16587 Pressurised Systems

9.0 COMPONENT DESIGN

Under normal circumstances, the major load which a pressure vessel is required to withstand
is that of internal pressure. The main aim of the code and principal function of the designer is
to ensure the overall structural integrity of the vessel under all loading, but first and
foremostly, the main pressure load. However, it is impossible to analyse a complete vessel in
one calculation and be able to say that it is ‘acceptable’ to a given standard. Each individual
component, shells, heads, openings, supports and so on, must be considered on an individual
basis since each may have a different influence on the stress systems set up in the vessel. The
designer must establish which governs the design prior to finalising thicknesses and
purchasing material.

BS5500 Section 3 is the part of the code which deals with the main component design. This
section contains ‘design-by-rule’ procedures for cylinders, spheres, heads, openings, flange
design, rings and some other minor components. The following notes will provide a
commentary to the code and relevant extracts are provided with worked examples to
illustrate its usage.

9.1 MATERIAL SELECTION

The basic material type to be used (e.g. carbon steel, type 321 stainless steel, etc) will
normally be specified by the process engineer, often in conjunction with a metallurgist.
Typical factors which might affect this selection are:

- corrosion resistance,
- presence of ‘nasties’ such as hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen, chlorides, etc.,
- high & low temperature effects,
- cost , weight and availability

While selecting the material type the process engineer will also consider what corrosion
allowance should be applied. From the basic material type the vessel engineer will select the
specific material grades for the various components of the vessel. These material grades or
specifications are selected from British Standards such as BS 1501, BS 1503, etc. or other
national standards such as ASME II1 or ASTM2. The factors usually considered by the vessel
engineer when selecting materials include:

Strength

For low pressure vessels the thickness required for pressure may be less than that needed for
adequate structural stability, so there is no point in using a high strength material. For high
pressure vessels, however, significant weight and cost savings can be achieved by using
higher strength materials.

1
ASME II - ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code - Section II - Material Specifications

2
ASTM - (American Society for the Testing of Materials) - Section 1 - Iron and Steel
Products

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

Material Form

Materials are available in various forms (plate, pipe, forging, etc) and the vessel engineer
must specify the appropriate form suitable for each component of the vessel - e.g. plate for
shells and heads, pipe for nozzle necks, forgings for flanges

High and Low Temperature Properties

As the temperature is increased above ‘room’ temperature the strength of metallic materials
reduces. Certain material grades are formulated to give good high temperature strength.
Above a certain temperature the material will enter the creep range. At such temperatures the
strength of the material becomes time dependent. Permanent deformation, and eventually
failure, will occur at stresses below the yield point over an extended period of time. The
temperatures at which creep starts to become significant are typically about 400°C for
carbon steel, 450°C for low alloy steel and 520 to 580°C for stainless steel.

Carbon steels and low alloy steels exhibit a transition from ductile to brittle behaviour as the
temperature is lowered over a fairly narrow band. For ordinary mild steel this transition
temperature is about 0°C. Certain grades of carbon steel are formulated to lower the
transition temperature. Brittle failures occur at relatively low stresses, usually at a sharp
notch or flaw in the material. BS 5500 Appendix D3 contains requirements for materials to be
used at low temperatures. The principle is to ensure that the material has a low enough
transition temperature and that this temperature is not increased too much by welding and
heat treatment.

Cost and Availability

Where stainless steel or some other expensive alloy material is required for corrosion
resistance it is often more economic to use a carbon steel or low alloy steel base material
with alloy cladding, rather than solid alloy material. The more commonly used material
grades are usually readily available, but special materials may be on long delivery. Obtaining
small quantities of special materials is often a problem - e.g. short lengths of pipe for nozzle
necks.

9.2 MATERIAL DESIGN STRENGTH (Annexes K and D)

Annex K

The design strength values at 50°C may be used for design temperatures up to and including
50°C. Design strength values at intermediate temperatures shall be obtained by linear
interpolation. For temperatures in the creep range allowable design stresses are given for
design lifetimes from 100,000 to 250,000 hours. A typical example from Table 2.3 is shown
in p25 in these notes.

