Airliner Black Boxes

The "black box" is a generic term for two recording devices carried
aboard commercial airliners. The Flight Data Recorder (FDR) records
a variety of parameters related to the operation and flight
characteristics of the plane. The Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR)
records the voices of the flight crew, engine noise, and any other
sounds in the cockpit. All large commercial airliners and certain
varieties of smaller commercial, corporate, and private aircraft are
required by law to carry one or both of these boxes, which
generally cost between $10,000 and $15,000 apiece. The data these
devices provide is often invaluable to experts investigating the
events leading up to an accident. The recovery of the boxes is one
of the highest priorities in any mishap investigation, second only to
locating survivors or recovering the remains of victims. FDR
information is also often used to study other aviation safety issues,
engine performance, and to identify potential maintenance issues.

Example of a Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR)

Despite the nickname "black box," the FDR and CVR are actually
painted a bright high-visibility orange with white reflecting strips to
make them easier to spot at a crash scene. The meaning of the
term black box itself is somewhat unclear. Some suggest it refers to
the black charring that occurs in a post-crash fire while others
believe the color black is a reference to the deaths often associated
with an accident investigation. The design of modern black boxes is
regulated by a group called the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO). The ICAO determines what information the
black boxes must record, over what length of time it is saved, and
how survivable the boxes must be. The ICAO delegates much of this
responsibility to the European Organisation for Civil Aviation
Equipment (EUROCAE) that maintains a document called the
Minimum Operational Performance Specification for Crash Protected
Airborne Recorder Systems.
Black boxes first began to appear in the 1950s and became
mandatory during the 1960s. These early devices used magnetic
tape for data storage, much like that used in a tape recorder. As
the tape is pulled over an electromagnetic head, sound or
numerical data is recorded on the medium. Analog black boxes
using magnetic tape are still present aboard many planes, but these
recording devices are no longer manufactured. Newer recorders
instead use solid-state memory boards, called a Crash Survivable
Memory Unit (CSMU), that record data in a digital format. Instead of
the moving parts present in older recorders, solid-state devices use
stacked arrays of memory chips similar to a USB memory stick. The
lack of moving parts eases maintenance while reducing the chance
of a critical component breaking in a crash. Solid-state recorders
can also save considerably more data than older magnetic tape
devices and are more resistant to shock, vibration, and moisture.

Magnetic tape from within the FDR of EgyptAir 990 that crashed in
1999
Whatever the medium used to record the data, the purpose of the
black boxes is to collect information from various sensors aboard an
aircraft. The Cockpit Voice Recorder, for example, saves sounds
from microphones located on the flight deck. An area microphone is
typically placed in the overhead instrument panel between the
pilots, and an additional microphone is located in the headset of
each member of the flight crew. These microphones pick up
conversations between the flight crew, engine noises, audible
warning alarms, landing gear sounds, clicks from moving switches,
and any other noises like pops or thuds that might occur in the
cockpit. The CVR also records communications with Air Traffic
Control, automated radio weather briefings, and conversations
between the pilots and ground or cabin crew. These sounds often
allow investigators to determine the time of key events and system
failures.
Analog magnetic tape recorders are required to store four audio
channels for at least 30 minutes while digital solid-state devices are
required to record for two hours. Both types use continuous
recording such that older information is written over as new data is
collected beyond the maximum time limit.

Sample data recovered from a Flight Data Recorder

The Flight Data Recorder collects data from a number of sensors to
monitor information like accelerations, airspeed, altitude, heading,
attitudes, cockpit control positions, thermometers, engine gauges,
fuel flow, control surface positions, autopilot status, switch
positions, and a variety of other parameters. Most parameters are
recorded a few times per second but some FDRs can record bursts
of data at higher frequencies when inputs are changing rapidly.
The data measured by the different sensors is collected by the
Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU). This device is typically located
in an equipment bay at the front of the aircraft beneath the flight
deck. The FDAU assembles the desired information in the proper
format and passes it on to the FDR at the rear of the plane for
recording. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) required the
FDR to record between 11 and 29 parameters, depending on aircraft
size, up to 2002 but now requires saving a minimum of 88 sets of
data. Analog FDRs can save a maximum of around 100 variables
while digital recorders are often capable of collecting over 1,000
parameters over the course of 25 hours.

Diagram of data flow to aircraft black boxes

Power for the black boxes is provided by electrical generators
connected to the engines. The generators on most large airliners
produce a standard output of 115 volt, 400 hertz AC power while
some smaller planes instead generate 28 volt DC power. Black boxes
are typically designed to use only AC or DC power but not either
one. Recorders built for compatibility with the AC power supplies
on larger planes cannot be used on small DC-powered aircraft. In
the event of engine failure, larger aircraft are also equipped with
emergency backup power sources like the auxiliary power generator
and ram air turbine to continue operating the black boxes. In
addition, the ICAO is considering making a battery mandatory on
solid-state recorders to provide an independent power supply in the
event of a complete power failure aboard the plane.
A common misconception states that the black boxes are
"indestructible." No manmade device is indestructible, and no
material has ever been developed that cannot be destroyed under
severe enough conditions. The black boxes are instead designed to
be highly survivable in a crash. In many of the worst aviation
accidents, the only devices to survive in working order are the
Crash Survivable Memory Units (CSMUs) in the black boxes. The
remainder of the recorders, including the external case and other
internal components, are often heavily damaged.

