WRDM Journal

J. Indian Water Resour. Soc. Vol. 26 No. 1-2, Jan.
-April, 2006
ISSN O970-6984
Journal of
Indian Water
Resources Society
Volume 26 Number 1-2 January-April, 2006
51
J. Indian Water Resour. Soc. Vol. 26 No. 1-2, Jan.-April, 2006
JOURNAL OF INDIAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

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Books :
Gupta, S.K., 1999. Engineering Hydrology. Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishers, New Delhi.
Continued on Inside Back Cover

52
Journal of
ISSN O970-6984
Indian Water Resources Society

From President’s desk
President
Dear friends,
Er. M. Gopalakrishnan I am happy to present before the IWRS family, the ‘Jan-April 2006’ issue
Secretary General, ICID of our Journal. This issue contains seven interesting research papers covering
different aspects of Water Resources Development and Management. I am sure
that the members will find these papers interesting. The Editorial team seeks
your valuable comments on further improvement of the technical content of the
Editorial Board Journal in line with its objectives.
As you may be aware of, a new Executive Committee of IWRS for the
Prof. S. K. Majumdar
term 2007-09 took over recently (the back cover brings out the new office
Prof. S. K. Tripathi bearers); we are fortunate to have in this new team Prof. Brijesh Chandra and
Prof. Nayan Sharma Dr. Ashish Pandey as Editor and Joint Editor (Journal) and Dr. Vijay K.
Dr. Z. Ahmad Labhsetwar, Joint Editor (News Letter). A fresh vigour has already set in the
process of bringing out the journal, as one could see with the current issue, with
Er. Chetan Pandit
a view to improve the presentation. This is in an era of competing environ and
Er. Avinash Agarwal publishing is no exception. I hope that your advice would help them to improve
upon further and enhance the value of the Journal.
Water sector as a whole is facing immense challenges. There is a growing
IWRS as a body accepts no resoponsibility for recognition that a ‘multi-disciplinary participation’ will be a key factor to face
the statements made by the individuals/authors. the future challenges adequately. This calls for giving more and more space for
not only the conventional issues that we normally address in engineering aspects
but also issues beyond like water sector policies, aspects in management with
Further. views expressed by authors need not
social relevance, equity in water allocation etc. Participatory irrigation
necessary be the views of the organisation to
management and transfer of irrigation systems to water users’ associations have
which they belong.
brought in new dimensions in respect of governance and sustainability: our
Journal should welcome papers reflecting varied experiences from different parts
Reprints of any portion of this publication may be of the country. Following Maharashtra, other States like U.P, Gujarat besides
made, provided that reference thereto is quoted. Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (and several others) are in the process of
introducing Regulatory mechanism to manage water sector in one form or other.
We should enrich the society by new perceptions by way of contributions on
This Journal is for private circulation only. these matters.
Many of you must have seen our efforts in parallel to bring out a News
Letter; the maiden issue was already sent to all of you. There had been some
Principal Office at : delay in bringing out the subsequent issues. The News Letters will also be
getting frequently in future with the identification of the Joint Editor and a role
Deptt. of Water Resources assigned to him to handle this aspect; forthcoming events in water sector will be
Development & Management getting reflected in it regularly. IWRS web site too needs some efforts to make it
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee vibrant and this will be looked into simultaneously. Put together, our
ROORKEE - 247 667, Uttarakhand, India communication efficacy will be aimed to be improved upon with the support
from each one of you.
The Editorial team has already accommodated certain advice of
members on enhancing the Journal get-up and the current issue is the result.
Please feel free to provide your feed back on the new visage to the Editor directly.
(M. Gopalakrishnan)
President, IWRS
43
Journal of
Indian Water Resources Society
CONTENTS
S. Paper Page No.
No.
1. Effect of Wash Load on Field Performance of Geotextile 1-6

Filter in Embankment
R. K. Sharma
2. Flow Past Tapered Submerged Vanes 7-13

Umesh P. Gupta, C. S. P. Ojha, Nayan Sharma
3. Crop Coefficient Models of Wheat and Maize for Irrigation 14-15

Planning in Gandak Command
Jeetendra Kumar, A. K. P. Singh
4. Effect of Converging Boundary on Radial Flow Through 16-23

Homogeneous Porous Media
N. Bhanu Prakasham Reddy, G. N. Pradeep Kumar,
P. Rama Mohan Rao
5 Topological Insides for Study of Spatio-Temporal Changes in 24 -29

The Planform of the Brahmaputra River
R. N. Sankhua, Nayan Sharma, A.D. Pandey, P. K. Garg
6. Runoff Production on Hill Slopes Under Different Land Uses 30-38

K. K. Satapathy, R.K. Panda
7. Correlation Between Pan Evaporation and Meteorological Parameters Under the Climate 39-42
Conditions of Jorhat (Assam)
D. Jhajharia, S. B. Kithan, A. K. Fancon
44
Journal of Indian Water Resources
Society Vol. 26 No. 1-2, Jan.-April, 2006
EFFECT OF WASH LOAD ON FIELD PERFORMANCE OF

GEOTEXTILE FILTER IN EMBANKMENT
R.K. Sharma
Civil Engineering Department, NIT Hamirpur (H.P.)
ABSTRACT
The functions of a filter layer in river protection embankment are to prevent the fines from washing out of
subsoil without any excess hydrostatic pressure build-up upstream. Filtering being the main process, primary
function of a geotextile filter is, therefore, based upon its permeability. In most cases, a geometric closed tilter
is chosen based upon the criterion that apparent opening size of geotextile filter should be smaller than the
diameter of soil grain below which 85% of the soil particles fall. This criterion ensures building up a natural
soil filter behind the boulder rip rap, if the geotextile filter possesses certain minimum permeability. However,
if the filter is clogged by wash load coming with flood water, its permeability is reduced. In this paper, the effect
of blinding of geotextile filter installed in an embankment by the slurry-loaded flood water on its perfomance
has been presented. The deposition of slurry over the surface of geotextile filter and interlocking of the core soil
particles into the filter tend to reduce its permeability by more than 95%. The reduction in permeability of the
geotextile filter due to interlocking of core soil particles is 35 to 39% and the reduction in filter permeability
due to deposition of slurry carried by flood water over it is nearly 60%. The mass of the slurry deposited over
the filter surface may be as high as 12 to 15 times the mass of the soil particle interlocked in the filter. The
purpose of providing a geotextile filter may thus be defeated as the development of seepage pressure takes
place at such low permeability values. While selecting a geotextile filter for flood protection works, the effect
of slurry deposition by flood water should be an important criterion.
KEY WORDS: Flood protection embankment, Slurry deposition, Geotextile filter performance.
INTRODUCTION The amount of soil passing through the geotextile filter

is dependent upon:
Geotextile filter is considered to function
satisfactorily if it retains most of the soil particles at the (a) number and sizes of pores in geotextile filter compared
interface allowing water to percolate through it and soil pores to the in-situ soil particle size;
without any hydrostatic pressure build-up on the upstream (b) soil structure and inter-particle bonding of in-situ soil
side. Many filter criteria for geotextiles have been proposed particles.
by a number of research workers (Calhoun, 1972; Ogink, 1975; (c) seepage forces.
Mckeand, 1977; Schober & Teindl, 1979; Giroudetal, 1988;
Watson & John, 1999; Lafleur, 1999; Heibaum, 1999; FaureetaI, However, no study is found in literature indicating
1999). The filtration performance has been studied the effect of slurry-laden flood water (wash load as per IS:
experimentally and mathematical model on mass of soil passing 4410 Part-3 - 1988) on the performance of geotextile filter based
through nonwoven geotextile has been established by some upon filter permeability. The penneability studies only account
researchers (Palmeira, 2002; Faureetal, 2005; Wuetal, 2006; for the clogging of the filter due to backfill embankment soil
Liu and Chu, 2006). The long-term performance of the (assuming flow of clear water in the river channel) and the
geotextile filter is considered to depends primarily upon: effect of deposition of fine-grained slurry on filter is not
(i) properties of the soil, e.g. particle size distribution, soil considered. This slurry may blind the pores of the geotextile
structure and soil chemistry; filter thus reducing its permeability and rendering it useless.
(ii) properties of the geotextile filter particularly pore size The paper highlights that while designing a geotextile filter
and pore structure; for flood protection embankment, presence of slurry in the
form of fine-grained soils (CL, ML, SC, etc.) in the flood water
(iii) permeability characteristics of geotextile and the coming from the river catchment should be considered as
conditions of seepage flow. one of the important criterion.
1
STUDYAREA (2) CHARACTERISTICS OF OUTER LAYER SOIL
The field performance study was conducted on the The local soil was hauled up to form the outer core
geotextile laid as a filter on the river bank protection work of the embankment. Soil investigations were carried out on
along the bank of Swan river. Swan river causes heavy loss the local soil up to 3.75 m depth to observe the soil profile.
of life and property due to floods. The river is fed by 73 The soil contains on an average of 4.5% fines and can be
tributaries covering an area of 1400 square kilometers and classified as SP. The silt factor of the soil varied from 1.025 to
has a maximum discharge of 5300 cumecs. Floods in the river 1.09. A typical particle size distribution curve of the soil is
inundate land area of more than 1260 hectares. Protection shown in Figure 1. The soil consists of fine sand with silt
embankments have been constructed on both the banks of contents and the chances of liquefaction exist in the soil.
the river spaced 775 metres apart under the flood management
and integrated development project. The embankment The soil samples I to III above used in the core were
consists of good earth core and an outer layer of local soil. A taken from the soil existing in the catchment area of the river.
geotextile filter is provided over the outer layer sloping 1:2 The soil found in the bed of the river was used in the outer
over which boulder rip-rap contained in steel wires is provided. layer of the embankment. Therefore, the wash load of the
The characterstics of core earth, local soil and the filter have river contains sandy clay in addition to the poorly graded
been determined and their suitability in embankment has been fine silty sand. These fine soils constitute the slurry cained
ascertained. In order to study the field performance of by the flood water which is deposited on the geotextile filter
geotextile filter, the samples were taken from field after more resulting in the blinding of the filter.
than one year of its installation after monsoon season.
(3) FILTER CHARACTERISTICS
(1) CORE SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
The geotextile filters were tested for their suitability
The core soil samples were collected from a number of using in the embankment. The characteristics of the filter
of borrow areas and characteristics of soil used are given in along with the standard design requirements are given in
Table 1. Soil samples VII to IX were not recommended for use Table 2.
in the core of the embankment whereas samples IV to V1 were
recommended for use after removal of the organic matter. The The filter samples A and B were recommended for
samples I to III were recommended to be used after removal use after modifications in the weight of sample A and
of grit and sandstone pieces. The field density tests thickness of sample B.
conducted on embankment gave satisfactory density values
as per IS: l2926-1995.
Table 1 Characteristics of Core Soil

Sample Classification Maximum Optimum Permeability Consolidated Consolidated
(as per IS: dry moisture (cm/s) undrained test drained tesl
test
1498 - 1970) density content
(g/cm2) (%) Cohesion c φ0 Cohesion c
Cohesion φ0
Kg/cm2 Kg/cm 2 2
c Kg/cm
I SC 1.85 12.4 6.5x I0-6 0.12 16.2 0.10 12.5
II SC
sc 1.84 12.5 6.1x 10-6 0.14 15.0 0.11 12.0
III SC 1.87 12.9 5.0x 10-6-6

5x I0 0.13 18.4 0.11 9.0
IV CL 1.84 13.8 8.0x 10-7-7

8x 10 0.21 8.0 0.14 5.0
V CL 1.85 13.4 8.8x 10-7 0.20 9.2 0.12 5.5
VI CL 1.83 13.6 9.4x 10-7 0.28 6.6 0.20 4.5
VII CL-ML 1.78 15.2 5.3x 10-5 0.12 14.4 0.09 12.0
VIII CL ML 1.76 15.4 5.2x 10-5 0.10 16.5 0.06 12.5
IX CL-ML 1.75 15.5 6.0 x 10-5 0.13 17.2 0.09 13.0
2
FUNCTION OF GEOTEXTILE FILTER may happen in more or less uniform silty sand. Since the soil
found in the river basin is uniform fine silty sand, therefore,
Geotextile filter in river bank protection work is used the chances of blocking of the geotextile filter are very high.
to stabilize the soil grain skeleton (structure) during the In order to assess the reduction in permeability values,
dissipation of seepage pressure. The dissipation of seepage samples of laid geotextile filter were collected from a number
pressure avoids the deformation of the embankment caused of locations at every 15 m along the pitch guide bank.
by seepage forces. The formation of a soil filter behind the
geotextile filter requires attainment of equilibrium with respect FILTER PERFORMANCE
to system permeability and ceasing the migration of fine soil
particles. However, this requires that the water front surface The samples were found to contain thick slurry
of geotextile (containing boulder rip-rap) does not get clogged deposition on their surface. The permeability values of
by the slurry present in flood water and permeability of the geotextile samples were studied under three conditions :
filter is not reduced.
(i) Intact sample as obtained from field containing slurry
FIELD STUDY deposit to estimate the total reduction in permeability
due to interlocking of the outer core particles in the
In the present field study, it was observed that the
filter as well as the deposition of slurry over the filter
riprap-covered surface of geotextile filter was blocked due to
surface.
deposition of very fine silt and clay particles flowing with the
flood water. The flood water rises to more than 1.2m along (ii) Visible surface dry soil scratched to determine the effect
riprap and finer particles accompanied by water from the river of cleaning of the filter surface due to subsequent clear
catchment predominantly containing SC, CL, ML, SP, etc. are water flow in the river.
deposited in layer over the filter surface. This tends to (iii) Throughly washed sample so that all visible soil
decrease the permeability to very small values thus increasing particles are removed but the sample not squeezed to
the seepage pressure on the riprap thereby leading to avoid removal of particles interlocked in the filter, i.e.,
settlement of boulder riprap at certain locations. to assess the minimum permeability if equilibrium is
attained resulting in the formation of the graded soil
In order to assess the decrease in geotextile filter behind the geotextile filter and no slurry is
permeability, a number of geotextile filter samples were deposited on surface of filter.
collected from different locations along the river. The
deposition of fines in the form of slurry on the geotextile The percentage reduction in permeability compared
surface takes place after the monsoon floods and affects the to that of a fresh filter sample for three conditions described
attaining of equilibrium of filter system. The deposited fine above is given in Table 3. The reduction in permeability values
soil particles get trapped in front of the geotextile filter layer is reported as an average for a set containing three samples
thereby causing a remarkable reduction in permeability. The of the geotextile filter collected from each location.
performance of a filter is changed into that of a lining system.
In such case, the geotextile filter causes a greater trouble The deposition of slurry over the surface of
leading to the accumulation of fine soil filter particles over geotextile filter and interlocking of the core soil particles into
the geotextile filter and establishes a soil filter with much the filter tend to reduce by more than 95%. The purpose of
smaller permeability values less than the desired one. This providing a geotextile filter may thus be defeated as the
phenomenon is found not only in suffosive soil base but devel opment of seepage pressure takes place at such low
Table 2 Characteristics of Geotextile Filter

Filter Material Weight Air Thickness Cone Breaking strength Elongation at
Type (g/m2) permeability (mm) drop test (Kgf) break (%)
(CFM) (mm)
along across
Across along across
A 100% 380.0 184.5 2.52 8.45 67.5 48.9 2 1 .5 46.8

Poly-
propylene
24.5
B 100°/o 270.0 192.0 2.50 8.90 60.6 42.3 24.5 52.5
Poly-
propylene
Slandard 275.0 ± 190 ±

