DERIVATION OF WIND ACTIONS ON

STRUCTURES

Presented on Young Civil Engineers Forum (YCEF)

By

Omotoriogun Victor. F (B.Eng., GMICE)

 Learning Outcomes
• At the end of this session, you should be able to :

• Apply Eurocode 1: 1991-1-4: Wind Actions and the U.K National Annex to
evaluate wind actions on roofs.

• Apply Eurocode 1: 1991-1-4: Wind Actions and the U.K National Annex to
Assess building frames for wind actions.

1
 Synopsis
• Introduction

• BS EN 1992-1-1-4: Wind Actions on Structures

• Steps for Assessing Wind Load on Buildings

• Worked Example - Ware-house Building

• Worked Example - High- rise Building

2
 Introduction
▪ Wind can be defined as a flowing mass of air. Buildings and other structures are
obstacles that deflect or obstruct the wind.
▪ Wind load result from forces exerted by a moving mass of air, in the form of
kinetic energy which is consequently converted to potential energy or pressure.
▪ Wind effect on buildings an be classified as either
▪ Static: use of equivalent static forces for ordinary buildings with conventional
structural system.
▪ Dynamic: dynamic response of super-tall and slender structures.
▪ Wind Tunnelling

3
 Eurocode 1 Part 1-4: Wind Actions
Eurocode 1 on wind loads, published in 2005 (British Standards Institution, 2005), is
a European Standard (EN) intended for use in most European countries. The version
in each Member State includes the 'National Annex,' which refers only to that
specific country. EN 1991-1-4 represents many years of research by members from
several European Union countries and two independent committees, and is the
closest document to a genuinely multi-national wind-loading standard that exists
today.
This code refers to buildings and other structures up to 200 m in height and to
bridges with spans less than 200 m.

4
 Eurocode 1 Part 1-4: Wind Actions

• To apply wind loads on buildings

using the Eurocode, you have to
become familiar with this two
document.

• BS EN 1991-1-4:2005
• Eurocode 1: Actions on
Structures, Part 1-4: General
Actions: Wind Actions

• N.A to BS EN 1991-1-4: 2010

• U.K National Annex

5
• STEP 1

6
 Starting Point
vb,o = Fundamental value of basic wind velocity

• Is the 10-minute wind velocity

---- at 10m above the ground
----of a flat terrain
----with probability of exceedance of 1/10 over a period of 50
years.

Where:
• It value is given in the National Annex as:
• Vb,map = map values of fundamental
wind velocity
𝑣𝑏,𝑜 = 𝑣𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑝 × 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡
• calt = Altitude factor
7
Map Values of wind Velocity-Nigeria

8
 calt= Altitude Factor
• Depends on
✓ Altitude of the site above mean sea level, A (m)
✓The reference height of the structure zs (m). Its value is defined in BS EN
1991-1-4: 2005.

1 + 0.001 ∙ 𝐴 ; 𝑧𝑠 ≤ 10𝑚
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡 =ቐ 10 0.2
1 + 0.001 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ ; 𝑧𝑠 > 10𝑚
𝑧𝑠

✓The first expression i.e. for zs=10m is conservative and can be used for all
cases:

9
 zs= Reference Height
(BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Figure 6.1)

• Zmin depends on the terrain category For buildings zs =0.6h

as defined in Table 4.1 of BS EN 1991-1-14 Where: h=height of the building. 10
• STEP 2

11
 vb= Basic Wind Velocity

• It is possible to reduce the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity to

obtain the base wind velocity, by taking into account:
• Wind Direction, c,dir : Accounts for the wind direction. It values is defined in Table NA.1 in
the National Annex Eurocode 1-1-4. It value may be conservatively
taken as 1.0
• Season c,season: Used for only temporary structures. It values are defined in table
NA.2 in Clause NA. 2.7 of the UK National Annex. For permanent
structures, it value is taken as 1.0

𝑣𝑏 =𝑣𝑏,𝑜 ∙ 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡

12
 Basic Wind Pressure
• The dynamic pressure is given as the kinetic energy per unit volume of the flowing
air. It value is defined as:
1
𝑞𝑏 = 𝜌 ∙ 𝑣𝑏2
2

