(ii) Dharma ( The Principle of Righteousness)…………………….……33
(iii) Dr. S. Radha Krishnan……………………………………….……….33
(iv) Dharma is not a Religion……………………………………..……….33
(v) Kinds of Dharma ……………………………………………...……….33
(vi) Artha ( Wealth)……………………………………………..………….34
(vii) Kama ( Pleasure or Desire )……………………………….……..…….34
(viii) Moksha ( Spiritual Freedom or liberation or Self- Realisation) …….34
9. Ways of Attaining Moksha ……………………………………………………35
10. The Ashrama Dharma ……………………………………………………..…35
(i) The 4 Ashramas …………………………………………………..…….35

2|Page
 (ii) Brhamacharyashrama ………………………………………..………..35
(iii) Grihastashrama………………………………………….………………36
(iv) Vanaprasthashrama……………………………………………………..36
(v) Sanyasashrama…………………………………………………………..36

UNIT 4 ( Rural Sociology )

1. Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movement…………………………..………….39

2. Before Independence…………………………………………………..…………39
3. Peasant Movement after Independence……………………………..…………..39
4. Kathleen Gough – Classification of Peasant Struggle ……………..…………..39
(i) Restorative Rebellion………………………………………….………….40
(ii) Religious Movements …………………………………………..………….40
(iii) Social Banditry……………………………………………………………40
(iv) Terrorist Vengeance ………………………………………..…………….40
(v) Mass Insurrection ………………………………………………………..40
(vi) Liberal reformist Movement …………………………………………….40
5. Land Tenure System and land reforms after Independence……………………40
(i) Meaning of Land Tenure…………………………………………………..40
(ii) The Zamindari Tenure …………………………………………………….41
(iii) Main Defects of Zamindari Tenure …………………………..…………41
(iv) The Mahalwari tenure or Mahalwari System ……………..……………41
(v) The Ryotwari System ……………………………………………………41
6. Land Reforms ……………………………………………………………………..41
7. Objectives …………………………………………………………………………..41
(i) Abolishing Intermediaries ……………………………………………….42
(ii) Tenancy Reforms ………………………………………………………….42
(iii) Ceilings on Land Holdings …………………………………….…………42
8. Advantages of ceilings and Land Holdings………………………………………42
(i) The Social Justification …………………………………………………..42
(ii) Consolidation of Land Holdings …………………………………………..43
(iii) Compilation and Updating of Land Records……………………………43
(iv) Cooperative Farming …………………………………………………….43
9. Census for the Poor Performance of Land reforms ……………..…………….43
10. Rural Problems ……………………………………………………..…………….43
11. Agricultural Problems………………………………………………..……………43
(i) Traditional and Unscientific Cultivation ……………………………….43
(ii) Lack of Irrigational facilities …………………………………………….44
(iii) Sub-Division and fragments of land …………………………………….44
12. Economic Problems………………………………………………………………44
(i) Burden of Loans or Rural Indebtedness ……………………..…………44
(ii) The helplessness of Small Farmers …………………………..………….44
(iii) Problems of Land less Labourers…………………………..…………….44
(iv) Bonded Labourers …………………………………………….…………..44
(v) Defensive Marketing System………………………………………………44
(vi) Lack of Transportation and communication facility………...…………44
(vii) Poverty and Unemployment …………………………………..…………45

3|Page
 13. Social Problems……………………………………………………………45
(i) Illiteracy ……………………………………………………..……..45
(ii) Traditionalism, Conservation, Superstitions…………….………45
14. Rural Development Programmes ……………………………….……….45
15. Community development Programmes ……………………………….…45
16. Poverty Alleviation Programmes …………………………………………46
17. Impact of Rural development Programmes ……………………………..47

UNIT 5 ( Urban Sociology )

1. Charecterstics of urban Community ………………………………….……49

(i) Social Heterogeneity ……………………………………………..….49
(ii) Secondary Relation……………………………………………………49
(iii) Anonymity of City Life ………………………………………………..49
(iv) Secondary Control ………………………………………………..……49
(v) Large Scale division of Labour………………………………….……..49
(vi) Individuation …………………………………………………..……….49
(vii) Voluntary Assosiation ……………………………………….…………50
(viii) Social Tolerance ……………………………………………….………..50
(ix) Spatial Segregation…………………………………………….…………50
(x) Unstable Family ………………………………………………………….50
2. Urban Social Problems……………………………………………….……….51
(i) Problem of Over Crowdedness………………………………………..51
(ii) Problem of Urban Housing ……………………………………………51
(iii) Problem of Slums………………………………………………………51
(iv) Problem of Drinking water …………………………………………..51
(v) Problem of Drainage …………………………………………………..51
(vi) Problem of Transport and Traffic …………………………………….51
(vii) Problem of Environment Pollution …………………………………...52
(viii) Other Social Problems …………………………………………………52
3. Factors or Causes of Urbanisation in India …………………………………52
(i) Natural Increase in Population ………………………………………..52
(ii) Continuous Migration of People toward cities………………………..52
(a) Role of Push Factor………………………………………………….52
(b) Role of Pull Factor …………………………………………………53
(iii) Changes in City Boundaries …………………………………………..53
(a) Advantages of the City……………………………………………..53
(b) Disadvantages of City……………………………………………….53
(iv) Urban Rural Contrast ………………………………………………….54
(v) Rural Urban Convergance ………………………………………….....55
(vi) The Rural Urban Continnum…………………………………………..55
(vii) Urban Influence on Rural Community ………………………………..55
(viii) Cleavages and conflicts between Rural and Urban Sectors …………56

4|Page
UNIT 6 ( Society and Environment )

1. Meaning of Environment ……………………………………………..…….58

2. Objectives of Environment Management …………………………….……58
3. Meaning of Environment Pollution …………………………………………58
4. Causes of Environment Pollution ………………………………………...58
5. Types of Environment Pollution …………………………………………59
(i) Air Pollution ……………………………………………………….59
(ii) Water Pollution …………………………………………………….60
(iii) Sound Pollution ……………………………………………………..60
(iv) Soil Pollution ………………………………………………………..61
6. Prevention of Environment Pollution …………………………………….62
7. Major Legislative Measures ……………………………………………….63
8. Prevention Environmental Pollution; Some Suggestions …………………64

5|Page
6|Page
 AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)

Comte is known as, The Father of Sociology. First he named the study of Social ideas
in a systematic manner as social physics. He defined it as, Sociology is the science of social
order and progress. The new science of Sociology is the study of the totality of human
intellect. There was successive transformation of human race from the society of great apes
up to the present stage of European Civilization.

Comte established sociology as a science. He called it true science of Humanity.

Sociology is a science of social phenomena. His studies were based on the methods,
observation and comparison. Comte gave a new dimension to the analysis of social
organization which he called as the organic structure of society. He made a comparison
between Sociology and Biology.

“I shall treat the social organism as definitely composed of the families which are the
true elements or cells, next the classes or castes which are its proper tissues, and lastly of the
cities and communes which are its real organs.”

Concepts of Social Statics and Social Dynamics:

Comte attempted to analyse the evolutionary theory of social organization. He

asserted that organization is based on consensus universal’s. He further developed two
concepts about the aspects of society. He termed them as “Social Statics” and “Social
Dynamics”.1

Social Statics:

Comte defined Social Statics in his book, positive philosophy (Vol.II, PP. 219-220) in
the following manner:
The statistical study of sociology consists in the investigation of the laws of action
and reaction of the different parts of social system-apart-for the occasion from the
fundamental movements which is always gradually modifying them. Comte suggested the
study of Statics on the basis of the study of human nature and study of social nature.
Social Dynamics:

1 A. Comte: System of positive polity. PP.241-242

7|Page
 Social Dynamics denote the progress and development of the society. Comte asserted
that the term can be understood in the context of direction and change in a society. This is
also clear from his theory of three stages of mental development. He referred to the
functioning of a society based on military rule, industrial administration and also liberal
society. He defined sociology as a study of progress and development.

The Law of Three Stages:

Comte gave the law of three stages which are very important to understand the social
evolution. Comte said in positive polity, each branch of our knowledge passes through three
different theoretical conditions; the theological or fictitious; the metaphysical or abstract and
the scientific or positive. As individuals develop from childhood superstitions and fears of
supernatural powers to adolescent belief in great cosmic principles and to the adulthood’s
practical positivism, so do societies from primitive religion to more philosophical idealism to
modern scientific mentalities. 2

Theological Stage:

In the theological stage, human mind, seeking the essential nature of human beings.
Absolute knowledge supposes all phenomena to be produced by the immediate action of
supernatural beings.

Theological stage consists of three sub-parts viz- Fetichism, Polytheism and

Monotheism. Fetichism is related to the thinking that each object of the cosmos has life. It
was believed that stones, trees, rivers, clouds and many such objects have life. The tribal
faith is based on the belief of Fetichism. Polytheism concern with magical beliefs, spirits and
many Gods. At this stage human thinking is inspired by the beliefs in Polytheism. Likewise
Monotheism is dependent on the belief that there is only one God which is powerful and all
pervading. We know that every religion has the concept of God to perpetuate the religious
feelings and sustenance of religion.

The Metaphysical Stage:

The metaphysical thinking is almost an extension of the theological thinking.

Rationalism started growing instead of imagination. Reasoning helped man to find out some
order in the natural world. The continuity, regularity and infallibility found in the natural

2 Francis Abraham, John Henry Morgan, Sociological Thought from Comte to Sorokin, P.7

8|Page
order were attributed to some ‘principles’ or ‘power’. Thus principles and theories gained
ascendency over feelings and speculations.

The Positive Stage:

Positive Stage is also known as the Scientific stage. The down of Nineteenth Century
marked the beginning of the positive stage in which observation predominates over
imagination.

Comte explained the term of positive stage in his book (Positive Philosophy, Volume
I, PP. 1-2). Reasoning and observation duly combined, are the means of this knowledge.

All the three states, theological, metaphysical and positive may and do exist, at the
same time in the same mind in regard to different sciences. The same mind may be in the
positive state with regard to the most simple and general sciences, in the metaphysical with
regard to the more complex and special and in the theological with regard to social science,
which is so complex and special as to have hither to taken no scientific form at all.

Concept of Positivism:

According to Dictionary of Sociology by W.P. Scott, Positivism is the philosophical

position holding that knowledge can be derived only from sensory experience. The methods
of physical sciences are regarded as the only accurate means of obtaining knowledge. The
application of scientific method was to give birth to a new science, sociology and thereby
separate it from social philosophy.

Hierarchy of Sciences:

Comte classified the Science into various categories according to their nature i.e,
whether they are general or particular. He named it as the hierarchy of sciences. He
enumerated five sciences namely Mathematics, Astronomy, Natural Science
(Chemistry/Physics), Biology (Zoology/Botany) and Sociology.

