1.

Identify the three main characteristics of stem cells and mention any two significant
applications of stem cells.
Characteristics of stem cells:
i. Stem cells are capable of unlimited division (Replication)
ii. Stem cells are not terminally differentiated
iii. They are self-renewable
Applications of stem cells:
i. Stem cells have the ability to replace damaged cells and treat disease: Some of the most
serious medical conditions, such as cancer and birth defects, are due to abnormal cell
division and differentiation. A better understanding of the genetic and molecular
controls of these processes may yield information about how such diseases arise and
suggest new strategies for therapy. This is an important goal of stem cell research.
ii. Stem cells could be used to study disease: This property is already used in the treatment
of extensive burns, and to restore the blood system in patients with leukaemia and other
blood disorders. Stem cells may also hold the key to replacing cells lost in many other
devastating diseases for which there are currently no sustainable cures
iii. Stem cells could provide a resource for testing new medical treatments: Stem cells,
either carrying the disease gene or engineered to contain disease genes, offer a viable
alternative. Scientists could use stem cells to model disease processes in the laboratory
iv. Stem cells could provide a resource for testing new medical treatments: New
medications could be tested for safety on specialized cells generated in large numbers
from stem cell lines – reducing the need for animal testing. Other kinds of cell lines are
already used in this way. Cancer cell lines, for example, are used to screen potential
anti-tumour drugs.
2.Relate the role of proteins and nucleic acids as biomolecules mentioning its composition,
structure and functions.
NUCLEIC ACID:
Nucleic acids are the genetic material. It is the polymers of nucleotides. A nucleotide consists
of:
i. 5 carbon sugar commonly deoxyribose or ribose sugar so called Deoxyribonucleotide
or ribonucleotide respectively.
ii. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
iii. Base consisting of adenine, Quanine, Cytosine and Thymine/uracil
DNA:
The structure of DNA was first given by Watson and crick in 1953. It is a double helix structure
consisting of two anti-parallel strands of nucleotides. The structure consists of major and minor
grooves. Major groups bind proteins that regulates the function of DNA. Strands are held
together by hydrogen bonds between specific pairs of bases. Adenine (A) and thymine (T) form
strong hydrogen bonds to each other but not to C or G. Guanine (G) and cytosine (C) form
strong hydrogen bonds to each other but not to A or T.
 NUCLEIC ACID THE DOUBLE HELIX STRUCTURE
RNA:

RNA is a messenger that allows the instruction of DNA to be delivered to the rest of the cell.
It is a single strand of nucleotide. It consist of Uracil(U) instead of thymine(T). It is found
inside and outside the nucleus. RNA is of three types:

i. RIBOSOMAL RNA: It is about 75% of the total RNA. It is the major component of
ribosomes.
ii. MESSENGER RNA: It is about 5-10% of total RNA. It carries information for protein
synthesis from RNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes.
iii. TRANSFER RNA: It is about 10-15% of total RNA. It carries amino acids to the
ribosomes for protein synthesis.

PROTEINS:

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids consists of carbon, hydrogen, amino,
carboxyl and the functional group. Based on different functional groups, there are around 20
amino acids. The amino acids join together to form a peptide bond which leads to polypeptides
and polypeptides join together to form proteins.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS:

i. Primary: Linear strand of amino acids. It consists of only peptide bonds.

ii. Secondary: Coil or strand like structure. It consists of peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds
and Vander wall interactions.
iii. Tertiary: 3-dimensional structure not linear. It consists of peptide bonds, hydrogen
bonds and interactions between the functional groups.
iv. Quaternary: 3-dimensional structure. Multiple polypeptide chains joined together.
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS:

i. It gives specific structure. Eg: Keratin

ii. It stores important nutrients. Eg: Casein in milk
iii. It provides co-ordination. Eg: Harmone
iv. It aids transport. Eg: Haemoglobin
v. It acts as a protection. Eg: antibodies
vi. Enzymes are proteins that acts as catalyst. Eg: Lipase
vii. It can act as receptors. Only with ligand-receptor interactions, any function can take
place.

3.Investigate the passive transport mechanisms across cell membranes.