- Where ρ= density of air. It recommended value is 1.226kg/m2 in the National Annex

This is just a “nominal” value of the wind pressure. It assumes a uniform laminar flow
of air. It doesn’t necessarily account for the effect of wind turbulence or variation of
pressure with height. To account for this, we must determine the Peak Wind Pressure

13
• STEP 3

14
 Peak Wind Pressure
• To account for the effect of wind turbulence and variation of pressure
with height. The base pressure can be transformed into the “peak” value
qp(z) by applying factors that account for
• The site’s proximity to the coast
• How far the site is located from the boundary of a town (if applicable)
• Influence of orography (if applicable)

• Before the peak wind velocity can be determine, the terrain category
must be known. This is classified in the National Annex into:
• Sea
• Open Country
• Town

15
Peak Wind Pressure- Cont’d

• The figure shown, shows the shape of the

velocity profile of buildings
• The shape of the velocity profile changes with
width/ height as a result the peak wind
pressure also changes
• Clause 7.2.2 of BS EN 1991-1-4 requires that:
• A building whose height h, is less than b
should be considered to be one part as
shown in the figure
• A building whose height is greater than b
but less than 2b should be considered in
two parts as shown in the figure
• A building whose height is greater than 2b
should be considered in multiple parts as
shown in the figure
16
 Peak Wind Pressure Cont’d
• Where influence of orography is insignificant. The peak wind pressure is
calculated by applying two coefficients:
• “exposure coeffient” ce(z): Account for site’s proximity to shoreline
• “Exposure modifier” ce,(T): Account for sites within town
• For sites located in a country terrain ce,(T) =1
• Both factors depend on the average height of the surrounding structures. This is
usually determine through the displacement height hdis

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) 𝑐𝑒(𝑇) 𝑞𝑏

17
 hdis = Displacement Height
• This quantity is required to account for the reduction in the wind velocity due to
the presence of closely spaced buildings or presence of other obstructions. In the
National Annex it is defined as:

𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.6ℎ, 0.8ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

൞ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.6ℎ, 1.2ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 0.2𝑥 , 2ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
0, 𝑥 ≥ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

• Where data about the surrounding buildings is not known, it is appropriate to assume a value
of 3m in a Town terrain. If the building is in the country side, it value may be taken as 0

18
 ce(z)-Exposure Coefficient

N:B
z= the height at
which the peak wind
pressure is being
sought

The values of ce(z)

are read by
interpolating
between the
contour of the
chart given as
Figure N.A 7 in the
National Annex
19
 ce(T)- Exposure Coefficient
N:B
z= the height at
which the peak
wind pressure is
being sought

The values of ce(T)

are read by
interpolating
between the
contour of the
chart given as
Figure N.A 7 in the
National Annex
20
 Is Orography Significant ?

The orography factor account

for increase in the peak wind
pressure and needs to be
considered only if the structure
falls within one of the
shadowed areas on the figure.

𝑞𝑝 𝑧 =𝑐𝑒 𝑧 𝑐𝑒 𝑇 𝑐𝑜 (𝑧 + 0.6 /1.6)2 ∙ 𝑞𝑏

The value of co is determined using the detailed procedure given in A3 of BS-

EN-1991-1-1-4
21
 Is Orography Significant ? & z > 50m

• Where orography is significant and the building height exceed 50m. The effect of
mean speed wind velocity and turbulence must be considered.
• The peak wind pressure is given as:

𝑘𝐼,𝑇 2
2
𝑞𝑝 𝑧 = (1 + 3𝐼𝑣 𝑧 ,𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 ∙𝑐 0.613 ∙ 𝑣𝑚 For sites in Town terrain
𝑜 𝑧

1 2
2
𝑞𝑝 𝑧 = (1 + 3𝐼𝑣 𝑧 ,𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 ∙ 0.613 ∙ 𝑣𝑚 For sites in Country terrain
𝑐𝑜 𝑧

• Where vm = mean speed wind velocity defined as:

𝑉𝑚 (z)=𝑐𝑟 𝑧 ∙ 𝑐𝑟,𝑇 ∙ 𝑐𝑜 (𝑧)𝑣𝑏 For sites in Town terrain

𝑉𝑚 (z)=𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) ∙ 𝑐𝑜 (𝑧) ∙ 𝑣𝑏 For sites in Country terrain 22

 Is Orography Significant ? & z > 50m Cont’d
• Up to four charts (Figs NA.3 to NA.6) are required to calculate qp(z)
Cr(z)
IV,flat(z)

Cr,T(z)
kI,T(z)

23
 Flow Charts For Wind Calculation
Sites in country Sites in Town

24
• STEP 4

25
 Coefficients of Wind Action
• Once the peak wind pressure has been determined, the wind pressure from it
can be determine.