Comte stated in his book, ‘Positive Philosophy (Vol. I, PP, 34-41), that classification
of sciences opens with Mathematics, Mathematics is the oldest, first and the basic science and
can claim the highest perfection among all other sciences. After Mathematics, it follows
Astronomy, physics and chemistry are three sciences that are applied in the study of
inorganic phenomena. Biological factors are determined by astronomical factors and finally

9|Page
in the scale of knowledge comes to the science which studies group life. Comte designates
the latest science as Sociology.

The Religion of Humanity:

Comte is also known for his contribution of religion of humanity. F.S. Marvin
asserted in his famous book, ‘Comte’ that Comte’s thought can be put in the form of four
major points as follows:

1. First is humanity, the necessary ideal in any comprehensive system of thought.

2. Then comes Science as the directing force.
3. Synthesis is the next key-word for humanity and science must be integrated.
4. Faith is needed as a necessary concomitant to the prediction of science.
(Comte, P.212)

10 | P a g e
 Emile Durkheim

Theory of Social Facts

Durkheim defined Sociology as a Science of Social Facts. The subject of Sociology is the
social fact.

Meaning of the Concept of Social Fact:

1. A social fact is a phase of behavior (thinking, feeling, acting) which is subjective to

the observer and which has a coercive nature.
2. Social facts represent, ‘a category of facts’ with distinctive characteristics, consisting
of ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual and endowed with a
power of coercion by means of which, they control him.

According to Raymond Aron, the requirements of Durkheimian Sociology are

two-fold. The subject of Sociology must be specific. The subject must be observed and
explained, as the facts are observed and explained in other sciences.

Social facts must be regarded as things. Social facts are “external” and
“exercise constraint” on individuals. Social facts must be treated as things as empirical
facts from outside. We must discover them, as we discover physical facts. They are
irreducible to either psychological or physiological analysis.

Social facts have a constraining effect on individuals. They make them

behave in a particular manner. Mural laws, legal rules, penal system and the crowd
behavior, make them behave in a particular way. Education, law, beliefs, are given to
every one from without.

Durkheim’s Theory of Division of Labour3:

Economists have written in detail about the division of labour. But their analysis of
division of Labour in social terms is quite different. According to Durkheim, The Law of the
Division of Labour applies to organisms, as to societies, it can be even said that the more
specialized functions of the organism is greater the development. Durkheim gave some social
factors of Division of Labour. He underlined the factors of division of labour, namely, (1)
Size of Population; (2) Material Density; (3) Moral Density. Durkheim stated that the

3 E.S. Bugardus, in “The Development of Social Thought”, P.413

11 | P a g e
division of labour begets solidarity. He classified Social Solidarity into two categories i.e.,
Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity

Mechanical Solidarity:

As defined by Durkheim, Mechanical Solidarity refers to social solidarity based upon

a homogeneity of values and behavior. They are members of the same collectivity and
resemble one another because, they feel the same emotions, cherish the same values and hold
the same things sacred. The society is coherent because, the individuals are not yet
differentiated. Here we find the strong states of the “collective conscience’. Collective
conscience refers “to the sum total of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members
of the society”. This prevails mostly in primitive societies. The common conscience
completely covers individual mentality and morality. Here social constraint is expressed most
decisively in repressive severe criminal law which serves to maintain mechanical solidarity.

Organic Solidarity:

As defined by Durkheim, organic solidarity refers to “a type of societal solidarity

typical of modern industrial society in which unity is based on the interdependence of very
large number of highly specialized roles in a system involving a complete division of labour
that requires the co-operation of almost all the groups and individuals of the society. This
type of solidarity is called organic because, it is similar to the unity of a biological organism
in which highly specialized parts or organs, must work in co-ordination of the organism for
any one of its parts to survive.

With the increase in division of labour, the collective conscience lessens. Thus
criminal law tends to be replaced by civil and administrative law. Here the stress is on
restitution of rights rather than on punishment. An increase in organic solidarity would
represent moral progress stressing the higher values of equality, liberty, fraternity and justice.
Even here the social constraints in the form of contracts and laws continue to play a major
role.

Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide:

Suicide was the subject of the first sociological data to test a theory.

Suicide as a Social Fact:

12 | P a g e
 Durkheim used a number of statistical records to establish his fundamental idea that
suicide is also a social fact and social order and disorder are at the very rout of suicide.

Durkheim is of the firm belief that suicide is not an individual act or a private and
personal action. It is caused by some power which is over and above, the individual or super-
individual. It is not a personal situation but a manifestation of a social condition. He speaks
of suicidal currents as collective tendencies that dominate some vulnerable persons. The act
of suicide is nothing but the manifestations of these currents.

People in large cities were more likely to commit suicide than people in small
communities. People living alone were more likely to commit suicide than people living in
families. The extent to which the individual was integrated into a social bond with others
makes the differences in the incidence of suicides. People with fragile or weaker ties to their
community are more likely to take their own lives than people who have stronger ties.

Durkheims Threefold Classification of Suicide:

Durkheim analyses the types of suicide. He takes into account three types of suicide

(a) Egoistic Suicide: which results from the lack of the integration of the individual into
his social group.
(b) Altruistic Suicide: is a kind suicide which results from the over integration of the
individual into his social group.
(c) Anomic Suicide: results from the state of normlessness or degeneration found in
society.

Having analyzed the above mentioned three types of suicide, Durkheim

concludes that “Suicide is an individual phenomena whose causes are essentially social”.

13 | P a g e
 KARL MARX-DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM

‘Dialectic’ literally means discussion. Dialectic is the study of contradicts.

According to Marx, the word is by nature material. Material life of society is primary and
spiritual life is secondary. He get conceived history as struggle of opposites. History
presents the process of action and reaction between the forces. Capital which represents one
force is the thesis, and labour is the anti-thesis. This leads to class struggle.

Historical Materialism:

According to Marx, the material economic conditions are more important than the
ideological or spiritual things. To Marx, matter is not a product of mind. On the contrary,
mind is simply the most advanced product of matter. Historical processes are determined by
economic forces. The infrastructure of a society includes forces of relations of production.
On this is based the super structure of legal and political institutions. The stages of human
history may be distinguished on the basis of their economic mode of production.

Relation between Modes of Production and Social Structures:

According to Marx, the nature of society and its structure depends very much on the
mode of production. Marx spoke in terms of five steps in the development of society which
concerned to five consecutive modes of production .

(1) In the Primitive Communist stage: There is no private property and hence the
productions are owned by the community.
(2) In the Ancient stage: There is slavery in which one class owns and exploits the
members of another. Owners of the slaves and of the means of production get
everything substantial and the poor and the slaves receive very little.
(3) In the feudal stage: The class of aristocratic land owners exploit the mass of
peasants or serfs.
(4) In the Capitalist stage: The capitalists own all the important means of production
and the workers wage slaves or tools. Here the owners of wealth exploit the mass
of industrial workers.

Theory of Class struggle:

14 | P a g e
 Marx theory of class struggle is based on the unequal distribution of means of
production and alienation. Marx laid emphasis on the process of social change through class
struggle. He asserted the class struggle provides energy to change.

Regarding class conflict, Marx believed that there had been the existence of classes in
all epochs of history except the stage of primitive communism and thus there had also been
class conflict among different classes. Marx declared in his famous book, the communist
Manifesto that, “the history of all hither to existing societies is the history of class struggles:
Free men and slaves, lord and serf, oppress and oppressed, an uninterrupted manner now
hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended in a revolutionary reconstruction of
society large or in the common ruin of the contending classes.

The Dictatorship of the Proletariat:

The revolution terminates the capitalist society and leads to the social dictatorship of
the proletariat. Since the revolution results in the liquidation of the bourgeoisie, they will be
reduced to the ranks of the proletariat. The proletariat then establish their social dictatorship.
After attaining success in the revolution, the workers in course of time would create a new
socialist society. This new socialist society would be a classless and casteless society, free
from exploitation of all sorts. The state which has no place in such a society will eventually
“hither away”. In this society, nobody owns anything but everybody owns everything. Each
individuals contributes according to his ability and receives according to his needs.

Marx’s concept of Alienation:

1. “Alienation refers to the sense of powerlessness, isolation and meaninglessness

experienced by human beings when they are confronted with social institutions and
conditions that they cannot control and consider oppressive”. (Seeman, 1959; as
quoted by I. Robertson)
2. “Briefly speaking, alienation denotes a socio-psychological condition of the
individual which involves his estrangement from certain aspects of his social
existence”.

For Marx, the social arrangements which form the context of work in capitalist
society alienated the worker. They failed to provide him with the opportunities for a
meaningful and creative existence. The worker is alienated in that neither he receives
satisfactions from his work nor receives the full product of the labour.

15 | P a g e
 Alienation is “that condition when man does not experience himself as the active
bearer of his own powers and richness, but as an impoverished ‘thing’ dependent on
powers outside of himself (quoted by Duncan Markwell).

The social world and the social institutions created by human beings can be
changed by human beings. Marx applied the term ‘alienation’ to many social institutions
such as law, government, religion and economic life. But he gives more importance to
alienation in the economic field.

According to Marx, alienated labour involves four aspects:

(1) Worker’s alienation from the object that he produces

(2) From the process of production
(3) From himself and
(4) From the community of his fellowmen

Alienation leads to dehumanization

Marx was of the opinion that alienation would lead to dehumanization and
devaluation of human being. The worker is a victim of exploitation in the world of
capitalism. The more wealth, the worker produces, the poorer he becomes. Just as labour
produces the world of things, it also creates the devaluation of the world of men. The
devaluation increases in direct proportion to the increase in the production of commodities.

16 | P a g e
 MAX WEBER-SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

Max Weber established the ‘theory of religion’ or the ‘Sociology of Religion’. He

states that there is a close relationship between the religious beliefs of the people and their
economic development.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism:

Weber wanted to explain economic behavior in term of religion. For him economic
factor is not the only factor which influences religion. On the other hand, religion itself gets
influenced by social system, ethics of a community and the economic system. Weber studies
helped him to establish a correlation between the protestant ethics and the development of
modern capitalism in Europe.

Weber’s findings are that religion and capitalism are two important and
interdependent variables. The economic system affects ideas and moral attitudes are
consequently accountable for developing a particular system. Weber stated that the religion
which lacks rationality cannot motivate economic development. Religion based on ritualism
develop another worldly outlook in life, but the religions which is based on the characteristics
of rationality have developed economically. The protestant religion has all the characteristics
of rationality. It is worldly Max Weber concluded after studying the great religions of the
world that those countries which follow the protestant ethics are comparatively economically
well off, while others which do not follow the principles of Protestantism are economically
backward countries.