190±20 3.00 ±
3.00±0.5 8.00
8.00±2.0 65±
65±10 45±
45±10 20±
20±10 50±
50±10
Codal 10 % 20 0.5 ±2.0 10 10 10 10
require
ments
3
permeability values. Since the local soil used in the outer Figure 2 indicates that whereas the reduction in
layer of the embankment is cohesionless; (cohesion, c = 0 permeability of the geotextile filter due to interlocking of core
and angle of internal friction, φ = 300 at placement density of soil particles is 35 to 39%, the reduction in filter permeability
16kN/m3); the failure of the embankment closer to the toe in due to deposition of slurry carried by flood water over it is
small pockets was observed. The in-situ density of the soil nearly 60%. Therefore, the presence of wash load containing
being small and water table being shallow; it was observed slurry should form an important criterion for the design of
during conducting dynamic cone penetration tests in the field geotextile filter.
that the soil liquefied and densification occurred due to the
vibrations produced by the dynamic load. CONCLUSIONS
Even when the surface slurry is removed off the The slurry deposition on the geotextile by flood
surface of the filter due to washing by clear water flowing waters severely affects the geotextile filter performance caused
subse quently in the river, reduction in permeability is larger by large reduction in permeability. However, it is impossible
than 90% which indicates clogging of the filter pores. The to control slurry deposition in flooded areas of the
reduction of permeability to less than 10% severely affects embankment particularly in the rivers carrying fine sediment-
the filter performance. It is, thus, established that flood water laden waters due to the presence of fine soils in the river
carrying silty sandy clay particles (SC, SM, CL, etc.) tends to catchment. In such case, proper diversion spurs (boulder
clog the filter as it rises along the embankment. Even if the wire crates) may be used to channelise the river flow away
filter samples are washed to remove fine-grained clay/silt from the side embankments so that minimum flood water
particles, average reduction in permeability is more than 35% strikes the embankment. For ensuring good filter performance,
indicating the interlocking of the fine soil particles from outer slurry deposition of the geotextile filter should be avoided as
core in the geotextile filter. Thus, the attainment of equilibrium far as possible.
resulting in the formation of a graded soil filter behind the
geotextile filter will reduce its permeability by nearly one- Moreover, in literature there is no study indicating
third. However, the filter performance is stabilized at this level the effect of slurry-laden flood water on the performance of
of reduction in permeability as it helps in the formation of a geotextile filter based upon filter permeability. The permeability
natural graded soil filter layer behind the geotextile filter. studies only consider the clogging of the filter due to backfill
embankment soil (assuming flow of clear water in the river
Also, Table 4 shows a comparison of the slurry mass
channel) whose effect does not cover all the parameters.
deposited and the outer core soil mass interlocked in the
Therefore, while selecting a geotextile filter for flood protection
graded filter. The mass of the slurry deposited over the filter
works, one of the important criterion is the presence of fine-
surface may be as high as 12 to 15 times the mass of the soil
grained soils (CL, ML, SC, etc.) in the river catchment.
particle interlocked in the filter.
Table 3 Reduction in permeability of geotextile filter
Sample Average mass of geotextile filter samples (g/m2) Average percentage reduction in permeability
Set No. of geotextile filter (%)
Slurry Surface soil Washed Actual Slurry Surface soil Washed
deposited scratched samples installed deposited scratched samples
field samples samples filter field samples samples
I 2785.0 2048.0 563.86 380.0 97.87 91.81 36.67
II 2550.0 2021.6 519.06 380.0 97.51 91.52 37.50
III 2099.4 1868.4 561.80 380.0 96.98 90.59 36.24
IV 2347.2 1886.2 501.88 380.0 97.25 90.95 37.09
V 3197.8 2170.0 571.28 380.0 98.03 92.40 38.71
VI 2357.4 1901.4 508.52 380.0 97.40 91.05 37.35
4
REFERENCES 9. Lafleur, J. (1999). Selection of geotextiles to filter
broadly graded cohesionless soils. Geotextiles and
1. Calhoun, C. (1972). Development of design criteria and Geomembranes, 17(5-6), 299-312.
acceptance specifications for plastic clothes. U.S. Army
Waterway Experiment Station, Vicksberg, Miss. 10. Liu, Li Fang and Chu, Cai Yuan (2006). Modeling the
slurry filtration performance of nonwoven geotextiles.
2. Faure, Y. H. B. Delmas, Farkouh Ph. and Nancey, A. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 24(5), 325-330.
(1999). Analysis of geotextile filter behaviour after 21
years in Valcros dam. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 11. McKeand E. (1977). The behaviour of non-woven fabric
17(5-6), 353-370. filters in sub-drainage applications. Proceedings of the
International Conference on the use of Fabrics in
3. Faure, Y. H.; Pierson, A.; Baudoin P. and Ple, O. (2005). Geotechnics, Paris, 2,171-176.
A contribution for predicting geotextile clogging during
filtration of suspended solids. Geotexti1es and 12. Ogink, H.J.M. (1975). Investigations on the hydraulic
Geomembranes, 24 (1) , 11-20. characteristics of synthetic fabrics. Delft Laboratory
Publication No. 146.
4. Giroud, J.P. and Noiray L., (1981). Geotextile -
reinforced unpaved road design. Proceedings of the 13. Palmeira, Ennio M.(2002). Drainage & filtration
ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division. properties of non-woven geotextiles under confinement
107( ‘0. GT 9), 1233-1254. using different experimental techniques. Geotextiles and
5. Heibaum. M. H. (1999). Coastal scour stabilisation Geomembranes, 20(2), 97-115.
using granular filter in geosynthetic nonwoven 14. Schober, W. and Teindl, H. (1979). Filter criteria for
containers. Geotextiles and geomembrances, 17 ( 5-6), geotextiles. Proceedings of the Seventh European
341-352. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
6. IS : 1498-1970. Classification and identification of soils Engineering. Brighton, 2, 121-129.
for general engineering purposes. Bureau of Indian
15. Watson, P. D. J. and John, N. W. M. (1999). Geotextile
Standards, Manak Bhawan, New Delhi.
filter design and simulated bridge formation at the soil
7. IS : 4410 (Part-3) - 1988. Glossary of terms relating to geotextile interface. Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
river valley projects. Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak 17(5-6), 265-280.
Bhawan, New Delhi.
16. Wu, Cho-Sen; Hong, Yung-Shan; Yan, Yun-Wei and
8. IS : 12926 - 1995. Construction and maintenance of Chang, Bow-Shung (2006). Soil-nonwoven geotextile
guide banks in alluvial rivers guidelines. Bureau of filtration behavior under contact with drainage
Indian Standards, Manak Bhawan, New Delhi. materials. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 24(1), 1-10.
Table 4 Slurry deposited over geotextile filter by flood water

Sample Average mass of geotextile filter samples (g/m2) Total soil including slurry deposited expressed
Set No. as a ratio of original filter mass
Slurry deposited Surface soil Washed Slurry Surface soil Washed
field samples scratched samples samples deposited scratched samples
field samples samples
I 2405.0 1668.0 183.86 6.329 4.389 0.484
II 2170.0 1641.6 139.06 5.711 4.32 0.366
III 1719.4 1488.4 181.80 5.051 3.917 0.478
IV 1967.2 1506.2 121.88 5.177 3.964 0.321
V 2817.8 1790.0 191.28 7.415 4.711 0.503
VI 1977.4 1521.4 128.52 5.204 4.004 0.338
5
100
8060
% Finer
40 20
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Practicle Size mm
Fig 1 Particle size distribution curve for soil sample from Swan river
Fig 2 Effect of slurry depositon and interlocking of outer layer soil

particles on permeability of geotextile filter
6
FLOW PAST TAPERED SUBMERGED VANES

Umesh P. Gupta C. S. P. Ojha Nayan Sharma
Morphology Directorate Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., Professor, WRD&M
Central Water Commission Indian Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology
New Delhi (India) Roorkee (India) Roorkee (India)
ABSTRACT
Tapered submerged vanes are installed in Wapsipinicon river bend in the U.S.A. and outside a new water
intake in Nepal. Tapering the leading edge of the submerged vanes is to deflect floating debris impinging on the
vane in low to medium flows. Taper angle is the angle made by leading edge of vane with horizontal in vertical
plane. With the increase of taper angle, strength of vane induced secondary circulation in terms of dimensionless
moment of momentum also increases but the plot does not follow the linear trend. Strength of vane induced flow
is maximum in terms of dimensionless moment of momentum when the leading edge of submerged vane is vertical
i.e. 900 (rectangular vane).
KEY WORDS : Submerged vanes, Taper angle, Moment of momentum, secondary circulation.
INTRODUCTION tapering the leading edge of the submerged vanes is to deflect

floating debris impinging on the vane. Also, possibly stuck
Submerged vanes are submerged foils of low height up debris etc. at the leading edge in low to medium flows is
structures, which are constructed in river at angle of attack to more readily removed with the rising stage if the edge is
the flow to modify the near-bed flow pattern and redistribute tapered than vertical.
flow and sediment transport within the channel cross section
(Fig. 1). The initial height of vanes are 0.2 - 0.4 times local The effect of tapering the leading edge of submerged
water depth (d) at design stage. Normally, aspect ratio (H/L) vanes on the strength of vane-induced secondary currents
of submerged vane is 0.25 to 0.5. has not been investigated so far.
Submerged vanes are frequently used as vortex Thus it is important to investigate the effect of
generating devices that have several applications for the tapering the leading edge of the vanes on the strength of
sediment management, such as protection of erosion (Jansen vane-induced secondary current. According to Marelius and
et al. 1979; Odgaard and Kennedy, 1983; Odgaard and Sinha(1998), the rectangular submerged vane without collar
Mosconi, 1987; Odgaard and Wang, 1991 a,b); maintaining has maximum strength of secondary flow at optimal angle of
depth in navigation channel (Odgaard and Spoljaric, 1986); attack 400. Gupta (2003) introduced collar around the leading
maintaining the pump-intake bays sediment free (Nakato et edge of rectangular and trapezoidal vanes at optimal angle of
al.,1990), sediment control at lateral diversions (Barkdoll et attack at the bed level in order to reduce the local scour around
al., 1999), sediment control at water intakes (Wang et al., 1996) it. Gupta et al. (2006) found that optimal angle of attack for
and control of scour at vertical wall abutments (Johnson et rectangular vane with collar is still 400. The present paper
al., 2001). highlights the effects of taper angle on the vane-induced
strength of vortex, when collar collar was introduced around
In the last two decades, there has been an increase
the leading edge of vanes. For this, three types of taper
in the use of submerged vanes as sediment management
angles were taken for the investigations (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
devices. The submerged vanes function by generating
Taper angle is the angle made by leading edge of vane with
secondary circulation in the flow, which alters the magnitude,
horizontal in vertical plane. A rectangular vane of length, L
and direction of the bed shear stresses and causes a change
(18 cm) and three trapezoidal vanes were considered for
in the distributions of velocity, depth and sediment transport
investigations. All the vanes were made of plastic sheets
area affected by vanes.
with thickness 4 mm and exposed height of vane, H (6 cm).
Submerged vanes with tapered leading edge are Top and bottom lengths of the trapezoidal vane were taken
installed in Wapsipinicon river bend in the U.S.A. and outside such that its average length equals 18 cm. Experimental
a new water intake in Nepal. Probably, the rationale behind programme has been shown in Table 2.
7
ASSESMENT OF STRENGTH OF VERTEX Thus, MOM of mass m at point A with respect to
centre of vortex C, can be expressed as
For this purpose, 3 cm × 3cm grids across the flume
had been taken at the distance of 15 cm downstream from the [{ }(
MOM A = m y j + (z − 0.9 H )k × Vy j + Vz k )]
centre of the vanes. At each grid points all the components
of velocity were measured using ADV (Acoustic Doppler = m i [ y Vz − ( z − 0 . 9 H )Vy ]
Velocimeter). The velocity at each grid point is the
representative velocity of the grid area 3 cm × 3cm. Fig. 3 = m i [ y Vz + { − (z − 0.9 H )}Vy ] (5)
shows the layout of grids in flow area cross-section. Velocity
near the wall of the flume was not considered for the
calculation of strength of vortex in order to neglect the wall In Eq. (5), i indicates the direction of MOM along the
effect on the generation of secondary flow due to the direction of flow of fluid (here water). In eq. 5, (m y Vz) is
submerged vanes. A definition sketch for velocity has been MOM due to vertical velocity and {-m (z-0.9H) Vy} is MOM
shown in Fig. 4 Fig. 5 shows typical profiles of transverse due to transverse velocity.
(Vy) and streamwise velocity (Vx) along the height from bed
level along grid 6-39 downstream of submerged vane. From For grid area as 3cm × 3cm and length of flume, L1 as 1 cm and
Fig.5, it can be seen that streamwise velocity gets reduced in water density, ρw as 1 gm/cm3 , mass m can be computed as
the zone of centre of vortex. The reason is submerged vane
induces the component of streamwise velocity in transverse m = 1 x 3 x 3 x 1 = 9 gm (6)
direction of flow. In the zone of centre of vortex, transverse
velocity is dominent and hence streamwise velocity gets Using eqs. (5) and (6), one can write
reduced. Fig. 5 also reveals the centre of vortex at z = 0.9H.
MOM A as = 9 i [ y Vz + {− ( z − 0 .9 H )}Vy ] (7)
The origin was taken at the mid of the average vane
length at initial bed level. For a mass m concentrated at point
Thus, total MOM can be expressed as
A (Fig. 4), one can write the following expression for moment
of momentum, MOMA
44
MOM A = ( mass )( R ×V ) (1) Total MOM = ∑ i =1

MOMi (8)
In Table 3, MOM ad different grid points has been presented.

where, R represents the location vector of point A with
DIMENSIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
respect to centre of vortex C and V is local velocity..
MOM can be considered to depend on a wide range
The local vector of point A with respect to origin O is given of variables, such as angle of attach, α; vane height, H; vane
as OA , length, L; pre-vane flow depth, d; water density, ρw;
where, acceleration due to gravity, g; dynamic viscosity, µ; thickness
of vane, t; velocity components in x direction, Vx; velocity
components in Y direction,Vy; velocity components in Z
O A = y j + zk (2) direction, Vz; vane shape; taper angel etc. Thus, in a functional
In eq. 2, y and z are coordinates of grid points and j and form, the dependence of MOM in terms of these variables
can be written as follows :
k are unit vectors along Y and Z directions, respectively..
MOM = f (α, H, L, d, ρw, g, µ, Vx, Vy, Vz, vane shape, taper
With the centre of vortex at C, one can write
angle) (9)
O C = 0.9 H k (3) For the constant values of α, ρw, g, t, vane shape

and taper angle; eq. 9 reduce to
From eqs. (2) and (3), location vector of point A with respect
to point C, can be written as MOM = f (H, L, d, µ, Vx, Vy, Vz) (10)
Here same fluid has been considered i.e. µ is constant.

R =C A=OA−OC Therefore, eq. 10 reduce to
= y j + z k − 0.9 H k
MOM = f (H, L, d, Vx, Vy, Vz) (11)
= y j + ( z − 0.9 H ) k (4) Linear Momentum, LM may be given as
8
LM = ρw AL1 U (12) in the flume very slowly by closing the tail gate so that no
scouring occurred around the submerged vanes due to
where, A is cross sectional area of flow, flow length operation. After the same period of run in case of vanes with
L1 assumed as 1 cm for computation of mass, and U is mean collar, the three dimensional components of velocity were
flow velocity over whole stream section, which equals mean measured by means of Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV).
value of Vx. The sampling rate used in the experiments was 20 Hz. A
minimum of 800 values was taken at each grid point, and the
From eqs. 11 and 12, one can write mean value of these measurements was taken as
representative quantity. The flow velocity in the flume was
MOM = f (H, L, d, Vy, Vz) (13)
kept close to 90% of the critical velocity for bed sediment
From eq. 13, it is apparent that total number of entrainment.
dimensionaless groups, which can be formed as
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
MOM A plot of taper angle and MOM* has been shown

