NONDESTRUCTIVE

TESTING.

AN INTRODUCTION.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT IS NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING?

„ NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS THE NAME

GIVEN TO SEVERAL TESTING METHODS
COLLECTIVELY.THESE TESTING METHODS
HELP US IN DETECTING DEFECTS IN
MATERIALS WITHOUT CAUSING ANY CHANGE
IN OR DAMAGE TO THE TESTED MATERIALS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHICH ARE THE COMMON NDT
METHODS?
THE MOST COMMONLY USED
NDT METHODS ARE:

„ RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION.
„ ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION.
„ MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION.
„ LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION.
„ EDDY CURRENT EXAMINATION.
„ MAGNETIC FLUX LEAKAGE METHODS.
„ VISUAL EXAMINATION.
„ ACCOUSTIC EMMISSION.
„ THERMOGRAPHY

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[1]

„ ENGINEERING INDUSTRY MAKES USE OF A

GREAT VARIETY OF MATERIALS IN
MANUFACTURING USEFUL PRODUCTS NEEDED
BY THE SOCIETY.SOME OF THESE PRODUTS,
FOR EXAMPLE,ARE:
„ MACHINE TOOLS.
„ A RANGE OF MACHINERY FOR
MANUFACTURING CONSUMER GOODS.
„ HEAVY MACHINERY FOR CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY.
D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[2]
„ MACHINERY FOR MINING INDUSTRY.

„ PLANT EQUIPMENTS FOR

FERTILIZER,PETROCHEMICALS,OIL REFINING
AND CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES.

„ EQUIPMENTS FOR POWER GENERATION.

„ TRANSPORTAION INDUSTRY :
SHIPBUILDING,RAILWAYS, AUTOMOBILES,
AVIATION.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[3]
„ IN MAUFACTURING ALL THESE GOODS, THE MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRIES MAKE USE OF MANY DIFFERENT MATERIALS.
SOME OF THE MOST COMMONLY USED MATERIALS ARE:

„ WOOD.

„ METALS:

„ IRON AND ITS ALLOYS: SUCH AS CARBON STEEL,LOW ALLOY

STEELS,HIGH ALLOY STEELS ETC.

„ NICKEL AND CHROMIUM ALLOYS.

„ ALUMUNUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS CONTAINING MAINLY

MAGNESIUM,AND OR TITANIUM.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[4]
„ COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS CONTAINING OTHER
METALS LIKE ZINK, TIN ETC.THESE

ALLOYS ARE KNOWN AS BRASS, BRONZE ETC.

„ LEAD AND TIN ALLOYS FOR BEARING SURFACES.

„ CERAMICS AND GLASSES.

„ PLASTICS.

„ COMPOSITES.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[5]
„ THE INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS LISTED ABOVE HAVE TO PASS
THROUGH A SERIES OF POCESSES BEFORE THEY TAKE
THEIR FINAL FORM IN WHICH THEY ARE USABLE .

„ ALL THESE PROCESSES ARE INTENDED TO GIVE THE

MATERIALS THE PROPERTIES WHICH WILL MAKE THEM
USABLE EITHER FOR A PARTICULAR APPLICATION , OR FOR
A RANGE OF APPLICATIONS.

„ HOWEVER, ANY MANUFACTURING PROCESS HAS

POSSIBILITY OF FAILURES WHICH INTRODUCE UNINTENDED
AND UNDESIRABLE CHANGES IN THE INTENDED
PROPERTIES. SUCH DEVIATIONS IN THE MATERIAL
PROPERTIES
ARE KNOWN AS FLAWS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[6]
„ A CATEGORY OF SUCH UNINTENDED AND
UNDESRIRABLE PROPERTIES RESULTING
FROM PROCESS FAILURES IS KNOWN AS
“DISCONTINUITY”.

„ A DISCONTINUITY IS AN ABRUPT CHANGE IN

THE CONTINUITY OF A MATERIAL. IN THE
NEXT SLIDE WE WILL DISCUSS THE TYPES
OF DISCONTINUITIES ASSOCIATED WITH
DIFFERENT MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[7]
„ CASTINGS MAY HAVE ENTRAPPED GAS,COMMONLY KNOWN AS
BLOWHOLES OR POROSITY.

„ CASTINGS ALSO HAVE CAVITIES AND SPONGINESS RESULTING FROM

SHRINKAGE.

„ ROLLED METAL SECTIONS HAVE SEAMS,STRINGERS,INCLUSIONS AND

CRACKS.

„ FORGINGS HAVE CRACKS AND LAPS.

„ PLATES HAVE LAMINATIONS AND SLIVERS.

„ WELDED JOINDS HAVE INCLUSIONS ,POROSITY AND INCOMPLETE

PENETRATION OR FUSION.

„ COMPOSITES HAVE DEBONDS.

„ CERAMICS HAVE CRACKS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[8]
„ EVERY COMPONENT OF A MACHINE OR AN
EQUIPMENT OR A MEMBER OF A STRUCTURE
IS LOADED AND IS EXPECTED TO WITHSTAND
SERVICE STRESSES DURING THE DESIGN
LIFETIME OF THE COMPONENT,EQUIPMENT OR
STRUCTURE.

„ THE ABILITY OF SUCH MATERIAL TO

WITHSTAND THE SERVICE STRESSES IS
ADVERSELY AFFECTED IN THE PRESENCE
OF ONE OR MORE DISCONTINUITIES..