Weber projected a hypothesis. There appeared to be paradoxically positive relationship

between ascetic religious belief and economic enterprise. The following are values in
Protestantism:

1. Changed attitude towards work: Protestantism considers work as a kind of value hard
work contributes to the glory of god.
2. Concept of Calling: In order to achieve salvation, every individuals must pursue a
calling for a job or vocation. Work is worship.
3. Wealth is to be used for productive purpose: The acquired wealth and profit are not
meant for enjoyment but for further production of wealth.
4. Structures on alcoholism: The ethic prohibits the consumption of alcohol savings and
investment are encouraged.

17 | P a g e
 5. Encouragement of literacy and learning: The stress in literacy helped mass education
among the protestants.
6. Rejection of Holidays: Work is important to achieve the glory of god. Hence time
should not be wasted under the pretext of observing holidays.
7. New attitude towards collection of interest on loan: It helps to multiply capital and
encourages new investments.
8. Honesty in one’ calling: One must be true to oneself in one’s profession. Weber was
of the opinion that the ethical principles contained in Protestantism provided
encouragement of capitalism of the modern type.

18 | P a g e
 MAX WEBER-CONCEPT OF POWER AND AUTHORITY

Power is the probability that one factor (individual or group) within a social
relationship is in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance regardless of the basis
on which the probability rests: He further states: power is the ability to control and influence
the behavior of others to a given end. It is the capacity to extract obedience. He also states
that power is ‘chance of man or a number of men to realize their own will in a communal
action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action.

Authority: Marx Weber says that authority is power accepted as proper and legitimate by the
majority of the members of a society. The power is legitimate so long as it represents the
general will of the people and is voluntarily accepted by them.
Marx Weber makes a distinction between power and authority. When a person
exercises the influence over the other person or persons irrespective of he will of the latter,
this influence is called power. Authority on the contrary is an exercise of influence which is
voluntarily accepted by the persons on whom it is exercised. The authority is a socially
recognized influence.

Types of Authority:

Max Weber classified the modes of the legitimation of authority into three types. The
are

(i) The Traditional Authority: The traditional authority is that which people obey by
habit. They accept the power of someone simply because it has been done so in
the past. This type of authority is personal and irrational and controlled mostly
tribal life.
(ii) Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is the second type. People who
behave voluntarily under the influence of a person who possesses some
extraordinary qualities. They obey the person due to their faith in and respect for
him. The Charismatic authority is personal and rational in nature.
(iii) Legal-rational or Bureaucratic Authority: The authority in the modern industrial
society is legal-rational authority. This authority is formal and its privileges are
limited and defined by law. The actual power does not lie in the person but in the
position of the office, he occupies. Bureaucratic authority has well defined areas
of responsibility and rules and regulations and must be kept. Weber looked at

19 | P a g e
 Bureaucracy as part of a much broader subject. When organizations were
administered in a strictly bureaucratic way, they were capable of achieving the
highest degree of efficiency. Bureaucratic administration was superior to any
other form in precision, in stability and reliability.
According to Weber, bureaucratic administration was in principle
especially applicable to business, hospitals and political parties. Bureaucracy
is the most efficient and rational means known for coordinating human
resources to obtain desired ends. A series of officials be arranged in hierarchy
according to Weber’s concept of bureaucracy. There is a set of rules and
procedures. Authority is based on the office, but not in person and comments
are obeyed. Men in bureaucratic structures have no control and no
opportunity of using their rational judgement but simply not according to the
written rules, records and files.

20 | P a g e
21 | P a g e
 UNIT-II
Criminology
Definition of Crime:

According to Kenny, “crimes are wrongs whose sanction is punitive, in no way

remissible by any private person, but is remissible by the crown alone”. 4

Roscoe Pound, commented that, ‘ A final definition of crime is impossible, because

law is a living and changing thing.

Cross & Janes define crime as a legal wrong the remedy for which is punishment of
the offender at the instance of the state.

John Gillin defines crime as an act that has been shown to be actually harmful to the
society or that is believed to be socially harmful by a group of people that has power to
enforce its beliefs.5

According to Blackstone, a crime is an act committed or omitted, in violation of a

public law either forbidding or commanding it. 6

Penology:

It concerns itself with the various aspects of punishment and penal policies. The
various mechanisms of punishing the offenders are also studied under penology.

Criminology:

Dr. Kenny opines that Criminology is a branch of criminal science which deals with
crime, causation, analysis and prevention of crime. Criminology is a branch of knowledge is
concerned with those particular conducts of human behavior which are prohibited by society.

Judicial approach to criminology suggests that an act to become a crime must

conform to two cardinal principles of criminal liability namely.

(1) Nullum Crimen Sine Lege

(2) Nulla Poena a Sine Lege

4 Tappan Paul, W: Crime, Justice & Correction, P.80

5 Gillin, J.L. Criminology & Penology, 3rd Ed, P.6
6 William Blackstone, Commentaries, Vol-IV, P.5

22 | P a g e
 According to the first principle, no one is held criminally liable unless he has done an
act which is expressly forbidden under the existing criminal law of the land. The
second principle suggests that no one can be punished for an act unless it is made
punishable under the law.

Victimology

The United Nations convention’s General Assembly Declaration of Basic principles of

Justice for victims of Crime & Abuse of power, was adopted in November, 1985. Until 1985,
the Criminal Justice system throughout the World has more focused on punishment and
treatment of criminal with little attention on the plight of crime victims and safeguard their
legal and constitutional and human rights and compensatory relief. The suffering of the
victims of crime, may not be physical emotional or financial and the harm caused to him did
not attract much attention of criminologists and criminal law administrators. The convention
for the first time recognized the right of the victims to relief and compensation who
individually or collectively have suffered harm including physical or mental injury, emotional
suffering, economic loss or substantial impairments of their fundamental rights through acts
or omission of the offender or those who abuse power.7

Schools of Criminology

The Classical School:

During Middle of Eighteenth century Beccaria laid great emphasis on mental

phenomena of the individual and attributed crime to ‘free will’ of the individual and
advocated pain and pleasure theory which is based on hedonism. This doctrine implied the
notion of causation in terms of free choice to commit crime by rational man seeking pleasure
and avoiding pain. The following are the main tenets of classical school of criminology.

1. It is the act of an individual and not his intent which forms the basis for
determining criminality within him.

7 Prof. N.V. Paranjape (2018), Criminology, Penology, Victimology, Central Law Publications, Allahabad

23 | P a g e
 2. The classical writers accepted punishment as a principal method of infliction of
pain to create fear in man to control his behavior.
3. The profounder of this school considered prevention of crime more important than
the punishment for it. Hence they realized the need for a well defined criminal
justice system.
4. The advocates of classical school supported the right of the state to punish the
offenders in the interest of public security. They pointed out that individualization
was to be the basis of punishment. Punishment was to be awarded keeping in
view the pleasure derived by the criminal from the crime and the pain caused to
the victim from it.
Baccaria sought to humanize the criminal law by insisting on natural rights of
human being. He raised his voice against severe punishment, torture, death
penalty. The contribution of classical school to the development of rationalized
criminological thinking was by no means less important, but it had its own
pitfalls. The major short coming of the classical school was presumption of free
will; it relied solely on the act (crime), without taking into consideration, the state
of the mind of the criminal. There is need for concentrating on the personality of
the offender to determine his guilt and punishments.

Neo-Classical School:

The free will theory of classical school did not survive for long. The classical school
ignored individual differences. The neo-classists for the first time recognized the need for
variations in sentencing by judges depending on sex, age, mental condition etc. of the
offender. Certain categories of offenders such as minors, idiots, insane had to be treated
leniently in matters of punishment irrespective of the similarity of the criminal act, because
these persons cannot make difference between right and wrong.

The main tenets of the neo-classical school of criminology can be summarized as

follows:

1. They justified mitigation of equal punishment in case of certain psychopathic

offenders. Neo-classists represent a reaction against the classical view of equal
punishment for the same offence.

24 | P a g e
 2. Neo-classists were the first to bring out a distinction between the first offenders
and the recidivists. They approved individualization of offender and treatment
mehods.
3. The Neo-Classical school paved way for establishing different correctional
institutions such as parole, probation, reformatories, open-air camps etc. in the
administration of criminal justice.
4. Neo-classists adopted subjective approach to criminology and concentrated their
attention on the conditions under which an individual commits crime.

The main contribution of Neo-Classical school of criminology lies in the fact

that it suggested that an individual might commit criminal acts due to certain
extenuating circumstances which should be duly taken into consideration.

It may be noted that origin of jury system in criminal jurisprudence is

essentially an outcome of the reaction of neo-classical approach towards the
treatment of offenders.

Positive School:

By the Nineteenth century, certain French Doctors were successful in establishing

that the real sense of criminality lay in anthropological features of the criminal. Sone
phrenologists also tried to demonstrate the organic functioning of brain and established a co-
relationship between criminality and the structure and functioning of brain. This led to the
emergence of the positive school of criminology.

Differentiating criminals from non-criminals, the advocates of positive school

attributed criminality to four distinct types, namely, (1) Physical Criminal Type; (2) Mental
Type; (3) Psychopaths Type, and (4) Socio-economic disadvantaged Type.

The main exponents of this school were three eminent Italian criminologists, namely,
Cesare Lombroso, Raffaele Garofalo and Enrico Ferri. It is for this reason, that this school is
called the Italian School of Criminology.

Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909):

The first attempt to understand the personality of the offender in physical terms was
made by Lombroso, the Italian Criminologist, the originator of modern criminologist. He

25 | P a g e
was the first to employ scientific methods in explaining criminal behavior and shifted the
emphasis from crime to criminal.

He adopted an objective and empirical approach to the study of criminals, through his
anthropological experiments. Criminals were physically inferior in growth and develop a
tendency for inferior acts. They are less sensitive to pain and hence, they have less regard for
the sufferings of others. He classified criminals into three main categories:-

(1) The Atavist and hereditary criminals: Lombroso termed them as born criminals.
They could not refrain from indulging in criminality. Environment has no impact on
them. They are considered as incorrigibles, beyond reformation.
(2) Insane criminals: The second category of criminals according to Lombroso consisted
of insane criminals who resorted to criminality on account of certain mental
depravity or disorder.
(3) Criminoids: The third category of criminals according to him, was those of
criminoids who were physical criminal type. They have a tendency to commit crime
in order to over come their inferiority in order to meet the needs of survival.

Enrico Ferri (1856-1928):

Ferri proved that mere biological reasons were not enough to account for criminality.
He firmly believed that other factors such as emotional reaction, social infirmity or
geographical conditions also play a vital role in determining criminal tendencies in men. His
major contribution is his “Law of Criminal Saturation” theory presupposes that the crime is
the synthetic product of three main factors:-

1) Physical or Geographical,
2) Anthropological; and
3) Psychological or Social

He emphasized that criminal behavior is an outcome of a variety of factors having

their combined effect on the individual. He worked out a five-fold classification of criminals,
namely

1) Born Criminals
2) Occasional Criminals
3) Passionate Criminals

26 | P a g e
 4) Insane Criminals
5) Habitual Criminals

He suggested an intensive program of crime prevention and recommended a series of

measures for treatment of offenders.