• The wind action varies depending on the part of the structure been assessed for
the wind loading. The following coefficients are used to determine the
magnitude of wind loads on sections of a building. They are reliant on what part
is been assessed for the wind loads.
• External Pressure Coefficients
• Internal Pressure Coefficients
• Lack of Correlation Factor
• Structural Factor
• Net Pressure Coefficient 26
 External Pressure Coefficients
• The external pressure coefficients are of two forms cpe,1 and cpe,10
• Cpe,1 applies to discrete portion of the structure. (Areas < 1m2)
• Cpe,10 applies to larger portion of the structure. (Areas > 10m2)
• For intermediate situations i.e. (1<Area<10m2) logarithmic interpolation is suggested.

𝐶𝑃𝑒 = 𝐶𝑃𝑒,1 − 𝐶𝑃𝑒,1 −𝐶𝑃𝑒,10 ∙ log 𝐴

• Table NA.4 in the UK Annex provides the values of these pressure coefficients.
These are based on zones within vertical walls of a building that are defined in
Figure 7.5 of Eurocode 1-1-4.
• NA.6 –NA.8 provides external coefficients for roofs in line with figures 7.6 -7.9 of
BS EN 1991-1-4. 27
 External Pressure Coefficients/ Example

windward leeward
Side Walls

𝑏
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ቊ
2ℎ

The zones for a typical rectangular building with flat roof

is shown: External pressure coefficient may be obtained
by interpolating from table using h/d ratios. 28
 Internal Pressure Coefficients
• The internal pressure coefficient Cpi depends on the openings within the walls of
the structure assessed for wind loads. Clause 7.2.9 of Eurocode 1-1-4 gives
guidance on how to determine it value.
• If there are openings within the envelope within the opposite sides of the building that are
greater than 30% of each surface area, the building must be treated like a canopy in
accordance with clauses 7.3 & 7.4 of BS EN 1991-1-4
• For structures with a dominant openings. The value of the internal pressure is taken as a
proportion of the external pressure. The term ‘dominant’ is defined as one face of a building
having a single large opening
• Cpi= 0.75Cpe (if the dominant face are twice that of all other opening in the structure)
• Cpi = 0.9Cpe (if the dominant face are three times that of all other opening s in the structure)
• Where dominant face are not present in the structure figure 7.13 is combined with NA.9 to
determine it value
• If there is a lack of certainty regarding the openings within the structure, it value may be
taken as either +0.2 or -0.3. Whichever gives the onerous result 29
 Lack of Correlation Coefficient
• Eurocode 1-1-4 clause 7.2.2(3) Accounts for the lack of correlation between the
wind pressures of walls exposed to windward and leeward winds
• It depends on the slenderness of the buildings and only relatively stocky buildings
receive the full benefit, most slender buildings do not benefit at all.
• This factor only applies to walls that are within the windward (zone D) and
leeward (E) wind areas and not those within the prevailing wind areas

• Linear interpolation may be carried out,

provided the value of h/d falls within
the range

30
 Structural Factor
• The final coefficients applied is the structural factor. This can be determined using
clause 6.2 (1) in Eurocode 1-1-4 or clause NA 2.20 in the National Annex.
• In the National Annex, the structural factor is divided into size cs and dynamic
coefficients cd.
• The structural factor accounts for the effects of:
• Non simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on the surface Cs
• The vibration of the structure due to wind turbulence

• Table NA.3 and Figure NA.9 are used to derive the value of cs and cd
• Where the height of the structure is less than 15m. The value of cscd may be
conservatively taken equal to 1.0

31
Structural Factor –Size Factor

• The size factors are

determined on the basis of the
zone in which the structure
falls when estimating the
exposure coefficient in figures
NA.7 & NA.8

• Linear interpolation within the

table is permitted.