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
WHAT ARE THE MATERIAL
DEFECTS?[9]
„ THOSE DISCONTINUITIES WHICH RENDER A MATERIAL
UNFIT FOR THE INTENDED SERVICE ARE CALLED
‘’ DEFECTS’’. BECAUSE THE DEFECTS CAN CAUSE
PREMATURE AND SUDDEN FAILLURE OF A STRESSED
COMPONENT, THE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ARE
REFINED TO GIVE AS DEFECT FREE A PRODUCT AS
POSSIBLE.
„ SINCE DEFECTS CAN OCCUR EVEN IN A WELL
DEVELOPED AND WELL MONITORED MAUFACTURING
PROCESS, IT BECOMES NECESSARY TO DETECT THE
DEFECTS WITHOUT AFFECTING THE MATERIAL IN ANY
MANNER. THIS TASK IS ACCOMPLISHED USING ONE
OF THE SEVERAL NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
METHODS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.[1]
RADIORAPHIC PROCESS.[1]

„ RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION ENABLES US TO SEE THE

DISCONTINUITIES WHICH ARE TOTALLY WITHIN THE EXAMINED
ARTICLE. NO OTHER NDT METHOD CAN PRODUCE IMAGES AS
EASY TO UNDERSTAND, NOR HAS THE SIMPLICITY OF THE
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING PROCEDURES. THESE TWO FEATURES
HAVE MADE THE RADIORAPHIC INSPECTION MOST WIDELY USED
NDT METHOD IN INDUSTRY.
„ RADIOGRAHIC EXAMINATION IS BASED ON THE PROPERTIES OF
IONIZING RADIATIONS LIKE X RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS .WHEN
THESE RADIATIONS PASS THROUGH ANY MATERIAL,THEIR
INTENSITY CHANGES [REDUCES] DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF
RADIATION, DENSITY AND ATOMIC NUMBER OF THE MATERIAL, AND
THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL IN THEIR PATH. THIS IS THE
PHENOMENA OF “ATTENUATION ”.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIORAPHIC PROCESS.[2]

„ THE RADIATIONS, AFTER PASSING THROUGH THE

MATERIAL, CARRY THE INFORMATION REGARDING
THE PRESENCE OF DISCONTINUITIES IN THE FORM
OF CHANGES IN THE INTENSITIES OF THE RADIANT
ENERGY. SOME DISCONTINUITIES ARE EITHER VOIDS
OR MATTER HAVING LESSER DENSITY COMPARED TO
THE MATERIAL PATH IN THE DISCONTINUITY FREE
AREA. SO THE RADIATION INTENSITIES ARE HIGHER
FOR RADIATION WHICH HAS PASSED THROUGH SUCH
DISCONTINUITIES .ON THE OTHER HAND ,IF THE
DISCONTINUITY HAS HIGHER DENSIY, THE RADIATION
PASSING THROUGH SUCH A DISONTINUITY HAS
LOWER INTENSITY.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIORAPHIC PROCESS.[3]

THIS FIGURE SHOWS HOW THE BEAM OF XRAYS

ORIGINATING FROM THE FOCAL SPOT OF THE
X RAY TUBE HAS UNIFORM INTENSITY BEFORE
PASSING THROUGH THE TEST OBJECT, HOW
THE INTENSITY OF THE XRAY BEAM CHANGES
DEPENDING UPON THE MATERIAL PRESENT IN ITS
PATH AND HOW THESE CHANGED INTENSITIES
ARE RECORDED BY THE XRAY FILM AS AREAS
HAVING DIFFERENT DEGREE OF DARKENING OF
THE PROCESSED XRAY FILM. THE DEGREE OF
DARKNESS OF PROCESSED XRAY FILM IS
MEASURED IN TERMS OF THE DEGREE OF
OPACITY OF THE FILM AND IS CALLED DENSITY.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS[4]
RADIATION SOURCES.[1]
„ RADIATIONS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS OBTAINED FROM A
VAREITY OF SOURCES. ALL THE SOURCES USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
EMIT ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS IN THE RANGE OF
WAVELENGTHS WHICH HAVE THE ABILITY TO PENETRATE AND
PASS THROUGH MATTER. SOME OTHER IMPORTANT PROPERTIES
OF THESE RADIATIONS ARE:

„ [1] THEY ARE INVISBLE.

„ [2] THEY INTERACT WITH THE MATTER IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT

WAYS. ONE OF THESE
INTERACTIONS IONIZES THE MATTER ,HENCE THESE
RADIATIONS ARE ALSO KNOWN AS
IONIZING RADIATIONS.

„ [3] THE INTERACTIONS OF RADIATIONS WITH MATTER CHANGE

BOTH THE INTENSITY AND
ENERGY OF THE ORIGINAL RADIATION.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS-RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
RADIATION SOURCES.[2]

„ [4] THESE RADIATIONS TRAVEL IN A STRAIGHT LINE.

„ [5] EXPOSURE TO THESE RADIATIONS IS INJURIOUS TO

LIVING CELLS .
„ [6] THESE RADIATIONS CAUSE THE PHOTOSENSITIVE
COATING OF PHOTOGRAHIC FILMS , PLATES AND
PAPER TO BE AFFECTED AS IF THE SAME WERE
EXPOSED TO VISIBLE LIGHT, CAUSING THE
COATINGS TO BLACKEN AFTER IT IS SUBJECTED
TO FILM DEVELOPING PROCESS.
„ [7 ] NONE OF THE SENSORY ORGANS CAN DETECT
THE PRESENCE OF THESE RADIATIONS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS-RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
RADIATION SOURCES.[4]
„ PENETRATING RADIATIONS FOR RADIOGRAPHY ARE GIVEN OFF BY THE
FOLLWING RADIATION SOURCES.

„ X-RAY MACHINES-LOW ENERGY-60 KV TO 140 KV.

„ X-RAY MACHINES- MEDIUM ENERGY 140 KV TO 350 KV

„ X-RAY MACHINES MAKE USE OF ULTRA HIGH VACUUM X-RAY TUBE, HIGH
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS,CONTROL ELECTRONICS, TUBE
HOUSING WITH PROTECTIVE SHIELDING AND PORT FOR DIRECTING AND
LIMITING X-RAYS IN THE DESIRED DIRECTION. HIGH VOLTAGE
CABLES ESTABLSH INTERCONNECTION OF ALL THESE COMPONENTS.

„ HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES: BETATRONS.

„ BETATRONS HAVE DOUGHNUT SHAPED ,EVACUATED CIRCULAR PATHS ALONG

WHICH ELECTRONS ARE ACCELERATED AND GAIN
ENERGY WITH EACH SUCCESSIVE ORBIT.DEFLECTION TOWARDS AND COLLISON
WITH TARGET PRODUCES HIGH ENERGY X-RAYS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS-RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
RADIATION SOURCES.[5]

„ HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES: BETATRONS.