Raffaele Garofalo (1856-1934):

He firmly believed that a criminal is a creature of his own environment. Garofalo

defined crime as an act which offends the sentiments of pity and probity. He emphasized that
lack of pity generates crimes against person while lack of probity leads to crimes against
property. He classified offenders into four main categories, namely

1) Murderers whom he called ‘endemic’ criminals lacking sentiments of pity and

probity.
2) Violent criminals who are affected by environmental influences such as prejudices
of humour, politics and religion, indicating lack of pity.
3) Criminals lacking sentiments of probity such as thieves and
4) Lascivious or lustful criminals who commit crimes against sex and chastity. They
have deficient moral perception.

Clinical School of Criminology:

Prof. Gillin rightly remarked that the theory of Modern clinical school on the side of
criminogenesis presupposes offender as a product of his biological inheritance conditioned in
his development by experiences of life to which he has been exposed from infancy to the time
of commission of crime. The main theme of clinical school is that personality of man is a
combination of internal and external factors, therefore, punishment should depend on
personality of the accused. This is known as correctional trend of reformation through
individualization.

The clinical school takes into account variety of factors. It suggests that the criminals
who do not respond favorably to correctional methods must be punished with punishment, or
transportation for life while those who are merely victims of social conditions should be
subjected to correctional methods such as probation, parole, reformation, open air camps etc.
Thus individualization has become the cardinal principle of penal policy in modern penology.

Sociological School of Criminology:

27 | P a g e
 Sociological School of Criminology seeks to locate causation of crime in social
environment. Sociologists attempted to co-relate variation in crime rate to changes in social
organization. They successfully established that other factors such as mobility, culture,
religion, economy, political ideologies, density of population, employment situations etc.
have a direct bearing on the incidence of crime in a given society.

Sutherland in his theory of ‘Differential Association’, he suggested that human

personality and culture are directly related and a person becomes a criminal mostly by the
chain of circumstances in which he associates or moves. The sociological School of
Criminology recommends the application of humanitarian methods for treatment of
offenders. The persons prone to criminality should be corrected through persuasive methods
rather than traditional punitive methods. The advocates of recent ‘Multiple Factor Theory’,
while explaining causation of crime, contemplate that crime is a product of a great variety of
factors which cannot be reduced into general propositions. In other words, no specific theory
of criminal behavior is possible. Crimes are caused due to combination of a number of
factors or circumstances. According to Cohen, explanation of crime causation may be found
in differential opportunity rather than ‘differential association’. The sub-cultures lead to
criminality due to conflict or retreatist tendencies predominantly found in low strata of
society, which leads to violence in an attempt to gain status and equality of opportunity.

Modern Labelling Theory of Crime:

The labelling theory was propounded by Tannenbaum in 1938. He believed that

tagging, defining, identifying, segregating and describing criminals by labelling them under
different heads was helpful in treatment of offenders. Thereafter Lemert (1951) preferred to
label offenders as persons with primary deviance and secondary deviance. The former do not
see themselves as deviant whereas the latter accept their deviant status. According to Lemert
primary deviance arises out of biological, psychological and or sociological reasons while the
secondary deviance is caused by social reaction to primary deviance. Therefore societal
reaction has a direct bearing on these two deviant types.

Being a ‘criminal’ becomes a status for these deviants and because of this self-image,
there is a constant pressure on them to behave as a deviant. The criminal justice agencies or
social control mechanisms, like education, mental health, mess media, all of which are used
for crime control.

28 | P a g e
 John Braithwaite modelled his reintegrative theory on social control which he called
as shaming. There are two types of social control, viz reintegrative and disintegrative.

Reintegrative social control implies bringing the offender back into the fold of
society, while disintegrative social control focusses on shunning the offender from society for
social good.

Howard Becker (1963) developed the theory of labelling (also known as social
reaction theory), on the assumption that people are likely to engage in rule-breaking behavior
as essentially different from the members of rule-making or rule abiding society. Becker
labels the law-breakers as “outsider”, and holds that they accept the label attached to them
and they begin to view themselves as different from “mainstream” of society.

29 | P a g e
30 | P a g e
 Unit -3

Indian Tradition : Characteristics

We find in India, the most ancient and an unbroken cultural tradition. We have so
extensive and diverse cultural tradition. India is called the epitome of the world (Iravati
Karve).

Unbroken continuity of Indian Cultural Heritage

Indian Heritage had viability and originality of its own. Its stability was such that it survived
repeated shocks and invasions from outsiders. Max Muller writes: There is in fact, an
unbroken continuity between the most modern and the and the most ancient phases of Hindu
thought, extending over more than 3000 years.

Unity in Diversity:

One feature most often noticed about India is its “Unity in Diversity”. India
has its own diversities reflected in social, cultural, economic, political, religious, racial and
other matters. Its social, economic and cultural diversities are also reflected in the rural,
urban, and semi- urban areas.

The bands of unity in Indian heritage has underlying uniformity of life people
speak different languages, but they have common languages such as Hindi and English. Our
economic, social and political philosophies are based on equality, justice. Liberty, Rationality
and Secularism. The constitution also guarantees equality to one and all.

Dharma as the life-centre of the Society:

Religion and spirituality represent the Indian ethos. In Indian social thought, the
concept of Dharma has been the basic idea in different fields of society. Religion and
spirituality permeate the whole of our life. The concept of Dharma explains the functions and
roles of different people, social institutions and organisations. It is the thread which ties the
Indian thought together. Indians call their nation not only as their mother –land, but also as
their Karma Bhumi, Tapo Bhumi, and Punya Bhumi.

1. Max Muller in his Lectures delivered before the University of Cambridge, England in
1882.

31 | P a g e
Scientific Aspect of the Indian Heritage:

Indian cultural heritage has its own scientific aspect. The concept of Zero, Square roots,
Cube roots and the Powers of the Ten were known to the Ancient Indians. Brahma Gupta’s
achievements in the field of mathematics predated the work of European mathematics by a
few centuries.

Classical works of the Indian Medical system, Ayurveda, like the “Charaka Samhita”,
and the ‘Ashtanga Hridaya” on medicine, and “ Sushruta Samhita” on surgery, are consulted
even today by Indian medical practioners.

Spirit of Tolerance :

Hinduism believes in universal toleration and accepts all religious as true.

Hinduism believes that “the essence of all religious is one; only their approaches are
different”. Gandhiji commented, “Religious differ only in non- essentials while in essentials
they agree.

Harmony with Nature:

Nature and its various aspects are embedded in our culture. Animals, birds, trees,
mountains, rivers from a part and parcel of Hindu way of life. Gods are associated with
animals and birds. For example, Shiva has the Nandi, Vishnu, has the Garuda, Brahma, has
the Swan.

Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Land, Plants and such other things of nature also have
cultural importance. The mountains of Himalayas have great impact on the life of the Indians.
Rivers are also equally sacred for the Hindus’. They themselves represent the goddess
Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswathi, Kaveri, Narmada, Godavari are all sacred.

The Hindu tradition opposes the exploitation of Nature. The attitude of the East was
one of total solidarity, with the entire nature. Environmental protection was the sacred duty
and not a matter of expediency.

___________________________________________________________________________

2. Swami Vivekananda’s Arousing call to Indian nation, compiled by Eknath Ranade;

page: 1.
3. Science and Technology in Ancient India; page XIII (Editorial Remarks) published by
Vijnan Bharathi’, Mumbai.

32 | P a g e
 Purusharthas Representing Hindu View of Life

The Concept of Purusharhthas:

Hinduism is more a way of life than a religion. The Hindu attitude to life is oriented
towards four noble ends of life. There four noble ends are exemplified in the Hindu
Dharmasastras as the “purusharthas”.

Purusaharthas are the fundamental principles of the Indian social ethics. The word
‘Purusaharthas’ implies ‘attainments’ or ‘life purposes’. The aim of every person is to attain
four noble ends or Purusarthas. They are ‘Dharma’, ‘Artha ‘, ‘Kama’ and ‘Moksha’, they
govern the Hindu view or attitude towards life. They are guiding principles of life. The entire
Hindu Social organisations are built on the foundation of the Purusarthas.

1.Dharma (The Principle of Righteousness):

Dhrama is the supreme principle of life. The word Dhrama is derived from the Sanskrit
root ‘Dhri’ is meaning “to hold together, to sustain, to preserve”. Dharma holds together the
whole universe. It maintains stability of society.

Dr. S.Radhakrisnan :

Every form of life, every group of men has its Dharma which is the law of its beings.
Dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth. Adharma or vice, is opposition to it. Dharma
or truth is treated as cosmic principle. (The Veda, Upanisad, Gita).

Dharma means moral code of conduct. Dharma is not a creed or religion but a mode
of life. Dharma is the goal of human existence. (That is liberation).

Dharma is “created for the well-being of all creation”. All that is free from doing harm
to any created being is Dharma”. Dharma protects all. It is capable of preserving the universe.
(Mahabharata).

“He, who protects dharma, is protected by Dharma (Dharmo Rakshathi Rakshitaha..)

Dharma is the holder of the balance. Dharma is realisation of the human spirit. It is the law of
nature which helps man to attain the supreme end of life (Bhagavad-Gita).

‘Dharma’ is not a Religion:

Dharma is not religion. Religion is a system of Dogmas, a particular mode of

worshipping. Dharma is living experience. It is guiding principle of life, a complete rule of
life. It leads way towards ultimate reality. It aims at achieving highest perfection of human
life (Moksha).

Dharma harmonises relations between Kama and Artha. It is corrective of social evils.

Kinds of Dharma:

33 | P a g e
 Manu speaks of: Spata Dharmas” (Seven types of Dharma). They are as follows:

1. Samanya Dharma: Consists of general rules and duties which are universal: Example:
truth, Non-violence, Non- stealing, control of senses etc.
2. Raja Dharma: Duties and responsibilities of the king.
3. Stree Dharma: Concerned with duties, responsibilities and character of women.
4. Dampatya Dharma: Duties of husband and wife towards each other, towards their
family, children and the larger society.
5. Varna Dharma: Duties of different Varnas: Brahmins, Khstriyas, Vyshyas, and the
Shudras towards each other and society.
6. Ashrama Dharma: This relates to rules relating to different stages or Ashramas in the
life of a man such as Brahmacharya Grihasta, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa.
7. Apadharma: This refers to specific rules to be followed in a crisis or great critical
situation.

Vedas constitute the main source of the Dharma.