π1 = = MOM * (14) in the Fig.6. A rectangular vane can be considered as tapered
LM × d
vane with taper angle 900. It can be seen from the trend of
plot (Fig. 6) that with the increase of taper angle, strength of
vane induced secondary circulation in terms of dimensionless
MOM
π2 = = MOM* * (15) moment of momentum also increases but the plot does not
LM × H follow the linear trend. Its strength is maximum when the
leading edge of submerged vane is vertical i.e. 900 (rectangular
vane). Strength of vane induced secondary flow is minimum
MOM at taper angle, 4H: 2V. Thus, if the taper angle of vane is zero
π3 = = MOM* * * (16) then the strength of vane induced vortex will be also zero,
LM × L
which is quite justified practically as with zero taper angle
there will be no existence of vane above the bed level.
MOM*, MOM**, and MOM*** are dimensionless
Therefore, the leading edge of submerged vanes should not
numbers, therefore, single plot of MOM* versus taper angle
be too tapered. Here, the average length of vane was 18 cm.
of submerged vanes has been shown in Fig. 6.
However, effect of tapered angle on generation of strength
EXPERIMENTS of vane induced vortex should be explored without changing
the original aspect ratio with wide range of taper angles.
The flume used was eleven metre long tilting flume, Dimensionless MOM may also be investigated as the loss in
made of mild steel with side walls made of transparent perspex linear momentum times the length over which the linear
sheet. Flume had an in-built up stream tank of 40 cm x 90 cm momentum loss was measured. The group behaviour of arrays
x 115 cm dimensions. The depth of flume was 50 cm and the of tapered submerged vanes may be considered for future
width was 50 cm. At the upstream end, there were three studies.
number of baffle walls, one at upstream and others were at
18 cm spacing. The vane location was about 3 m from the REFERENCES
upstream end of the channel. The baffle walls and long
1. Barkdoll, B.D.; Ettema, R. and Odgaard, A.J. (1999).
distance of the vane location from the upstream end of the
Sediment control at lateral diversions: limits and
channel allowed the flow enter smoothly and fully developed
enhancements to vane use. Journal of Hydraulic
before it reached the test area. Experiments were performed Engineering, ASCE, 125(8), 862-870.
with sediment having median diameter as 0.225 mm of
geometric standard deviation 1.42. The relative density of 2. Gupta, U. P. (2003). Study on performance of
sand was 2.65. submerged vanes with collar. Ph. D. Thesis, Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee (India).
Flume was adjusted to required slope. The depth of
3, Gupta, U.P., Ojha, C.S.P. and Sharma, Nayan. (2006).
sediment bed layer of the test section was fixed at 15 cm.
Vorticity with different shapes of submerged vanes.
Uniform flow without sediment motion corresponding to a
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Indian Society for
selected discharge was established with the help of tail gate.
Hydraulics, 12(1), 13-26.
Before placement of submerged vanes, the sediment bed of
flume was leveled using spirit level. After placement of 4. Jansen, P. Ph., van Bendegom L., Van Den Berg J., de
submerged vanes, the sediment bed of flume was again Vries, M., and Zanen A. (1979). Principles of River
levelled around the submerged vane. Flow was introduced Engineering. Pitman Publishing Limited, London, U.K.
9
5. Johnson, P.A.; Hey, R.D.; Tessier, M. and Rosgen, D.L. 10. Odgaard, A.J. and Spoljaric, A. (1986). Sediment
(2001). Use of vanes for control of scour at vertical Control by submerged vanes. Journal of hydraulic
wall abutments. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, engineering, ASCE, 112(12), 1164-1181.
ASCE, 127(9), 772-778.
11. Odgaard, A.J. and Wang, Y. (1991a). Sediment
6. Marelius, F. and Sinha, S.K. (1998). Experimental management with submerged vanes. I: Theory. Journal
investigation of flow past submerged vanes. Journal of of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 117(3), 267-283.
Hydraulic Engineering. ASCE, 124(5), 542-545.
12. Odgaard, A.J. and Wang, Y. (1991b). Sediment
7. Nakato, T., Kennedy, J.F. and Baurely, D. (1990). Pump- management with submerged vanes. II: Applications.
station intake-shoaling control with submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 117(3), 284-
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 116(1), 119- 302.
128.
13. Wang, Y., Odgaard, A.J., Melville, B.W. and Jain, S.C.
8. Odgaard, A.J. and Kennedy, J.F. (1983). River-bend (1996). Sediment control at water intakes. Journal of
bank protection by submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 122(6), 353-356.
Hydraulic Engineering. ASCE, 109(8), 1161-1173.
9. Odgaard, A.J. and Mosconi, C.E. (1987). Stream bank
protection by Submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, 113(4), 520-536.
Table 1 Dimensions of trapezoidal vane

TAPER TOP BOTTOM AVERAGE
AVERAGE LENGTH,(B1+
LENGTH,
ANGLE LENGTH, B1 LENGTH, B2 B2)/2 (B1 + B2)/2
(CM) (CM) (CM)
(CM)
1H:1V 15 21 18
3H:2.5V 14.4 21.6 18
4H:2V 12 24 18
Table 2 Experimental Programme

EXP
EXPT VANE TAPER FLOW
FLOW FLOW FROU
FROUDE ANGLE OF
NO.
T. TYPE ANGLE RATE
RATE DEPTH NO.
DE ATTACK
(CUMEC)
NO. (CUMEC (CM) NO.
)
1 Rectangular - 0.0154 18 0.13 400
2 Trapezoidal 1H:1V 0.0154 18 0.13 400
3 Trapezoidal 3H:2.5V 0.0154 18 0.13 400
4 Trapezoidal 4H:2V 0.0154 18 0.13 400
10
Vane induced
circulation
Vane
Flow
Bed sediment 40o
movement direction
Angle of attack
Fig 1 Definiton sketch of submerged vane Fig 3 Grid points for the collection of data
b1
Flow H
Vane Mobile Bed Level
Taper angle
Installation
depth of vane
b2
Fig 2 Trapezoidal vane Fig 4 Definition sketch for velocity
11
15 15
Streamwise velocity (Vx), cm/s

Height from bed level, cm
12 12
( along grid 6-39)

9 9
6 6
3 3
0 0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 0 5 10 15 20
Transverse velocity (Vy), cm/s (along grid 6-39) Height from bed level, cm
Fig 5 (a) Fig 5 (b)
Flow direction
Pressure side
Suction side
Vane
Angle of
attack
Flume walls
Fig 5 (c)
Fig 5 Velocity distribution downstream of rectangular submerged vane (taper angle 900)
(a) A typical transverse velocity profile along grid 6-39
(b) A typical streamwise velocity profile along grid 6-39
(c) Pressure and suction sides of vanes
Fig 6 Effect of taper anle on MOM*
12
Table 3. Moment of momentum at different nodes

Grid Coordinates Velocity Moment of Momentum
points Symbols Values Vy Vz
1 y1, z1 2.5H, 0.5H Vy1 Vz1 9H[2.5Vz1 + 0.4Vy1]
2 y2, z2 2H, 0.5H Vy2 Vz2 9H[2Vz2 + 0.4Vy2]
3 y3, z3 1.5H, 0.5H Vy3 Vz3 9H[1.5Vz3 + 0.4Vy3]
4 y4, z4 1H, 0.5H Vy4 Vz4 9H[1Vz4 + 0.4Vy4]
5 y5, z5 0.5H, 0.5H Vy5 Vz5 9H[0.5Vz5 + 0.4Vy5]
6 y6, z6 0H, 0.5H Vy6 Vz6 9H[0Vz6 + 0.4Vy6]
7 y7, z7 -0.5H, 0.5H Vy7 Vz7 9H[-0.5Vz7 + 0.4Vy7]
8 y8, z8 -1H, 0.5H Vy8 Vz8 9H[-1Vz8 + 0.4Vy8]
9 y9, z9 -1.5H, 0.5H Vy9 Vz9 9H[-1.5Vz9 + 0.4Vy9]
10 y10, z10 -2H, 0.5H Vy10 Vz10 9H[-2Vz10 + 0.4Vy10]
11 y11, z11 -2.5H, 0.5H Vy11 Vz11 9H[-2.5Vz11 + 0.4Vy11]
12 y12, z12 2.5H, 1H Vy12 Vz12 9H[2.5Vz12 + (-0.1)Vy12]
13 y13, z13 2H, 1H Vy13 Vz13 9H[2Vz13 + (-0.1)Vy13]
14 y14, z14 1.5H, 1H Vy14 Vz14 9H[1.5Vz14 + (-0.1)Vy14]
15 y15, z15 1H, 1H Vy15 Vz15 9H[1Vz15 + (-0.1)Vy15]
16 y16, z16 0.5H, 1H Vy16 Vz16 9H[0.5Vz16 + (-0.1)Vy16]
17 y17, z17 0H, 1H Vy17 Vz17 9H[0Vz17 + (-0.1)Vy17]
18 y18, z18 -0.5H, 1H Vy18 Vz18 9H[-0.5Vz18 + (-0.1)Vy18]
19 y19, z19 -1H, 1H Vy19 Vz19 9H[-1Vz19 + (-0.1)Vy19]
20 y20, z20 -1.5H, 1H Vy20 Vz20 9H[-1.5Vz20 + (-0.1)Vy20]
21 y21, z21 -2H, 1H Vy21 Vz21 9H[-2Vz21 + (-0.1)Vy21]
22 y22, z22 -2.5H, 1H Vy22 Vz22 9H[-2.5Vz22 + (-0.1)Vy22]
23 y23, z23 2.5H, 1.5H Vy23 Vz23 9H[2.5Vz23 + (-0.6)Vy23]
24 y24, z24 2H, 1.5H Vy24 Vz24 9H[2Vz24 + (-0.6)Vy24]
25 y25, z25 1.5H, 1.5H Vy25 Vz25 9H[1.5Vz25 + (-0.6)Vy25]
26 y26, z26 1H, 1.5H Vy26 Vz26 9H[1Vz26 + (-0.6)Vy26]
27 y27, z27 0.5H, 1.5H Vy27 Vz27 9H[0.5Vz27 + (-0.6)Vy27]
28 y28, z28 0H, 1.5H Vy28 Vz28 9H[0Vz28 + (-0.6)Vy28]
29 y29, z29 -0.5H, 1.5H Vy29 Vz29 9H[-0.5Vz29 + (-0.6)Vy29]
30 y30, z30 -1H, 1.5H Vy30 Vz30 9H[-1Vz30 + (-0.6)Vy30]
31 y31, z31 -1.5H, 1.5H Vy31 Vz31 9H[-1.5Vz31 + (-0.6)Vy31]
32 y32, z32 -2H, 1.5H Vy32 Vz32 9H[-2Vz32 + (-0.6)Vy32]
33 y33, z33 -2.5H, 1.5H Vy33 Vz33 9H[-2.5Vz33 + (-0.6)Vy33]
34 y34, z34 2.5H, 2H Vy34 Vz34 9H[2.5Vz34 + (-1.1)Vy34]
35 y35, z35 2H, 2H Vy35 Vz35 9H[2Vz35 + (-1.1)Vy35]
36 y36, z36 1.5H, 2H Vy36 Vz36 9H[1.5Vz36 + (-1.1)Vy36]
37 y37, z37 1H, 2H Vy37 Vz37 9H[1Vz37 + (-1.1)Vy37]
38 y38, z38 0.5H, 2H Vy38 Vz38 9H[0.5Vz38 + (-1.1)Vy38]
39 y39, z39 0H, 2H Vy39 Vz39 9H[0Vz39 + (-1.1)Vy39]
40 y40, z40 -0.5H, 2H Vy40 Vz40 9H[-0.5Vz40 + (-1.1)Vy40]
41 y41, z41 -1H, 2H Vy41 Vz41 9H[-1Vz41 + (-1.1)Vy41]
42 y42, z42 -1.5H, 2H Vy42 Vz42 9H[-1.5Vz42 + (-1.1)Vy42]
43 y43, z43 -2H, 2H Vy43 Vz43 9H[-2Vz43 + (-1.1)Vy43]
44 y44, z44 -2.5H, 2H Vy44 Vz44 9H[-2.5Vz44 + (-1.1)Vy44]
13
CROP COEFFICIENT MODELS OF WHEAT AND MAIZE FOR IRRIGATION

PLANNING IN GANDAK COMMAND
Jeetendra Kumar A.K.P. Singh
Research Associate, Principal Scientist
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region Department of Irrigation & Drainage Engg.
WALMI Complex, Phulwarisharif, R.A.U., Pusa, Bihar
Patna - 801 505, Bihar
ABSTRACT
In the Gandak command area, an investigation was carried out to develop crop coefficient model for
wheat and maize. With the obtained crop coefficient values, crop coefficient curve was derived as a function of
days after sowing and polynomial model was fitted. Using the derived polynomial equations, crop coefficient
values of these crops for any day after sowing can be estimated for Gandak command. The equations of the
regression model of crop coefficient can therefore, be used for estimation of water requirement of these crops
grown in Gandak command area and for other areas having similar climatic conditions where such data are
either not generated experimentally or not at all available.
INTRODUCTION The experimental area is located at 25.980 N latitude, 85.670 E

longitude and at an attitude of 52.0 meters above the Mean
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize are Sea Level. The climate of the area concerned is humid sub-
prominent food crops grown in the Gandak command area of tropical.
North Bihar. For better crop production, water should be
applied according to consumptive demand (crop The experiment was laid out with wheat (UP-262)
evapotranspiration) of the crops. Estimation of crop and maize (Laxmi) crops. These crops were sown on
evapotranspiration is necessary for efficient planning and November 14, 2000 and harvested on April 12 and May 5,
proper management of irrigation water. The crop 2001, respectively. The measured quantity of irrigation water
evapotranspiration estimates require specific values of crop using a 7.5 cm parshall flume was applied time to time in
coefficient for a particular crop. Crop coefficients are the order to bring the soil moisture level to field capacity. Soil
empirical ratios of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) to estimated moisture content was measured using gravimetric method
or measured reference evapotranspiration (ETo). The values for which soil samples were collected from 0-30, 30-60, 60-90
of crop coefficient vary mainly with the crop characteristics, and 90-120 cm soil depths on different dates during the
crop sowing or planting date, rate of crop development, growing season. Soil moisture depletion from the effective
length of growing season and prevailing climatic conditions. rootzone depth for different periods between two successive
Wright (1982) and Hussain and Pawade (1990) worked out soil sampling was calculated.
crop coefficient values for different crops. For water balance
irrigation scheduling, crop evapotranspiration are estimated In order to determine crop evapotranspiration (ETc)
from crop coefficient curves, which reflect the changing rates for any time periods between two successive soil moisture
of crop water use over the growing season. Steele et al (1996) measurement dates, components of water balance equation
and Hanskar (1999) derived crop coefficient curves as a were monitored. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) for all
function of day past planting for different crops using fifth the periods were estimated as the product of pan evaporation
order polynomial. and pan coefficients (Kp). Crop coefficient values (Kc) for all
the time periods were determined using following equation:
Present study was undertaken to determine
ETc
consumptive use and crop coefficient values and to develop Kc = (1)
crop coefficient curve for wheat and maize crops. ETo
MATERIALS AND METHODS Where, ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm) and ETo =
Reference evapotranspiration (mm)
The present experiment was conducted at the Water
Management Research Farm of Rajendra Agricultural The crop coefficient values were plotted with respect to time
University, Bihar, Pusa during the Rabi season of 2000-2001. (days after sowing). While plotting the crop coefficient
14
values for a particular period, the mid point of that particular
Maize, K c = 3.05 X 10-9 t4-1.30 X 10-6 t3+5.15 X 10-5 t2+1.53
period was taken. Polynomial function was fitted to these
data, keeping in view the scatter of the crop coefficient (Kc) X 10-2 t - 0.067, R2=0.949 (3)
values, with respect to time (Days after sowing).
Using these polynomial equations crop coefficient
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION value for any day after sowing can be estimated.
Evapotranspiration of wheat and maize crops showed an CONCLUSIONS

increasing trend with the advancement in crop growth up to
physiological development and after that it started declining. The present study was undertaken to determine
The mean crop evapotranspiration over the growing season the crop coefficient values and to develop crop coefficient
for wheat and maize were computed to be 1.0 mmday-1 and models for wheat and maize under the agro-climatic
1.36 mmday-1 over the growing season, the maximum value conditions of Gandak command in Bihar. The results revealed
being 1.83 mmday-1 (80 to 94 days after sowing) and 3.03 that crop coefficient values were low initially, which increased
mmday-1 (121 to 135 days after sowing), respectively. to a maximum of 1.02 and 1.03 as the crop physiologically
fully developed and thereafter decreased to 0.22 and 0.29 at
Development of Crop Coefficient Model the time of harvest for wheat and maize crops, respectively.
Polynomial model was fitted to the crop coefficient values
Crop coefficient values of wheat and maize were obtained as and fourth order polynomial equation was found to be best
the ratio of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and reference fitted. The study will be helpful for deciding the irrigation
evapotranspiration (ET o) and plotted against days after requirement and irrigation scheduling during the life cycle
sowing that are presented in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively. It is of the crops.
revealed from the results that crop coefficient values of wheat
and maize increased gradually from a low initial value of 0.07 REFERENCES
and 0.09, respectively to a maximum of 1.02 (80 to 94 days
after sowing) and 1.03 (103 to 121 days after sowing) as the 1. Hunskar, D.J. (1999). Basal crop coefficients and water
crop growth advanced and after that the value started use for early maturity cotton. Trans. ASAE 42 (4), 927-
declining to attain a value of 0.22 and 0.29, respectively at 936
the time of harvest. Polynomial function was fitted to the 2. Husain, I. and Pawade, M.N. (1990). Crop coefficient
crop coefficient values and fourth order polynomial equation for summer groundnut. Agric. Eng. Today, 14 (3&4), 28-
yielded high value of coefficient of determination (R2). The 30.
polynomial models of crop coefficients (Kc) as a function of
time (days after sowing) are given below: 3. Steele, D.D.A; Sajid, H. and Prunty, L.D. (1996). New
corn evapotranspiration crop curves for southeastern
North Dakota. Trans. ASAE 39 (3), 931-936
Wheat, K c = 2.84 X 10-8 t4- 8.64 X 10-6 t3+6.74 X 10-4 t2-
4. Wright, J.L. (1982). New evapotranspiration crop
1.24 X 10-3 t+0.0235,R2=0.976 (2)
coefficients. J. Irrig. and Drain. Div. ASCE 108 (1), 57 74.
1.2 1.2
1 1
Crop coeffIcient, Kc
Crop coeffIcient, Kc
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Days after sowing, t
Days after sowing, t
Fig 1 Crop coefficient curve for wheat. Fig 2 Crop coefficient curve for maize.
15
EFFECT OF CONVERGING BOUNDARY ON RADIAL FLOW THROUGH

