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(1) The Holistic versus the Atomistic Conception of the Objects of Science
Scientific theories not only explain and predict particular observations or
experimental results but also involve images of reality. Theories may assume that
the world is made of separate parts or is a single continuous stuff. Such views
are sometimes called metaphysical assumptions or presuppositions. All that is
meant by metaphysical here is the description of reality, of what really exists.
Different scientific theories can have different metaphysical presuppositions.
The popular image of modern science is atomic. The discovery of the atomic
building blocks of matter is believed to provide the firm foundation to our
understanding of the physical world, and forms the basis of reductionistic thinking
in the West. For instance, logicians speak of "atomic" and "molecular" sentences
where they mean simple and compound sentences. The atomistic "beads on a string"
or "beanbag genetics" model of the human genome has dominated genetic analysis.
The usual story of the rise of modern science during the period of the
sixteenth to eighteenth century is of the rise of the atomistic, mechanical model
of nature.# This model is supplemented by a model of causal interaction in terms
of pushes or pulls that can take the form of physical collisions (contact actions)
in the simplest cases, or with addition of exertion of additional forces (action at
a distance) in more developed versions. The rise of the mechanistic model in the
theory of nature has been paralleled and reinforced by the mechanization of
technology. In the twentieth century, the atomic model has undergone major
supplementation and transformation. Fields were added to the particle model and
particles and fields have become aspects of a perplexing physical reality. The
straightforward mechanical causality that was part of the earlier atomic model was
replaced by indeterminacy and statistical causality in quantum theory.
Nevertheless, the strength of the atomic mechanical image of science remains
great. Many of the physicists working in atomic, nuclear, and particle physics
discuss and think of the physical realm in terms of particles or atom-like
entities, despite the notion that fields are equally as real and important. The
very term "elementary particle physics," for a theory that holds fields and
particles as interchangeable and "complementary," shows the deep cultural bias
toward atomistic as opposed to field thinking even in the specialty that has most
developed field theory. Popularizations of quarks as the fundamental, particulate
building blocks of matter reflect the ease with which the idea of quarks is
assimilated to the traditional notion of solid, little atomic particles. In fact,
quarks, like other particles in modern physics, have both particulate and wave or
field aspects.
The popularity of Richard Feynman's particle formulation of quantum
electrodynamics (and his revealing talk of "partons" instead of "quarks"),# and the
relative unpopularity of Julian Schwinger's equivalent field formulation reflects
not merely personality differences and differences in concreteness of the
expositions by these two physicists, but the bias toward particle thinking in
Western thought. Schwinger formulated his field ideas in extremely compact and
abstract mathematical expressions, while the gregarious and particle-oriented
Feynman had an unmatched talent for physical intuition, striking pictures and an
ingratiating informality of presentation.# A more difficult entanglement of the
personal, political, and theoretical is the earlier field-oriented work of Pascual
Jordan. Jordan focused on a field conception of quantum mechanics and approached
matter in terms of quantitized matter-waves, claiming to have "derived the very
existence of particles." This claim was left out of later textbooks as "perhaps as
'too philosophical."# Yet, his brilliant work as an early forerunner of quantum
field theory is insufficiently credited, due in part to his unimpressive oral
presentations but more to his biological, and para-psychological speculations, that
sometimes verged on the crackpot, and due to his vocal support of the Nazis.#
The power of the atomic model in science owes as much to non-scientific
social background as it does to actual discoveries that directly support the
notion.# Notions of organic unity of physical entities (or of the universe) in
major, alternative traditions were important in the development of science. In
physics, the notions of forces and fields has depended on such philosophical views
of the world.
Numerous books appeared in the 1970s and 1980s emphasizing comparisons
between modern sub-atomic physics and various Asian philosophies, starting with,
and imitating, Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics.# Some eminent physicist
popularizers, with more philistine arrogance than intellectual care, have, with
ridicule directed at the more superficial analogies, dismissed all such analogies.#
However, what has been overlooked in both sympathetic comparisons of modern physics
with Eastern thought and angry rebuttals of them, is the fact that in earlier
Western science there were philosophical traditions quite different from the
dominant one of atomic mechanism.