2. Artha (Wealth):

The term Artha refers to worldly prosperity such as wealth and power by hones
means. Without ‘Artha’, no desire (Kama) can be satisfied. Economic stability is the basis of
social stability, individual advancement and spiritual attainment. Hindu thinkers had
recognized the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate human aspiration. But they laid much
emphasis on the path of righteousness through which ‘Artha’ is to be secured.

3.Kama (Pleasure or Desire):

The theory of Purusharthas makes sufficient provision for the enjoyment of life. The
pleasure of life need not be discarded for the sake of the other world. Kama does not mean
only instinctive life. It involves sexual, emotional aesthetic life as well. The aesthetic life
expresses itself in creation and appreciation of all that is beautiful and sublime. At its lowest
manifestation, karma is sex drive. It is one of the ‘Six’ ‘enemies’ of human beings. But kama
helps the propagation of species. The Hindu thinkers stressed self-control and respect for the
Dharma.

1. Source of Dharma, According to Manu, are as follow: (a) the whole Vedas constitute
the first source of the sacred law. They constitute the supreme authority.
2. The second source constitutes the tradition and the practices of those that know the
Vedas.

4.Moksha ( Spiritual freedom or Liberation or Self- Realisation):

Moksha, according to Hindu thinkers, is the ultimate aim. The final end of human life is
salvation or liberation from the bondage of the world. It is called Moksha. When Dharma
34 | P a g e
becomes the absolute concept, it gets the name of Moksha. It is the supreme aspiration of
man. It is summum bonum of human existence. All our activities are directed to the
realisation of this end. The other three Purusarthas, Dharma, Artha, Karma are called
‘Trivargas’. They constitute the means for the attainment of “Moksha”.

Ways of attaining Moksha:

Hindusim offers four ways of attaining Moksha or salvation. These are the paths
of 1. Meditation (Yoga Marga), 2. Knowledge (Jnana Marga), 3. Devotion (Bhakti Marga)
4.Correct Action (Karma Marga). The individual is free to choose the path that suits him.

The Ashrama Dharma or System

The Concept of “Varnashrama Dharma”

The Hindu society developed two coordinated systems of social organisation,

namely “ Ashramas”, and the whole society is divided into four strata namely,
‘Varnas’,Ashrama Dharma, is to regulate the individual life. Varna Dharma is to regulate the
individual’s social life. These Dharma is regulating the individual and the society. These two
schemes are together called, “Varnashrma Vyavastha”. Or “Varnashrama Dharma”. The
Purusarthas are the guiding principles for functioning of the Varnashrama Dharma.

The Concept of Ashrama Dharma:

The Ashrama Dharma is one of the Socio-economic religious institutions of ancient

India. It is Hindu scheme of life which represents different stages (Ashramas) of life. The
Ashrama System is also related to the Varna system which regulates the individual’s social
life and responsibilities.

Meaning of ‘Ashrama’

The Sanskrit word Ashrama, denotes a halting or resting place. It also means ‘stages’,
“monastery” ‘duties’ etc. The word Ashrama comes from the Sanskrit root, ‘Srama’, which
means making an effort. It is a step in the journey of life. According to Hindu ethics, the final
aim of life is liberation or “Moksha”.

1. Y.S.Apte’s , “Sanskrit Hindu Dictionary”, page-165.

The Four ashramas:

Human life is divided into four stages or Ashrmas: Brahmacharya, Gruhastha,

Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. Every stage has its own duties and functions. In every stage, the
individual gets trained and qualifies himself for the next stage. In each stage, the individual
takes rest in his journey of life. He prepares himself for future journey. The individual has to
pass through these four stages, according to Dharmasastras.

Brahmacharyashrama ( Stage of Studentship) :

35 | P a g e
 This stage is meant for acquiring knowledge, developing knowledge discipline, and
moulding character. This stage starts with the initiation ceremony called, Upanayanam
(meaning conducting nearer). The main purpose is to bring the individual nearer to life
purposes. (Purusharthas). This also brings him nearer to the teacher, or ‘guru’. This marks the
“second birth” of the individual i.e. birth into a higher life. Wearing a sacred thread, the
‘Yojnopavita’ is known as ‘Dvija’ or thrice-form.

The Brahmachari acquires knowledge of Sastras. He has to lead a life of simplicity and
hard work. This stage is useful for the development of personality. Here, the individual’s
character is moulded and given a shape.

2.Ghrihasthrama (Stage of Householder):

This stage is entered at marriage. The individual in this stage gets married, earns money
and begets children. In this stage, the individual pursues wealth (Artha) and pleasures
(Karma) within the limits of the moral law (Dharma).

All the other orders or Ashramas exist because of the support given by
Grihasthashrama. In this stage, he performs religious rites; fulfils his obligations towards the
society, takes care of the Brahmacharis, Varnaprasthis and Sanyasis, who are not supposed to
learn their living.

3. Vanprasthashrama (Philosophic Recluse)

After discharging all the duties and obligations, as a house holder, the individual enters
the Vanaprastha stage. In this stage, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates
himself to spiritual life. It is time for him to generation. The inner cell of the Vairagya
(detachment) insit on him to give up all that is his own. He is retired from both in society, and
in family. He lives a life of worship, silence and meditation. He performs rituals and Yajna.
He gathers around him students who live with him. He converts his hermitage into a
‘Gurukula’ (or residential school). Kings and leaders of the community approach these
hermits for guidance and counselling.

4. Sanyasahrama (Stage of Renunciation or Wandering Mystic):

This is the last stage in the life of person. This is time for renunciation. A
Vanaprastha becomes a ‘Yati’, or ‘Sanyasi’ or an ‘ascetic’, on the attainment of mental
serenity. He becomes a wandering ascetic. The final stage is designated as ‘Sanyasa’ or ‘total
unburdening’ or total abandonment’. The primary goal of Sanyasi is to attain ‘Moksha’.

The Sanyasi gives up all the bondages, and attachments of this world. He gives
up his name, changes his clothes, and leaves his race, family, and even his sect. He puts on a
saffron cloth, gives up shelter in any form. He receives his food through begging. He
performs meditation and preaches Dharma. He is known as ‘Parivrata’ (wanderer), ‘Bhikshu’
(Beggar), ‘Yati’(restrained one) and ‘Muni’ (Silent Mystic). He is the source of inspiration
and founder of the path of Dharma for the Society.

36 | P a g e
C.N.Shankar Rao, (2000), Sociology of Indian Society, S.Chand& Company Ltd, New Delhi.

37 | P a g e
38 | P a g e
 UNIT -4

Agrarian unrest or Peasant movements

As Bipin Chandra pointed out, peasant Movements had been a part of national movement
against British supremacy. A number of issues related to the peasantry of our country are not
Settled and still hold their sway. As S.L. Desai and P.C.Jain have pointed out, “The root of
Peasant unrest, therefore, lies in the social structure of the peasantry, its history and processes
of agricultural modernization. 8

Agrarian unrest is a broad concept to include various types struggles such as agrarian
revolution,
Farmer’s revolt, farmer’s agitation, peasant movement, farmers strikes etc. Sum of the
peasants
And movements had taken place prior to independence and a few others took place after
Independence.

Before Independence:
Peasants of the country began to develop political consciousness only after 1918. A few of
the
Peasant movements also had taken place before 1918. Some of them were targeted against
the
Zamindars, Money lenders and the government. Of the various struggles which had taken
place
Before Independence, the following are significant.

1. Santhal Insurrection (1855-56)

2. Peasant Revolution Punjab (1930).
3. Champaran (Bihar) Movement (1917-18)
4. Kheda Peasant Struggle (1918)
5. The Bardoli Satyagraha (1920)
6. Moplah Rebellion in Malabar (1921)

Peasant Movements after Independence

1. Telangana Peasant Struggle (1947-51)
2. Naxalbari Peasant Struggle (1967)

Kathleen Gough’s Classification of Peasant Struggle

Kathleen Gough classified peasant agitations or struggles into five categories as follows:

1. Restorative Rebellion
2. Religious Movements

8 S.L.Desai and P.C.Jain, ‘Rural Sociology”, 1999, Page -223

39 | P a g e
 3. Social Banditry
4. Terrorist Vengeance
5. Mass Insurrection.
6. Liberal Reformist Movements.

1. Restorative Rebellions:
Agitations of this type usually are undertaken for the restoration of the onetime existed
privileges. Santhals fought against British, not for driving them away from India, but for the
restoring their traditional rights.

2. Religious Movements:
Many agitations took place in India with active leadership of religious leaders. The Moplah
Muslims of Malabar revolted against the Hindu Landlords and also the British from 1836 to
1921, under the Thangal, a Muslim religious leader.

3. Social Banditry
It is social oriented robbery in which it among the poor. Example, the banditry led by
Narasimha Reddy of Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, can be mentioned here.

4. Terrorist Vengeance
Struggles in which agitators attack the opponents and torturing and killing them finally and
such others violent activities are terrorist activities. Examples: Naxalite agitations, Marxist
extremists known as “People’s War group.” Etc.

5. Mass Insurrections
Agitations which are called “Mass insurrections” takes place suddenly and come to an end
abruptly. Examples: The so called “Deccan revolts” that took place in Poona, Ahmed Nagar,
Satara, Solapur belong to this category. These agitations suddenly arise without any leader or
without any organisational basis.

6. Liberal Reformist Movements

These liberal movements do not bring out any basic changes in society. They are useful in
removing some of the dangerous or at least harmful laws/legislations. Examples: Peasant
agitations staged under the leadership of Gandhiji, Sardar Patel, such as “Champaran
Satyagraha”, “Bardoli Satyagraha”, etc.

Land Tenure System and Land Reforms after Independence

Meaning of Land Tenure

The term ‘tenure’ means to hold. ‘Land Tenure’ means have land is held and managed by a
person. The conditions how land is held and the conditions on which land is given to the
cultivator by the landlord are to be taken into consideration. It denotes as to who owns the
land and who cultivates it.

40 | P a g e
At the far end of Moghul rule and the beginning of the British rule in India, the old land
revenue system was replaced by a new system in the country as mentioned below.

1. Zamindari Tenure
2. Mahalwari Tenure
3. Ryotwari Tenure

The Zamindari Tenure

According to the Zamindari System, the cultivated land belonged to the government. The
government entrusted the responsibility of collecting the land tax, to a few individuals who
are called the “Zamindars”, sometimes as Inamdars and also Jagirdars. The ordinary peasants
or tenants had to pay having taxes. The landlords (known as Zamindars) were the proprietors
of large areas of land. The Zamindari settlements ( The Bengal Permanent Revenue
Settlement(1793) made them owners of land.The permanent settlement fixed land land
revenue was assessed for a period of 30 and 40 years in various states.

Main defects of Zamindari System

The system suffered from defects. The quality of cultivation suffered. It gave rise to
problems of ‘absentee landlordism”. The Zamindari system itself was based on exploitation.
Another great evil of the system was sub-letting. It led to litigation and agrarian discontent.
The Zamindari system was a failure. The Independent Indian Government took a bold
decision to abolish Zamindar system in view of its defects.