HOMOGENEOUS POROUS MEDIA
N. Bhanu Prakasham Reddy G.N. Pradeep Kumar P. Rama Mohan Rao

Assoc.Prof., Professor., Professor,
Department of Civil Engg., Department of Civil Engineering., Department of Civil Engg.,
N.B.K.R.Institute of Sci. & Tech., S.V.U. College of Engineering., Institute of Engg. & Tech.,
Vidyanagar-524 413, Tirupati-517 502, Kukatpally, Hyderabad,
Nellore Dist., A.P., India. Chittoor Dist., A.P., India A.P., India.
ABSTRACT
Behavior of flow through porous media has been the subject of study for a long time. The relationship
relating friction factor (fR) and Reynolds number (RR) using hydraulic radius as the characteristic length is
examined for flow in porous media with converging boundaries. This paper presents the results of experiments
conducted on Convergent Flow Permeameter using crushed rock of size 4.73mm as the media and water as fluid.
Theoretical curves, similar to the Moody diagram used in pipe, relating fR and RR for different CR values taken
as the third parameter have been developed using hydraulic radius as the characteristic length for different
ratios of the radii.
KEY WORDS : Convergent Flow, Friction Factor, Reynolds Number, Hydraulic Radius and Porous media.
INTRODUCTION and Pradip kumar (1997); Venkata Raman and Rama Mohan
Rao (1998, 2000) conducted some experiments on converging
The study of the flow of fluids through porous media permeameter and studied the effect of convergence on Darcy
is important in Civil Engineering as flowing in the area adjacent and non-Darcy parameter.
to a pumping well, flow through fissured rocks, flow through
rock fill dams and banks, and other fields like geology, In the case of convergent flow, for a given rate of
petroleum etc. In the last five decades, the investigation on flow through a known size of the medium packed, the gradient
linear and non-linear flow in porous media between parallel of head loss is a point function. A separate expression for
boundary have been carried out extensively. Further, a hydraulic gradient taking into account the effect of variation
qualitative comparison of nature of radial flow with that of in velocity. i.e., convective component, is therefore, derived.
parallel flow signifies the practical importance of converging
flow. Hence the same is cited wherever it is found necessary. Darcy (1856) related velocity of flow and hydraulic
gradient by conducting experiments and arrived at an
Wright (1968) published the results of research on a equation given by
converging permeameter using sand as a medium and air as
the fluid and compares the results relating coefficient of V = KI (1)
resistance and Reynolds number. Ward (1964) employed the
Where V = velocity of flow, I = hydraulic gradient,
method of dimensional analysis to obtain the expression for
and K is the coefficient of permeability, which depends upon
Darcy and non-Darcy parameter and obtained a single curve
the particle size, shape and many other factors like void ratio,
for a constant Cw value for all the media. McCorquodale
structure of soil mass, fluid properties etc. It has been
(1970) analysed the effect of convergence in a horizontal
observed that the relation given by Eq. (1) is valid only if the
permeameter by applying finite element method and applied
flow through porous medium is laminar. However, in general,
porosity and wall corrections for the data. Nasser (1970) carried
for flow through coarse sand, gravel and boulders, the actual
out experiments on the effect of convergence in a vertical
relationship between the velocity and the hydraulic gradient
permeameter. McCorquodale (1970) and Nasser (1970)
is non-linear.
analysed the experimental data on the assumption that
convergence of streamlines mainly affects only non-Darcy Forchheimer (1901) conducted experiments on a
component of Forchhimer (1901) equation and assumes that sand-box model and proposed an equation in a quadratic
Darcy parameter is same for both parallel and converging form as,
flow. Bhanu Prakasham Reddy (2003, 2004); Thiruvengadam I = aV+bV2 (2)
16
for the non-Darcy regime of flow, in which a and b are the which e is void ratio related to the porosity n by the relation
coefficients determined by the properties of the fluid and e=n/(1-n) and S0, is specific surface defined as surface area
porous media and are known as Darcy and non-Darcy per unit volume, and takes the general form α / D , where D
parameters.
is the particle dimeter and α is a coefficient depending upon
The investigations carried out by Ward (1964) the shape of the particle: for sphere α = 6.0 and for irregular
require special attention. Ward (1964) expressed dimensionally shaped particles, it has to be determined experimentally after
the equation for both laminar and turbulent flows in porous measuring the surface area of the particles. In this paper the
medium as value of α for crushed rock is taken as 8.8 as reported by
Pradip Kumar and Bhanu Prakasham Reddy (1997).
µV C wV 2 Comparison of Eq. (8) with Forchheimer Eq. (2)

I= + (3) indicates taht
ρgk g k
µ
a= (8)
in which I is hydraulic gradient and g is acceleration due to C1 ρgR 2
gravity. Comparing Forchheimer (1901) Eq. (2) with Eq. (3), and
Ward (1964) obtained expressions for a and b as
(9)
µ
a = (4)
ρ gk C 1 gR
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (8) by , it becomes
V 2
C
b = w
(5) 1
g k fR = + CR (10)
RR
where k = intrinsic permeability; ρ = density of the fluid and IgC 1 R
Cw = media constant. in which fR is the friction factor equal to and RR is
V 2
Ig k VR
Defining friction factor fk as and Reynolds number the Reynolds number equal to .
V 2 ν
V k EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Rk as , and using square root of intrinsic permeability
ν
Fig. 1 shows the dimensional details of the
k as the characteristic length, Ward (1964) obtained the converging flow permeameter used in the present study.
relationship between friction factor and Reynolds number as Experiments were conducted on a convergent permeater of
1000 mm high, 150 mm thick and of width varying from 750
1 mm at top and 150mm at bottom and the angle of convergence
fk = + Cw (6) is 0.76 radians. The porous media of size 4.73 mm was retained
Rk
between two perforated screens. One screen was placed at a
radius 1262mm at the inlet of the permeameter, while the other
Venkata Raman and Rama Mohan Rao (1998, 2000) was located at a radius of 215 mm near the exit.
expressed theroreticallly the relation between friction factor
and Reynolds number using hydraulic radius (R) as Pressure taps provided at different point along the
characteristic length. By applying dimensional analysis one three radial lines of the permeameter at 50mm spacing
obtained for hydraulic gradient, I may be written in terms of connected to a set of piezometers, permitted the measurements
hydraulic radius R as of piezometric heads at these points. Water was supplied
froma 25mm diameter inlet pipe to the permeameter through a
µV C2V 2
I= + (7)
header tank of size 300mm x 150mm x 1050mm. A fixed flow
C1ρgR2 gR was maintained in the system through a constant head in the
header tank. Once the steady state conditions were obtained,
where C1 and C2 are dimensionless constant of the corresponding discharge was measured by the volumetric
proportionality and hydraulic radius R is defined as e/S0, in method for every run of the medium.
17
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figs. 6(a-c) the range of CR values is shown on the theoretical
curve against which the experimental points of fR and RR were
Evaluation of Linear Parameter (a) and Non-Linear plotted. The inclined dashed line in Figs. 6(a-c) demarcates,
Parameter (b) approximated, the RR at which the flow changes from non
linear transition to wholly turbulent flow.
For media of certain size, the approach section at
radius R1 and an exit section at radius R2 are arbitrarily selected CONCLUSIONS
on any radial flow line. Based on the flow rates and the
piezometric heads at these two points, the seepage velocity Experiments have been conducted on a coverging
and the hydraulic gradient are computed. The values of the permeameter and the values of a and b are obtained from a
coefficients a and b for this R1/R2 ratio for that particular plot of I/V vs V. It is observed that the I/V, which is a measure
radial flow line are then obtained from a plot of I/V versus V, of total energy loss in the medium increases as seepage
where V is seepage velocity at section at R1 and is equal to velocity is increased for any R1/R2 ratio and for any radial
flow rate (Q) / flow area, (A1), at the approach section, which flow lines and also the total energy loss decreases as the R1/
is a straight line. A linear equation fitted to this line by the R2 ratio decreases for both crushed rock sizes. the relation
method of least squares yields the values of a and b for that between fR and RR, using the square root of intrinsic
particular R1/R2 ratio and radial flow line. This procedure is permeability as the characteristic length shows that Reynolds
repeated for different ratios of R1/R2 to get different values of number (RR) increases as the friction factor (fR) decreases for
a and b for the same media and radial flow line. A similar any R1/R2 ratio and the friction factor (fR) and Reynolds
analysis was carried out for the two other radial flow lines number (RR) decrease as the distance of any radial lines
with the same media. Results of the experiments are presented increases from the converging boundaries. Further, it is seen
for the crushed rock sample of 4.73 mm in Table 1. Figs. 2(a-c) from the experiments that for any radial flow line Reynolds
show plots of I/V vs V for the experimental data of the present number (RR) increases with decreasing friction factor (fR) for
study for 4.73 mm crushed rock for three radial flow lines. It is any R1/R2 ratio and that the friction factor (fR) decreases as
seen from the Fig. 2(a-c) that I/V, increases as seepage velocity the R1/R2 ratio decreases. The variation of fR and RR for
is increased for any R1/R2 ratio and I/V decreased as the R1/R2 different CR values for different radial lines and for different
ratio decreases. It may be observed that the experimental ratios of radii are compared with the experimental and observed
data of the media for three radial flow lines, lie along separate lie on the theoretical curve. The relation between fR and RR
straight lines. Each follows a trend yielding different values for experimental data, using the hydraulic radius as the
of a and b for different radial flow lines of the same size of the characteristics length and CR as a parameter is shown to be
media. similar to the Moody diagram for pipe flow.
Relation Between Head Loss (HL) and Seepage Velocity (V) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figs. 3 (a-c) shows the variation of head loss (HL) The author wish to thank the Ministry of Science &
with seepage velocity (V) for different R1/R2 ratio for each Technology, Department of Science and Technology, New
radial line. It is seen from Figs.3(a-c), for each radial line, HL Delhi, authorities for the financial support (Grant No.:SR/FTP/
increases with increasing R1/R2 ratio and also HL increases ETA-22/2005) rendered by them for carrying out the study.
with increase of seepage velocity (V). The author also wishes to acknowledge the encouragement
given by Sri N. Bhanusekar Reddy, correspondent, and Dr. C.
VARIATION OF fR and RR Subba Rao, Principal, N.B.K.R. Institute of Science &
Technology during the course of study.
The values of fR and RR are computed for a given
seepage velocity using the values of a and b. these computed REFERENCES
of fR and RR values are plotted for each radial line for different
R1/R2 ratio area shown in Figs. 4(a-c). Fig. 5(a-c) shows the 1. Bhanu Prakasham Reddy, N. and Rama Mohan Rao, P.
variation of fR and RR for each R1 /R2 ratio for different radial (2003). Behaviour of non-linear flow and application
lines. It is seen from Figs. 4(a-c) and Figs. 5(a-c) that for any of neural network in convergence boundaries. ISH
radial line and R1 /R2 ratio, RR increases with decreasing fR Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 9, No.2, September
and fR decreases as the R1 /R2 ratio decreases for the crushed 2003.
rock of size 4.73 mm. Eq.(10) is used for the computation of 2. Bhanu Prakasham Reddy, N. (2004). Convergence effect
different values of RR by assuming different values for CR on the flow resistance in porous media. IE(I) Journal.
and fR. Figs. 6(a-c) shows the comparison between friction CV-1, 85, 36-43., May 2004
factor and Reynolds number for each CR value for the same
R1 /R2 ratio and for different radial lines. Figs. 6(a-c) shows 3. Darcy, H. (1856). Les Fontaines Publiques de la vill de
the theoretical plot of Eq. (10) with CR as third parameter. In Dijon. Dalmont, Paris, 1856.
18
4. Forchheimer, P. (1901). Wasserbewegung durch boden. Cw = media constants;
Z.Ver. Deutsch, Ing., 45, 1782-1788. e = void ratio;
5. McCorquodale, J. A (1970). Finite element analysis of fk = friction factor using k as the characteristics length;
non-Darcy flow. Ph.D. thesis, University of Windsor, fR = friction factor using R as the characterstics length;
Windsor, Canada. g = acceleration due to gravity;
6. Nasser, M.S.S. (1970). Radial non-Darcy flow through I = hydraulic gradient;
porous media. Master of Applied Science Thesis, Q = rate of flow
University of Windsor, Windsor, Canada. R = hydraulic radius;
7. Scheidegger, A.E. (1963). The physics of flow through Rk = Reynolds number using k as the characteristic length;
porous media. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, RR = Reynolds number using R as the characteristic length;
Canada. S0 = specific surface;
V = macroscopic velocity or seepage velocity;
8. Thiruvengadam, M. and Pradip Kumar, G.N. (1997).
Validity of Forchheimer equation in radial flow through α = shape factor;
coarse granular media. J. Engrg. Mech. ASCE, 123(7), µ = dynamic viscosity;
696-705. ν = kinematic viscosity; and
9. Venkataraman, P. and Rama Mohan Rao, P. (1998). ρ = density of the fluid;
Darcian, transitional, and turbulent flow through
porous media. J. Hydr. Engg., ASCE, 124(8), 840-846.
10. Venkataraman, P. and Rama Mohan Rao, P. (2000).
Validation of Forchheimer's law for flow through porous
media with converging boundary. J. Hydr. Engg.
ASCE,126(1), 63-71.
11. Ward, J. C. (1964). Turbulent flow in porous media. J.
Hydr. Div. ASCE, 90(5), 1.
12. Wright, D.E. (1968). Nonlinear flow through granular
media. J. Hydr. Div., ASCE, 94, 1968.
NOTATIONS
The following symbols are used in this paper :
A = Cross sectional area;

a = Darcy parameter or linear parameter;
b = non-Darcy parameter or non-linear parameter;
C1/C2 = constants;
Fig 1 Converging flow permeameter
Table 1 Experimental Results for Crushed Rock Sample of Size 4.73 mm.
19
Fig 2(a) I/V vs V for 4.73mm crushed rock Fig 3(a) Variation of head loss (HL) with velocity (V)
Fig 2(b) I/V vs V for 4.73mm crushed rock Fig 3(b) Variation of head loss (HL) with velocity (V)
Fig 2(c) I/V vs V for 4.73mm crushed rock Fig 3(c) Variation of head loss (HL) with velocity (V)
20
REYNOLDS NUMBER (RR)
Fig 4(a) Plot between fR and RR for 4.73mm crushed rock Fig 5(a) Plot between fR and RR for 4.73mm crushed rock
Fig 4(b) Plot between fR and RR for 4.73mm crushed rock Fig 5(b) Plot between fR and RR for 4.73mm crushed rock
Fig 4(c) Plot between fR and RR for 4.73mm crushed rock Fig 5(c) Plot between fR and RR for 4.73mm crushed rock
21
Fig 6(a) Variation of friction factor (fR) with Reynolds Number (RR) for
theoretical values and for experimental values
Fig 6(b) Variation of friction factor (fR) with Reynolds Number (RR) for
22
Fig 6(c) Variation of friction factor (fR) with Reynolds Number (RR) for
23
TOPOLOGICAL INSIDES FOR STUDY OF SPATIO-TEMPORAL CHANGES