„ BETATRONS HAVE DOUGHNUT SHAPED ,EVACUATED CIRCULAR

PATHS ALONG WHICH ELECTRONS ARE ACCELERATED AND GAIN
ENERGY WITH EACH SUCCESSIVE ORBIT.DEFLECTION TOWARDS AND
COLLISON WITH TARGET PRODUCES HIGH ENERGY X-RAYS.

„ HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES: LINEAR

„ ACCELERATORS.

„LINEAR ACCELERATORSMAKE USE OF MICROWAVE GUIDES TO

ACCELERATE ELECRONS ALONG A LINEAR PATH TO COLLIDE WITH A
TRANSMISSION TYPE TARGET AND PRODUCE HIGH ENERGY X-RAYS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS-RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
RADIATION SOURCES.[6]

„ RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS[ISOTOPES]:IRIDIUM
192,COBALT 60,CESIUM137,SELENIUM 75 .
THESE MATERIALS ARE PRODUCED IN ATOMIC REACTORS.EACH OF
THEM PRODUCES ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS CALLED GAMMA
RAYS. EACH SOURCE PRODUCES GAMMA RAYS HAVING
CHARACTERESTIC ENERGY OR SEVERAL DISCREET ENERGIES.THESE
SOURCES UNDERGO A DECAY PROCESS WHICH CAUSES GRADUAL
REDUCTION IN THEIR ACTIVITY. THE PERIOD DURING WHICH THEIR
ACTIVITY BECOMES HALF OF INITIAL ACTIVITY,IS KNOWN AS HALF LIFE
OF THAT RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE.EACH SOURCE ALSO HAS ITS
CHARACTERESTIC RADIATION ENERGY OUTPUT PER UNIT OF
RADIOVCTIVITY.

„ THE RADIATIONS FROM THESE SOURCES

CANNOT BE EITHER SWITCHED ON OR OFF
D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS-RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
RADIATION SOURCES.[7] BETATRON

Betatron is an equipment for generating high energy xrays[1 MeV to 30 MeV]. Massive
size and heavy weight notwithstanding, many were built and are still in use
throughout the world.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS-RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
RADIATION SOURCES.[8] LINEAR ACCELERATOR.

Linear accelerator is another type of high energy x-ray generator.This is

the latest development and currently most high energy machines are of this
type.
Linacs use microwves and waveguides to accelerate the electrons to impart
them high energy.These machines work to produce x-rays at upto
50MeV,and they are lighter than the betatrons.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTINGMETHODS.
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS[4]
RADIATION UNITS.

„ UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY:

THE ENRGY RADIATED BY THE RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE IS THE RESULT OF UNSTABLE STATE OF SOME OF THE
ATOMS WHICH HAVE A NUCLEUS IN EXCITED STATE DUE TO ITS EXCESS ENERGY AND EXTRA NEUTRON.
SUCH ATOMS DISINTEGRATE GIVING OFF EXCESS ENERGY AS GAMMA RAYS,BETA RAYS OR ALPHA PARTICLES.

„ THE DEGREE OF RADIOACTIVITY PRESENT IN A SUBSTANCE IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF

RADIOACTIVE ATOMS DISINTEGRATING EVERY SECOND.THE UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY ARE CURIE AND
BACQUEREL.
„ CURIE: ONE CURIE CORRESPONDS TO 3.7*1010 DISINTEGRATIONS PER SECOND.
„ BACQUEREL: CORRESPONDS TO ONE DISINTEGRATION PER SECOND. Therefore:
ONE CURIE = 3.7*1010 BACQERELS =37 G Bq.

„ THE QUANTITY OF RADIANT ENERGY IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF THE DEGREE OF IONIZATION

PRODUCED IN THE 1 CC VOLUME OF DRY AIR AT STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE.

„ UNITS OF IONOZING RADIATIONS ARE:

„ ROENTGEN: 1 ROENTGEN OF RADIANT ENERGY PRODUCES 1 E.S.U. OF CHARGE OF EITHER
„ SIGN IN DRY AIR AT STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE .

„ SIEVERT: SIEVERT IS THE NEW INTERNATIONAL UNIT.1 SIEVERT IS EQUAL TO 100

ROENTGENS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
DETECTION AND RECORDING OF RADIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION.[1]

„ THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE RADIATION BEAM IN

THE FORM OF CHANGED
INTENSITIES,CAN BE READ BY USING DIFFERENT TYPES OF
DETECTION AND RECORDING DEVICES.THESE DEVICES ARE:
„ RADIOGRAPHIC FILM. [X-RAY FILM].
„ PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

„ BOTH X-RAY FILMS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

CONVERT DIFFERENCES IN RADIATION INTENSITIES INTO
PERMANENT IMAGES HAVING DEGREES OF BLACKNING OF
PHOTOSENSITIVE COATING IN PROPORTION TO THE
RADIATION INTENSITIES TO WHICH THEY ARE EXPOSED.

„ FLUORESCENT SCREENS. [FLUOROSCOPY]

„ FLUORESCENT SCREENS CONVERT RADIATION INTENSITIES
TO VISIBLE LIGHT.FLUOROSCOPIC IMAGES HAVE LOW LIGHT
INTENSITIES AND NEED ADDITIONAL PROCESSING FOR BETTER
READABILITY AND RECORDING OF IMAGES.
D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
DETECTION AND RECORDING OF RADIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION[2]

„ IMAGE INTENSIFIERS.
„ IMAGE INTENSIFIERS ARE ELECROTRONIC DEVICES WHICH
CONVERT LOW INTENSITY FLUOROSCOPIC IMAGE INTO
ELCTRONIC IMAGE,INTENSIFY IT, AND THEN CONVERT THIS
ELECTRONIC IMAGE INTO VISIBLE IMAGE FOR VIEWING ON
VIDEO MONITOR.