1. Mahalwari Tenure or Mahalwari System

Under this system, the village lands were held jointly by the village communities. The
members were jointly and individually responsible for the payment of the land revenue. The
village headman or co-sharer is appointed for the purpose, for collecting land revenue. The
system also contributed for absentee landlordism.

2. Ryotwari Tenure or System

Under this system, the responsibility of paying land revenue to the government was of the
cultivator (or individual ryot) himself and there was no intermediary between him and the
state. Though there are advantages of this system, there are also some defects of Ryotwari
system. There is the problem of sub-betting in this system. There are other problems such as
mortgaging the land and fixation of appropriate rent in this system.

Land Reforms
Land Reforms after Independence
The term “land reforms” refer to changes in the patterns of land holdings, to solve tenancy
problems, to increase the size of the land holdings and to effect improvements in agriculture.

Objectives

41 | P a g e
1. Redistribution of land ownership in favour of actual cultivators, improvement of the size of
farms, provision of security of tenure to the tenants etc.

2. To abolish intermediaries, to prevent the exploitation of tenants, ceiling on land holdings,

consolidation of land holdings etc.

A. Abolition of Intermediaries
The first step in land reforms is the abolition of Zamindars, Jagirdars and others, who are
intermediaries between government and tenant farmers.

B. Tenancy Reforms
The tenants are divided into three categories – (1) occupancy or permanent tenants; (2)
Tenants at will, and (3) Sub-tenants. Occupancy tenants enjoy permanent rights like owners.
Tenants at will and sub-tenants are in precarious position. They are at the mercy of landlords.
They are prone to exploitation by the landlords.

C. Ceilings on Landholdings
It means fixation of maximum limit on the individual land holdings.

Main Objectives of ceilings on Land holdings.

1. To reduce the inequality in the ownership of lands.
2. To reduce the inequality in the agricultural income.
3. To distribute the surplus land among the landless cultivators.

Advantages of Ceilings on Land Holdings

1. The Social Justification

Where the supply of land is limited, it is socially unjust to allow a small number of people to
hold a large part of land. Ceiling limits on land holdings, is a right step in assuring social
justice.
Legislation on ceilings on Land holdings:

The ceiling laws enacted in 1950, were modified by all states in 1972 in the basis of the
recommendations of the Central Land Reforms Commission of 1971. As per the revised
ceiling laws of 1972, the ceiling on land holdings in prescribed not for individual but for a
family of 5 members. The 1972 legislation prescribed 3 categories of ceilings. They are

1. For irrigated land, the ceiling limit is 10 to 18 acres.

2. For partly irrigated land, the maximum limit is 27 acres.
3. For dry land the upper limit at 54 acres.

42 | P a g e
But as facts reveal, the distribution of surplus lands was slow. Between March, 1990 and
December 1997, a span of 7 years, only 6.26 lakh acres could be distributed. 9

D. Consolidation of Land holdings.

Consolidation of land holdings means bringing together small plots of land as one compact
block, to solve the problem of fragmentation of land holdings.

E Compilation and updating of Land Records

Compilation and updating of the land records are essential. In government offices, proper
records are not maintained. In recent years, efforts are being made to maintain the records
through computerization.

F. Co-operative Farming
This reform is advocated to solve the problem of sub-division of land holdings. Farmers
having very small holdings should join together and pool their lands for the purpose of
cultivation.

Census for the poor performance of Land Reforms

Lack of political will, absence from pressure from below is some of the reasons for poor
performance. The poor peasants and agricultural workers are passive, unorganized and
inarticulate and the apathetic attitude of the bureaucracy, and absence of up-to date land
records, and legal hurdles are in the why of implementation of land reforms. ( Mr
P.S.Appu)10

UNIT 4
Rural Problems
(Problems of Indian Villages)

The Muslim rule and later the British rule brought many problems in the villages. The
villages could be no longer preserve the self-sufficiency and autonomy. The problems of the
villages continued even after independence.

1. Agricultural Problems
(i) Traditional and Unscientific System of Cultivation:

9 Ruddar Datt and KPM Sundaram, Indian Economy, (2001), S.Chand & Co Ltd, Page 339

10
Planning Commission report of the Task force on Agrarian Relations, (1973), Pages 9-10,
as quoted by Rudder Datt, and KPM Sundarm in Indian Economy, S.Chand & Co Ltd, Page-
54

43 | P a g e
Even today, majority of the people are depending on agriculture. Most of the farmers are
uneducated and custom-bound; they follow traditional methods of agriculture. The farmers
are not able to follow the modern scientific mode of cultivation.

(ii) Lack of Irrigational Facilities:

The Indian farmers still depend on monsoon. Majority of the villages continue to suffer due
to famine or floods. Vast land lies unutilized due to lack of water facility.

(iii) Sub-division and Fragmentation of Land:

The average size of a land-holding in India is very low, less than 2 hectares or 5 acres. Land
also gets partitioned and fragmented. The small land holdings are not amenable for scientific
farming. The land less laborers subsist at the border of poverty line.

2. Economic Problems
(i) Burden of loans or rural indebtedness:

It is often said that, “the Indian farmer is born in debt, lives in debt, and finding dies in
debts”. When once a person gets into debt, he finds no way of coming out of it. They
voluntarily become bonded laborers

(ii) The Helplessness of Small Farmers:

Large numbers of farmers are small farmers. Their land can fetch them limited income. For
centuries together, small farmers were depending on home industries. The factory made
goods have destroyed their market. Since there is no alternate source of income, they finally
fall pray into the hands of local money lenders.

(iii) Problems of Landless Labourers.

More than half of the workers do not possess any land. Even the rest of them own only very
little of land. Agricultural labours predominantly belong to Scheduled caste, Scheduled tribes
and other backward classes.

Bonded Labourers

Bonded labourers are persons who forced to work for the creditors for the loan incurred,
either without wage or on nominal wage. Many of the landless labourers who live in rural
areas, particularly the Scheduled caste people became bonded labourers.

(iv) Defective Marketing System

Lack of storage and transport and absence of systematic marketing facility have damaged the
economic strength of the people.

(v) Lack of Transport and Communication Facility

44 | P a g e
Unfortunately transport and communication facilitaties are not available in most of the
villages. Hence faremrs find it difficult to take their produce to a market where prices are
attractive.

(vi) Povery and Unemployment:

Poverty has become an inseparable part of our rural life. A large number of our farmers
are living below poverty line. Unemployment is another serioius problem of Indian villages.
Desctruction of cottage industries have thrown lacks of farmers out of job.

Social Problems

(i) Illiteracy:

Indian villages are mostly illustrating. Literates are found in a bigger number in cities and
not in villages. The performance of the rural children is not that impressive when compared
to urban children.

(ii) Traditionalism, conservatism and superstitions

Indian Ruralities are known to be conservative, traditional, dogmatic and superstitious. Rural
people are under the grip of caste, custom, tradition and superstition. They lack initiative and
the urge to prosper.

UNIT -4

Rural Development Programmes

(Community Development Programmes)

Rural Development means development of villages including agriculture. It is a

comprehensive socio-economic process for improving economic and social conditions of
people in rural areas.

Community Development Programme (CDP-1952)

The CDP launched on 2nd October, 1952, constitutes the first organized effort at rural
reconstruction. Community Development is a process of social action in which the people
in a community organise themselves for planning and action , define their common and
individual needs and problems, make group and individual plans to meet the needs and
solve their problems , execute their plans with a minimum of reliance upon community
resources and supplement them with services and material from governmental and non-
governmental agencies. (International Cooperation Administration).

1. The programme was intended to create an interest among rural people for better economic,
social and cultural life, and satisfy their interest by self-help.

2. It intended to increase agricultural production, to provide safe drinking water, to improve

transport and communication facilities, to improve education, public health, sanitation,

45 | P a g e
medical facilities, housing, hospitals community centres, sports, cultural activities, to increase
people’s participation in development programmes, to improve many-sided development of
rural life.

Important Rural Development (Community Development Progrmmes:

1. Community Development Programme (CDP -1952)

2. National Extension Services (NES – 1952)
3. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP -1978)
4. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP -1980)
5. Antyodaya Programme (1972)
6. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY – 1989)
7. Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEP -1983)
8. Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM – 1979)
9. Tribal Development Programme (TDP – 1959)
10. Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP – 1979)
11. Desert Development Programme (DDP – 1977)
12. Food for Work Programme (FFWP – 1977)
13. Nehru Rozgar Yojana (1989)
14. Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (1993)
15. Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS – 1993)
16. Swarnajyanthi Gram Swaroggar Yojana (1999)
17. Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY -1999)
18. Development of Women and Children in). Rural Areas (DWACRA)

Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAPS)

The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

It is a programme or scheme for improving the living standards of the poorest of the poor
living in rural development self-sustaining.

NREP: National Rural Employment Programme

The main purpose of NREP is to generate additional gainful employment opportunities to

create durable community assets and to improve the overall quality of life in rural areas.

TRYSEM: Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (1979)

The scheme is intended to provide technical skills to the rural youth and to help them to get
employment in fields such as – agriculture, industry, services and business activities. Youths
of poor families belonging to the age group of 18-35 are entitled to avail the benefits of this
scheme.

Antyodaya Programme

46 | P a g e
This is a special programme for the upliftment of the poorest of the society. Families which
are under the grip of utter poverty and the families which do not have any visible means of
subsistence are to be selected for this scheme. Efforts are concentrated on these families for
their economic upliftment.

RLEGP: Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme

The programme is intended for generating gainful employment, creating productive assets in
rural areas and improving overall quality of life. It aimed at providing guarantee of
employment to one member of the landless household for 100 days.

The JRY – Jawahar Rozgar Yojana

All the existing rural wage employment programmes were merged into JRY. Prime Minister
Rajiv Gandhi announced in 1989.

Small Farmers’s Development Agency (SFDA) -1971

It made the provision of easy and cheap credit facilities to small farmers. At present, it has
become part of IRDP programme.

Food for Work Progamme – 1977

It aimed at making payment of wages in kind either in food grains in full or in part to the
persons living below the Poverty line.

Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana (JGSY-1999)

The programme is concerned with the development of rural infrastructure at the village level.
This programme is to be implemented by village panchayats.

Impact of Rural Development Programmes

As Dhoshi and Jain have printed out “generally the impact has to be seen at two levels. If we
look at any particular program we would find that either it falls in the individual beneficiary
program or community beneficiary. Any evaluation of the impact of development program
on the village life should take stock of both individual and community beneficiary
programmes” 11

11
Desai and Jain, ‘ Rural Sociology’ Page - 281
47 | P a g e
48 | P a g e
 Unit -5

1. Characteristics of Urban Community

1. Social Heterogeneity:

An urban society is heterogeneous. It is more characterised by diversity. Louis

Wirth says that “the city has been the melting pot of races, peoples and cultures.”
Differentiation is found in urban life.

