Hannah Hills

Ms. Leila Chawkat

Intern/Mentor Program pd 5

William Simpson, CEO

Open Door America

2 April 2020

Ending the Cycle of Recidivism

Abstract

Incarceration and recidivism rates in the United States are increasing unproportionally to the

crime rates. This paper seeks to determine the most effective way to decrease the rate of

recidivism through gaining an understanding of the factors that make recidivism more and less

likely. These factors will be used to inform a proposal of the ideal rehabilitation system for

citizens returning from prison to society.

Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………….………….

Literature Review………………………………………….…………

Data Collection………………………………………………....…….

Results and Analysis………………………………………….………

Conclusion……………………………………………………………

Works Cited………………………………………………….....…….
 I. Introduction

The United States has an extremely high rate of recidivism for those formerly

incarcerated. In fact, “research has shown that roughly two-thirds of prisoners will be rearrested

within three years of release” (Duwe). Being incarcerated and having a criminal record

dramatically affects an individual’s ability to seek employment and support themselves and their

family. Overall these rates are damaging the country economically and socially and have been

increasing over time. A strategy to decrease recidivism has often been to increase incarceration,

believing that stricter sentences for longer durations will deter offenders from committing

another offense upon release (Mears). Contrary to this theory, as incarceration increases,

recidivism does as well. The current estimated US prison population is 70 million (Western),

having risen an amount unproportionate with the rise of population over the last few decades.

Race, gender, and age also appear in unproportionate amounts with the population, as 90% of

this 70 million are males in their 20s or 30s and African Americans consistently have higher

incarceration rates (Western). These issues are compounded, affected, and partly caused by the

high and widening age gap, unemployment, and poverty. The 2008 recession was a turning point

in employment rates for the formerly incarcerated, with the former average unemployment rate

of 51.9 percent “increasing to 65.5 percent in the recession years (2008-2009)” (Nally).

Upwards mobility has also been proven to be rare and difficult for those who grow up in poverty

which makes incarceration and recidivism even more likely (Chetty). This study is intended to

discover the factors prior to incarceration, during incarceration, and post incarceration that makes

recidivism more and less likely with the purpose of determining the ideal rehabilitation system to

reduce recidivism and increase desistance. The ideal rehabilitation program which would reduce
the risk of recidivism for citizens returning from prison should include educational programs,

persist over multiple years following release, and provide reentry or transitional support.

II. Literature Review

The state of the justice system in the US is the result of the development of the idea of

retribution for crime since the beginning of the penitentiary. At this point in history, the

common view of solely retribution for crime became incompatible with the idea that humans are

able to improve. Presently, the debate is whether or not the goal of the justice system should be

to punish crime and encourage desistance, or to provide education to encourage mental change

and therefore cause desistance and societal contribution (Esperian). The current rise in prison

educational programs reflect this transition in thinking. Despite the general shift in ideology,

public perception of crime and the incarcerated has also evolved over time. As a political

platform, many candidates have pledged to fight the “War on Drugs” which “gives the public the

sense that drug usage is constantly increasing, from year to year. And . . . further keeps the issue

of drug usage vivid in people's thinking” (Eisenman). Contrary to the popular belief fostered by

this trend, there has been no significant increase in drug usage and from 1972 to 1990 drug use

generally declined (Eisenman). Because of the over-reporting on this topic, public opinion is

drawn towards a negative view of the incarcerated, believing that since drug rates have not

improved that inmates cannot improve. While many believe steady rise in incarceration rates

over the last three decades to be due to a recent crime boom, this has been proven untrue

(Loury). While there was an upward trend from the mid 1960s to the early 1980s, “the steep rise

of imprisonment in the United States is closely intertwined with the social experience and
political salience of crime in American life”(Loury), not a rise in crime. The rates of violent

crime have decreased over time as well,

Recidivism is the tendency for an individual to reoffend and be reincarcerated after

release. Two thirds of all returning citizens will recidivate within the first three years of reentry

to society. A multitude of situations contribute to this high rate, both prior to, during, and

following incarceration. Before incarceration an individual's family and childhood have a large

impact. “A large percentage of those in prison grew up fatherless, while others had fathers in the

home who struggled with addiction or abuse” (Bjorkman). Children who have parents who are

high-school dropouts are also almost four times as likely to have parents who are imprisoned.