„ CCD CAMERAS.
„ CCD CAMERAS WORK LIKE IMAGE INTENSIFIERS BUT THEY
ARE SOLID STATE DEVICES WHICH ARE LIGHT,COMPACT AND
MORE EFFICIENT AS COMPARED TO IMAGE INTENSIFIERS.

„ AMORPHOUS SILICON FLAT PANELS.

„ FLAT PANELS ARE THE LATEST DEVELOPMENT.THEY
CONVERT X-RAY INTENSITIES DIRECTY INTO VISIBLE IMAGE
FOR VIEWING ON A VIDEO MONITOR.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
DETECTION AND RECORDING OF RADIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION[2]

„ THE RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS CONSISTS OF PRODUCING SHADOWS

OF DETECTABLE FEATURES IN A TEST OBJECT IN THE PLANE OF THE
DETECTOR.THE DEPTH INFORMATION IS SUPERIMPOSED TO FORM
IMAGES IN THE DETECTOR PLANE. THUS, THE RADIOGRAPH IS THE
IMAGE OF THE TEST OBJECT PRODUCED BY RADIATION BEAM WHICH
HAS PASSED THROUGH IT AND HAS EXOPSED THE X RAY FILM IN
PROPORTION TO THE INTENSITIES IN THE TRANSMITTED BEAM.

„ THIS PROCESS PRODUCES THE IMAGES OF DISCONTINUITIES IN THE

TEST OBJECT, ALL OF THEM IN ONE PLANE,THAT IS, THE PLANE OF THE
DETECTOR,WHICH IN THE CASE OF FILM RADIOGRAPHY, IS THE XRAY
FILM.

„ THE IMAGE OF A DISCONTINUITY IS FORMED IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO

THE FORMATION OF A SHADOW OF AN OPAQUE OBJECT FORMED BY
VISIBLE LIGHT. DEPENDING ON THE RELATIVE POSITIONS OF THE
SOURCE OF RADIATION,THE TEST OBJECT AND THE XRAY FILM
PLANE,THE IMAGE MAY HAVE
„ [1]ENLARGEMENT. [2] DISTORTION OR BOTH.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
IMAGE FORMATION- GEOMETRIC FACTORS.

THESE FIGURES ILLUSTRATE HOW THE

RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGES FAIL TO DEPICT
THE OBJECT FAITHFULLY:
[A] THE SHAPE OF THE OBJECT IN FIG. C IS
CORRECTLY IMAGED,BUT WITH
MAGNIFICATION.

[B]THE EDGES OF THE IMAGE ARE BLURRED, THIS IS

KNOWN AS UNSHARPNESS.

[C]THE EDGES ARE STILL SOMEWHAT BLIRRED,

BUT THE UNSHARPNESS IS REDUCED
DUE TO INCREASED SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE.

[E] AND[F] THE IMAGE IS DISTORTED AND THE

SHAPE OF THE IMAGE IS ELLIPTICAL,
NOT CIRCULAR, WHICH IS THE TRUE
SHAPE OF THE OBJECT.THIS IS KNOWN AS
DISTORTION.

FROM THE FIGURE WE CAN CONCLUDE THAT:

UNSHARPNESS CAN BE REDUCED BY
[a] REDUCING THE SOURCE SIZE.
[b] REDUCING THE OBJECT TO IMAGING PLANE DISTANCE
[c] INCREASING THE SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
X-RAY FILMS.

X RAY FILMS HAVE POLYSTER BASE WITH BLUISH TINT. THIS BASE IS COATED WITH
PHOTOSENSITIVE EMULSION.THE PROCESS OF COATING CONSISTS OF MANY
TREATMENTS TO GIVE THE FINISHED PRODUCT PROPERTIES LIKE RESISTENCE TO
DAMAGE THROUGH NORMAL HANDLING ,ADHERENCE OF EMULSION TO THE BASE WHEN BEING
PROCESSED IN FILM DEVELOPING CHEMICALS AND PRODUCE IMAGES OF DESIRED QUALITY.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
X-RAY FILMS.

„ INHERENT UNSHARPNESS :
„ THE FILM EMULSION CONSISTS OF GRAINS OF SILVER HALIDE
WHICH ,WHEN EXPOSED TO RADIATIONS, FORMS LATENT
IMAGE. THE SILVER HALIDE GRAINS FORMING THIS LATENT
IMAGE ARE REDUCED TO METALLIC SILVER BY THE CHEMICAL
PROCESS OF DEVELOPING AND FIXING.SINCE THESE SPECKS
OF SILVER HAVE DISCREET SIZE,UNDER MAGNIFICATION YOU
CAN SEE THAT THE APPARENTLY DARK AREA OF EXPOSED
EMULSION IS ACTUALLY SEVERAL ISLANDS OF SILVER IN
TRANSPRENT AREAS OF THE FILM BASE,FROM WHICH
UNAFFECTED SILVER HALIDE IS REMOVED. THUS THE IMAGE
HAS GRAININESS GIVING RISE TO UNSHARPNESS.THIS IS THE
CHARACTERISTIC OF X-RAY FILMS AND IS CALLED “INHERENT
UNSHARPNESS.”

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
RADIOGRAPHY.
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS .
X-RAY FILMS.

„ GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS:
„ WE HAVE SEEN THE FIGURES WHICH ILLUSTRATED THE EFFECT OF THE SIZE OF
RADIATION SOURCE, SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE AND THE OBJECT TO FILM
DISTANCE ON THE DEFINITION OF THE EDGES OF THE IMAGE OF AN OBJECT.

„ A COMBINATION OF THESE THREE VARIABLES PRODUCES A CERTAIN

AMOUNT OF FUZZINES IN THE EDGES OF THE IMAGE.THIS IS KNOWN AS
UNSHARPNESS, AND THE UNSHARPNESS RESULTING FROM A COMBINATION OF
THESE PARAMETERS IS CALLED “GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS.” THIS IS
DENOTED AS “Ug”.