IN THE PLANFORM OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER
R.N. Sankhua Nayan Sharma A.D. Pandey P.K. Garg
Research Scholar Professor, WRD&M Asstt.Professor Professor
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee - 247667, India
ABSTRACT
The paper presents prediction of changes in the channel pattern with time of a braided river, the
Brahmaputra. The procedure addresses the selection of input parameters from satellite images of IRS LISS-III
sensor, comprising of 32 scenes for the years 1990, 1997, 2000 and 2002, from chainage 17.34 km (measured
from Indo-Bangladesh border) at Dhubri to 640 km at Kobo. Deployment of GIS technique has been made to
extract the parameters to derive the alpha, beta and gamma indices for the entire study reach. Variations of
different topological parameters with time and also indices have been studied and analysed in the paper.
KEY WORDS: Brahmaputra, topological indices, morphology, satellite images
INTRODUCTION Bangladesh for a total distance of 2880 km, before emptying

itself into the Bay of Bengal through a combined water course
The channel geometry of a large braided stream with the Ganga. Table-1 depicts the country and Indian state-
with mega-energy environment like the Brahmaputra river wise break-up of basin area and channel length.
displays highly variable and intricate morphological
characteristics with rapid and substantial changes in plan Table 1 The Brahmaputra River: Country and Indian state-
form. Changes in the channel pattern with time for the wise break-up of basin area and channel length
meandering streams have been studied by numerous workers
(Anderson, 1967, Berge, 1962, Ferguson, 1977, Hickin et al, S.No. Country Basin area Channel
1975). However, only a few investigations of changes in (Km2) Length (Km)
distributary channel patterns of braided streams are available
1. Tibet (China) 293,000 1,625
(Coleman, 1969). These studies deal with variation in channel 2. Bhutan 45,000 -
patterns over short periods. The Brahmaputra, a highly 3. India 194,413 918
braided river, has been surveyed in post monsoon flood (a) Arunachal Pradesh 81,424 278
periods many times because of its caparious nature of (b) Assam 70,634 640
shifting its channels rapidly. (c) Nagaland 10,803 -
(d) Meghalaya 11,667 -
THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER (e) Sikkim 7,300 -
(f) West Bengal 12,585 -
The Brahmaputra is a major international river 4. Bangladesh 47,000 337
covering a drainage basin of 580,000 km2, extending from
82°E to 97° 50' E longitudes and 25° 10' to 31° 30' N latitudes. THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER – ITS GEOLOGICAL AND
Its basin spans over an area of 293,000 km2 (50.51%) in Tibet GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SETTINGS
(China), 45,000 km2 (7.75%) in Bhutan, 194,413 km2 (33.52%)
in India and 47,000 km2 (8.1%) in Bangladesh. Its basin in The Brahmaputra valley in Assam is underlain by
India is shared by Arunachal Pradesh (41.88%), Assam recent alluvium approximately 200-300 m thick, consisting of
(36.33%), Nagaland (5.57%), Meghalaya (6.10%), Sikkim clay, silt, sand, and pebbles (Geological Survey of India,
(3.75%) and West Bengal (6.47%) (Goswami, 1985). 1974). The valley is developed over the fore deep in between
Originating in a great glacier mass at an altitude of 5,300 m the peninsular mass and the Tethyan geosynclines. The fore
just south of the lake Konggyu Tso in the Kailas range, deep is characterized by some complicated tectonic features
about 63 km southeast of Mansarovar lake in southern Tibet, representing a series of faults and thrusts and extending in
the Brahmaputra flows through China (Tibet), India and the NE-SW direction from the eastern margin of the
24
Meghalaya plateau across the North Cachar Hills to Tirap maximum flood events for the period 1955-2000 do not indicate
District of Arunachal Pradesh. These thrusts are originated any perceptible trend (Goswami, 1998).
at the time of the late Himalayan-Patkai-Naga Hills orogeny
and pushed the tertiary deposits into folds and faults. The THE STUDY AREA
fore deep is believed to be under the sea till the sub-recent
period received deposits during all the periods of the tertiary Considering the river flows, the confluence of river
and quaternary ages. The tertiary deposits consist mainly of tributaries, and for convenience in computing the segments,
sandstones, shale, grit, conglomerate and lime stones. the study area has been divided into thirteen blocks from
chainage 17.34 km( Cross section-2) at Dhubri to 640 km(Cross
Towards the close of the Pleistocene period, section 65) at Kobo. The reach length in between five cross
alluvium began to be deposited in the form of sand, pebbles sections is considered as one block (Figure-1).
and gravels especially along the northern foothills of the
Brahmaputra valley. These valley deposits of reddish brown
sandy clay with some pockets of unasserted pebble, cobble,
sand and silt have been identified as older alluvium. The
tertiary beds of the valley are overlain by a thick layer of
newer alluvium composed of sand, silt and clay, which are
being brought down from the rising Himalayas in the north,
the Patkai Naga ranges in the east and south-east and the
Meghalaya plateau in the south by numerous tributaries of
the Brahmaputra. The characteristic geological and tectonic
framework coupled with structural complexities has rendered
the Brahmaputra basin geo-morphologically a most
complicated one. A variety of landform under varied climatic Fig 1 Blocks in the Entire Reach
conditions has formed over the geologic and tectonic base
of the region. The peri-glacial, glacio-fluvial, and fluvial TOPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
processes are dominantly operative in the basin at varying
altitudes. The analysis of the plan form changes of the
Brahmaputra river has been carried out from the IRS LISS-III
The higher elevations of the Himalayas experience digital satellite data comprising of 32 scenes for the years
peri-glacial and glacio-fluvial erosion and deposition. The 1990, 1997, 2000 and 2002. Since a braided channel is
bare relief of the sub-Himalayas and greater Himalayas suffer characterised by (i) channel segments (anabranches),(ii)
from immense sheet erosion owing to peri-glacial solifluction. nodes where segments branch or join, and (iii) islands
The low hill ranges with hot and humid climate and heavy enclosed by segments, their network can be studied by
rainfall concentrated to a few months of the year experience using Topological theory as suggested by Howard et al (1970)
solifluction, sheet erosion and landslides. and Orme and Krumbein(1972). Accordingly, the following
topological parameters for various blocks have been
Fluvial processes are, on the other hand, measured for different years from the satellite images. Figure-
significantly dominant on the valley bottoms and plains 2 shows a typical sketch of the block -3 (1990) of the different
where alluvial deposition takes place due to erosion of the parameters.
higher surface by rivers and flooding in the valleys. The
erosional and depositional processes conspicuously t = 86
intensified by copious rainfall and frequent seismic c = 75
movements, however, play a dominant role in creating various e = 11
fluvio--geomorphic environments in the basin. n = 52
i = 28
The Brahmaputra river is characterized by high p=9
intensity flood which flows during the monsoon season,
June through September, with an average annual flood Fig 2 Typical Sketch of Block 3 (1990)
discharge of 48,160 m3/sec. The highest flood discharge
recorded in the Brahmaputra at Pandu (Assam) was of the t, total number of segments, including segments lying
order of 72,148 m3/sec (in year 1962), which had a recurrence entirely within the block and those bisected by the lines
interval of 100 years (WAPCOS, 1993). The daily hydrograph bounding the block,
of the river at Pandu exhibits drastic fluctuations in discharge e, total number of bisected segments,
during the monsoon season, whereas the time series of annual c, total number of entire segments,
25
i, total number of unbisected islands, trend is marked in block 5. In contrary, block 4, 7, 9
p, total number of islands bisected by the bounding lines, and 12 showed increase in their values. The indices
n, total number of nodes. α β and γ are characterised by approximately
similar decrease in values in blocks 5, 9 and 11.
In addition, topological indices α ,β and
(ii) Comparison of trends for the different years indicates
γ describing the degree of connection between the nodes
that t, c, n and i values increased in the upstream
on a graph have been calculated. These are defined as follows- direction for from block 2 for the years 1990, 1997,
2000 and 2002 and this trend is gradual for the year
t − (n + e) + 1 2002. Probably, the trend has been decelerated after
Alpha (α ) Index =
2( n + e) − 5 the construction of the Narnarayan Bridge at
Pancharatna, at cross section 9, which is pronounced
t for these blocks. Similar trend has been observed at
Beta ( β ) Index =
n+e block 8, which may be due to the Kalia Bhomara Bridge
t near Tezpur.
Gamma (γ ) Index =
3( n + e − 2 ) (iii) It is noted that, the decrease in values in block 13 of
t, c, n and i for the years 1990, 2000 and 2002 showed
The alpha index is the ratio of the observed number the intensity of non-braiding tendency. The braiding
of islands to the greatest possible number of islands for a intensity is high in blocks 4, 7, 9 and 12, indicating
given number of nodes. The higher the alpha index, the more that the island formations are more in these reaches.
a network is connected. Simple networks will have a value of
0. A value of 1 indicates a completely connected network. (iv) The study of α, β and γ indices over the entire
stretch revealed that their values in blocks 2 and 4
Beta (β) Index measures the level of connectivity are very low as compared to the other blocks.
and is expressed by the relationship between the number of
links (t) over the number of nodes (n). More complex networks An increase in the values of the parameters and
have a value greater than 1. In a network with a fixed number indices discussed above, suggests an increase in intensity
of nodes, the higher the number of segments, the higher the of braiding and decrease in their values indicates a tendency
number of channels possible in the river network. Complex towards non-braiding. Another reason for low values of these
networks have a high value of Beta. indices in blocks 5, 8 and 9 may be attributed due to the
existence of the hills on the sides of the river, thereby
The gamma (γ) index is the ratio of the observed restricting the flow and constraining of the formation of more
number of channel segments to the greatest possible number channels.
of segments for a given number of nodes (Berge, 1962) and
Garrison and Marble, 1962). The value of gamma is between The average values and indices for the entire stretch
0 and 1 where a value of 1 indicates a completely connected are found to be 0.222, 1.401 and 0.487 for the year 2000 and
network and would be extremely unlikely in reality. 0.215, 1.390 and 0.482 for 1990 respectively. The years 1990,
1997 and 2002 show less channelization of the plan form as
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS compared to the year 2000.
Variations of different topological parameters are THRESHOLDS OF THE INDICES
depicted in Table-2 and indices with time in different blocks
are shown in Figure -3 to Figure -5. The indices are plotted The parameters discussed above wield a profound
on simple arithmetic paper. The study showed that the degree influence on the intensity of braiding. Thus, after a critical
of braiding of individual reaches fluctuates in the short-term
due to morphological response to the magnitude and analysis of the trends of the variation of α, β and γ
duration of monsoon runoff events. The following interesting indices in the entire reach of the river Brahmaputra, the
observations can be made from these figures and table. following thresholds are identified to provide a classification
of the braiding phenomena as well as to make them useful
(i) For all the years, variables t, c, i, e and n show distinct for practical applications subsequently.
decrease in values in block 5, 10 and 11. The lowest
26
Indices Alpha Index ( α ) Beta index ( β ) Gamma Index ( γ )
Less Braided < 0.15 < 1.25 < 0.44
Moderately Braided 0.15 – 0.20 1.25 - 1.38 0.44 - 0.47
Highly Braided 0.20-0.25 1.38 -1.46 0.47 - 0.5 0
Very Highly Braided > 0.25 > 1.46 > 0.50
Table 2 Values of t, c, e, n and i parameters
Values of parameters in the years
Blocks 1990 1997 2000 2002
t c e n i t c e n i t c e n i t c e n i
1 61 52 9 35 19 45 37 8 27 14 62 53 9 32 22 35 27 8 22 9
2 54 42 12 30 14 70 58 12 43 21 52 40 12 30 15 53 43 10 30 14
3 86 75 11 52 28 87 73 14 51 25 108 94 14 64 36 55 44 11 31 15
4 116 106 10 64 44 115 106 9 70 38 144 134 10 84 53 103 94 9 61 36
5 22 14 8 12 5 40 33 7 23 12 24 18 6 14 6 25 19 6 14 6
6 82 73 9 46 28 102 93 9 64 32 57 47 10 33 16 61 53 8 35 20
7 105 95 10 59 36 115 105 10 69 37 59 51 8 33 19 123 113 10 72 41
8 54 46 8 31 18 107 98 9 63 36 57 52 5 34 21 93 82 11 56 28
9 77 70 7 50 32 125 116 9 82 43 84 79 5 52 30 104 94 10 62 34
10 80 70 10 47 27 76 67 9 44 26 63 54 9 36 20 72 65 7 43 25
11 70 59 11 41 20 68 57 11 37 22 76 63 13 42 24 60 50 10 33 18
12 134 123 11 79 45 169 157 12 106 59 154 139 15 96 55 132 119 13 75 48
13 86 72 14 51 24 222 204 18 130 75 123 111 12 71 41 144 130 14 86 45
27
0.300
0.250
0.200
α
0.150
0.100
0.050
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Block
1990 1997 2000 2002
Fig 3 Variation of alpha index in different blocks
1.600
1.500
1.400
1.300
β
1.200
1.100
1.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1990 1997 2000 Block

2002
Fig 4 Variation of Beta index in different blocks
0.560
0.540
0.520
0.500
0.480
γ
0.460
0.440
0.420
0.400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Block
1990 1997 2000 2002
Fig 5 Variation of Gamma index in different blocks
28
CONCLUSIONS 3. Brice, J.C. (1960). Index for Description of Channel
Braiding. Bulletin of the Geological Society of
In conclusion, the present study has indicated the America, 71, (1833).
promising use of the topological indices in being able to
4. Coleman, J.M, (1969). Brahmaputra river: Channel
predict channel change, at least qualitatively. The braiding Process and sedimentation, Sedimentary Geology, Vol-
in the river Brahmaputra is mainly due to high energy fluvial 3.
environments, large and variable discharges, dominant bed
load transport and non cohesive banks lacking stabilization 5. Ferguson, R.I (1981). Channel Form and Channel
by vegetation. It seems that the portions of the river (blocks Changes. In ‘British Rivers’ by Lewin, J. (Editor), Allen
4, 6 and 10 to 12) are the locus of the maximum sedimentation and Unwin, London, pp.90-125.
zones, where as the portions comprising blocks 2 and 5 are 6. Garrison, R I, (1977). Meander Migration: Equilibrium
marked as the low sedimentation rates. As the Brahmaputra and change in river Channel changes, in river channel
illustrates; of vital importance to the usefulness of the study changes edited by Gregory, K.J John Wiley and sons,
is an empirically derived indices of braiding, which can take New York.
into account constraints on plan form change. These indices
7. Geological Survey of India publication, (1974) Bulletin
truly modulate the effect of plan form changes on channel Series B
migration and exert significant effect on river morphology. It
is also important to consider complicating factors such as 8. Goswami, D.C., (1985). Brahmaputra River, Assam,
islands and multi-channel flow, which may be important for India : Physiography, Basin Denudation, and Channel
the Brahmaputra river. Aggradation, Water Resources Research, 21, (959-
978).
SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDY 9. Goswami, D.C., (1998). Fluvial regime and Flood
Hydrology of the Brahmaputra River Assam. In: Kale
The paper has illustrated the application of V. S. (ed.) Flood studies in India, Geol. Soc. India,
topological indices for study of spatio-temporal changes in Memoir 41, (53-75).
the planform of the river Brahmaputra. For planning suitable
measures for the river Brahmaputra, one has to keep in mind 10. Gupta, N.C., Prakash, B and Singhal B.B.S.,
the essential stochasticity involved in the behaviour of the Topological changes with time in the plan form of the
river. However, what is needed now is a complete quantitative Kosi river in north Bihar and Nepal, Proceedings of
International Workshop on Alluvial River Problems,
assessment of channel change along the Brahmaputra in Roorkee, 1980.
terms of the appropriate input parameters, which can be
extracted from GIS technique. Only, a plan for control of 11. Hickin, E.J and Nansen,G.C.(1975). The character of
braiding cannot, therefore, be a rigid one but has to be flexible channel migration on the Britten river. North east
based on the projection of the past in near future and British Columbia, Canada, Bulletin of Geological
experimentation through neuromorphic model studies in Society, America, Vol.86.
consultation with ground truth verification, to evolve a 12. Howard, A.D., Keeth, M.E. and Vincent, L.C.
suitable medium and long term measures for planning and (1970).Topological and Geometrical Properties of
management. Braided Streams. Water Resources Research, 6, (1674-
1688).
REFERENCES
13. Krumbein, W. C. and Orme, A.R. (1972). Field Mapping
1. Anderson, A.G, (1967). On the development of stream and Computer Simulation of Braided Stream Networks.
meanders. Proceedings of 12th Congress of IAHR, Fort Bulletin of Geological Society of America, Vol 83.
Collins. 14. Morphology study of the Brahmaputra river , WAPCOS,
2. Berge, J.C. (1962). Theory of graphs and its (1993).
applications, John Wiley, New York.
29
RUNOFF PRODUCTION ON HILL SLOPES UNDER

