Carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates, their biochemical function and classification

2. Structure, functions and derivatives of monosaccharides
3. Structure and function of oligosaccharides and disaccharides
4. Polysaccharides and their biochemical role
5. Biomedical importance of carbohydrates

CHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES

Defination
"Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyaldehydes, or polyhydroxyketones and their
derivatives."
Types
1-monosaccharides
2-disaccharides
3-.polysaccharides
4-Derived Carbohydrates

MONOSACCHARIDES
"Monosaccharides are carbohydrates in the form of simple sugars which cannot be
further hydrolysed."
Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste.
Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such as sucrose and
polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).
General formula of monosacchrides is (CnH2nOn)
Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose),
galactose, xylose and ribose.

CLASSIFICATION
monosaccharides are classified on the basis of
1-Number of carbon atoms ( examples include trioses,pentoses,tetroses,hexoses)
2-Presence of aldo of keto groups (examples include aldoses and ketoses)

FUNCTIONS
Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an
energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When
monosaccharides are not needed by cells they are quickly converted into another form,
such as polysaccharides.

1-CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF CARDON ATOMS

TRIOSES
A triose is a monosaccharide containing three carbon atoms.
There are only two trioses, an aldotriose (glyceraldehyde) and a ketotriose
(dihydroxyacetone).
Trioses are important in respiration. Namely, lactic acid and pyruvic acid are derived
from aldotriose and ketotriose, respectively.
The D-aldotriose is D-Glyceraldehyde

TETROSES
A tetrose is a monosaccharide with 4 carbon atoms. They have either an aldehyde
functional group in position 1 (aldotetroses) or a ketone functional group in position 2
(ketotetroses).
The aldotetroses have two chiral centers ("asymmetric carbon atoms") and so 4
different stereoisomers are possible. There are two naturally occurring stereoisomers,
the enantiomers of erythrose and threose having the D configuration but not the L
enantiomers.
The ketotetroses have one chiral center and, therefore, two possible stereoisomers:
erythrulose (L- and D-form). Again, only the D enantiomer is naturally occurring.
Examples include
having aldosugar "erthrose"
having Ketosugar "erythrulose"

(Additional info:-
"Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and
sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but which differ only in the three-dimensional
orientations of their atoms in space".)

PENTOSES

A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.Pentoses are organized into two
groups. Aldopentoses have an aldehyde functional group at position 1. Ketopentoses
have a ketone functional group in position 2 or 3.
The aldopentoses have three chiral centers and therefore eight different stereoisomers
are possible.
The 2-ketopentoses have two chiral centers and therefore four different stereoisomers
are possible. The 3-ketopentoses are rare.
Examples include
Aldopentose "Ribose"
Ketopentose "Ribulose"

HEXOSES

A hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, having the chemical formula
C6H12O6. Hexoses are classified by functional group, with aldohexoses having an
aldehyde at position 1, and ketohexoses having a ketone at position 2.
The aldohexoses have four chiral centres for a total of 16 possible aldohexose
stereoisomers.
The ketohexoses have 3 chiral centres and therefore eight possible stereoisomers.
Examples include
Aldohexose "Glucose"
Ketohexose "Fructose"

SIGNIFICANCE OF FRUCTOSE
1-Seminal fluid is rich in fructose and sperms utlize fructose for energy.
2-Fructose is formed in seminiferous tubules epithilial cells from glucose.

DIASACCHARIDES
"Disaccharides are formed by two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond which
on hydrolyses yelid two molecules of same or different monosaccharides ."
SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR)

Sucrose, or table sugar, is formed by one molecule of alfa-Glucose and one molecule of
Fructofuranose joined by a glycosidic linkage.
MALTOSE (BEER SUGAR)

Maltose is a disaccharide formed by two molecules of Glucose.

LACTOSE

Lactose is a disaccharide of milk. It is formed by one molecule of Galactose and one

molecule of Glucose coupled by a Beta linkage.

FUNCTIONS
The primary function of disaccharides is as a nutritional source of monosaccharides.
Many of the sugars found in foodstuffs are disaccharides

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
"Carbohydrates that yeld 3 to 10 monosacchradies units on hydrolyses"
Example include Maltrotrioses

POLYSACCHARIDES(GLYCANS)
"Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate structures, formed of repeating units
(either mono- or di-saccharides) joined together by glycosidic bonds which yeild more
than 10 monosacchrieds units on hydolysis. "
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES are polymers of same units
HETROPOLYSACCHARIDES are polymers of different units

Examples include: Starch,glycogen,inulin,cellulose,dextrin and dextrans.

HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
Significance Of starches
Storage of food in plants. As starch is insoluble and compact, it is the most ideal form
for storage in plants.
For animals, starch is a source of carbohydrate. Therefore source of energy.Starches
are straight chain and are only hydrolysed by Amylase enzymes secreated by salivary
and pancreatic gland of the body.

Significance of glycogen
Principal storage carbohydrate of animals, occurring primarily in the liver and resting
muscles. It is also found in various bacteria, fungi, and yeasts. Glycogen is a branched
polysaccharide, a long chain of glucose units, into which it is broken down when energy
is needed.

Significance of Inulin
Inulin is used by some plants as a means of storing energy and is typically found in
roots or rhizomes. Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store other
materials such as starch.
Also used in physiological investigation for determination of rate of glomerular filteration
rate ( GFR).
Used for estimation of body water volume (ECF).

(Glomerular filteration rate (GFR):

"Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) describes the flow rate of filtered fluid through the
kidney.")

Significance of Cellulose
Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many
forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms.
Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth.
Cellulose is insoluble in water.Although it has no nutritional values but still adds bulk to
the intestinal contents (roughage)

Significance of Dextrin
Dextrins are white, yellow or brown powders that are partially or fully water-soluble,
yielding optically active solutions of low viscosity.
They are used as "Mucilages" for example on back of pastage stamp.

Significance of Dextrans
Dextrans are used IV as plasma expanders in tratment of shocks.It has many other
clinicaly important uses too like
it is also used in some eye drops as a lubricant, and in certain intravenous fluids to
solubilise other factors, e.g. iron (=iron dextran).
It also incrases Blood sugar level.

HETROPOLYSACCHARIDES(HETROGLYCANS)
"polymers of different monosaccharide units or their derivatives"
Examples Mucopolysacharides "MPS" (glycos-amino-glycans)
They combine with protein to form mucoporteins and mucin and are acid containing
CHO eg. Hyaluronic acid,Chondroitin sulphate,Heparin,Bolld group Polysaccharides.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HYALURONIC ACID(HA)
Hyaluronic acid (also called Hyaluronan, or HA) is a component of connective tissue
whose function is to cushion and lubricate.
Retention of water is one of the most important biological functions of hyaluronic acid,
Hyaluronic acid is found in the synovial joint fluid, the vitreous humor of the eye, the
cartilage, blood vessels, extracellular matrix,seminal fluid, skin and the umbilical cord.
It is hydrolysed by enzyme " Hyaluronidase"

SIGNIFICANCE OF CHONDROITNIN SULFATES

It is found in ground substances especially cartilages in combination with proteins.
it is an important structural component of cartilage and provides much of its resistance
to compression.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HEPARIN
Heparin is a naturaly occuring anti.coagulant found in liver,spleen,lungs,thymus,and
blood
it is also used as blood thinner, usually given by intravenous infusion.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BLOOD GROUP POLYSACCHARIDES

Blood group polysaccharides are present in RBC's,gastric mucin,saliva and other body
secretions.
these are responsible for differnce in blood groups.
Also act as antigens.

DERIVED CARBOHYDRATES
Sugar acid,alcohols amino sugars,deoxysugars, and conjugated sugars are Derived
Carbohydrates

BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. Provide major source of energy
2-constituent of componud lipids and proteins.
3-Their degradation products act as "promoters or catalysts"
4-Certain carbohydrate derivatives are used as drugs like cardiac glycoside antibiotics.
5-Present in lactose principal sugar of milk inlactating mammary glands
6-Their degradtation products are utilized for synthesis of other products such as fatty
acids,cholestrols,amino acids etc.
7-Constituent of mucopolysaccharides which form the ground substance of
mesenchymal tissues
8-inherited deficiencies of different enzymes in metabolic pathways of diff carbihydrates
can cause diseases eg. Glactosemia,glycogen storage disease GSD,lactose intolerance
etc.
9-Dearrangment of glucose metabolism is seen in diabetes melitus
10-Important component of nucleic acids as pentose sugars ribose and deoxyribose.
Taimoor hameed