In the very beginning of Western philosophy, the pre-Socratic philosopher-
scientists of ancient Greece presented a number of different philosophical
alternatives to atomism. The atomic theory of Democritus was heralded as the most
significant until twentieth century physics forced the recognition that the other
alternative models of nature produced by the earliest Greeks have relevance to
contemporary science. These alternative models of the world include Anaxagoras'
image of the world as continuous and undivided, Parmenides' view of the world as an
unchanging unity, the One, Heraclitus' view of the world as pure process, and
Pythagoras' world as made of abstract mathematical structures. These ancient views
have all returned as relevant to modern physics. Indeed two founders of quantum
mechanics returned to the study of the earliest Greek philosophers in search of
suggestions for understanding the perplexing new physics.#
The historical image of the rise of modern science as the rise of atomic
mechanism has neglected equally important Western and Eastern scientific traditions
of organic holism. Many of the scientists of the Renaissance who first
investigated nature relatively independent of theological constraints saw the world
as an organic unity held together by occult influences. Although this image of
nature was soon replaced by that of atomic mechanism, the forerunners of the idea
of the physical field drew on ideas of the organic unity of nature.
During the Romantic era there was a revival of concepts of holism and of
nature as an organic unity. The Romantics saw the unity and holism of living
organisms as the proper model for physics, just the opposite of the Enlightenment,
mechanist ideal of Thomas Hobbes, Julien Offray de La Mettrie and others to explain
(and explain away) biological organization in terms of mechanistic physics.
Romantic ideas of physical unity were important heuristics for the discovery of
electromagnetic induction and the development of the concept of the electromagnetic
field.# Romantic ideas of nature as an organic unity were again submerged with the
development of mathematical field theory in the late nineteenth century. However,
new versions of holism arose again with the development of quantum mechanics and
sub-atomic physics in the twentieth-century.#
Beyond parallels and analogies between Eastern philosophy and modern physics,
there are a number of actual early results of Eastern ways of thought that
contributed to the development of the modern theory of electromagnetism in Western
science. For example, the discovery of the compass and of the distribution of
magnetism upon the globe occurred far earlier in China than in the West. The
notion of Earth's magnetic field probably could not have been discovered on the
basis of the mechanistic atomism of the West alone. The German philosopher and
mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz became strongly interested in the Chinese
language, philosophy, and the book of divination, the I Ching. Leibniz is the
source of many of the ideas that would develop into notions of field theory a
century after his death.
# Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (London: Penguin, 1991) 295,
correcting his Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1965, reprinted London: Panther Books Ltd., 1972). But see J. A.
Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of
Science xxiv (1986): 1-28.
# Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, trans. Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling (New York:
International Publishers, 1967): 368n. See Franz Borkenau, "The Sociology of the
Mechanistic World-Picture," trans. Richard W. Hadden, Science in Context vol. I,
no. 1, (March 1987): 109-127.
# Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International
Publishers 1963), p.124. See, for a contentiously negative portrayal of this
strand, David Mitrany, Marx Against the Peasant: A Study of Social Dogmatism
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1951, reprinted New York: Collier
Books, 1961).
#. Dijksterhuis, E. J., The Mechanization of the World Picture, trans. C.
Dikshoorn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961).
#. See Robert Crease and Charles C. Mann, The Second Creation: Makers of the
Revolution in 20th Century Physics (New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1986),
306-307, for Murray Gell-Mann's rejection of what he called Feynman's "put-ons" as
entities distinct from quarks.
#. Sylvan S. Schweber, QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman,Schwinger and
Tomonaga (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994). James Gleich,
Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman (New York: Pantheon, 1992), and
Jagdish Mehra, The Beat of a Different Drum: The Life and Science of Richard
Feynman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). Steven Weinberg, in Dreams of a
Final Theory (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 172, emphatically describes the
present theory as one of particles as "bundles of the energy of the field" and
"[T]he physicists' recipe ...no longer included particles." In a chapter "Against
Philosophy" Weinberg also oddly blames the doctrine of mechanism on philosophy.
#. Oliver Darrigol, "The Origin of Quantitized Matter Waves," Historical Studies
in the Physical and Biological Sciences 16, (1976): 252-253.
#. Schweber, QED, 6. Norton Wise, "Pascual Jordan: Quantum Mechanics, Psychology,
National Socialism," in Monika Renneberg and Mark Walker, eds., Science, Technology
and National Socialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 224-254, 391-
396.
#. See Gad Freudenthal, Atom and Individual in the Age of Newton (Dortrecht, The
Netherlands: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1986).
#. Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics (Boulder, Colorado: Shambhala Publications,
Inc., 1976, reprinted New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1977). After Capra, the most
influential was Gary Zukav's The Dancing Wu-li Masters (New York: William Morrow
and Company, Inc., 1979). Neither Capra nor Zukav focuses on the relation of
Chinese Taoism to modern physics.
#. Bernstein, Richard, "A Cosmic Flow," The American Scholar 48, (1978/9): 6-9.