„ IT CAN BE SEEN THAT BY CHOOSING A VERY SMALL RADIATION SOURCE, AND

PLACING IT AS FAR AWAY FROM THE OBJECT AS PRACICAL, WE CAN REDUCE
THE GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS VALUE TO THE EXTENT THAT NO IMAGE
UNSHARPNESS IS DETECTED BY THE EYES OF THE OBSERVER. HOWEVER, IN
PRACTICE ,THE UNSHARPNESS CANNOT BE REDUCED BELOW A CERTAIN
MINIMUM VALUE.THIS IS DUE TO THE FACT,THAT A CERTAINAMOUNT OF IMAGE
UNSHARPNESS IS INHERENT PROPERTY OF THE XRAY FILM . IT IS CALLED
‘INHERENT UNSHARPNESS AND DENOTED AS “ Ui ” .

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS:RADIOGRAPHY.
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS:[2]
CHARACTERESTICS OF XRAY FILM.

„ FROM THE NATURE OF IMAGE UNSHARPNESS ,WE CAN SEE THAT THE
DETECTION OF THIN DISCONTINUITIES IS LIMITED BY THE INHERENT
UNSHARPNESS OF THE XRAY FILM.WITH DECREASING INHERENT
UNSHARPNESS THE FILM SPEED DECREASES,THAT IS,THE FILMS NEED HIGHER
RADIATION DOSE TO PRODUCE OPTIMUM IMAGE QUALITY.

„ XRAY FILMS ARE AVAILABLE IN A RANGE OF FILM SPEEDS WITH

CORRESPONDING
IMAGE SHARPNESS . [DEFINITION OF THIN FLAWS].

„ A FILM COOSEN FOR A PARTICULAR INSPECTION TASK IS USUALLY A

COMPROMISE BETWEEN THE SPEED OF THE FILM [WHICH IS IMPORTANT FOR
THE ECONOMY OF INSPECTION ] AND THE SHARPNESS OF THE IMAGE WHICH
CAN BE PRODUCED,DUE TO THE INHERENT UNSHARPNESS. INHERENT
UNSHARPNESS IS ALSO QUALITATIVELY EXPRESSED AS FILM GRAININESS.THE
IMAGE IN A PROCESSED X RAY FILM CONSISTS OF DISTINCT ISLANDS OF
OPAQUE METALLIC SILVER AGAINST THE TRANSPARENT BACKGROUND
PROVIDE BY THE POLYSTER BASE.THESE DISCONTINUOUS ELEMENTS FORMING
THE IMAGE GIVE RISE TO GRAININESS, AND CONSEQUENT UNSHARPNESS.
„ .
D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS:RADIOGRAPHY.
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS:[3]
CHARACTERESTICS OF XRAY FILM.

„ SO THE FIRST ELEMENT IN CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE IS THE :

„ INHERENT UNSHARPNESS OF THE XRAY FILMS

„ THE NEXT IMPORTANT CHARACTERESTIC WHICH INFLUENCES THE

RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY IS:
„ FILM CONTRAST.

„ TO UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF FILM CONTRAST ONE MUST BE FAMILIAR WITH THE TERM
FILM DENSITY.

„ FILM DENSITY IS THE MEASURE OF THE OPACITY OF THE PROCESSED XRAY FILMS. AN XRAY
FILM AFTER BEING EXPOSED TO RADIATIONS, AND AFTER BEING PROCESSED IN FILM
PROCESSING CHEMICALS,IS KNOWN AS A RADIOGRAPH.

„A RADIOGRAPH HAS OPAQUE ISLANDS OF METALLIC SILVER ON A TRANSPARENT

BACKGROUND OF POLYESTER BASE. WHEN WE VIEW THIS RADIOGRAPH BY HOLDING IT
AGAINST A SOURCE OF LIGHT, ONLY A PART OF THE INCIDENT LIGHT PASSES THROUGH THE
FILM. GREATER THE AMOUNT OF METALLIC SILVER ON THE RADIOGRAPH, LESS AND LESS
LIGHT IS TRANSMITTED.

„ THAT IS ,THE RADIOGRAPH IS MORE AND MORE OPAQUE. THIS DEGREE OF OPACITY IS
EXPRESSED AS DENSITY OF A RADIOGRAPH.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS:RADIOGRAPHY.
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS:[4]
CHARACTERESTICS OF XRAY FILM.

„ RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY IS DEFINED AS:

„ DENSITY= log10 INTENSITY OF LIGHT INCIDENT ON THE RADIOGRAPH

INTENSITY OF LIGHT TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE RADIOGRAPH

„ THUS, FOR I0 / It RATIOS OF DIFFERENT VALUES:

„ RATIO LOG RATIO[DENSITY] REMARK.

1. 0. 100% light is transmitted. Density is 0.
10. 1. 10% light is transmitted. Density is 1.
100. 2. 1% light is transmitted. Density is 2.
1000. 3. 0.1% light is transmitted. Density is 3.
10000. 4. 0.01% light is transmitted. Density is 4.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS:RADIOGRAPHY.
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS:[5]
CHARACTERESTICS OF XRAY FILM

„ HAVING FAMILIARIZED OURSELVES WITH THE CONCEPT OF DENSITY ,THE

NEXT STEP IS TO UNDERSTAND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
RADIATION EXPOSURE RECEIVED BY THE FILM AND THE CORRESPONDING
DENSITY IN A RADIOGRAPH. THIS RELATIONSHIP IS GRAPHICALLY
REPRESENTED BY PLOTTING THE EXPOSURE VERSUS DENSITY RELATION ON
SEMILOG GRAPH PAPER. THE VALUES OF EXPOSURE ARE PLOTTED ON THE
X-AXIS ,AS LOGRITHM OF RELATIVE EXPOSURES. LOG SCALE OFFERS THE
ADVANTAGE OF BEING ABLE TO ACCOMMODATE A VERY LARGE RANGE OF
EXPOSURE VALUES ON THIS AXIS. THE RATIO BETWEEN THE VALUES OF
SMALLEST EXPOSURE AND THE LARGEST EXPOSURE, BOTH REPRESENTED
ON THIS AXIS COULD BE AS LARGE AS 1:100000 .THIS WOULD NOT BE
POSSIBLE ON A LINEAR SCALE.

„ DENSITY IS PLOTTED ON Y –AXIS , THE VALUES ARE LINEAR . USUALLY UPTO 4.