DIFFERENT LAND USES
K.K. Satapathy R.K. Panda

Principal Scientist, Professor
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Indian Institute of Technology
Umaim, Meghalaya Khargpur
ABSTRACT
The rainfall runoff relationship varies with many factors of which land use practices and conservation
measures are most important. Nine micro watershed with areas varying from 0.52 ha to 3.8 ha were instrumented
in the experimental farm of ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) located at Barapani in Mehgalaya
to study the effect of land use patterns on hill slope runoff - the principal erosive agent. Considering the
potentialities of land uses in the hilly region of North East India, the farming sytems studies were: live stock
based farming sytem, timber plantations, agro forestry, agriculture on bench terraces, agri-horti-silvi-pastoral
system, horticulture, natural vegetation, shifting cultivation and pine afforestation. Bench terraces, contour
trenches, contour bunds, half moon terraces were the major soil conservation measures. Surface runoff from the
undisturbed billy watersheds was very small. Large intense rainfall events with high antecedent moisture content
in soils generated most of the runoff from the undisturbed and treated watersheds. As expected. the watershed
treated with shifting cultivation yielded the highest peak runoff, while the one left undisturbed with natural
vegetation yielded the minimum runoff. Mixed land use systems with appropriate soil conservation measures,
namely bench terraces, contour trenches etc. were most effective in checking erosion and retaining 90-100% of
annual rainfall in situ. The runoff data indicated that even after best land, water and crop management practices,
on an average 17.48-28.98 mm went out as runoff annually from agricultural and agri-horti-silvipastoral
watersheds, which can be stored either for fishery or for supplemental irrigation in the donor waershed. Soil
erosions from well-managed watersheds were negligible. The storm runoff data were utilised to derive unit
hydrographs for ungauged watersheds. The average 30-minute unit hydrograph for all the watersheds were
derived and compared using selected storms. The conservation factor was evolved to accommodate the combined
effect of conservation measures, land use as well as human or animal interferences. The study also quantified the
major hydrologic parameters of water harvesting tanks in the lower reaches of the hill slopes using a water
balance approach. the subsurface flow (inter flow) from the upper slopes contibuted for 82.90% of annual inflow
into the tanks. A graphical solution has been proposed to estimate the availability of water for water harvesting
projects on hilly watersheds.
KEY WORDS : Runoff, Unit hydrograph, Watershed, Land use, Hilly region, Conservation measures, Farming
systems, Shifting cultivation.
INTRODUCTION scale models compatible with hydrology of hill slopes should

help minimize the unproductive approaches. Many studies
One of the accepted methods of controlling soil have been directed correlating yearly runoff with rainfall using
erosion is to arrest its movement at its origin. In order to parameters defined in terms ofland use, soils and topography.
prepare a comprehensive erosion control programme, one These studies have resulted in prediction equations that are
should quantify the erosion agent (mostly runoff) that any useful for simulating watershed behaviour for different
watershed is being subjected to and also its behavioural combination of these parameters and estimating water yield.
changes. The rainfall- runoff relationship varies with many For a few micro watersheds, there exist stream-gauging
factors of which land use practices and conservation records of sufficient length to make an accurate assessment
measures are most important. The complexity of hill slope of their water yield characteristics. Such studies in the North
hydrology has long been recognised. There are large number Eastern region are, however, rare owing to the remoteness of
of process formulations that have been devised to facilitate the area and inadequate documentation as well as
the prediction of runoff rates. Development of watershed unavailability of required data base. The present study aims
30
at evaluating the effect of watershed based mixed land use farming system (W1), timber plantation (W2), agro- forestry
system along with soil conservation measures on runoff yield (W3), agriculture in bench terrace (W 4), agri- horti-
in hilly micro watersheds. The study also quantified the major silvipastoral system (W 5), horticulture (W 6), natural
hydrological parameters ofthe water harvesting tanks in the vegetation (W7), shifting cultivation (W8), natural vegetation
lower reaches of hill slopes. along with pine plantation (AEW). Bench terraces, contour
trenches, contour bunds, half moon terraces were the major
DATA AND METHODOLOGY soil conservation measures. Details of the experimental
watersheds under various farming systems are presented in
The site of the current study was at the ICAR Table 1.
Research complex for North Eastern Hills Region situated at
Barapani in the state of Meghalaya. Barapani is located Hydrological gauging stations were installed at the
between 25° 41', N latitude and between 91° 54',and 91° 63', E outlet of all the experimental watersheds. The gauging
longitude and is 22 Kms away from Shillong (Meghalaya). stations consisted of F type water stage level recorders, H
The area is a part of East Khasi hills and comprises of rolling flumes of appropriate sizes, Coshocton wheels with related
terrains and steep slopes interspersed with valleys and structures and so on. The stage level recorder ensured
plateaus. The area consisted of typical hilly undulating continuous measurement of discharge rates with the help of
terrain with the altitude varying between 952 and 1082 meters discharge rating for the H flume size. The depth and volume
above mean sea level. The soil belonging to typical paleaudalf of runoff computed by this process included surface flow as
series with clay loam texture has pH ranging from 5.4 to 6.2. well as base flow; the surface flow and base flow component
Nine micro watersheds with areas ranging from 0.52 ha to 3.8 of total flow was computed daily as well as for every storm.
ha were identified to determine the effect ofland use systems A water harvesting tank constructed in the lower reaches of
on runoff yield. The average slope of the experimental hill slopes was used to investigate the hydrological
watersheds varied from 32.02 to 53.18 percent. Considering behaviour for development of norms of general
the potentialities of land uses in the hilly regions of North applicability.
East India, the farming systems studied were: live stock based
Table 1 Details of experimental watersheds under various land use systems
Experimental watersheds under details
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 AEW
Fores Agri Agri- Agri Pine
Land use Agriculture try (fuel, Agro- culture horti- Horti Natural Culture plantation
(fodder) fodder) forestry (food silvi- culture vegetation (shifting & natural
crops) pastoral) cultivation) vegetation
Total area (ha) 1.39 3.80 2.94 0.64 1.58 3.13 1.03 0.52 3.54
Watershed 99.00 100.00 100.00 82.00 89.00 138.00 91.00 65.00 120.00
relief (m)
Average slope 32.00 38.00 33.00 32.18 32.42 41.77 53.18 54.87 32.37
(%)
Maximum length 301.00 320.00 295.00 240.00 260.00 515.00 250.00 185.00 464.00
(m)
Maximum 65.00 230.00 175.00 65.00 85.00 85.00 70.00 48.00 126.00
width (m)
Drainage Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good
Soil Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay
Texture Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam
Land Capability Vile Vile Vile Vile Vile Vile Vile Vile Vile
class
Conservation 61.33 75.80 70.81 57.34 62.91 73.62 80.00 36.73 80.00
factor
31
CONSERVATION FACTOR A1 (NL1 + NC1 + NH a 1 ) + .........+ An ( NLn + NC n + NH an )
C= (1)
A1 + ..................... + An
The effects of conservation measures, land use as where,
well as h uman or animal interference have been A1, .......... An = area under various land uses in ha
accommodated in conservation factor evolved by Singh NL1, .......NLn = number assigned to various land use
(1987) for calculating watershed runoff. Leaving rainfall as a (Table -2)
separate factor, land use, soil conservation measures and NC1........NCn = numbers assigned to different conservation
human or animal activities are the major factors that govern measures
the amount of runoff and soil loss from slope. The combined NHa1........NHan = numbers assigned to various human and
effect of these factors has been termed as conservation factor animal activities
(C). The factor has been modified by assigning priority
numbers 5 to 50 for major land uses and soil conservation The conservation factor of various watershed
measures in order of risk involved for soil erosion: the computed by using the above formula has been presented
numbers have been arrived through trial and error after it in Table-1.
tallied with the order of effectiveness of land uses in the
area. The conservation factor (C) for the mixed land use
systems are computed by
Table 2 Numerical values assigned to various items of conservation factor
Land use Assumed Conservation Assumed Human/Animal Assumed numerical

number measure numerical activity value
value
Agriculture/shifting cultivation 20 No measure 10 Intensive 5
Horti culture/silvi 30 Contour 20 Moderate 10

pasture/plantation bund/contour
bench
Forest/natural vegetation 50 Bench terrace 30 Negligible 20
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION caused considerable variation in storm flow. Most of the
time precipitation was too small or too infrequent to generate
Land use and Surface Runoff storm flow. The runoff data indicate that even after best land
and crop management practices, on an average 17.47-28.98
Hydrological behaviour of watersheds for a nine mm went out as runoff annually from agricultural and agri
year period in terms of total water yield, base flow and peak horti- silvipastoral watersheds which can be stored either
rate of flow have been presented in Table 3. Surface runoff for fishery or for supplemental irrigation in the donor
from the undisturbed hilly watersheds and those with watersheds. The contributions to stream flow in the
substantial vegetative cover were very small. Large intense watersheds having substantial area under natural forest is
rainfall events with high antecedent moisture content in soils primarily by subsurface flow (base flow). Three of the nine
generated most of the runoff from the undisturbed and treated watersheds, with relatively large areas, namely, W2 (3.8 ha),
watersheds. Mixed land use systems with appropriate soil W3 (2.94 ha), AEW (3.59 ha) and substantial area under forest
conservation measures, namely, bench terraces, contour had continuous base flow which appeared on the upper
trenches etc. were most effective in retaining 90-100% annual reaches of the gauging stations. These watersheds on an
rainfall in situ and simulated the effects of natural forests. average had continuous flow for 156, 116 and 190 days
This lower percentage of water yield can be attributed to the respectively in a year. The annual base flow from these
high infiltration rates maintained by crop and forest canopy watersheds constitutes about eighty percent of the total
as well as conservation measures. Land use and conservation water yield. As expected, the watershed (W8) treated with
practices varied, however, in their effectiveness for jhum (shifting cultivation) yielded highest peak runoff (86.10
controlling surfacerunotf. The mean water yield recorded mm/hr) while the one left undisturbed with natural vegetation
from the watersheds varied from 0.43% to 16.78% of annual (W7) gave the minimum peak runoff (4.49 mm/hr) during the
rainfall. Surface runoff from silvipastoral system and mixed period. However, the provision of trenches in fodder based
block forest plantation with no physical soil conservation agriculture most effectively conserved moisture and
measures was 15 -16 % of the total water yield. Rainfall produced peak runoff 7.81mm/hr during the period.
amount, intensity, duration and frequency of occurrence
32
Table 3 Annual water yield, base flow and peak flow from different watersheds
Watershed Annual water Mean water Mean water yield Baseflow range Mean baseflow Maximum
yield range (mm) yield (mm) as % of annual (mm) as % of mean peak flow
rainfall water yield (mm/hr)
W1 0-66.69 9.56 0.37 - - 7.81
W2 67.42-1013.88 371.90 4.73 55.04-774.02 83.11 13.54
W3 39.31-648.26 241.14 9.55 34.65-542.77 85.20 12.87
W4 0.60 - 62.49 12.47 0.69 - - 20.71
W5 0.24-121.91 28.98 1.14 - - 12.07
W6 6.41-556.55 108.06 4.28 - - 11.40
W7 0-51.39 11.77 0.46 - - 4.49
W8 0-517.72 102.94 4.07 - - 86.10
AEW 257.61- 696.78 27.60 232.50- 85.50 9.40
1311.11 1071.82
Rainfall-Runoff Relations displays moderate degree of correlation, the models

(equations) can be used as first approximation of storm runoff
The values of the small annual runoff from the in the watersheds. Unlike physically based models, the
experimental watersheds shown above is misleading relative equations require minimum input, but are applicable only to
to the potential, since much of the runoff are resulted from a the watersheds from which they have been developed.
small number of large intensity rainfall with high antecedent However, when these empirical models are tailored to specific
soil moisture content. Loague (1985) found that of all models, watershed conditions, results may be comparable to those
simple linear regression model is marginally better in from more complex models. Rainfall runoff data for the storms
predicting runoff depth from small upland catchments than producing maximum runoff coefficient also has been
other models. presented in Table 4.
The regression models are of from:
Q D = a 1 PD + a (2)
where,
PD = total rainfall depth (cm)
QD = total runoff depth (cm)
a1, a2 are the equation parameters
The rainfall runoff records of some selected storms

from the study watersheds were subjected to regression
analysis using a regression package (Table 4). The storms
with antecedent rainfall of more than 5.25 cm were selected
for the study. .
The relations are more or less similar to the annual

runoff trend except for the W2 watershed where some of the
storms produced high runoff following the clearing of the
area for plantation. These regression equations were
developed from the selected storm events during first 9 years.
The equations were tested using the storm events of 10th yr
for five watersheds W1,W2, W6, and AEW, where sufficient Fig 1 Relationship between predicted and observed storm runoff
number of data sets were available. The comparison of
observed and predicted runoff values (Fig. 1), though
33
Table 4 Rainfall-runoff relations and maximum runoff coefficients of different watersheds
Watershed Relationship Maximum runoff coefficient
W1 R= 0.04p -.06(r=.63, n=20) 0.09
W2 R= 0.1 6p -.24(r=.64, n=40) 0.41

W3 R=.014p-.27(r=60, n=37) 0.34
W4 R=0.12p-.21(r=.81,n=18) 0.12
W5 R=0.07p-.14(r=.65, n=37) 0.15
W5 R=0.15p-.31(r=.66,n=39) 0.21
W7 R= O.OSp -.74 (r=80, n=10) 0.08
W8 R=0.46p-.74(r=.77, n=21) 0.53
AEW R=0.01p-.19(r=63, n=47) 0.16
P = storms railfall depth (cm) R = Direct surface runoff, cm. r=correlation coefficient, and n = no. of storm events
used for developing equation.
Modelling land use effect on runoff
The unit hydrograph model attempts to establish a

relationship between the effective rainfall of a storm and the
resulting direct runoff hydrograph for a given drainage basin
without directly involving the losses of rainfall in the model.
Standard unit hydrograph shapes are of special concern to
accurately evaluate the hydrologic response of the direct
runoff. Furthermore, in the hilly areas where storm water
detention must be provided to control the effects of land
use conversion, the accuracy of the shape of the hydrograph
is an important determinant of the value of required storage.
The average 30-minute unit hydro graph from selected storms
were prepared following standard procedures. The observed
direct runoff hydrograph and those computed by using
derived unit hydrographs of experimental watersheds along
with the corresponding rainfall data of some selected storms
were compared as have been presented in Fig. 2.
Fig 2 Observed and derived direct surface runoff
It can be seen that predicted hydrographs are very
close to the observed ones. It indicates that from small hilly It can be seen that predicted hydrographs are very
watersheds having varying hydrological characters, unit close to the observed ones. It indicates that from small hilly
hydrographs could be used as the basis for generating runoff watersheds having varying hydrological characters, unit
hydrographs could be used as the basis for generating runoff
from an effective rainstorm event. Unit hydrograph synthesis
from an effective rainstorm event. Unit hydrograph synthesis
for the ungauged basins is based on empirical expressions,
for the ungauged basins is based on empirical expressions,
which relate pertinent physical characteristics of the
which relate pertinent physical characteristics of the
watershed to the geometric aspect of the unit graph. The watershed to the geometric aspect of the unit graph. The
unit hydro graph parameters derived for each of the nine unit hydro graph parameters derived for each of the nine
watersheds were subjected to multiple regression analysis watersheds were subjected to multiple regression analysis
to yield best regression equation. The definition sketch and to yield best regression equation. The definition sketch and
derived unit graph (30 - minute) parameters- Qp (peak runoff derived unit graph (30 - minute) parameters- Qp (peak runoff
rate), Tp (time to peak), Tb ( time base). T50 (time to 50% peak rate), Tp (time to peak), Tb ( time base). T50 (time to 50% peak
discharge), D50 (unit hydro graph width at 50% peak discharge), D50 (unit hydro graph width at 50% peak
discharge) have been presented in Fig 3 and Table 5. discharge) have been presented in Fig 3 and Table 5.
34
Fig 3 Unit hydrograph parameters; definition sketch
Table 5 Unit hydrograph parameters of various watersheds
Watershed Qp Tp Tb T50 D50