Ed Gerrish and Val Dusek, "The Reader Replies," The American Scholar 48 (1978/9):
572. See also Leon Lederman and Dick Teresi, "The Dancing Mu-shu Masters," in The
God Particle (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993), 189-198.
#. Heisenberg, Werner, Physics and Philosophy (New York: Harper & Row Publishers,
1962), chap. IV, 59-75, Erwin Schr�dinger, Nature and the Greeks, in Nature and the
Greeks and Science and Humanism, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
#. L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday (New York: Basic Books, 1965).
#. These new forms of holism include Niels Bohr's holism of the measurement
situation (there is an unanalyzable interaction between measuring instrument and
object being measured, which must be treated as a whole) and David Bohm or John
Bell's holism of reality (the universe must be treated as an undivided whole in
which all parts simultaneously are influenced by all other parts).
#. C. B. Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1962).
#. Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1982).
# Sheila Rowbotham, Hidden from History (New York: Vintage Books, 1976).
# Jesse Lemisch, "History from the Bottom Up," in Barton J. Bernstein, ed.,
Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1968).
# Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and his World (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1968,
reprinted Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1984).
#. Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi
(Hammondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1982). Idem., Night Battles, trans. John
and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983).
Idem., Ecstasies (New York: Penguin Books, 1992).
# Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New
York: International Publishers, 1977).
#. Hans Mayer, Outsiders (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1982).
# Marc Ferro, ed., Social Historians in Contemporary France (New York: Harper &
Row Publishers, 1972). Jacques Revel and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French
Constructions of the Past, (New York: The New Press, 1995).
#. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Political Writings 1921-1926 (New York:
International Publishers, 1978), Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio
Gramsci (New York: International Publishers, 1977), Selections from the Cultural
Writings (London: Lawrence and Wisehart, 1985, reprinted Cambridge: Harvard, 1991.)
# Simone De Beauvoir The Second Sex, trans. H. M. Parshley (New York: Bantam
Books, 1952).
# Friederick Heer, [1953] The Intellectual History of Europe, trans. Jonathan
Steinberg (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966).
# Lucien Febvre, The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century, trans. Beatrice
Gottlieb (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982).
# Heer, Friedrich, Europe: Mother of Revolutions, trans. Charles Kessler and
Jennetta Adcock (London: Wiedenfield and Nicholson Ltd., 1972).
#. Friederick Heer, The Medieval World: Europe, 1100-1350 (New York: The New
American Library of World Literature, Inc., 1963), 183, 283, 320, The Intellectual
History of Europe, trans. Jonathan Steinberg (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
1966), 87-89 Hildegard of Bingen, Hildegard of Bingen's Book of Divine Works, ed.
Matthew Fox (Santa Fe, New Mexico: Bear Books, 1987).
#. Heer, Intellectual History, 50.
# Edgar Zilsel, "The Sociological Roots of Science," American Journal of
Sociology, XLVII (1941-1942): 544-562.
#. Brian Copenhaver, and Charles B. Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1992), .306.
#. Allen G.,Debus, Man and Nature in the Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1978), 10.
#. Walter Pagel, Paracelsus, (Basel, Switzerland: Karger, 1982), 296.
#. Henricus Cornelius Agrippa, Declamation on the Nobility and Preeminence of the
Female Sex, trans. Albert Rabil, Jr. (University of Chicago Press, 1996).
#. Manuel, Frank E., The Prophets of Paris (New York: Harper and Row, 1964).
#. Lloyd, G. E. R., Polarity and Analogy: Two Types of Argumentation in Early
Greek Thought (Cambridge University Press, 1966, reprinted Indianapolis, Indiana:
Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1992).
#. L�vy-Bruhl, Lucien, Primitive Mentality, trans. L. A. Clare (London: George
Allen and Unwin Limited, 1923), and How Natives Think, trans. L. A. Clare (London:
George Allen and Unwin Limited, 1926).
#. Cornford, F. M., From Religion to Philosophy (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1992).
# Claude L�vi-Strauss, Structural Anthopology (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1963).
#. Marshall Sahlins, Culture and Practical Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1976).
#. Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic, and Amos Tversky, (Judgment Under Uncertainty,
Cambridge University Press, 1983).
#. Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia, trans. Louis Wirth and Edward Shils
(London: International Library of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Method,
1936).
#. Latour, Bruno, Science in Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987).
David Bloor, Knowledge and Social Imagery (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1976).
#. Mary Hesse, Models and Analogies in Science (South Bend, Indiana: University of
Notre Dame Press: 1964). Rom Harr�, Principles of Scientific Thinking (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1970). Max Black, Models and Metaphors (Ithaca, New
York: Cornell University Press, 1964). Marx Wartofsky, Models (Dortrecht: D.