„ THIS GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIO OF EXPOSURE VS.DENSITY RELATION IS CALLED THE

CHARACTERESTIC CURVE OF THE X-RAY FILM. THIS CURVE IS DRAWN FOR EACH TYPE
OF FILM WITH SPECIFIED PROCESSING CONDITIONS AS ESSENTIAL PART OF THE
PARAMETERS OF CHARACTERESTIC CURVE .THE RADIATION SOURCE OR THE
RADIATION ENERGY DO NOT INFLUENCE THE SHAPE OF THE CHARACTERESTIC CURVE.

„ THE CHARACTERESTIC CURVE PROVIDES US WITH QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT OF SOME

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF X-RAY FILM.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS.
CONTOLLING QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS [6]
CHARACTERESTICS OF XRAY FILM

THE FIGURE SHOWS A TYPICAL

CHACTERESTIC CURVE OF AN XRAY FILM.IT
IS ALSO KNOWN AS SENSITOMETRIC
CURVE.ON X AXIS WE HAVE LOG
EXPOSURE,THE VALUES CORRESPONDING
TO ARBITRARILY CHOSEN UNIT EXPOSURE[ 0
ON THE X-AXIS] AND THE MULTIPLES OF THIS
UNIT EXPOSURE UPTO 1000 TIMES OF THE
UNIT EXPOSURE{ 3 ON THE X-AXIS] ARE
PLOTTED ON THIS AXIS

WE SEE THAT UPTO A DENSITY OF 1.0-1.5 THE

CHNGE IN DENSITY IS NOT PROPORTIONAL
TO THE EXPOSURE.NEAR PROPORTIONAL
INCREASE IN DENSITY OCCURS BEYOND
DENSITY 1.5.THE CURVE FROM THIS POINT
ONWARDS REPRESENTS NEARLY LINEAR
CHANGE IN DENSITY WITH INCREASING
EXPOSURE..IF WE EXTEND THE STRAIGHT
LINE PORTION OF THIS CURVE TO INTERCEPT
X-AXIS, THE ANGLE IT FORMS WITH THE X-
D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT AXIS DETERMINES HOW MUCH THE DENSITY
SERVICES WILL CAHNGE FOR A GIVEN EXPOSURE
INTERVAL.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS:RADIOGRAPHY.
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS:[7]
CHARACTERESTICS OF XRAY FILM

IT CAN BE VISUALIZED THAT FOR A GIVEN CHANGE IN

THE THICNESS OF THE SPECIMEN,THERE WILL BE A
CERTAIN CHANGE IN THE EXPOSURE RECEIVED BY THE
FILM.THIS DIFFERENCE IN EXPOSURE IS CALLED THE
EXPOSURE INTERVAL.HIGHER THE DENSITY DIFFERENCE
CORRESPONDING TO A PARTICULAR VALUE OF THE
EXPOSURE INTERVAL,GREATER THE ABILITY OF THE
RADIOGRAPH TO MAKE SMALL CHANGE IN THICKNESS
VISIBLE. .THIS MEANS A GREATER SESITIVITY OF
INSPECTION.

THIS PROPERTY OF XRAY FILM IS CALLED FILM COTRAST

AND IS EXPRESSED AS GRADIENT OF THE CURVE AT A
PARTICULAR DENSITY.THE NUMERICAL VALUE OF THE
GRADIENT, AS CAN BE SEEN FROM THE FIGURE WILL BE
EQUAL TO TRGNIOETRIC RATIO TAN FOR THE ANGLE
FORMED BY THE TANGENT AT ANY POINT OF THE
CURVE,AND X-AXIS.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS.
CONTROLLING QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS.[7]
REVIEW OF PREVIOUS THREE SLIDES.

„ WE NOW KNOW THAT THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE OF A DISCONTINUITY WILL BE

PROJECTED ON THE FILM WITH THE GREATEST FIDELITY IF:
„ MAGNIFICATION AND DISTORTION ARE CONTROLLED THROUGH CONTROLLING
THE GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF HE EXPOSURE AS UNDER:
[a] THE SOURCE POSITIONED ON THE LINE PERPENDICULAR
TO THE FILM PLANE.
[b] KEEPING THE FILM IN AS CLOSE CONTACT WITH
THE OBJECT AS POSSIBLE.
[C] CHOOSING THE SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE SO THAT THE
GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS IS LESS THAN THE
INHERENT UNSHARPNESS OF THE FILM.
[D] EXPOSING THE FILM TO A DEGREE THAT WILL GIVE RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY IN
THE REGION OF SENSITOMETRIC CURVE WHICH HAS HIGH GRADIENT,AND HENCE
GREATEST CONTRAST

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIORAPHIC ROCESS.[8]
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS.

„ AN INSPECTOR EVALUATING THE RADIOGRAPH HAS TO KNOW WHETHER THE

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE HAS BEEN CORRECTLY APPLIED TO PRODUCE THE
RADIOGRAPHS CAPABLE OF SHOWING THE FLAWS OF INTEREST FOR THAT
PARTICULAR APPLICATION. TO PROVIDE AN OBJECTIVE ASSESMENT OF THE
CORRECTNESS OF THE TECHNIQUE,THE IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS ARE USED.
„ ASTM AND ASME HAVE TWO TYPES OF IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS.
„ [1] PLAQUE TYPE.
„ [2] WIRE TYPE.
„ PLAQUE TYPE IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS [IQI IN SHORT] ARE RECTANGULAR SHIMS OF
METAL PRODUCED IN A RANGE OF THICKNESSES ,HAVING THREE DRILLED HOLES,EACH
HAVING DIAMETRE EQUAL TO 1,2 AND FOUR TIMES THE THICKNESS OF THE SHIM.THE
THICNESS OF A SHIM IS CHOOSE TO BE 2% OF THE OBJECT THICKNESS UNDER EXAMINATION
OR AS CLOSE TO 2% AS AVILABLE IN THE STANDARD THICNESSES PROVIDED IN THE IQI SPEC.
THIS IQI IS PLACED ON THE ONJECT ON THE SOURCE SIDE,WHEN THE EXPOSURE IS MADE.