32
Structural Factor –Dynamic Factor
• The dynamic factors are determined from
figures NA.9.
• It value depends on the structural damping
δs, of the structure under consideration.
• Values of the structural damping for typical
classes of structures are given in Annex F3 of
BS EN 1991-1-14:2005.

Typical values of δs for buildings

33
Net Pressure Coefficient
• Clause NA 2.27 allows for the
generation of overall wind loads
by applying the net pressure
coefficients instead of summing
the pressures on the windward
and leeward zones.

• The net pressure coefficient

replaces the external and internal
pressure coefficients.

34
 Wind Forces
• Haven determined the coefficients, the wind pressure is calculated by applying
the factors to the peak velocity pressure qp(z)
• The wind pressure acting on any segment of the building is given as:

𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) ∙ 𝐶𝑝𝑒 −𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑠∙ 𝑐𝑑

• The overall wind load on the building is given as:

𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) ∙ 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∙ 𝑐𝑠∙ 𝑐𝑑

• The lack of correlation coefficient may be applied to zone D and E or when determining the
overall wind load on the building if the conditions for it application are satisfied.
• Partial factors must be applied to the wind loads. Wind loads are treated as imposed loading
within the Eurocode.
35
 Structural Analysis
• The structural analysis aspect depends on the chosen lateral stability system for
resisting the wind loads.
• Steel bracing and shear walls
are alternative methods that
can be adopted to ensure lateral
stability of a building structure
under design wind loads

• The wind load can be converted

𝐹𝑘 = 𝑤𝑘 ∙ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 from pressure to point loads by
multiplying by a reference area

• This point loads can then be

Aref = is the reference area i.e. ( apportioned to levels as shown
Area of the zone as defined in the figure.
earlier)
• For roofs, the wind loads are
treated in similar fashion to
imposed loading. 36
• Worked
Example 1

37
 A 25m x 50 x 10m, 14.5m at heaves
warehouse is to be constructed 20km
outside the city of Lagos and 40 km
from the shoreline. Determine the
wind actions on all faces including roof
of this building assuming the influence
of orography is insignificant.

Take site’s Altitude = 105 m above MSL

According to the National Annex, The terrain of this site can be classified as
________?
38
• Step 1- Fundamental Velocity Vb,o

𝑣𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑝 = 40𝑚/𝑠

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 1 + 0.001𝐴
=1+0.001(105)=1.105

40m/s

𝑣𝑏,𝑜 = 𝑣𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑝 × 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡

= 40 × 1.105 =
44.2𝑚/𝑠

𝒗𝒃,𝒐 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝒎/𝒔

39
• Step 2
• Basic Wind Velocity Vb • The directional factor has been taken
equal to 1.0.
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏,0 ∙ 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙ 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 • The seasonal factor as also been
ignored since the structure is deemed
= 44.2 × 1 = 44.2𝑚/𝑠
to be a permanent structure

𝒗𝒃 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝒎/𝒔

• Basic Wind pressure qb

1
𝑞𝑏 = 𝜌 ∙ 𝑣𝑏2
2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 = 1.226

1
𝑞𝑝 = × 1.226 × 44.22 = 1.198𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2

𝒒𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
40
• Step 3
• Peak Wind Pressure qb

• The building is considered to be one

part because h<b (14.5<50m)
• Since the effect of orography is not
significant, the simplified approach can
be used to determine the peak velocity
pressure. 14.5
• Site is located in a Open Country Terrain
Therefore ce,(T) =1 & hdis = 0

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) 𝑐𝑒(𝑇) 𝑞𝑏 ce,(Z) = 2.6

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = 2.6 × 1.0 × 1.198 = 3.115𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 40km

𝒒𝒃 𝒛 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 41
• Step 4: Coefficients of Wind Pressure
• External and Internal Pressure Coefficients
• The building is rectangular building
with duo-pitch roof. The wind zones
𝑏 are shown.
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ቊ
2ℎ
• By observation the zones are greater
than 1m2 therefore Cpe,10 are
applicable
50
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ቊ
2(14.5) = 29
• There's no information regarding the
𝑒 = 29𝑚
openings within this structure
therefore (assuming no dominant
opening) Cpi is taken as the more
onerous of -0.3 or +0.2.

