BS(CS) G-I-c G 2

Submitted To:
Sir SaleemShiekh
Submitted By:
M. Haseeb Amjad
Registration no:
1421-116-163
Assignment no 03:
Optical Fiber Communication
Date of Submission:
20-04-2020
Chapter no 03:
Lightwave Fundamentals

Question no 01:
Explain electromagnetic waves and its properties. What is the difference between these two
equations mentioned as (i) E=E0 Sin (ωt – kz)and(ii) E=E0 e-αz Sin (ωt –kz). Explain each
factor of these equations.

Answer:

 Electromagnetic Waves:
Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between
an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating
magnetic and electric fields.

There are many types of Electromagnetic Waves like Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared
radiation, visible light. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves and have frequency range:
300MHz-300GHz.The Wavelengths range in air: 100cm-1mm. The word microwave means
“very short wave”. Microwave is the shortest wavelength region of the radio spectrum and a part
of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Basically, Antennae of a radio detect radio waves.Radio waves are low frequency EM waves
with wavelengths longer than 1mm. These waves must be turned into sound waves by a radio
before you can hear them.

Microwaves are radio waves with wavelengths less than 30 cm and higher frequency & shorter
wavelength.Cell phones and satellites use microwaves between 1 cm & 20 cm for
communication.

In microwave ovens, a vibrating electric field causes water molecules to rotate billions of times
per second causing friction, creating TE which heats the food.Radio Detecting And Ranging or
radar is used to find position and speed of objects by bouncing radio waves off the object.

MRI was developed in the 1980s to use radio waves to diagnose illnesses with a strong magnet
and a radio wave emitter and a receiver. Protons in H atoms of the body act like magnets lining
up with the field. This releases energy which the receiver detects and creates a map of the
body’s tissues.EM are with wavelengths between 1mm and 750 billionths of a meter. They are
used daily in remote controls, to read CD-ROMs.
Every object gives off infrared waves; hotter objects give off more than cooler ones. Satellites
can ID types of plants growing in a region with infrared detectors. Range of EM humans can see
from 750 billionths to 00 billionths of a meter.

There aredifferent wavelengths as colors:

 Blue has shortest

 Red is the longest
 Light looks white if all colors are present

In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, the EM spectrum consists of: very
long wave radio, used for communication with submarines; long, medium and short wave radio
(used for AM broadcasting); FM radio, television and radar; infra-red (heat) radiation, which is
recorded in the Earth photographs taken by survey satellites; visible light; ultraviolet light,
which, while invisible, stimulates fluorescence in some materials; x rays & gamma rays used in
medicine and released in radioactive decay.

EM waves with wavelengths from about 400 billionths to 10 billionths of a meter have enough
energy to enter skin cells.Longer wavelengths – UVA and Shorter wavelengths – UVB rays, both
can cause skin cancer.

It helps body make vitamin D for healthy bones and teeth. It is used to sterilize medical supplies
and equipment. Detectives use fluorescent powder (absorbs UV & glows) to find fingerprints.
EM waves with shortest wavelength & highest frequency. High Energy- go through skin &
muscle. High level exposure causes cancer.

 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

 Electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength can reflect by conducting surface like

optical waves.
 Microwave current flows through outer layer of conductor.
 Microwaves are easily attenuated.
 They are not reflected by ionosphere.

 Equations:

 E=E0 Sin (ωt – kz)

 E=E0 e-αz Sin (ωt –kz)

E0 is the peak amplitude

ω is called the radian frequency, ω=2πf rad/s

k is the propagation factor. k= ω/v Where v is the phase velocity of the wave.

(ωt – kz) is the phase of the wave

kz is the phase shift due to travel over length z

t is time.

Sin is sinusoidal spatial variation of the field.

E=E0 Sin (ωt – kz) E=E0 e-αz Sin (ωt –kz)

Is the electric field equation Is the electric field equation

In a plane surface In attenuation

ω, t, k, z, Sin, E0 are same ω, t, k, z, Sin, E0 are same

e-αz is differ which is for attenuation e-αz is differ which is for attenuation

where term α is the attenuation coefficient

Question No 02:
Explain Solitons in Fiber Optics.

Answer:
A solitary wave is a wave that retains its shape, despite dispersion and nonlinearities. A soliton
is a pulse that can collide with another similar pulse and still retain its shape after the collision,
again in the presence of both dispersionand nonlinearities.The Data transfer capabilities are:

 copper telephone wires ~ 2 dozen conversations

 mid-1980's pair of fibers ~12,000 conversations
(equivalent to ~ 9 television channels)
 early 1990's solitons in fibers ~ 70 TV channels
(transmission rate of 4 Gb/s)
 Increase transmission rate, and distance between repeater stations
  Solitons' inherent stability make long-distance
transmission possible without the use of repeaters, and
could potentially double transmission capacity as well

A soliton is a pulse that travels along a fiber without changing shape. Pulse spreading reduces the
bandwidth and data capacity of a fiber communications link in the manner. Because of this,
many techniques for minimizing pulse spreading have been pursued. A few that we already
know about are:

 operating at the zero-dispersion wavelength

 Choosing very coherent (small spectral width) light sources.

These solutions (often applied together) have been common since the mid- 1980s.

Improvements now take the form of shifting the fiber's zero-dispersion point to wavelengths of
lower fiber attenuation and producing more coherent laser sources. Another technique that shows
promise for reducing pulse spreading is the production of solitons.

The actual procedure of a soliton pulse that travels along a fiber without changing shape is fairly
complicated, but some insight into soliton propagation can be easily developed. Pulses broaden
because dispersion causes some wavelengths emitted by the light source to travel faster than
other wavelengths. All we need to do is find some property of the fiber that counters this
tendency. It turns out that such a property does exist. It is fiber nonlinearity where the index of
refraction depends upon the intensity of the light beam.

Since the pulse velocity depends on the index of refraction, it is clear that the intensity of the
beam can itself influence the speed of the various wavelengths propagating along the fiber.
Usually this phenomenon is not observed, because it is quite small and requires a moderately
large amount of optical power before becoming significant. To form a soliton, the initial pulse
must have a particular peak energy and pulse shape,

To be specific, the product of pulse energy and pulse width must be a constant. The value of the
constant depends on the magnitudes of the dispersion and the nonlinearity. With too little power,
the nonlinearity is too weak to be effective in compensating for dispersion. If the power is too
great, then the pulse may actually continually change widths as it travels, owing to imperfect
(and distance-dependent) compensation.

In addition, the nonlinear compensation is such that solitons are produced only at wavelengths
longer than the zero-dispersion wavelength in glass fibers.That is, the nonlinearity acts with
dispersion to further broaden pulses at the shorter wavelengths and only compensates at the
longer ones.

So, the soliton pulses can be expected in silica fibers only when operating in the 1300- to 1600-
nm range. Although solitons retain pulse widths during propagation, solitons do attenuate just
like other waves. It will be imperative for long systems that the optical beam be amplified
periodically so that the pulse energy not falls below that required for soliton maintenance.
Various optical amplifiers (to be described in Section 6-7) are candidates for the amplification
process.Soliton widths of a few picoseconds are realizable. The corresponding data rates (the
inverse of the soliton widths) are over 10 Gbps. Multigigabit-per-second systems covering many
thousand kilometers with amplifier spacing's of several tens of kilometers can be designed with
soliton pulses. The product of data rate and fiber path length for such systems is far greater than
can be achieved by more conventional fiber techniques.