2. Secondary relations:

The urban community is characterised by secondary relations. A city by virtue

of its size cannot be a primary group. It is secondary group. People are indifferent towards
each other. Face-to-Face intimate relations may not be observed among people.

3. Anonymity of city life:

The city is an ocean of strangers. Heavy concentration of people in a limited space

makes it impossible for people to know each other. There prevails a state of namelessness.
The individual identities remain unknown. This kind of namelessness is called anonymity of
city life.

4.Secondary control:

Control of Social behaviour is more difficult in a city. Predominance of secondary

relations makes it difficult for social control. Regulation of social behaviour is largely done
through the specialised agencies like Law, Legislation, Police and Court etc.

5.Large scale division of Labour and Specialisation:

An urban community is known for its large scale division of labour and specialisation.
Specialisation is visible in every walk of life. The larger the city, the greater the
specialisation.

6. Large –scale social mobility:

An urban community is characterised by intense social mobility. “Social Mobility”

refers to the movement of people from one social status to another, from lower status to
higher status or from poor position to rich position. An individual’s position is determined by
more by his achievements than by his birth.

7. Individuation:

In an urban community, people are more individualistic in their attitudes.

Kingsley Davis points out, “The secondary and voluntary character of urban association, the
multiplicity of opportunities and the social mobility, all force the individual to make his own
decisions and to plan his life as career”.

49 | P a g e
8.Voluntary association:

An urban community is the breeding centre of a number of voluntary associations.

The size of the population, diversity, and easy contact, make it the proper ground for
voluntary associations.

9. Social tolerance :

Social toleration characterises city life. Diversity of population, impersonality of

contacts and heterogeneity in living style make it inevitable to develop the spirit of tolerance.
The spirit of tolerance gives the strength of unity in diversity to the life in city.

10. Spatial segregation:

Due to its very nature, the city is found to be over crowded. It is found that various
types of business tend to concentrate in different spots of the city. In the city, land is so costly
that the buildings expand vertically, filling the centre of the city with skyscrapers.

11. Unstable Family:

Urban family has lost much of its control over the individual members.
Individualism is developing even inside the family. Even women are getting employed
outside the family. Relation between the husband and wife, parents and children are strained
to some extent. Some sociologists have even remarked that the urban family is much more
disorganized.

C.N.Shankar Rao, (2006), Sociology of Indian Society.

50 | P a g e
 2.Urban Social Problems

Problems of Urban society or urbanisation:

The process of urbanisation has been taking place continuously in India. Migration of
rural people towards the cities continuous unabated. This uncontrolled and limitless
concentration of people in the city areas led to several problems.

1. Problems of over crowdedness:

Heavy concentration of people in a limited place has led to the problem of over
crowdedness. Overcrowding has its own adverse effects. It damages privacy, disturbs
intimacy, spoils mental peace and health and encourages deviance. It also leads to the spread
of diseases.

2. Problems of urban Housing:

Growth of population in cities is so fast that it has become impossible to provide

adequate residential accommodation to all. Hence Housing problem or “Houselessness” has
become one of the serious problems of city.

3.Problem of Slums:

Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation have created slums in the city. Slums
consist of substandard, ill-ventilated, insanitary and poorly lighted houses. They consist of
houses which are unfit for human habitation. Slum dwellers live in horrible areas. The low-
paid workers normally live in these slum areas. Dr.Radhakamal Mukerji says, “In the
thousand slums of India’s industrial centre, manhood is unquestionably brutalised,
womanhood dishonoured and childhood is poisoned at its very source”.

4.Problem of Drinking Water:

Water has become scarcity in various cities. In big cities, water supply is not assured
all 24 hours a day. Some of the cities get water from municipal sources for less than an hour a
day. There is acute waters shortage in the last 90 years in big cities.

5.Problems of Drainage:

In the Indian context, shortage of water supply has added to the drainage problem.
Unfortunately drainage system is deplorably bad in India. Due to inefficient drainage system,
stink water gets collected everywhere spoiling cleanliness and spreading diseases.

6.Problem of Transportation and Traffic System:

Continuous increase in population in cities puts heavy pressure on transportation and

traffic system. City bus services, metro train service and other private service systems are
also not able to meet the transportation requirements of the people.

7. Problem of power shortage:

51 | P a g e
 Power shortage is becoming a major crisis in the urban areas today. Even after 70
years of independence we have not been able to provide adequate power supply to the
people.

8.Problem of Environment Pollution:

The city atmosphere is highly polluting. As Margret Mead pointed out long back,
Environment pollution is the worst problem which the modern industrial and city-centred
civilization has created. This is often highlighted as a “Rape on Environment”; Most of the
Indian cities have become the Victims of Environmental Pollution. The cities themselves are
polluting the environment.

9.Other Social Problems:

The other social problems confronting the cities are problem of privacy, problems of
individuation, problem of vices, adverse effect on the rural areas, Heavy pressure on
Municipal Administration, encouragement to Beggary.

It is clear from the above that Indian cities are suffering from various problems.
Though cities have their positive aspects, they have their ugly side also.

C.N.Shankar Rao (2006), Sociology of Indian Society. Pages – 462-467.

3.Factor or Causes of Urbanisation in India

Urbanisation has been taking place incessantly in India. The process assured greater
momentum soon after Independence. Various factors have contributed to the rapid growth of
cities in India. A.N Agarwal in this regard speaks of the role of a few factors which are
mentioned below.

1. Natural increase in population:

In the urban areas always the number of births exceeds the number of deaths.
Availability of better medical and health facilities, sanitation, higher rate of literacy etc. must
have been the reason for the low rate of death rate in urban areas.

2. Continuous Migration of people Towards the cities:

The economic and Non-economic factors are driving the people from the rural to
urban areas. The “Push” and “Pull” factors induce people from the rural areas to shift to
urban areas.

A) Role of “Push” factors:

52 | P a g e
 Many of the agriculture workers, small and marginal farmers are not able to
ensure productive employment to all the adult members of the family. Also there is
disguised unemployment. These people migrate to towns and cities.

B). Role of the “Pull” factors:

Certain attractions of the cities are also “pulling” or drawing the ruralites
towards cities. The ‘Pull’ factors are of two types: (1) “Pull” of the better job
opportunities and (ii) the pull of city attractions.

3. Changes in city Boundaries:

As cities get expanded, the semi-urban or entirely rural areas that are found in the
outskirts of the cities also get included in the urban areas. The process of urbanisation
continues to take place even today. It has acquired new momentum at the fag end of
the 20th and in the beginning of the 21st centuries. Expansion of educational facilities,
technological and industrial development, employment opportunities etc. accelerated
the process of urbanisation.

Advantages of the city:

The city offers opportunities and facilities for making full use of one’s abilities.
It can make life joyful and comfortable. It encourages new ideas and inventions. It
enlarges social contacts. There is less social distance. The city is dynamic. The city
has made women to stand on an equal footing. The city provides various means of
recreation. As Quinn says, the great civilization of antiquity, Mesopotamian,
Egyptian, Greek, Roman, were cradled in cities.

Disadvantages :

The city has dark or the ugly side also. The city makes life materialistic.
Secondary relations are dominant in the city. The city makes the people to become
individualistic. The city poses a challenge to family. Social control is complex and
less effective. City makes human life to become uncertain, insecure and competitive.
The city is said to be the centre of problems of economic, social, political,
psychological and religious nature. Concentration of people in the city leads to
deprivation of basic civic amenities to the people. It is branded as the centre of crime,
vice and misery.

C.N.Shankar Rao (2006), Sociology of Indian Society.

53 | P a g e
 4. Urban- Rural Contrast

The city and the village are very often construed in their “ideal form” and
the differences between them are very often exaggerated. Such exaggerated differences
between the rural society and the urban society can be elaborated in the following way:

Rural Society Urban Society

1.The rural society is Homogeneous
2.It is dominated by Primary Relations
3.People are known for their simplicity
4.Informal means of social control
5.It is less mobile
6.The main occupation is Agriculture
7.It is built of family units
8.Women are mostly tradition bound
9. Rural areas are stratified more on caste and
less on class basis.
10. Rural people are still not class conscious
11.People are more conservative
12.The rural community has a small number
of people
13. It is a simple unigroup society
14. The rural society is known for its
ethnocentrism
15. It is relatively free from conflicts,
tensions
16. There is less stress on education
17.The average size of household is
comparatively more
18. Rural communities are closer to nature
1.The urban society is Heterogeneous
2. It is dominated by Secondary Relations
3.People are known for their artificiality
4.Formal means of social control
5.It is more mobile
6.It is known for Non-agricultural
occupations
7.The family is said to be unstable
8. Women have almost an equal status with
men
9. Urban communities are stratified more on
class basis.
10. Urban people are class conscious
11. People are progressive
12.Urban community consists of a big
number of people
13. It is a Complex multi group society
14. The growing contacts with outsiders
make people tolerant with them
15. It replaces consensus by common
dissensus
16.Mass education is widespread in city
17. The average size of the household is
comparatively less
18. Urban communities are far away from
nature

_________________________________________________________________________

C.N. ShankarRao (2000) Sociology of Indian Society.

54 | P a g e
 5.Rural - Urban convergence

Maciver has remarked, “There is no sharp demarcation to decide where the city ends
and country begins”. Every village possess some elements of the city and every city carriers
some features of the village. The concept of rural-urban convergence” refers to the striking
similarities between the village and the town in some aspects of community life.

Kingsley Davis has said, “The city effects are wider than the city itself ,villages in a
way are closely linked with the cities. Everywhere the cities are characterised by sub-centres
or sub-urban areas. Sub-urban areas represent the rough amalgam of rural and urban ways of
living. Here, we find the urban way of life being mixed with the rural way of life. In, there
areas, we find the “rural-urban convergence”.

The Rural-Urban Continuum:

Some sociologists have used the once ”Rural-Urban continuum”, to stress the idea
that there are no sharp breaking points to be found in the degree of quality of rural urban
differences. We may even speak of different degrees of “urbaneness” or ruralness”. One
country can be demographically more urban and yet socially more rural than another.
Example” Child has a greater percentage of its population living in cities than does Canada,
but its people, by almost all sets of indices, are less urban”.

Urban influence on the Rural Community:

Mc Kenzie proved that, “The influence of a city varies with its size and that it tends to
wane with distance outward”. The rural-urban interaction is very widely recognised today.
Urbanisation and urban growth have impact on the rural areas. Similarly, rural areas have
their effect on the nearby towns and cities.