Reidel, 1978).
# Lakatos, Imre, "Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," Philosophical
Papers, ed. John Worrall and Gregory Currie, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1978), 8-101.
# Larry Laudan, Progress and Its Problems (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1977), 70-120.
#. Frances A.Yates, "The Hermetic Tradition in Renaissance Science", in Singleton,
ed. Art, Science and History in the Renaissance (Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1968), 270.
#. Arnold Thackray, "Comment [on Mary Hesse]," in Steuwer, Roger H., ed.,
Historical and Philosophical Prespectives of Science (New York: Gordon and Breach,
1989), 162.
#. See Aristides Baltas, "On the Harmful Effects of Excessive Anti-Whiggism," in
Kostas Gavroglu, et al, Trends in the Historiography of Science (Dortrecht,
Holland: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994), 107-120.
# Yates, Giordano Bruno, 447.
# C. B. Wilde, "Whig History," in Dictionary of the History of Science, ed. W. F.
Bynum, E. J. Browne, and Roy Porter, Princeton UP, 1981 concludes "'Whig criteria
are still generally applied by historians of science in choosing subjects of study"
(p. 446), although naively writes Alexandre Koyr� "interprets the past on its own
terms" 445.
#. Imre Lakatos, Collected Papers, vol.2, 257, 222n1
# Smuts, Jan, Holism and Evolution (New York: The Viking Press, 1961 [1926]).
Anne Harrington in Reenchanting Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1996), 269 n94 notes most German holists avoided the English-derived term.
# Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgement, trans. Werner Pluhar, Foreword by Mary
Gregor (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1987).
#. James Gleich, Chaos: Making a New Science (New York: Viking, 1987), 163-165.
# Democritus, fragment B125, Jonathan Barnes, ed., Early Greek Philosophy (New
York: Penguin, 1987), 253.
# Protagoras, Fragment B1, trans. R. S. Brumbaugh, The Philosophers of Greece (New
York: Crowell, 1964), 117.
#. Farrar, Cynthia, The Origins of Democratic Thinking: The Invention of Politics
in Classical Athens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
# Bodde, Derk, Chinese Thought, Society, and Science: The Intellectual and Social
Background of Science and Technology in Pre-Modern China (Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1991), 392-308.
# David Bloor, "Sociology of (Scientific) Knowledge," in Dictionary of the History
of Science, 392, attempts to make a move that "outflanks standard 'refutations'
which cite cases where the 'same' theory is advocated in widely different social
circumstances, e.g. atomism in Ancient Greece and 17th century England." Such
'outflanking' is unneeded in this case, as both societies share a social
individualism which is the base of atomism.
#. Isaac Newton, Opticks, with a Foreword by Albert Einstein, an Introduction by
Sir Edmund Whittaker, Preface by I. Bernard Cohen (New York: Dover Publications,
1952), 400.
# James Mill, Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, [1829], (Indianapolis,
Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill, Library of the Liberal Arts, 1962).
#. Edward Chance Tolman was a self-proclaimed follower of the logical positivist
Rudolf Carnap and brother of Richard Tolman, a leading figure in statistical
mechanics.
# The "therblig" was coined by the Frederick Taylor's disciples Frank Gilbreth.
Arthur Danto, "Basic Actions," in Alan R. White, ed. Philosophy of Action (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1968, 43-58).
# Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. C.. K. Ogden, with
Introduction by Bertrand Russell, London: Routledge, 1922, new trans D. F. Pears
and B. F. McGuiness (London: Routledge, 1961).
# Bertrand Russell, "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism," The Monist 28 (1918):
495-25, vol. 29 (1919): 32-63, 190-222, 345-380, reprinted in R. C. Marsh, ed.,
Bertrand Russell, Logic and Knowledge (London: 1956).
# See Julius R. Weinberg, Nicholas of Autrecourt: A Medieval Hume (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1948). Discontinuity of process and occasionalism also
in the Arabic philosopher Al Ghazzali, Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the
Philosophers, trans. S. A. Kamali (Lahore, Pakistan: n.p., 1958).
# Walter Pagel, The Smiling Spleen: Paracelsianism in Storm and Stress (Basel:
Karger), 1984, 1.
# Justus von Liebig, "Ueber das Studium der Naturwissenschaften und ueber den
Zustand der Chemie in Preussen" [1840], in: J. v. Liebig, "Reden und Abhandlungen",
Leipzig & Heidelberg (1874): 24.