3
PD 5500 Annex D - Requirements for ferritic steels in categories M0 to M4 inclusive for
vessels required to operate below 0°C

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

The basic philosophy of the values presented is to provide a design strength of at least 2/3rds
of the yield strength of the material and to ensure a sufficient margin of safety against
yielding. Some material may be subject to a lower ultimate tensile strength and this may be
the governing quantity in design so a factor of at least 2.35 is used. The safety factors will
vary depending on how much confidence can be placed on the source of the material data,
especially when values are required at higher temperatures. Less reliable data will result in a
greater safety factor. These factors tie in with some of the stress limits which we will
encounter when we address specific component design.

For materials which are not covered by PD 5500 Section 2 or by an Enquiry Case the basis
for calculating the design strength is given in Annex K, and is generally the same basis as that
used to produce the values in Tables 2.3(a) to (k). Procedures are given in Annex K for
evaluating the design stresses for carbon, carbon manganese, low alloy steels and austenitic
stainless steels. The following symbols apply:

Rm minimum specified tensile strength at room temperature

Re minimum specified yield at room temperature
Re(T) minimum specified yield strength at design temperature
Rp0.2 0.2% proof stress
R p1.0 1.0% proof stress
Srt stress to rupture for design life at design temperature
fE nominal design strength for short-term characteristics
fF nominal design strength for creep characteristics
F nominal design strength - lesser of fE and fF

For time independent strength

(i) For carbon steel materials with specified elevated temperature values

Re R R R
fE = or m upto 50 0 C fE = e ( T ) or m up to 150 0 C
1.5 2.35 1.5 2.35
with linear interpolation allowed for calculation of intermediate values in all cases shown.

(ii) For carbon steel materials without specified elevated temperature values

Re R R R
fE = or m upto 50 0 C fE = e ( T ) or m up to 150 0 C
1.5 2.35 1.6 2.35
(iii) For austenitic steel materials with specified elevated temperature values

Re R Re ( T ) R
fE = or m up to 50 0 C fE = or m upto 150 0 C
1.5 2.5 1.35 2.5

(iv) For austenitic steel materials without specified elevated temperature values

Re R Re ( T ) R
fE = or m up to 50 0 C fE = or m upto 150 0 C
1.5 2.5 1.45 2.5
For time dependent strength
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 16587 Pressurised Systems

SRt
fF =
1.3

Example of use of Annex K - Non - BS carbon steel material with specified elevated
temperature values for use in a vessel with a design temperature of 120°C.

Design temperature T = 120°C

Minimum yield strength at room temperature Re = 38000 psi = 262.07 N/mm2
Minimum tensile strength at room temperature Rm = 70000 psi = 482.76 N/mm2
Minimum yield strength at 150°C (302°F) Re(T) = 33678 psi = 232.26 N/mm2

At 120°C time-dependent properties need not be considered, therefore f = fE

(1) Up to and including 50°C

Re R 262.07 482.76
fE = or m = or = 174.71 or 205.43 N/mm2
1.5 2.35 1.5 2.35
Hence, design strength at room temperature (up to 50°C) = 174.71 N/mm2

(2) At 150°C

Re ( T ) R 232.26 482.76
fE = or m = or = 154.84 or 205.43 N/mm2
1.5 2.35 1.5 2.35
Hence, design strength at 150°C = 154.84 N/mm2

(3) At 120°C

f = 174.71 + (154.84 − 174.71) ×

(120 − 50) = 174.71 − 19.87 × 70 = 160.8 N/mm2
(150 − 50) 100
By interpolation between 50 and 150°C, the design strength at 120°C = 160.8 N/mm2

Annex D

Special consideration must be given to the selection of materials for vessels designed to
operate at temperatures below 0°C. Annex D specifies impact requirements for ferritic steels
in categories M0 to M4 inclusive, operating below 0°C. These requirements apply to all
pressure parts and welded attachments, but not to non-pressure parts where these are not
attached to a pressure part by welding.