(cumec) (hr) (hr) (hr) (hr)
W1 0.0379 0.58 3.8 0.350 0.750

W2 0.1081 0.70 6.0 0.400 0.675
W3 0.0847 0.67 5.0 0.400 0.725
W4 0.0142 0.52 3.6 0.325 0.825
W5 0.0430 0.58 4.5 0.375 0.750
W6 0.0933 0.60 5.0 0.350 0.675
W7 0.0252 0.50 3.8 0.300 0.750
W8 0.0183 6.40 2.5 0.250 0.700
AEW 0.8370 0.70 5.8 0.400 0.775
35
The regression equation of the parameters, namely, The unit hydro graph shape reflects many
Qp, T p, T 50 , D50 (Fig. 3) in terms of watershed area, combinations of watershed characteristics. According to the
conservation factor, average slope obtained with multiple above equations, watersheds with large area should have
correction analysis using the log transformed values are as greater peak flow, time base and time to peak. It is the most
follows: dominant factor influencing the peak flow from the
watersheds. Generally larger area, milder slope and larger
−0.787 conservation factor, increase the magnitude of time
QP = .156 A1.22 S 0.392 C (3)
parameters; where as steeper slopes, lower conservation
(n = 9, r = .997) factors decrease the magnitude of time parameters and
increased the peak. As can be seen from Equation 7, with the
TP = .696 A0.128 S −0.360 C 0.252 (4) increase in area, the hydrograph becomes narrower at the
upper portion with sharp peak, indicating steep sloppy
(n = 9, r = .99) terrains having low channel storage. From the data tp/tr (tr =
unit graph duration) ratio ranged from 0.8 to 1.7. However,
TP = 1.49 A.0.227 S −0.212 C 0.411 (5) the ratio is generally increased with increase in drainage
(n = 9, r = .98) area, decrease in average slope and increase in conservation
factor. The data analysis performed in this study for the nine
watersheds indicate that the values from the topographic
T50 = .55 A.0.094 S .−0.401 C 0.225 (6) data closely agree with those from the hydrologic data. This
(n = 9, r = .98) suggests that the procedure outlined here for deriving unit
hydro graph from the topographic and land use data is a
very reasonable method. The hydrologic effects of land cover
D50 = .64 A − 0.121 S −0.251 C 0.263 (7) conversion from forested to agricultural land use are of
(n = 9, r = .93) special concern to those involved in hydrologic analysis.
The concept of conservation factor is unique of its kind,
where, though there exist factors, which are akin to conservation
QP = peak discharge (m3/sec) factors but are not exactly the same. The models containing
TP = time to peak discharge (hr) this conservation factor are statistically significant and can
Tb = time base of unit graph (hr) generate data, which are very close to the observed values.
T50 = time of 50% peak discharge (hr)
D50 = Unit graph width at time T (hr) Hydrological Water Balance of Water harvesting Tank
A = area of the watershed (hectare)
S = average slope ofthe watershed (percent) A water balance analysis was conducted for the
C = conservation factor. water-harvesting tank located at the lower reaches of the
watersheds to calculate inflows through rainfall and runoff
These equations would help to determine the and losses through over flow, seepage and evaporation.
parameters necessary for sketching unit graphs of micro Inflow outflow analysis, considering all components shown
watersheds in the area. in Fig. 4 was employed.
Fig 4 Schematic representation of pond inflows and outflows
36
The tank as a system with inputs, output and loss could be of the rainfall which vertically infiltrates into the soil in the
represented as : up slopes and while moving downstream areas is, forced to
come to surface after reaching saturated zone which normally
I = 0 ± S + S L + EL (8)
occurs in the lower reaches near the valley. The data
where, presented in Table 6 demonstrated the importance of
I = inflow into the pond subsurface flow in production of runoff on hill slopes. In the
0 = out flow from the pond upper slope segment, soils do not get saturated even after a
S = change in storage capacity substantial amount of cumulative rainfall, while lower down
SL = surface loss relatively small amount of rainfall was enough to produce
EL = evaporation loss saturation to soil. Digging trenches on hill slope profile can
also trap the interflow. In the three adjacent experimental
The water balance of the tank for the first eight
micro watersheds (W2, W3, AEW) the base flow emerged
years was worked out and presented in Table 6.
above the gauging station resulting continuous stream flow
The table reveals that during the period, the direct
of 116 -190 days annually. Unlike surface runoff, the amount
rain contributed 0.17 ha-m to 1.19 ham annually to the pond
of the base flow is somewhat consistent and varies with the
storage constituting 4.13 to 13.57% of the total annual inflow
annual rainfall. Comparison, therefore, could be drawn to
into the pond. From the well managed watersheds which
relate the base flow of the watersheds and the interflow into
constituted the catchment areas of the tanks, inflow due to
the pond. A single regression of the annual base flow
runoff ranged between 0.35 - 6.47 % ofthe total inflow. Inter
(W2,W3, AEW watersheds) in term of annual rainfall yielded
flow from the watersheds through the pond bed and sides
the following equation.
were the major contributor to the pond inflows. The annual
I= 0.846 R3.815 (9)
inter flow constituted 81.61-89.72% of the annual pond
(r =0.69)
inflows. The results are in agreement with that obtained in
other studies conducted on hill slopes in different in places Where,
(Whipkey, 1965; Tusu naboto etal, 1988). According to these I = annual base flow ( cm)
studies, top layer of the forest soil is very permeable due to R = annual rainfall (meter)
the presence of root holes, and other structural channels,
and the bottom layer is relatively impermeable. Rainwater The above equation was used to compute the inter
infiltrates vertically into the top layer, and after reaching the flow into pond during first eight years using its catchment
impeding layer, it moves laterally towards the stream. The area of 11.10 ha. The simulated and observed inter flow is
present study also proves that the subsurface flow (inter presented in Fig 5. In well-managed hilly watersheds, the
flow) as the main mechanism by which stream flow is capacity of the water harvesting structures can be estimated
produced in hills. Most of the pipes are maintained by on the basis of interflow. With the above relation (Eqn.9) it
frequent flow of water and passage of insects and small would be possible to estimate the inter flow into the pond at
animals. a certain probability level of annual rainfall. A any desired
level of probability, runoff volume can be obtained as the
Inter Flow and Sizing of Farm Pond product of runoff depth and catchment size, using the above
equation. In general, the capacity of the tanks increases as
In deep and well drained soils, inter flow is that part
Table 6 Water balance of water harvesting tank

Year Rainfal 1 Direct Surface flow Total Evaporation Seepage Over Inter Inter flow
(mm) rain (ham) inflow (ham) (ham) flow flow as percentage
(ham) (ham) (ham) (ham) of total in flow
1. 2194.6 0.557 0.029 4.25 0.112 4.11 3.64 85.65
2. 2233.7 0.420 0.045 3.50 0.116 3.37 3.04 86.86

3. 2309.1 0.345 0.050 3.82 0.048 2.20 1.06 3.42 89.53
4. 2705.8 0.674 0.029 7.30 0.127 3.56 3.03 6.55 89.53
5. 3323.8 1.190 0.636 11.34 0.192 4.78 5.92 9.52 83.95

6. 2770.1 0.782 0.371 5.71 0.160 3.69 0.84 4.66 81.61
7. 1982.7 0.117 0.048 1.26 0.040 0.90 1.10 87.35
8. 2737.1 0.910 0.770 11.68 0.146 3.52 6.99 1.00 85.63
37
the probability level of assured interflov decreases. Further to the extent of 70-90% of its total water yield. The highest
the volume of available water per unit tank capacity increases base flow was obtained in the pine afforested undisturbed
as the probability level increase for various sizes of tank watershed, which constituted on an average 23.5% of annual
(Fig. 6) presents a monogram, which gives the direct rainfall. Five-unit hydro graph parameters have been
relationship between catchments size, and runoff volume. identified which defined satisfactorily the hydro graph shape
This graphical form could be used to estimate availability of of hilly micro watersheds with different land uses and
runoff for water harvesting project in small hilly watersheds conservation measures. Regression equations of these
if annual rainfall records are available. parameters in terms of watershed factors have shown very
high correlation, which can be used for synthesis of unit
graphs for un gauged areas. The conservation factor seems
to be very effective in predicting unit hydro graph parameters.
Experiences on water harvesting in dugout- cum-
embankment type of pond in hilly region in North East India
clearly indicate the feasibility of harvesting runoff from
watersheds up to an extent of 38% of monsoon rainfall.
Contribution of subsurface flow from upper slopes accounts
for 82-90% of the annual inflow into the water-harvesting
pond located in the lower reaches and only 10-18% comes
from direct interception of rainfall and collection of surface
Fig 5 Observed and computed interflow of water harvesting tank
runoff. The soil in the area has extremely low water holding
capacity and the seepage losses are very high. Thus water
storage may be seasonal or perennial depending on the site
condition. The study indicated the decline of seepage rate
with age of the pond and stabilizes in a period of7 - 8 years.
The annual interflow into the pond can be predicted by the
availability of runoff for water harvesting in small hilly
watersheds. Partial emptying of the farm pond is possible to
irrigate crops during dry spells in monsoon and stored water
has more scope for fish production. Limited water available
for irrigating winter crops should be used at the earliest
opportunity to reduce seepage and evaporation losses.
REFERENCES
interflow, ham 1. Loague, K.M. and Freeze, A. (1985). A comparison of

rainfall runoff modelling techniques on small upland
Fig 6 Catchment area and interflow at different
probability levels.
catchments. Water resources research, 21 (2), 229 -248.
2. Prasad, R.N., Singh, A and Verma, A. (1986). Problems
CONCLUSIONS of hill land and their management in North Eastern India.
Indian Journal of Soil Conservation 14 (3), 66-72
As expected, the hilly watershed treated with
shifting cultivation yielded the highest peak runof (86.10mm/ 3. Singh, A. and Singh, MD. (1981). Soil erosion hazard in
hr), while the one left undisturbed with natural vegetation North Eastern Hill Region. Research Bulletin No. 10.
ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region,
gave the minimum peak runoff (4.49 mm/hr) However,
Shillong, India
provision of trenches in fodder based agriculture most
effectively conserved moisture and produced; peak runoff 4. Singh, A. (1987). Studies on some aspects of soil and
of 7.81 mm/hr. Maximum peak flow rate did not differ in mixed water in relation to resource management in North
Eastern Hills region. Ph.D. thesis, Bidhan Chandra
block forest, silvi-pastoral system an agri- horti-silvi-pastoral
Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
system sh owing the effectiveness of suitable soil
conservation and appropriate land USI systems on hill 5. Singh, K.P. (1976). Unit hydrograph for design flood
slopes. Simple (linear) regression model relating rainfall and hydro graphs. Water Resources Bulletin 26 (6), 901-911.
runoff showed acceptable predictivi power in simulating 6. Tusu Kumoto, Y., Ohta T. (1988). Runoff processes on a
storm runoff. The contributions to stream flow in the steep forested slope. J Hydrol 2, 165-178.
watersheds having substantial area un de natural forest is 7. Whipkey, Q.Z. (1965). Susurface storm flow from forested
primarily bv subsurface flow. The watersheds having slopes. IASH Bulletin 10, 74- 85.
continuous stream flow characteristic generated base flow
38
CORRELATION BETWEEN PAN EVAPORATION AND METEOROLOGICAL

PARAMETERS UNDER THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF JORHAT (ASSAM)
D. Jhajharia S. B. Kithan A. K. Fancon
Lecturer Ex-students; Ex-students;
Department of Agricultural Engineering
North Eastern Regional Institute of Sci. & Tech.,
Nirjuli-791109, Arunachal Pradesh (India)
ABSTRACT
The influence of various meteorological parameters on the pan evaporation has been examined under the
climatic conditions of Jorhat, Assam. The monthly meteorological data were collected from Tocklai Tea Research
Station, Jorhat from 1970 to 1998. The four regression methods namely linear, exponential, power and logarithmic
have been used to correlate the pan evaporation with the meteorological parameters at Jorhat, Assam. The stepwise
regression method was used to observe the combined effect of various meteorological parameters on pan evaporation.
The wind speed, the sunshine duration and the temperature were found to have significant positive influence on
the evaporation. But, the relative humidity has no significant influence on evaporation. It is observed that the
evaporation is found to be mainly influenced by the combined effect of the wind speed and the maximum air
temperature at Jorhat. The developed regression model for predicting the pan evaporation under climatic conditions
of Jorhat is E pan = 3.094 × Tmax + 1.168 × WS − 59 .124 . The predicted values obtained from the developed
evaporation model of Jorhat matched closely with the observed pan evaporation values.
Keywords: Correlation, Pan Evaporation, Meteorological parameters, Jorhat, Assam.
INTRODUCTION the predicted evaporation obtained from the developed re-