42
 • Step 4:
• External & Internal Pressure Coefficients Cpe,10

4.5 • Cpe, 10 values are obtained from table NA.4 and

Roof pitch 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = +19. 8°
12.5
ℎ 15
NA.7a
= =0.5
𝑑 30
• NA.4 applies to the zones within the vertical walls

Cpe,10 values
• NA.7a applies to the zones in duo pitch roof when
• Zone A= -1.2
the wind is acting perpendicular to the length of
• Zone B =-0.8 Vertical
the building.
• Zone D=+0.73 Walls
• Zone E=-0.37 • Cpi values = −0.3 𝑜𝑟 − 0.2
• Zone F= -0.92 or + 0.39
• Zone G = -0.7 or +0.3 • Since building is less than 15m structural factor
Roof CsCd =1.0
• Zone H= -0.35 or +0.24
• Zone I = -0.5 or -0.5
• Also as h/d <1 lack of correlation factor can be
• Zone J = -1.18 or -1.18 applied to zones D and E. 43
• Step 4: Wind Loads

𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) ∙ 𝐶𝑝𝑒 −𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑠∙ 𝑐𝑑

• Zone A : 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −1.2 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 4.36𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

• Zone B : 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −0.8 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 3.12𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
• Zone D: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ +0.73 − −0.3 × 1.0 × 0.85 = 2.73𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
• Zone E: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −0.37 − 0.20 × 1.0 × 0.85 = 1.51𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
• Zone F: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −0.92 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 3.49𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
• Net Pressure Coefficient : from chart in NA.2.2.2
• Zone G: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −0.7 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 2.80𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝒄𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓
2
• Zone H: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −0.35 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 1.71𝑘𝑁/𝑚
• Zone I: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −0.5 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 2.18𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 d
• Zone J: 𝑤𝑘 = 3.115 ∙ −1.18 − 0.2 × 1.0 = 4.30𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

• Overall Wind Load: 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) ∙ 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∙ 𝑐𝑠∙ 𝑐𝑑 = 3.115 × 0.95 × 1 × 0.85 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
44
• Step 4: Structural Analysis
• Assuming the warehouse building is to be constructed from portal frames, the wind load, is
converted to uniformly distributed load by multiplying by spacing.
• Take spacing between frames = 3.75m

• Partial factors should be applied

• Use any method to analyse the
frames
• Elastic Analysis
• Plastic Analysis

Typical Internal Frame 45

• Worked
Example 2

46
 A 20 storey building is to be constructed
in the city centre of Lagos. The site is
located 20km from the boundary of the
city and 18km from the shore. Determine
the wind load on the walls of this
building assuming the influence of
orography is insignificant.

Take site’s Altitude = 15m above MSL

According to the National Annex, The terrain of this site can be

classified as ________? 47
• Step 1- Fundamental Velocity Vb,o

𝑣𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑝 = 42𝑚/𝑠

0.2
10
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 1 + 0.001 ∙ 𝐴 ∙
𝑧𝑠
𝑍𝑠 = 0.6ℎ = 0.6 × 75 = 45𝑚
10 0.2
40m/s 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 1 + 0.001 ∙ 15 ∙
45
=1.011

𝑣𝑏,𝑜 = 𝑣𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑝 × 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑡

= 42 × 1.011 =
42.46𝑚/𝑠

𝒗𝒃,𝒐 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝒎/𝒔

48
• Step 2
• Basic Wind Velocity Vb • The directional factor has been taken
equal to 1.0.
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏,0 ∙ 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙ 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 • The seasonal factor is also ignored
because the structure is not
= 42.46 × 1 = 42.46𝑚/𝑠
temporary.

𝒗𝒃 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝒎/𝒔

• Basic Wind pressure qb

1
𝑞𝑏 = 𝜌 ∙ 𝑣𝑏2
2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 = 1.226

1
𝑞𝑝 = × 1.226 × 42.462 = 1.11𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2

𝒒𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
49
• Step 3
• Peak Wind Pressure qb

• The building must be considered in two parts since h>b (75m>50m).

• A lower part extending from the ground up to a height equal to b=50m and a upper
part consisting of the remainder

• Since the effect of orography is also insignificant, the simplified approach

can be used to determine the peak velocity pressure.