Temperature θ R
Design Reference Temperature,

The design reference temperature θ R is the temperature to be used in Annex D for

determining the suitability of the material for resisting brittle fracture. This temperature is
evaluated by applying adjustments to the minimum design temperature which the vessel is
expected to see during its life.

In Annex D the following notation is used:

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

θD minimum design temperature as defined in clause 3.2.5

θR design reference temperature
θS adjustment depending on the calculated membrane stress
θC adjustment depending on the construction category
θH adjustment for post-weld heat treated sub-assemblies

θs= 0oC when the calculated membrane stress is greater than or equal to 2f/3
(where f is the design stress for the material at room temperature)
θs= +10oC when the calculated membrane stress is greater than or equal to 50 N/mm2 but
less than 2f/3
θs= +50oC when the calculated membrane stress is less than 50 N/mm2

θC= 0oC for category 1 vessels

θC= -10oC for category 2 vessels
θC= -20oC for category 3 vessels

θH= +15oC for applications where all plates incorporating sub-assemblies are post-weld
heat treated before they are butt-welded together, but the main seams are not
subsequently post-weld heat treated

θR must not be greater than θD adjusted as follows:

θR ≤ θD + θS + θC + θH

The reference thickness for a shell is used in determining the impact requirements for the
material. It must be evaluated in the uncorroded condition. For simple butt welded
components, the reference thickness is the thickness of the component at the edge of the
weld preparation. If another component is under study, e.g. a tubesheet or flange, Appendix
D gives details of which thickness should be considered, i.e. flange thickness or nozzle
thickness. This depends on how the designer perceives a brittle fracture will propagate.

Impact testing can be negected if the minimum design reference temperature is not lower
than a given specified value (Annex D Table D.4.1(2)). This only applies for thicknesses less
than 10mm, ~ above this a temperature of +20oC may be assumed.

Reference Minimum Design

thickness Reference Temperature
As welded PWHT
10 mm -15°C -30°C
8 mm -20°C -35°C
6 mm -25°C -40°C
4 mm -40°C -55°C
2 mm or less -55°C -70°C

Table D.4.1(2)

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

For plates, forgings, castings and tubes having determined the reference thickness and the
design reference temperature for the component, enter Figure D.3(1) for as-welded
components or Figure D.3(2) for post-weld heat treated components, and read off the
required material impact test temperature. The specified impact test temperature for the
material must not be higher than this required value. Impact tested materials are
identified by the letters LT on the end of the material specification number. For example,
BS 1501-161-430A-LT20 would have been impact tested at -20°C.

If impact tests are required, then the required impact energy value at the material impact test
temperature is obtained from Table D.4.1(1).

Specified minimum Required impact energy value at the

tensile strength material impact test temperature
10 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm x
10 mm 7.5 mm 5 mm 2.5 mm
450 N/mm2 27 J 22 J 19 J 10 J
450 N/mm2 40 J 32 J 28 J 15 J
Table D.4.1(1)
Example of use of Annex D

Minimum design temperature = -22°C

Calculated membrane stress = 60 N/mm2
Design strength value at room temperature = 174.71N/mm2
(use 174.71 N/mm2 from earlier)
Nominal shell thickness = 15 mm
Construction category =2
Post-weld heat treatment = YES

Using BS 1501-224-490A plate material for the shell section, the reference thickness is equal
to the nominal plate thickness of 15 mm.

The membrane stress of 60N/mm2 exceeds 50 N/mm2 but is less than 2f/3 (116.5N/mm2),
therefore θS = +10°C.

For category 2 construction θC = -10°C.

Sub-assemblies not subject to PWHT prior to butt-welding: θH = 0°C.