„ THE VISIBILITY OF THIS SHIM AND THAT OF THE HOLES IN THE SHIM IN THE RADIOGRAPH
PROVDES THE MEASURE OF THE SUCCESS OF RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE.FOR EXAMPLE,IF
THE IQI OUTLINE,ITS BODY AND 4T AND 2T HOLES ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE, THEN THE
RADIOGRAPH IS SAID TO HAVE ATTAINED THE QUALITY LEVEL 2-2T.
„ [ AN IQI HAVING THICNESS EQUAL TO 2% OF THE OBJECT THICKNESS AND THE HOLE HAVING
DIAMETER EQUAL TO 2 TIMES THE IQI THICNESS ARE VISIBLE .]

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS[9]
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS.

THE FIGURE SHOWS THE DESIGN OF IMAGE

QUALITY INDICATOR CONFORMING TO ASTM,
WHICH IS ADOPTED BY ty ASME B.&P.V.CODE.THE
THICKNESS STARTS AT .0005” AND INCREASES IN
STEPS OF ).005 “.FROM ).0.060”
TO 0.100”,IQI’S HAVE 2.25”X1.0”SIZE.FOR HIGHER
THICKESSES, IQI THICNESSFROM 0.060’TO
0.160”,THE IQI’S ÁRE MADE AS SHOWN IN
LOWERMOST FIGURE.THIS RANGE OF IQI’S
POROVIDE 2% THICKNESS FOR MATERIAL
THICNESS FROM )0.25” TO 8 ‘’.IQI ACCORDING TO
FIG1 &2 CARRY IDENTIFICATION IN LEAD FIGURES
SHOWINGTHE THICKNESS IN NEAREST
THOUSANDTH OF AN INCH.
THE CICULAR IQI DOES NOT HAVE
IDENTIFICATION ,BUT THE THICKNESS CAN BE
FOUND FROM THE DIMENSIONS OF THE DIAMETER
WHICH IS 4 TIMES THE THICKNESS..

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS[10]
WIRE TYPE IQI.-1

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS[11]
WIRE TYPE IQI.-2

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLING THE RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
WIRE TYPE IQI.-3

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLING RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS:[12]
Wire type IQI-4

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS[13].
WIRE TYPE IQI-5

„ WIRE TYE IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS HAVE PARALLEL WIRES ENCAPSULED IN

CLEAR VINYL PLASTIC.ASTM HAS 6 WIRE,WITH THE THICKEST WIRE TO THE
LEFT,AND WIRE DIAMETER DECREASING TOWARDS RIGHT.IQI ACCORDING TO
DIN STANDARD HAVE SEVEN WIRES WUTH THINNEST WIRE AT RIGHT AND
DIAMETER DECREASING TOWARDS LEFT.BOTH TYPES HAVE THE INFORMATION
ABOUT WIRE MATERIAL.ASTM IQI SHOWS THE DIAMETER OF THE THICKEST
WIRE,AND DIN IQI SHOWS THE NUMBERS ALLOTED TO THES WIRES AS PER ISO
SYSTEM. THE WIRE IQI’S OFFER THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES OVER THE
PLAQUE TYPE IQI’S:

„ THE DIAMETER OF THE THINNEST WIRE VISBLE ENABLES US TO COMPUTE THE

NUMERICAL VALUE OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY.THIS VALUE ACCOUNTS
BOTH FOR RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST AND DEFINITION OR RESOLUTION.

„ PLAQUE TYPE IQI’S ARE GENERALLY PLACED ON THE PARENT PLATE WHEN
INSPECTING WELDS.WIRE TYPE IQI’S CAN BE PLACED ACROSS THE WELDS AND
HENCE THEY MONITOR SENSITIVITY ON THE WELDING ITSELF.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS [14]
[14]FILM PROCESSING.

„ INHERENT UNSHARPNESS OF THE FILM AND FILM CONTRAST ARE THE VALUES
DEPENDENT UPON THE FILM PROCESSING TECHNIQUE ALSO.THE EXPECTED
RESULTS OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY WILL NOT BE ATTAINED IF THE
PROCESSING OF EXPOSED FILMS IS NON STANDARD.

„ .A STANDARDIZED DEVELOPING PROCESS REQUIRES THAT:

„ THE STRENGTH [CONCENTRATION] OF CHEMICALS WHICH CONVERT EXPOSED

GRAINS TO METALLIC SILVER IS WITHIN A NARROW RANGE.

„ THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING IS CARRIED OUT AT THE SOLUTION

TEMPERATURE WITHIN A RECOMMENDED RANGE OF TEMPERATURE.

„ THE DEVELOPING TIME IS ADJUSTED FOR THE DEVELOPING TEMPERATURE AS

RECOMMENDED BY THE FILM MANUFACTURER. DEPARTURE FROM
STANDARDIZED DEVELOPING PROCESS RESULTS INTO POOR QUALITY
RADIOGRAPHS.

„ WEAK DEVELOPING SOLUTION AND/OR INSUFFICIENT DEVELOPING TIME

AND /OR TOO LOW A DEVELOPING TEMPERATURE RESULTS INTO RADIOGRAPHS
HAVING LESS THAN REQUIRED DENSITY AND LOW CONTRAST.
SUCH RADIOGRAPHS LACK THE REQUIRED PENETRAMETER VISIBILITY.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLING THE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS.
THE CAUSES FOR POOR RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY.[1]

„ THE EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN RADIATION EXPOSURE:

„ AN INCORRECTLY EXPOSED X-RAY FILM WILL BE EITHER OVEREXPOSED OR

UNDEREXPOSED.BOTH CAUSE POOR RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY.

„ AN UNDEREXPOSED FILM WILL FAIL TO ATTAIN THE DENSITY AT WHICH THE RADIOGRAPH
WILL HAVE THE BEST SENSITIVITY.SUCH RADIOGRAPH WILL HAVE POOR VISIBILITY OF DETAIL
DUE TO LOW CONTRAST.