• Site is located in a Town Terrain

• Information about the height of existing buildings is unknown, therefore

the default value of hdis can be used ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 =3m

50
 Step 3 Cont’d
Peak Wind Pressure qb
• Exposure coefficient
Ce(z) at 50m and 75
(75-3)m height for the building
(75-3)m is 3.68 & 3.85
(50-3)m respectively.
(50-3)m

• Exposure modifier
Ce(T) at 50m and 75
height for the
building is 0.91 &
0.95 respectively.

18km
>20km

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) 𝑐𝑒(𝑇) 𝑞𝑏 𝑞𝑝(50) = 3.68 × 0.91 × 1.11 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟐𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐

𝑞𝑝(75) = 3.85 × 0.95 × 1.11 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟔𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 51

• Step 4: Coefficients of Wind Pressure
• The building is rectangular building
• External & Internal Coefficients
with flat roof. Therefore the wind
zones defined in slide 28 can be
𝑏
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ቊ used.
ℎ 75 2ℎ
= = 1.5
𝑑 50
• By observation the zones are greater
than 1m2 therefore Cpe,10 are
50 applicable
Cpe,10 values 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ቊ
2(75) = 150
• Zone A= -1.2
𝑒 = 50𝑚 • There's no information regarding the
• Zone B =-0.8 Vertical 𝑒=𝑑
Walls openings within this structure
• Zone D=+0.8
therefore (assuming no dominant
• Zone E=-0.53
opening) Cpi is taken as the more
onerous of -0.3 or +0.2.
• Net Pressure Coefficient : from chart in NA.2.2.2
𝒄𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓

• Lack of Correlation factor: for h/d @1.5, =0.86

52
• Step 4: Coefficients of Wind Pressure Cont’d
• Structural Factor CsCd

From table NA.3 we can determine the size

factor, cs using :

𝑏 + ℎ = 75 + 50 = 125𝑚
𝑧 − ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 = (50 − 3)/(75 − 3)
Zone C applies
𝑐𝑠 = 0.85
From figure NA.9c we can determine the
dynamic factor, cd using :
δs= 0.1 (assuming reinforced concrete
building)
ℎ 75
= = 1.5
𝑏 50
𝑐𝑑 = 1.05 53
• Step 4: Wind Loads
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) ∙ 𝐶𝑝𝑒 −𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑠∙ 𝑐𝑑

Zone A : 𝑤𝑘(50𝑚) = 3.72 ∙ −1.2 − 0.2 × 0.85 × 1.05 = 4.65𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

𝑤𝑘(75𝑚) = 4.06 ∙ −1.2 − 0.2 × 0.85 × 1.05 = 5.08𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
Zone B : 𝑤𝑘(50𝑚) = 3.72 ∙ −0.8 − 0.2 × 0.85 × 1.05 = 3.32𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑤𝑘(75𝑚) = 4.06 ∙ −0.8 − 0.2 × 0.85 × 1.05 = 3.62𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
Zone D : 𝑤𝑘(50𝑚) = 3.72 ∙ 0.8 − −0.3 × 0.85 × 1.05 × 0.86 = 3.14𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑤𝑘(75𝑚) = 4.06 ∙ 0.8 − −03 × 0.85 × 1.05 × 0.86 = 3.43𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
Zone E : 𝑤𝑘(50𝑚) = 3.72 ∙ −0.53 − 0.2 × 0.85 × 1.05 × 0.86 = 2.08𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑤𝑘(75𝑚) = 4.06 ∙ −0.53 − 0.2 × 0.85 × 1.05 × 0.86 = 2.27𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

Overall Wind Loads:

𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) ∙ 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∙ 𝑐𝑠∙ 𝑐𝑑

𝑤𝑘(50𝑚) = 3.72 ∙ 1.15 × 0.85 × 1.05 × 0.86 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟖𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐

𝑤𝑘(75𝑚) = 4.06 ∙ 1.15 × 0.85 × 1.05 × 0.86 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟖𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 54
Step 4: Structural Analysis

• The load is shared

according to the
stiffnesses of the lateral
stabilizing element e.g.
shear walls or steel
bracing

55
• THE END

56