(i) Urbanisation has impact on the economy of the surrounding villages;

(ii) There has been a continuous migration of the people from rural to the
urban areas.
(iii) Villagers have imbibed several urban characteristics
1. Some of the urban families are extended to rural areas;
2. Urbanism or the urban way of life has affected the size and character of the rural
family.
3. The modern means of transport and communications are introduced in many villages.
4. The mode of rural recreation has engaged due to the urban influence.
5. The urban community is serving as a “ Reference group” for the village;
6. There is tendency of the rural people to move towards cities;
7. The rural people have also acquired some of the evil habits of the people of cities ;
8. There is an inevitable interdependence of rural and urban communities.
9. The dominance of the city continuous unabated.

55 | P a g e
Cleavages and conflicts between Rural and Urban sectors :

There exists cooperative relationship and functional interdependence between rural

and urban communities. Nagpaul identified three factors which promote cleavages and
conflicts among the rural people and urban people. (1) There are contrasting environmental
sub- cultures. Rural environment is more natural; while the urban environment is more
artificial (2) Modernization has made rural people to move towards the cities in large number.
(3) Urban bias also acts as a source of conflict between rural urban sectors.

B.R. Chavhan and N.R. Seth and others highlighted the intimate relationship between
urban and rural sectors. “A town and a city act as service centers for their surrounding
villages .L.K.Sen,(1971) has shown that “like a town and a city, a large village also performs
central place functions for the city as well as surrounding smaller villages”.

C.N.ShankarRao, (2006), Sociology of Indian Society.

56 | P a g e
57 | P a g e
 Unit 6

Meaning of Environment

Environment Degradation

1. Meaning of Environment

The term environment implies al the external factors living and non-living material
and non-material which surround man. Environment includes not only the water, air and
soil, but also the social and economic conditions under which we live

There are three components of environment

(i) Physical: Water, air, housing, wastes, radiation etc.

(ii) Biological; Plant and animal life, bacteria etc.
(iii) Social; Customs, culture, habits, income, occupation, religion etc.

Objectives of ‘Environment Management”

1. To maintain environment quality

2. Balancing the eco system
3. Regulate exploitation of natural resources
4. To protect environment from degradation
5. To reduce natural disasters
6. To formulate law and to control pollution

Meaning of Environment Pollution

The very human act of spoiling and contaminating the environment and disturbing the
ecological balance can be called as ‘environment pollution”. The undesirable substance that
is added is called “pollution”. Ex: Carbon Monoxide is an air pollutant; Sewage is a water
pollutant.

Causes Of Environment Pollution

58 | P a g e
Earth is only object in the universe which supports life. The amenities of life such as air,
water, land are found in our mother earth. Unfortunately all these amenities are polluted.
Pollution is caused by so many factors among which the following can be noted

1. Human Greed and ignorance [Write (1970)]

2. Human population explosion [Southwick(1976)]
3. Man’s misbehavior with nature
4. Rapid industrialization, scientific and technological advancement
5. Coal and oil are the offenders in the air pollution
6. Thoughtless burning of agricultural wastes and destruction of forests can cause
pollution
7. Rapid population growth combined with technology cased a serious environmental
crisis

2. Types of Environmental Pollution

Environment pollution assumes different forms: Air Pollution, Water pollution, Sound
Pollution, Land pollution and pollution by radio activity.

1. Air Pollution

Air is mixture of gases existing as a thin layer around the earth. Air is contaminated by
adding unwanted solids waste or gases produced by human activities- Air polluted when it is
contaminated by smoke, poisonous gas, fly ash, released by factories, automobiles etc. Air
pollution may consist of (i) smoke and fog together called smog and (ii) the second category
that consists of dust, fumes and gases etc.

The most important pollutants are gases like carbon monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur
Dioxide, oxides of Nitrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide, and particles like dust, smoke and lead
particles. Air pollution is the greatest threat to our health in the future. A major is the
automobile- cars, vans, Lorries, and busses. Residents of Mumbai are hard hit by air
pollution. Every moment Mumbayites breathe air containing so many poisonous chemicals
that 10% more of them suffer from asthma, bronchitis, cough, cold and headaches, than
citizens of almost any city or town in India.

59 | P a g e
Air pollution causes diseases like heart disease, lungs disease, high blood pressue, nervous
disability, eyesore, paralysis, throat irritation, lung cancer, respiratory allergies etc. it effects
growth of plants and trees. It affects the weather adversely

2. Water Pollution

Water is essential for survival of any form of life. A human being consumes 2 litres of
water every day on average. Water accounts for about 70% of weight of a human body.
About 80% of earth’s surface is covered by water. But a fraction of it is unusable, and that
fraction of it is unusable, and that fraction is shrinking due to pollution. The combined
pressure of the population growth and industrial development has imperiled the world’s water
supply.

Meaning Of “Water Pollution”

The term water pollution refers to contamination of water by toxic pollutants that may
either eliminate some living organisms or all forms of life. Water is polluted when is
contaminated by sewage, effluents of water given out by factories, automobiles etc. When all
these substances flow into the river water, or lake water, or well water, or sea water, pollution
of water takes place.

Rivers and lakes have long been the dumping grounds for many industries. Even
oceans have not been spared. Damage is caused by the industries and sewage systems.
Polluted water can damage not only to human beings but also to the cattle, fish, plants, trees
and other forms of living beings.

In most of the towns and cities, there is no arrangement of purifying the polluted
water. Most of south East Asia countries do not have access to safe water and adequate
sanitation. Water pollution can cause damage to nervous system and can cripple people,
especially children. It may even affect adversely the unborn children in their mother’s womb.

The evaluation of health effects of environmental pollutants is currently being carried

out as part of the WHO environmental health criteria programme

3. Sound ( Noise) Pollution

Noise is often defined as ‘unwanted sound”, noise is “wrong sound in wrong place, at
the wrong time”. The term noise may also be defined as an unwanted sound at a wrong time
at a wrong place”

60 | P a g e
 Noise has become a very important stress factor in the environment of man. Prolonged
and loud sound is caused because of industries, Vehicles, trains, loud speakers, airplanes etc.
Since such noise is found to cause some kind of physical, psychological or psychological
harm or stress to human beings, it is also considered to be a pollutant

Excessive noise can result in loss of hearing, increase in accidents, and decrease in
productivity. Hence, it is essential to take suitable precautions to reduce noise pollution
particularly in urban and Industrial areas

Noise has the important properties: loudness or intensity, and frequency; The
loudness of noise is measured in decibels (db). For examples normal conversation produces a
noise of 60-65 db. A daily exposure up to 85 db is about the limit, people can tolerate without
substantial damage to their hearing.

Effects of Sound Pollution:

(i) It has adverse effects on human life. It damages mans hearing, reduces his age,
causes loss of mental peace and results in emotional upsets.
(ii) It also has an adverse effect on animal life. It retards their growth and effects their
working ability

4. Soil Pollution or Solid Waste ( Waste Management)

“Any unwanted or discarded material from residential, commercial, industrial activities

that cause environmental problems is termed as solid waste. Solid waste management
comprises of systematic control of generation, storage, collection, transport, separation,
processing, recycling, recovery and disposal of solid wastes” ( S.S Dara Pg no 1000)

One of the serious environmental problems is how to dispose of the wastes. Garbage is
termed as “solid wastes”. Each family is generating wastes and adding to land pollution in
one way or the other.

The solid waste is typically disposed of by burying it in landfills, burning it and even
recycling it

Sources of soil pollution include (1) industrial wastes, (2) Agricultural Wastes and
radioactive Wastes, domestic waste or refuse, street refuse and market refuse

Adverse Effects of Soil Pollution

1. Soil or land pollution reduces the fertility of soil

2. Due to excessive use of fertilizers, chemicals, land in losing its natural capacity
61 | P a g e
 3. It adversely affects animals and human life
4. It becomes breeding ground for disease-bearing bacteria

3. Prevention of the Environmental Pollution

Environment purification is the need of the hour today. It refers to the prevention and
control of environmental pollution through various measures. India entered the area of
environmental protection in the 1970s itself. It has taken some measures in the direction of
reducing environmental pollution. Some of the Legislative measures taken by the government
are mentioned here

1. In 1974, The water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act was passed by central
government to prevent water pollution
2. The Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act was passed in 1981, for controlling
air pollution
3. The State Pollution Control Boards, Central Pollution Control Boards (CPCB) were
set
4. The Central Board evolved guidelines to reduce pollution, by introducing minimum
national Affluent Standards (MINAS), in respect of selected industries
5. The Central Government established the department of environment to coordinate
various schemes

Major Legislative Measures Undertaken Since 1972

1927- The Indian Forests Act

1972- The Wildlife (Protection) Act

1974- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act

1980- The Forests (Conservation) Act

1981- The Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act

1986- The Environment (Protection) Act

1991- The Public Liability Insurance Act

1995- The National Environmental Tribunal Act

1997- The National Environmental Appellate Authority Act Policies

1988- National Forest Policy

!992- national Conservation Strategy and policy statement on Environmental Development

1992- Policy Statement on Abatement of Pollution

62 | P a g e
Prevention Environmental Pollution; Some Suggestions

Man has been continuously ignoring “the laws of nature” and disturbing the
ecological balance; or Einstein said, “all our technological progress, our very civilization- is
like the axe in the hand of a pathological criminal. So like pathological criminals we have
mercilessly destroyed the forest and converted the fertile land into desert 12. We should protect
the environment which protects us in return. Some suggestions could be given in this regard.

(1) It is necessary to undertake appropriate national industrial policy

(2) Uncontrolled urbanization is to be stopped
(3) Owners of motor vehicles are to be instructed strictly to use pollution control gadgets
(4) The Sewage system in cities is to be revised
(5) A separate arrangement is to be made to collect and transport inorganic and non-
degradable garbage wastes to a distant place. Recycling and removal of garbage is
necessary
(6) Regular removal of garbage is necessary
(7) Launching of save environmental campaigns and movements
(8) Encouragement to conservation of forests
(9) A special care is to be taken to protect ozone layer
(10) Special Financial assistance for protecting the environment
(11) Creating environment awareness among the children
(12) Launching of environmental education which include
(i) Environmental Education and Training
(ii) Environmental Sciences
(iii) Environmental Engineering

Mrs Indira Gandhi told: Modern man must re-establish the unbroken link with
nature and with life. He must again learn to invoke the energy and to recognize, as did
the ancients in India centuries ago, that we can take form the earth and atmosphere
only so much as one put back into them13

12Dr. Einstien, as quoted by Biswath Ghosh in ‘ Contemporary Social Problems of India” (1988) page- 95
13Mrs Indira Gandhi in her speech at UN Confrence on Environment at Stockholm ( Sweden ) on June 14th
1972, as quoted by B.K. Sharma and H. Kaur in “Air Pollution” ,(1993-94) edition Goel Publishing House Meerut
Page 15 .

63 | P a g e
64 | P a g e