Hence, design reference temperature: θR = -22 + 10 - 10 + 0 = -22°C

Check whether impact testing is required. From Figure D.3(2) at an assumed material impact
test temperature of +20°C, the minimum design reference temperature is -25°C. Therefore
impact testing is not required. If the vessel was not post-weld heat treated, then from Figure
D.3(1) the required material impact test temperature is -2°C. Therefore LT10 material would
be specified.

Note the difference between PWHT and subassembly heat treatment

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16587 Pressurised Systems

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

9.3 SHELLS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE

The main loading which all vessels will be subjected to in their lifetime is that of Internal
Pressure. Thin shells under this loading are normally analysed using membrane stress
analysis.

Cylinders and Spheres

The cylindrical shell is the most frequently used geometrical shape in pressure vessel design.
The stresses in a closed-end cylindrical shell under internal pressure can be found from the
conditions of static equilibrium and evaluating the governing hoop stress. In the case of
spherical shells, a similar set of equations is given in sub-section 3.5.1.2. The equations
which are found in sub-section 3.5.1 of BS 5500 are based on these approaches.

For cylinders For spheres

pDi p Do pDi pDo
e = or e = e= or e=
2 f − p 2 f + p 4 f − 1.2 p 4 f + 0.8 p

where Di and Do are inner and outer diameters respectively. As indicated on p33, these
equations are based on the membrane analysis which can be assumed for the thin pressurised
shell. In the case of spherical shells, the factor associated with p is oncorporated to recognise
that the ‘actual stress’ varies with 1/r3. In the cylinder, the actual stress varies with 1/r2.

Dished Ends

When considering pressure containment, the ideal shape or form for the shell is spherical.
Therefore, when designing end closures, a hemisphere would be the obvious choice,
especially if the vessel were subjected to a high internal pressure. However, fabrication of
hemispherical ends (and indeed, spherical vessels) is expensive, normally using a labour
intensive cap and petal method. The most commonly used closures for pressure vessels are
torispherical and ellipsoidal dished ends. Ellipsoidal ends are usually specified as 2:1 (the
ratio of major to minor axes) but other ratios may be used.

A torispherical end consists of a spherical portion (the crown) and a toroidal portion (the
knuckle). This type of end is normally made from a disc which is held at the centre and spun
and cold-formed into the desired shape. Torispherical ends generally have crown radius of
between 80% and 100% of the shell diameter, and a knuckle radius of between 6% and 15%
of the diameter. These ratios will vary depending on the individual requirement. Changing
the ratios will affect the overall head height, but this variation is taken into account in the
design method. The volume of a head can be taken as πDi 2 h / 6 , where h is the head height
with the weight approximately given by finding out the difference between the inner and
outer volumes and multiplying by the material density.

PD5500 Section 3.5.2 provides rules for the calculation of the minimum thickness for all of
the above end types. Some shape limitations are given and these must be complied with in
order to prevent buckling under internal pressure. The nature of the deformation shows that
there are two points where a ‘hinge’ may develop. Indeed, plastic hinges do develop when
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excessive internal pressures are applied. If a thin dished head is pressurised internally, the
following deformed shape arises, and highlights the compressive action in the knuckle region.
1 2 ANSYS 5.0 A
SEP 12 1995
17:48:35
PLOT NO. 2
DISPLACEMENT
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
RSYS=0
DMX =5.139
SEPC=3.698
*DSCA=10
ZV =1
*DIST=645.05
*XF =451.163
*YF =749.229
CENTROID HIDDEN
EDGE
WIND=2
*DSCA=10
ZV =1
*DIST=259.217
*XF =484.565
*YF =707.165
CENTROID HIDDEN

THIN DISHED END EXAMPLE

If the stress distribution were path plotted from the crown portion, along the knuckle and
then into the cylindrical drum, then the following graphs would result for the elastic
meridonal and circumferential stresses in the head/shell juncture - plotting the stress
concentration factor versus the distance around the juncture from crown to cylinder.
3.5
3
Inside Surface
2.5 Outside Surface
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-1
-1.5
-2
Meridonal Stress

CROWN KNUCKLE CYLINDER

1.5

0.5

0
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-0.5
Inside Surface
-1 Outside Surface

-1.5

-2
Circumferential Stress

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

Section 3.5.2.2. specifies the shape limits for hemi-spherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical
ends with respect to Figure 3.5.2.1. These limitations must be checked prior to using the
design methods.