Passive transport mechanisms is based on the concentration gradient. It does not require
any energy.
TYPES:
i. DIFFUSION:
It is the transfer of molecules or solute from higher concentration to lower concentration
until an equilibrium is reached. Diffusion can be a direct diffusion or protein channel diffusion.
Direct Diffusion: Due to concentration difference, there would be transfer of molecules.
Protein channel diffusion: If a polar molecule must move across the cell, proteins facilitate
diffusion. The membranes are semi-permeable, it allows only particle molecules to move
through. There can also be cationic or anionic membrane for movement of ions.
ii. FACILITATED DIFFUSION:
When a molecule has to move across the membrane, it binds with the carrier molecules that
facilitates diffusion. Carriers are commonly proteins.

iii. OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the movement of solvent from lower concentration to higher concentration.
Aquaporins are the channel that allows only water molecules to pass through. Based on the
solute concentration, Osmosis can be Hyperosmotic (high concentration), Hypoosmotic
(low concentration) and Iso-osmotic (equilibrium).

4.Recognize the role of ATP in active transport and investigate the three important mechanisms
of transport under endocytosis with suitable diagrams.
ATP is the main source of energy for most cellular processes. The building blocks of ATP are
carbon, nitrogen hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus. Because of the presence of unstable, high-
energy bonds in ATP, it is readily hydrolyzed in reactions to release a large amount of energy.
The enzymatic removal of a phosphate group from ATP to form ADP releases a huge amount
of energy which is used by the cell in several metabolic processes as well as in the synthesis of
macromolecules such as proteins. The removal of a second phosphate group from ATP results
in further energy release and the formation of adenosine monophosphate (AMP). When energy
is not needed by the organism, the phosphate group is added back to AMP and ADP to form
ATP - this can be hydrolyzed later as per required. Thus, ATP functions as a reliable energy
source for cellular pathways.

Active Transport:

ATP plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules such as proteins and lipids into
and out of the cell. The hydrolysis of ATP provides the required energy for active transport
mechanisms to carry such molecules across a concentration gradient. Transport of molecules
into the cell is called endocytosis whilst transport out of the cell is known as exocytosis.

Cell Signaling:

ATP has key functions both in intracellular and extracellular signaling. It is easily recognized
by purinergic receptors in mammalian tissues - its release from synapses and axons activates
purinergic receptors that modulate calcium and cyclic AMP levels inside the cell. In the central
nervous system, adenosine modulates neural development, the control of immune systems, and
of neuron/glial signaling. ATP is also involved in signal transduction - its phosphate groups
are used up by kinases in phosphate transfer reactions which activate a cascade of protein
kinase reactions.

Structural Maintenance:
ATP plays a very important role in preserving the structure of the cell by helping the assembly
of the cytoskeletal elements. It also supplies energy to the flagella and chromosomes to
maintain their appropriate functioning.

Muscle contraction:

ATP is critical for the contraction of muscles; it binds to myosin to provide energy and facilitate
its binding to actin to form a cross-bridge. ADP and phosphate are then released and a new
ATP molecule binds to myosin. This breaks the cross-bridge between myosin and actin
filaments, thereby releasing myosin for the next contraction.

During DNA synthesis, ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) reduces the sugar residue from
ribonucleoside diphosphates to form deoxyribonucleoside diphosphates such as dADP.Thus,
RNR regulation helps keep the balance of deoxynucleotides (dNTPs) in the cell. Low
concentrations of dNTPs inhibit DNA synthesis and repair whilst high levels are shown to be
mutagenic because DNA polymerase tends to add the wrong dNTP during DNA synthesis. The
adenosine from ATP is a building block of RNA and is directly added to RNA molecules during
RNA synthesis by RNA polymerases. The removal of pyrophosphate provides the energy
required for this reaction.

Endocytosis:

Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of
cells, and even whole cells, into a cell. There are different variations of endocytosis, but all
share a common characteristic: The plasma membrane of the cell invaginates, forming a pocket
around the target particle. The pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle being contained in a
newly created vacuole that is formed from the plasma membrane.
Phagocytosis is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell. For
example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a
neutrophil removes the invader through this process, surrounding and engulfing the
microorganism, which is then destroyed by the neutrophils.

A variation of endocytosis is called pinocytosis. This literally means cell drinking and was
named at a time when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in extracellular
fluid. In reality, this process takes in solutes that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid

A targeted variation of endocytosis employs binding proteins in the plasma membrane that are
specific for certain substances. The particles bind to the proteins and the plasma membrane
invaginates, bringing the substance and the proteins into the cell. If passage across the
membrane of the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis is ineffective, it will not be removed
from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration.
Some human diseases are caused by a failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example,
the form of cholesterol termed low-density lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as “bad”
cholesterol) is removed from the blood by receptor-mediated endocytosis. In the human genetic
disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective or missing entirely.
People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because
their cells cannot clear the chemical from their blood.