gression model for Jorhat, Assam. The pan evaporation (Epan)
Evaporation is one of the major processes in the is related to the evapotranspiration (ET) by the pan coeffi-
hydrological cycle. Evaporation takes place from all wet cient (Kp). The same relationship is used to obtain Epan from
bodies of vegetation and land surfaces including water from the above four ET models with the help of a suitable value of
lakes, ponds, reservoir, oceans and rivers. The process of pan coefficient.
evaporation is influenced by air temperature, relative humid-
ity, wind speed and bright sunshine hours. Several research- MATERIALS AND METHODS
ers (Singh et al. 1981; Khan, 1992; Singh et al., 1992; Khanikar Study Area
& Nath, 1998; Xu & Singh, 1998; Shrivastava et al., 2000;
Hordofa et al., 2004 and Jhajharia et al., 2005) studied the Tocklai Tea Research Station (latitude: 26°47′ N; lon-
influence of meteorological parameters in different parts of gitude: 94°12′ E and altitude: 96.5 m above msl.) is situated in
the world and conclusions were drawn depending on the Jorhat, Assam. Assam (area: 78,438 km²) is surrounded by the
effect of the various meteorological factors on evaporation. rest of the Seven Sister States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. Assam also
The dependence of pan evaporation rate on meteo- shares international borders with Bhutan and Bangladesh.
rological parameters has not yet been investigated at Jorhat. With the Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate, Assam is a
In the present study, the influence of meteorological param- temperate region and experiences heavy rainfall and high
eters on pan evaporation has been examined at Jorhat, Assam. humidity. The monthly data were collected from 1970 to 1998.
Four different regression methods i.e. linear, exponential, The mean monthly rainfall varied from 11.2 mm (December) to
power and logarithmic have been used to correlate pan evapo- 381.2 mm (July). The mean monthly maximum temperature
0 0
ration with the meteorological parameters. The regression varied from 22.3 C (January) to 32.2 C (July), whereas the
0 0
analysis was also performed to observe the combined effect minimum temperature varied from 9.4 C (January) to 24.6 C
of all the meteorological parameters on pan evaporation. The (July). The monthly pan evaporation and sunshine hours
observed pan evaporation and the estimated evaporation varied from 37.3 mm (December) to 118.1 mm (May) and 4.5
using Penman Monteith FAO-56, revised Blaney Criddle, hours (June) to 6.7 hours (March), respectively.
Thornthwaite and Christiansen models were compared with
39
Correlation between Evaporation and Meteorological Param- (Doorenboss & Pruitt, 1977), Thornthwaite (1948) and
eters Christiansen (1968) models were selected for the comparison
between the estimated pan evaporation and the observed
To establish the relationship between pan evapora- evaporation at Jorhat. The pan evaporation (Epan) is related to
tion and other meteorological parameters, the method of re- the evapotranspiration (ET) by the pan coefficient (Kp). The
gression as suggested by Mendenhall and Sincich (1989) is
adopted. The individual regression equations are obtained relationship, which is given as ET = K p × E pan , is used to
from linear, logarithmic, power and exponential methods. In obtain Epan from the above four ET models. The evapotrans-
each case, the significance of the leading coefficients (as the piration is a climatic parameter expressing the evaporating
leading coefficients dominate the relation) is tested using t- power of the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the
test. Here, the null hypothesis is b1 = 0 and the alternate year. The pan evaporation responds in almost similar fashion
hypothesis is b1 # 0. The t-value is given by t = b1/s1 where b1 to the same climatic factors affecting the evapotranspiration.
is the leading coefficient of the particular regression equa-
tion, and s1 is the standard error of estimation of that particu- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
lar coefficient. For a negative t-value, the coefficient is sig-
The results of the study on the correlation between
nificant if t <- tx/2, whereas for a positive value, the coefficient
pan evaporation and meteorological parameters under the
is significant if t > tx/2. Here tx/2 is the table value of t and x is
climatic conditions of Jorhat are as follows:
the level of significance. If x is the level of significance then
(1-x) × 100 is the level of confidence. In the present paper, x = It is evident from table 1.0 that out of the eight pa-
0.05 for all the tests. If t-value is significant for more than one rameters, parameters viz; WS (wind speed), Tmax (maximum
regression model, the overall utility of the model has been temperature), Tmin (minimum temperature), Tmean (mean tem-
tested using the analysis of variance (F-test) as, perature) and SH (sunshine hours) have significant influ-
R2 / k R 2 ( n − k − 1) ence on pan evaporation. However, relative humidity has non-
F= = (1) significant influence on evaporation. For the individual rela-
(1 − R 2 ) /[n − ( k + 1)] (1 − R 2 )k
tionship of SH with pan evaporation, the best method is the
logarithmic method. For the individual relationships of Tmin,
Where R2, is the coefficient of determination of Tmax and Tmean, the best method is the power method. For the
model; k, number of coefficients in the regression equation individual relationships of WS, the best method is found to
excluding the intercept; n – (k+1), degree of freedom; and n is be linear. Air temperature, sunshine duration and wind speed
the total number of values (n =12 for monthly basis). If lead- were found to have significant positive influence on evapo-
ing coefficient is significant for more than one model, model ration at Jorhat, Assam i.e. evaporation increases with the
having higher F value (which implies higher confidence level) increase in wind speed. It also holds true that evaporation is
is taken as the best model provided F value is greater than fx, directly related to air temperature i.e. evaporation increases
k, (n-k-1) (the table value of f at x level with numerator degree as the air temperature increases.
of freedom k and denominator degree of freedom n-k-1). In
general, reliability of any regression model is observed from Combined Effect of Meteorological Parameters on Evapora-
the R2 value. Adding higher degree term or more parameters tion
always improves the R2 value but this may lead to some insig-
nificant coefficients and/or low utility value (F value). The In order to observe the combined effect of all the
significance of coefficient and F value were considered to meteorological parameters on evaporation, a multiple linear
select the best model. regression model was developed. The multiple regression
analysis was carried out using stepwise method at signifi-
In order to observe the combined effect, a multiple cant level of 5%. The meteorological data from 1970 to 1997
linear regression model was developed. The stepwise regres- were used for the multiple regression analysis and the data of
sion method was used for the multiple regression analysis by 1998 were used for the validation purpose. The developed
taking pan evaporation as dependent variable and other me- regression model of evaporation (R2 = 0.984) for Jorhat, Assam
teorological parameters as independent variables
(Mendenhall and Sincich, 1989). The meteorological data from is E pan = 3.094 × Tmax + 1.168 × WS − 59.124 , where Tmax is
1970 to 1997 were used for the multiple regression analysis the maximum temperature and WS is wind speed. The meteo-
and the data of 1998 were used for the validation purpose. rological data of 1998 were fitted into the developed regres-
The meteorological data of 1998 were fitted into the devel- sion model to obtain the predicted pan evaporation values.
oped regression model to obtain the predicted pan evapora- The comparison between the observed and the predicated
tion values. The linear curve was also fitted between the values of pan evaporation is given in Fig. 1.0. The linear
observed and predicted evaporation values. The Penman equation (correlation coefficient 0.9) obtained during the vali-
Monteith FAO-56 (Allen et al., 1998), revised Blaney Criddle dation is Y = 3.00 + 0.90 × X ; where, Y is the evapora-
40
tion obtained from the developed regression model and X is 2. Blaney, H. F. and Criddle, W. D. (1962). Evaporation
the observed pan evaporation. The average percentage error from free water surface at high Altitudes, Trans. ASCE,
between the observed pan evaporation and the predicted 123: 243-265.
pan evaporation is found to be 7 percent at Jorhat. 3. Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt W.O. (1977). Guidelines for
predicting crop water requirement”, Revised 1997. FAO
The monthly observed pan evaporation, the esti- Irrig. Drain. Paper No. 24, FAO, Rome, Italy, 193 pp.
mated evaporation and the predicted evaporation (using de-
veloped model for Jorhat) values are given in Fig. 2.0. The 4. Hordofa, T., Sharma, A., Singh, R. and Dashora, P. K.
evaporation values were obtained from Penman Monteith (2004). Influence of meteorological variables on
FAO-56, revised Blaney Criddle, Thornthwaite and monthly pan evaporation under sub-humid climatic
conditions of Ethopia, Ind. J. Soil Cons. 32(1), 1-4.
Christiansen models by using the relationship between evapo-
transpiration, pan coefficient and pan evaporation. It is ob- 5. Jhajharia, D., Fancon, A. K. and Kithan S. B. (2005).
served that the developed regression model’s values matched Relationship between USWB Class A pan evaporation
closely with the observed pan evaporation and the estimated and meteorological parameters under humid climatic
evaporation values obtained from Penman Monteith FAO-56 conditions of Umiam, Meghalaya, In: Proc. of
and revised Blaney Criddle models. The Christiansen and International Conference on Recent advances in Water
Thornthwaite models overestimated the evaporation. Thus, Resources Development and Management, Nov. 23-25,
the developed regression model can be used to predict the 2005, IIT Roorkee, Allied Pubs. Pvt., 71-83.
evaporation in the absence of pan evaporimeters for the other 6. Khan, M.A. (1992). Evaporation of water from free water
parts of northeast India having similar climate as that of Jorhat, surface, Ind. J. Soil Cons. 20(1/2), 22-27.
Assam.
7. Khanikar, P.G. and Nath, K.K. (1998). Relationship of
CONCLUSIONS open pan evaporation rate with some important
meteorological parameters, Agricultural Sci. Soc.
Effect of air temperature, relative humidity, sunshine North-East India. 11(1), 46-50.
duration and wind speed was studied on evaporation at Jorhat. 8. Mendenhall, W and Sincich, T. (1989), Statistics for
The important conclusions of this study are as follows: Engineering and Computer Science, McMillan (2nd
1) The wind speed, the sunshine duration and the air tem- edition), London.
perature were found to have positive influence on evapo-
9. Shrivastava, S.K., Misra, S.K., Sahu, A.K. and Bose, D.
ration. However, no significant influence was observed
(2000). Correlation between pan evaporation and
in case of relative humidity. climatic parameters for Sunderbans–A case study. IE
2) The pan evaporation was found to be mainly influenced (I) Journal. AG81, 55-58.
by the combined effect of the maximum temperature and
the wind speed. The developed pan evaporation model 10. Singh, R., Bishnoi, O.P. and Niwas, R. (1992).
for the climatic conditions of Jorhat is given Relationship between evaporation from US Class A open
pan evaporimeter and meteorological parameters at
as E pan = 3.094 × Tmax + 1.168 × WS − 59 .124 . Hisar, Haryana Agricultural University J. Res., 22(2),
3) The developed regression model’s evaporation values 97-98.
matched very closely with the observed pan evaporation 11. Singh, R.V., Chauhan, H.S. and Ali, A.B. (1981). Pan
values at Jorhat, Assam. evaporation as related to meteorological parameters,
J. Agricultural Engg. 18, 48-53.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
12. Thornthwaite, C. W. (1948). An approach toward a
Authors are grateful to the Tocklai Tea Research rational classification of climate, The Geographical
Station, Jorhat for providing the meteorological data. Review. 38(1), 55-94.
13. Xu, C.Y. and Singh, V.P., (1998). Dependence of
REFERENCES evaporation on meteorological variables at different
time-scales and intercomparision of estimation methods,
1. Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. (1998). Hydrol. Processes. 12, 429-442.
Crop evapotranspiration. Guidelines for computing crop
water requirements, Irrig. Drain. Paper No. 56, FAO,
Rome, Italy, pp.300.
41
Christiansen Blanney Criddle Thornthwaite
110.0 220
Observed Regression Model FAO-56
100.0 200
180
90.0
160
80.0
Evaporation (mm)
Predicted
140
70.0
120
60.0 100
50.0 80
60
40.0
40
30.0
20
30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Observed
Month No.
Fig 1 Comparison between Observed (mm) Fig 2 Monthly Estimated, Observed

and Predicted Evaporation (mm) and Predicted Evaporation at Jorhat
Table 1 Correlation between Pan Evoporation and Meteorological Parameters at Jorhat
Meteorological Coefficients
Methods R2 F value S. E.
Parameters b0 b1
Linear 0.90 92.3F* 8.57 6.69 1.7 (9.60) S*
Wind (WS) Logarithmic 0.89 86.76 8.82 -133.27 57.6 (9.30) S*
Power 0.89 87.12 0.14 2.57 0.90 (9.30) S*
Exponential 0.87 72.23 0.15 24.04 0.02 (8.50) S*
Linear 0.39 6.32 21.47 185.45 -19.15 (-2.51) S*
Sunshine hours Logarithmic 0.42 7.1F* 20.98 274.43 -114.47 (-2.66) S*
(SH) Power 0.37 5.91 0.34 1397.28 -1.71 (-2.42) S*
Exponential 0.35 5.31 0.35 367.34 -0.28 (-2.30) S*
Linear 0.73 27.23 14.22 -1.97 3.97 (5.22) S*
Minimum
Logarithmic 0.75 29.48 13.8 -125.10 68.52 (5.40) S*
Temperature
Power 0.78 34.7F* 0.21 2.760 1.10 (5.89) S*
(Tmin)
Exponential 0.75 29.53 0.22 20.39 0.64 (5.44) S*
Linear 0.78 35.36 12.88 -111.87 6.62 (5.95) S*
Maximum
Logarithmic 0.78 35.99 12.79 -520.41 178.63 (6.0) S*
temperature
Power 0.81 42.1F* 0.19 0.01 2.88 (6.49) S*
(Tmax)
Exponential 0.80 39.71 0.19 3.48 0.11 (6.30) S*
Linear 0.75 30.55 13.62 -44.48 5.01 (5.53) S*
Mean Temperature
Logarithmic 0.76 32.08 13.37 -277.38 111.77 (5.66) S*
(Tmean)
Power 0.79 37.1F* 0.20 0.240 1.80 (6.09) S*
Exponential 0.77 33.40 0.21 10.320 0.08 (5.78) S*
Linear 0.285 3.99 23.19 -47.64 1.78 (2.0) N*
Minimum Relative
Humidity Logarithmic 0.257 3.45 23.65 -395.43 111.32 (1.86) N*
(RHmin) Power 0.248 3.30 0.37 0.04 1.73 (1.82) N*
Exponential 0.27 3.84 0.36 10.28 0.02 (1.96) N*
Linear 0.070 0.77 26.43 390.24 -3.54 (-0.89) N*
Maximum
Logarithmic 0.070 0.76 26.44 1472.14 -311.22 (-0.89) N*
Relative Humidity
Power 0.070 0.75 0.42 2.7E+11 -4.91 (-0.87) N*
(RHmax)
Exponential 0.07 0.76 0.42 10047.0 -0.05 (-0.87) N*
Mean Relative Linear 0.160 1.90 25.17 -103.56 2.25 (1.40) N*
Humidity Logarithmic 0.150 1.70 25.35 -654.35 166.85 (1.3) N*
(RHmean) Power 0.140 1.63 0.40 0 .01 2.59 (1.28) N*
Exponential 0.150 1.80 0.40 4.30 0.03 (1.33) N*
S. E. is standard error, N* → non-significant, S*→ Significant, F* → the highest value of F

amongst all the regression method, which are significant. Parenthesis denotes t- test values.
42
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IV. Contents recordes
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Journal Article :
Rao, S. S., 1979. Flood Control Regulation of Reservoirs. Journal of Indian Water Resources Society, 1 1(2), 19-26.
Chapter in Book or Paper in a Proceedings :

Singhal, S. P. and Kasliwal, R. (1991). Calibration of Conceptual Catchment Models , in Applied Water Resources
Planning, P. V. Narasimha (Editor). Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. New Delhi.
References to unpublished work should not be listed. Papers approved for publication can be listed. In doubt, see recent
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Registered with the Registrar New Paper of India, under Registration of Books Act. 1867 No. 61811/95
INDIAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

PAST PRESIDENTS
Sri R, Ghosh, Former Chairman, CWC New Delhi, 1980-82, 1990-92
Sri Pritam Singh, Former Chairman, CWC New Delhi, 1982-84
Sri J. F. Mistry, Former Secretary, Gujarat Irrigation Department, 1984-86
Dr. Mahesh Varma, Former Professor, WRDTC, UOR, Roorkee, 1986-88
Dr. M. A. Chitale, Former Secretary, MOWR, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1988-90
Sri A. B. Joshi, Former Chairman, CWC New Delhi, 1993-95
Dr. M. S. Reddy, Former Secretary, MOWR, Govt.of India, New Delhi, 1995-97, 1997-99
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J. Indian Water Resour. Soc. Vol. 26 No. 1-2, Jan.

Volume 26 Number 1-2 January-April, 2006

JOURNAL OF INDIAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

Continued on Inside Back Cover

Indian Water Resources Society

Volume 26 Number 1-2 January-April, 2006

1. Effect of Wash Load on Field Performance of Geotextile 1-6

2. Flow Past Tapered Submerged Vanes 7-13

3. Crop Coefficient Models of Wheat and Maize for Irrigation 14-15

4. Effect of Converging Boundary on Radial Flow Through 16-23

5 Topological Insides for Study of Spatio-Temporal Changes in 24 -29

6. Runoff Production on Hill Slopes Under Different Land Uses 30-38

EFFECT OF WASH LOAD ON FIELD PERFORMANCE OF

INTRODUCTION The amount of soil passing through the geotextile filter

Table 1 Characteristics of Core Soil

III SC 1.87 12.9 5.0x 10-6-6

IV CL 1.84 13.8 8.0x 10-7-7

V CL 1.85 13.4 8.8x 10-7 0.20 9.2 0.12 5.5

VI CL 1.83 13.6 9.4x 10-7 0.28 6.6 0.20 4.5

VIII CL ML 1.76 15.4 5.2x 10-5 0.10 16.5 0.06 12.5

IX CL-ML 1.75 15.5 6.0 x 10-5 0.13 17.2 0.09 13.0

Table 2 Characteristics of Geotextile Filter

A 100% 380.0 184.5 2.52 8.45 67.5 48.9 2 1 .5 46.8

Slandard 275.0 ± 190 ±

Table 3 Reduction in permeability of geotextile filter

I 2785.0 2048.0 563.86 380.0 97.87 91.81 36.67

II 2550.0 2021.6 519.06 380.0 97.51 91.52 37.50

III 2099.4 1868.4 561.80 380.0 96.98 90.59 36.24

IV 2347.2 1886.2 501.88 380.0 97.25 90.95 37.09

V 3197.8 2170.0 571.28 380.0 98.03 92.40 38.71

VI 2357.4 1901.4 508.52 380.0 97.40 91.05 37.35

Table 4 Slurry deposited over geotextile filter by flood water

I 2405.0 1668.0 183.86 6.329 4.389 0.484

II 2170.0 1641.6 139.06 5.711 4.32 0.366

III 1719.4 1488.4 181.80 5.051 3.917 0.478

IV 1967.2 1506.2 121.88 5.177 3.964 0.321

V 2817.8 1790.0 191.28 7.415 4.711 0.503

VI 1977.4 1521.4 128.52 5.204 4.004 0.338

Fig 2 Effect of slurry depositon and interlocking of outer layer soil

FLOW PAST TAPERED SUBMERGED VANES

INTRODUCTION tapering the leading edge of the submerged vanes is to deflect

MOM A = ( mass )( R ×V ) (1) Total MOM = ∑ i =1

In Table 3, MOM ad different grid points has been presented.

O C = 0.9 H k (3) For the constant values of α, ρw, g, t, vane shape

Here same fluid has been considered i.e. µ is constant.

MOM A plot of taper angle and MOM* has been shown

Table 1 Dimensions of trapezoidal vane

3H:2.5V 14.4 21.6 18

Table 2 Experimental Programme

Fig 2 Trapezoidal vane Fig 4 Definition sketch for velocity

Streamwise velocity (Vx), cm/s

( along grid 6-39)

Fig 5 (a) Fig 5 (b)

Fig 6 Effect of taper anle on MOM*

Table 3. Moment of momentum at different nodes

CROP COEFFICIENT MODELS OF WHEAT AND MAIZE FOR IRRIGATION

INTRODUCTION The experimental area is located at 25.980 N latitude, 85.670 E

Evapotranspiration of wheat and maize crops showed an CONCLUSIONS

EFFECT OF CONVERGING BOUNDARY ON RADIAL FLOW THROUGH

N. Bhanu Prakasham Reddy G.N. Pradeep Kumar P. Rama Mohan Rao

µV C wV 2 Comparison of Eq. (8) with Forchheimer Eq. (2)

The following symbols are used in this paper :

A = Cross sectional area;

S. E. is standard error, N* → non-significant, S→ Significant, F → the highest value of F