For the purposes of domed end calculations the following symbols apply:

D outside diameter of end

e minimum required thickness of end
f allowable design stress for end material
h external height of end measured from tangent line
he effective height of end
p design pressure
R inside spherical radius of crown portion of torispherical end
r inside knuckle radius for torispherical end
Hemi-spherical ends

The thickness of hemi-spherical ends is determined by using the equations for a sphere in
Section 3.5.1.2

Ellipsoidal and torispherical ends

The minimum thickness for ellipsoidal and torispherical ends is found using the following
procedure:
(i) Calculate p/f using the design pressure and design pressure
(ii) Calculate he/D using the outside diameter and effective head height
(iii) Enter Fig 3.5.2.3 to obtain e/D (or use table and interpolate)
(iv) Multiply by D to obtain the minimum thickness

This is the minimum thickness for an unpieced end. To this must be added any thinning
allowance and any corrosion allowances.

The actual outside head height for an elliptical head is normally one quarter of the diameter
(for a 2:1 head) but for a torispherical end, is obtained from the approximate formula

h = R − ( R − D / 2)(R + D / 2 − 2r )

the effective head height, he, is the smallest of

h or D 2 / 4( R + e) or D(r + e) / 2

This completes the rules for the minimum thickness for unpieced ends due to internal
pressure. It is noted that there are rules are given for ‘Pierced Ends’. The wording is a little
ambiguous as this calculation is provided to determine the excess thickness available in the
end for use in reinforcing calculations. This will become clearer when we consider
‘Openings’.

An example of this procedure can be found on p29 of these notes.

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Conical Shells

When a vessel has sections with different diameters, these are usually joined by means of a
conical section. Conical ends are sometimes used in place of dished ends, particularly if there
is a requirement for a large central opening in the end - the cone provides a useful alternative
to cutting and reinforcing a dished end.

As can be imagined, there will be a complex system of forces and moments occurring at the
discontinuity - where the conical shell meets the cylinder. These system can occur at both the
large and the small ends of the cone. In some instances, a knuckle region is introduced to try
to reduce the effects of the discontinuity and to provide a smooth transition from the cone to
the cylinder. The designer must ensure there is sufficient thickness of material at all locations,
both in the cone section and at the junctures to carry both the pressure load and the
additional loading caused by the discontinuity.

Edge forces resulting in discontinuity stresses

Large End

Small End
Internal pressure
p

A finite element analysis of the cone/cylinder junctures made using conical shell elements
results in the following deformed shape.

Deformed shape

Undeformed shape

Y
Z X
Cone without knuckle

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 16587 Pressurised Systems

Section 3.5.3. specifies the requirements for the minimum thickness of conical shells. Rules
are also given for the minimum thicknesses of the reinforced regions at the large and small
ends of a cone and also for the case where a transitional knuckle may be used at the large
end of the cone. Figures 3.5.3(1),(3) and (4) show the main leading dimensions.