#. See Edward Manier, The Young Darwin and his Cultural Circle (Dortrecht, The
Netherlands: D. Reidel, 1976), Robert J. Richards, The Meaning of Evolution: The
Morphological Construction and Ideological Reconstruction of Darwin's Theory
(Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
# See, for instance, J. S. Haldane, Mechanism, Life, and Personality, 2d edn.,
(New York: 1923).
# Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Problems of Life (London: C. A. Watts and Co., Ltd.,
1952, repr., New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960), and Modern Theories of
Development, trans. J. H. Woodger (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, repr.,
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960.)
# Lilly, Ralph S., General Biology and Philosophy of Organism (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1945).
# E. S. Russell, Form and Function (London: John Murray Ltd., 1916, reprinted
University of Chicago Press, 1982).
# Val, Dusek, "The Bukharin Delegation on Science and Society: Action and Reaction
in British Science Studies," in Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin, ed. Nicholas N. Kozlov
and Eric D. Weitz (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1990), 129-147. Gary Werskey, The
Visible College (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978).
# Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin, The Dialectical Biologist (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1985).
# Waddington, C. H., The Evolution of an Evolutionist (Ithaca, New York: Cornell
University Press, 1975), chap. 1.
# Jacques Monod, in Chance and Necessity (New York: Random House, 1972) opposes
dialectical materialism and Catholicism to an "existential" conception of the
accidental origin of life, but he earlier was a Marxist in the French resistance.
Francois Jacob, The Logic of Life, trans. Betty E. Spillmann (New York: Random
House, 1973), presents a more emergentist conception of biology. He borrows the
term "holon" from Arthur Koestler.
# John Graves, The Conceptual Foundations of Contemporary Relativity Theory,
(Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1971), 216, 314.
# Poincar� studied not the particular numerical solutions of differential
equations, but the general features of whole families of curves. Poincare's work
as forerunner of chaos theory didn't become a popular topic until some seven
decades after his work.
# The biology of the noted "modern synthesis" evolutionist Ernst Mayr exemplifies
this position. He criticizes "beanbag genetics," emphasizes population thinking,
rejects group selection, and does not accept the punctuated equilibrium of Stephen
Jay Gould. His position on species is more holistic. He invented the "biological
definition of species" as interbreeding systems, and rejects the species selection
of 1970s paleontologists.
# John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (New York: Meridian Books, 1957), 259. G.
S. Kirk and J. E. Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1957), 381.
# Daniel Garber, Descartes' Metaphysical Physics (Chicago: Chicago University
Press), 117-155.
#. Charles Hartshorne, "Continuity as the Form of Forms in Charles Peirce," The
Monist, vol. 39, 1929, 521-534. R. Valentine Dusek, "Peirce as Philosophical
Topologist," in Edward C. Moore, ed., Charles S. Peirce and the Philosophy of
Science (University of Alabama Press,1993), 49-59.
# G. Spencer Brown, The Laws of Form (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1969).
# See entry "Holism" in Oxford English Dictionary.
# F[rancis] H[erbert] Bradley, Appearance and Reality, (London: 1893).
# "It is not possible for what is nothing to be," John Burnet, Early Greek
Philosophy,174, "It can be, and nothing can not." Jonathan Barnes, ed., Early Greek
Philosophy, 133.
# Hippasus of Metapontum, who proved or made public the irrationality of the
square root of two, was drowned in punishment, either by fellow Pythagoreans or by
the gods, was said to be a follower of the process philosopher Heraclitus.
Jonathan Barnes, ed., Early Greek Philosophy, 214.
# Rom Harr�, The Philosophies of Science, 2d edn.,(Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1984), 105, 107.
# �mile Meyerson, Identity and Reality, trans. Kate Loewenberg (London and New
York: Macmillan, 1930, reprinted New York: Dover Publications, 1962).
#. Olivier Costa de Beauregard, "Relativity: Arguments for a Philosophy of Being,"
in, J. T. Fraser, ed., The Voices of Time: A Cooperative Survey of Man's View of
Time as Expressed by the Science and by the Humanities, 2d ed. (Amherst,
Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981), 417 433.
# Kurt G�del, "A Remark About the Relationship Between Relativity Theory and
Idealistic Philosophy," in Paul Schillp, ed., Albert Einstein: Philosopher-
Scientist, 557.
# Rudy Rucker, Infinity and the Mind, (Boston: Birkhauser, 1982),170-171. Rucker
is a direct descendent of the philosopher Hegel.
#. Hermann Weyl, Philosophy of Mathematics and Natural Science, trans. Olaf
Helmer, Revised and Augmented English Edition, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1949), 116.
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