Interior cut-away of a black box design

The CSMU, however, is contained within a very compact cylindrical
or rectangular box designed to safeguard the data within against
extreme conditions. The box is composed of three layers to provide
different types of protection to the recording medium. The
outermost shell is a case made of hardened steel or titanium
designed to survive intense impact and pressure damage. The
second layer is an insulation box while the third is a thermal block
to protect against severe fire and heat. Together, these three
layered cases allow the FDR and CVR to survive in all but the most
extreme crash conditions.
Current regulations require the black boxes to survive an impact of
3,400 g's for up to 6.5 milliseconds. This rapid deceleration is
equivalent to slowing from a speed of 310 miles per hour (500
km/h) to a complete stop in a distance of just 18 inches (45 cm).
This requirement is tested by firing the CSMU from an air cannon to
demonstrate the device can withstand an impact force at least
3,400 times its own weight. The black boxes must also survive a
penetration test during which a steel pin dropped from a height of
10 ft (3 m) impacts the CSMU at its most vulnerable point with a
force of 500 pounds (2,225 N). In addition, a static crush test is
conducted to demonstrate that all sides of the CSMU can withstand
a pressure of 5,000 pounds per square inch (350 kg/cm�) for five
minutes. The fire resistance of the CSMU is further tested by
exposing it to a temperature of 2,000�F (1,100�C) for up to an
hour. The device is also required to survive after lying in smoldering
wreckage for ten hours at a temperature of 500�F (260�C).

Underwater Locator Beacon on a black box

Other requirements specify survivability limits when immersed in
liquids. The CSMU must endure the water pressure found at an
ocean depth of 20,000 ft (6,100 m), and a deep-sea submersion test
is conducted for 24 hours. Another saltwater submersion test lasting
30 days demonstrates both the survivability of the CSMU and the
function of an Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB), or "pinger," that
emits an ultrasonic signal once a second when immersed in water.
These signals can be transmitted as deep 14,000 ft (4,270 m) and
are detectable by sonar to help locate the recorders. A final series
of tests includes submerging the CSMU in various fluids like jet fuel
and fire extinguishing chemicals to verify the device can withstand
the corrosive effects of such liquids.
Upon completion of the testing, the black boxes are disassembled
and the CSMU boards are extracted. The boards are then
reassembled in a new case and attached to a readout system to
verify that the pre-recorded data written to the device can still be
read and processed.
Another factor important to the survivability of the black boxes is
their installation in the tail of the aircraft. The exact location often
varies depending on the plane, but the FDR and CVR are usually
placed near the galley, in the aft cargo hold, or in the tail cone.
The recorders are stored in the tail since this is usually the last part
of the aircraft to impact in an accident. The entire front portion of
the plane acts like a crush zone that helps to decelerate the tail
more slowly. This effect reduces the shock experienced by the
recorders and helps to cushion the devices to improve their chances
of surviving the crash.

Flight Data Recorder recovered from United Airlines 93 in 2001

Once the black boxes have been located following an accident, they
are typically taken into custody by an aviation safety agency for
analysis. In the United States, responsibility for investigating most
air accidents belongs to the National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB). Many countries lacking the capability to analyze black boxes
also send their recorders to the computer labs of the NTSB or some
of the better-equipped investigative organizations in Western
nations. Care must be taken in recovering and transporting the
recorders so that no further damage is done to the devices that
might prevent important data from being extracted.
Upon receipt of the recorders, the NTSB uses a series of computer
and audio equipment to process and analyze any information that
can be recovered. The data is translated into formats readily usable
by investigators and is usually critical in identifying the probable
cause(s) of the accident. This process may take many weeks or
months depending on the condition of the black boxes and the level
of processing required to make sense of the data. Outside experts
are also often consulted to help analyze and interpret the data.

Animation image created using FDR data from American Airlines 587
that crashed in 2001
Flight Data Recorder information is typically presented in the form
of graphs or animations used to understand instrument readings,
flight characteristics, and the performance of the aircraft during its
final moments. Cockpit Voice Recorder information is usually more
sensitive and laws strictly regulate how it is handled. A committee
including representatives of the NTSB, FAA, the airline, the
manufacturers of the aircraft and engines, and the pilots union is
responsible for preparing a transcript of the CVR's contents. This
transcript is painstakingly created using air traffic control logs and
sound spectrum analysis software to provide exact timing. Although
the transcript can be released to the public, only select and
pertinent portions of the actual audio recording are made public
due to privacy concerns.
Flight recorder design has improved considerably since the devices
were first introduced in the 1950s. However, no recording device is
perfect. Black boxes are sometimes never found or too badly
damaged to recover some or all of the data from a crash. To reduce
the likelihood of damage or loss, some more recent designs are self-
ejecting and use the energy of impact to separate themselves from
the aircraft. Loss of electrical power is also a common event in
aviation accicents, such as Swissair Flight 111 when the black boxes
were inoperative for the last six minutes of flight due to aircraft
power failure. Several safety organizations have recommended
providing the recorders with a backup battery to operate the
devices for up to ten minutes if power is interrupted.

Cockpit Voice Recorder recovered from United Airlines 93 in 2001

Another recommendation is to add a second independent set of
recorders on a separate electrical bus to insure redundancy in the
event of a system failure. The additional recorders would be
located as close to the cockpit as possible while the existing black
boxes remain in the tail to reduce the likelihood of a single failure
incapacitating both sets. Accident investigators have also argued for
the installation of a third black box to record cockpit video. Though
pilots have so far resisted the move because of privacy issues, video
data would be useful to better understand pilot actions in the
moments leading up to an accident.

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