For the purposes of conical shell calculations the following symbols apply:

Di, De,Dc various diameters of cone

e, ec, ej, e1,e2 various minimum thicknesses
f allowable design stress for cone material
l1, l2 length along cylinder and length along cone
p design pressure
r knuckle radius
α semi-apex angle in degrees
β , β H, γ , ρ , τ factors

The minimum thickness of a conical shell is found using the membrane analysis

The equilibrium equation gives,

r N s Nθ
2 + =p
r1 r2

p where r1 = ∞ as the surface is conical

α and r2 is as shown to mean surface
Ns

Dk e
r2 = +
2 cosα 2

r2
∴ N θ = p  + 
Dk e
e/2  2 cos α 2 
Dk
now, since Nθ = fe
α e
p pDk
∴ e( f − ) =
2 cos α
α 2

pDk
∴ e=
(2 f − p)cos α
This is of the form of the equations shown in the standard (3.7a,b), however it is noted that
the thickness of the cone may have to be increased at the large and small ends to meet the
requirements of the code to support the discontinuity stresses. In addition, the thickness may
require to be increased to accommodate stresses caused by an opening or when a local load
is applied to the shell.
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Junction between the large end of the cone and the cylinder - without knuckle

The method contained in the standard is very new to BS5500, being implemented from
January 1996. The method has its origins in the East German TGL standards and has a
background in limit analysis, however there is little supporting documentation in English to
show how the method was arrived at. It has since been validated by the Chairman of the UK
PVE/-/5 group using an in-house ICI method. Figure 3.5.3(1) shows the detail of the
intersection. The rules in BS 5500 apply provided that the junction is located away from
other discontinuities, i.e. a distance 2l1 along the cylinder and 2l2 along the cone. In addition,
no stress concentrations due to welding are allowed and local smoothing must take place.
For the case of cones only, 100% NDT is specified and is mandatory unless the thickness
exceeds the minimum by at least 40%.
The minimum thickness is given using the following
pDc β
ej =
2f
1 Dc tan(α )
β= × − 0.15
3 ej 1+ 1
cos(α )
It is noted that the above calculation is a trial-and-error calculation for ej since a thickness
value is necessary for the calculation of β. The calculated value is deemed acceptable if the
value for e is not less than that assumed in the calculation for β. β may also be found from
Figure 3.5.3(2). The local reinforcing thicknesses must be maintained over a length in which
the stress concentration is expected to decay away. These ‘die-out’ lengths are normally
expressed as a function of De and in the case of the cone, the thickness must not be
reduced over a distance not less than 1.4 De for both the cylinder and the cone respectively.

Junction between the large end of the cone and the cylinder - with knuckle
If a knuckle is introduced, then the stresses caused by the discontinuity will reduce. The
minimum thickness at the junction is given by
pDc β
ej = where:
2 fγ
1 Dc tan(α )
β= × − 0.15
3 ej 1+ 1
cos(α )
ρ
γ = 1+ and
 0.2 
1.21 + 
 ρ 
0.028r α
ρ= ×
Dc e j 1 + 1
cos α
as shown by Eqns 3.7e-h in the code. Again, a trial and error calculation must be performed.

Junction between the small end of the cone and the cylinder

At the small end of the cone, the procedure is somewhat the same. Reinforcement must be
maintained over minimum lengths both in the cone and in the cylinder. In this case, the
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 16587 Pressurised Systems

thickness of the adjoining cylinder (e1) is of importance and this must be evaluated prior to
examining the reinforcement at the juncture.

The minimum thickness at the junction is given by Eqns (3.7I, j)

pDc β H
e1 = where:
2f
Dc tan(α )
β H = 0.4 + 0.5 and
e1 τ
s 1 + s2
τ =s + when s < 1
cos(α ) 2
1 + s2
or τ = 1 + .s when s ≥ 1
2 cos(α )
e2
in both cases, s = . The method does not provide values for e1 and e2 separately, but uses
e1
one to evaluate the other. These values may be adjusted to suit the needs of the design, for
example, to balance out the reinforcement lengths l1 and l2.

The methods described above clearly provide calculations for the minimum thicknesses and
reinforcing thicknesses and lengths and, as such, are good examples of ‘design-by-rule’.
However, little is gleaned as to the significance or limitations of the methods since no
background is available and users are therefore left to their own experience in those cases
when designs are on the limits of applicability.

107