„ IF AN ATTEMPT IS MADE TO INCREASE THE DENSITY BY IBCREASING THE DEVELOPMENT

TIME,THERE WILL BE SOME INCREASE IN DENSITY, BUT THE CONTRAST WILL CONTINUE TO BE
POOR AND THE RADIOGRAPH WILL FAIL TO MEET THE REQUIRED STANDARDS.

„ AN OVEREXPOSED FILM MAY HAVE SO HIGH THE DENSITY, THAT EVEN A VERY POWERFUL
SOURCE OF LIGHT MAY FAILTO MAKE ANY DETAIL VISIBLE.

„ IF AN ATTEMPT IS MADE TO CONTROL DENSITY EITHER BY DILUTING THE DEVELOPER,OR BY

COOLING THE DEVELOPING SOLUTION OR BY REDUCING THE DEVELOPMENT TIME,IT MAY BE
POSSIBLE TO RECORD CORRECT DENSITY BUT THE CONTRAST IN EVERY CASE WILL BE TOO
POOR TO SHOW ANY WORTHWHILE DETAIL.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
CONTROLLINGTHE QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS.
CAUSE FOR POOR RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY.[4]

INCCORRECT DARK ROOM PACTICES CAUSING POOR RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY.

„ WHEN THE FILM HANGERS ARE REMOVED FROM THE DEVELOPER AFTER
DEVELOPING THEY SHOULD NEVER BE EXAMINED IN AIR FOR ANY REASON AND
SHOULD BE IMMERSED IN THE STOP BATH AFTER A VERY BRIEF DRAINING.IF
THE HANGERS ARE HELD IN AIR TO ALLOW COMPLETE DRAINING OF
DEVELOPER,THE PATH OF THE DEVELOPER FLOW ON THE FILM WILL DEVELOP
DIFFERENT DENSITY ,GIVING RISE TO STREAKS.
„ FILMS MUST BE HANDLED GENTLY,AVOIDING EXCESS PRESSURE,
BENDING,RUBBING AGAINST ANY SURFACE AND PERMITTING MINIMUM CONTACT
BETWEEN THE FINGERS AND THE FILM.

„ ALL DARKROOM SURFACES MUST BE CLEAN AND DRY.THE HANGERS USED FOR
MOUNTING THE FILMS FOR DEVELOPING SHOULD HAVE ABSOLUTELY NO TRACE
OF CHEMICALS OR WATER FROM THE PREVIOUS USE.FAILURES TO TAKE THESE
PRECAUTIONS CAN COMPLETELY RUIN THE RESULTS AND WASTE THE EFFORTS
PUT IN EXPOSING THE RADIOGRAPH ON THE JOB.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION.
INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS.[1]

THE RDIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION IS EFFECTIVE WHEN:

[a] THE RADIOGRAPHS ARE PRODUCED BY APPLYING THE TECHNIQUE CORRECTLY
,SO THAT THE RADIOGRAPHS HAVE THE REQUIRED DENSITY,IMAGE
SHARPNESS,RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST AND FREEDOM FROM ARTIFACTS.
[IMAGES FROM FAULTY RADIOGRPHIC PROCESSING OF FILMS]

[b] WHEN THE RADIOGRAPHS ARE EVALUATED BY A PERSON TRAINED,QUALIFIED AND

CERTIFIED TO CARRY OUT SUCH EVALUATION.

BASICS OF FILM INTERPRETATION

„ THE RADIOGRAPH SHOULD BE EXAMINED IN A ROOM HAVING SUBDUED LIGHTING

WHICH DOES NOT DIRECTLY FALL ON THE FILM VIEWER SURFACE.THERE
SHOULD NOT BE ANY SHADOWS FALLING ON THIS SURFACE.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION.
INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS.[2]

„
THE FILM VIEWER MUST HAVE A SOURCE OF LIGHT STRONG
ENOUGH TO PERMIT COMFORTABLE VIEWING OF RADIOGRPHS HAVING DENSITY
UPTO 3.5.
„ THE LIGHT INTENSITY ON THE SURFACE OF THE VIEWER MUST BE REASONABLY
UNIFORM.THE VIEWER SHALL HAVE EFFECTIVE ARRANGEMENT TO REMOVE HEAT
AND KEEP THE VIEWNG SURFACE REASONABLY COOL.
„ THE RADIOGRAPH SHALL FIRST BE EXAMINED IN THE LIGHT REFLECTED FROM
THR SURFACE OF THE FILM,TO SEE IF THE SURFACE IS CLEAN,HAS NO
SCRATCHES,AND THE WORKMANSHIP IS GOOD.
„ THEN THE RADIOGRAPH SHOULD BE EXAMINED IN THE TRANSMITTED LIGHT.THE
LIGHT INTENSITY OF THE ILLUMINATOR SHOULD ABE ADJUSTED SO THAT THE IQI
IMAGE HAS THE BEST VISIBILITY.
„ THE RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY IN THE AREA OF INTEREST SHALL BE ASSESED
USING EITHER DENSITY COMPARISON STRIP OR DENSITOMETER.THE VARIATION
OF DENSITY WITHIN THE AREA OF INTEREST SHALL BE NOTED AND MAX. AND MIN.
DENSITIES RECORDED.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION.
INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS.[2]

„ A person entrusted with the evaluation of radiographs:

„ Must have understanding of radiographic technique, types of artifacts likely to exist as
confusing images or masking true indications.
„ Must have understanding of the manufacturing process, the types and probable locations of
flaws, nature of flaws and their radiographic appearance.
„ Must have familiarity with the properties of common engineering materials and the changes
brought about by the nature of processing to which they are subjected.
„ A clear understanding of the applicable specification or standard to be followed in accepting
or rejecting the flaws.
„ In most cases the acceptance standard is an important part of the contract between the
buyer and the suppliers. In such cases it is prudent for the interpreter to follow the standard
stipulations diligently and not allow his judgment to be influenced by extraneous factors.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES
 NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING.

THANK YOU
D.S.KUSHWAH, NDT SERVICES.
.

D.S.KUSHWAH,NDT
SERVICES