The intergenerational cycle occurs when children whose parents are imprisoned are more likely

to be incarcerated themselves, making their own children more likely to offend (Bjorkman).

Parental income is also an indicator of the probability of future incarceration, mostly due to the

correlation between lower education level and higher chance of incarceration. Typically, around

41.3% of inmates have not received a highschool diploma, however those imprisoned for violent

crimes typically have a higher level of education (Mercer). The trend of children from poorer

families being behind children from higher socioeconomic status begins at a young age since

“When entering high school, children from poor families are often several grade levels behind

children because “while 72% of middle-class children can recite the alphabet by the time they

start school, only 19% of poor children are able to do so. . . By the time they enter high school

they are, on average, 3.3 grade levels behind those of higher socio-economic status and fall

another grade level behind during the high school years” (Bjorkman). Upward mobility for

children growing up in a low socioeconomic class is also very difficult, and there is an almost
assured correlation between children's outcomes and the neighborhoods they grew up in

(Chetty). Conditions such as education and parental income and status are closely related and

all affect the chance of incarceration and recidivism.

Situations during incarceration all greatly impact an individual's chance of recidivism.

Visitation during incarceration from family and friends is important in maintaining social support

networks, which a returning citizen will need to rely on following release. Stable housing upon

release is crucial in decreasing recidivism since “anywhere from 40 to 80 percent of newly

released offenders rely on their families immediately after release” (Duwe). Visits from some

individuals are better than others. For instance a visit from a spouse or child, someone who’s

well being is largely dependent on the person may increase the chance of recidivism while a visit

from someone who can provide honesty and support to the person while still being somewhat

removed from the person can decrease the likelihood of recidivism. A visit from those who are

trained in offering support in such situations also has the potential to greatly improve recidivism

rates (Duwe). Sentence length also has unintended effects on recidivism rates. While longer

sentences have the purpose of increasing the chances of desistance upon release and therefore

decrease recidivism, they have not been proven to do so. A major problem with this thought is

that it assumes that those incarcerated for long sentences have an intrinsic motivation for

bettering themselves. If this motivation is not fully present, longer sentences will have no effect

on decreasing recidivism, and may in fact do the opposite because of the dramatic shock of

returning to society following extended incarceration. The theory of longer sentences reducing

recidivism and crime also does not account for differing reasons for crime, someone who is in

financial need and financially motivated to commit a crime will not be made less likely to
reoffend because of a longer sentence (Klingele). Programs made available to inmates also

greatly impact the chances of an individual recidivating. Many academic, financial literacy, and

vocational programs have been put in place to decrease the probability of recidivism and make

the transition back into society easier.

Employment is the most influential factor in determining the chances of recidivism.

Finding employment as a returning citizen is extremely difficult and the lack of a stable job can

motivate an individual to reoffend and recidivate. There are laws in place to attempt to prevent

workplace discrimination such as “ban the box” laws, which support Title VIII, supporting

retunring citizens. However there are many ways for companies to bypass these laws and

returning citizens still have difficulty finding employment (Weissert). Educational programs can

both reduce recidivism and improve the chances of returning citizens finding stable employment.

A study in New Jersey examined their work-first program in its ability to reduce recidivism rates.

They found that “Of the ex-offenders who have participated in this program since its inception,

60 % have found work. Additionally, of those that found work, only 10 % have recidivated”

(Hall). Studies such as these have consistently found educational programs to significantly

lower recidivism rates and increase employment rates among ex-offenders. There are many

factors which influence the likelihood of recidivism because “the transition experienced by

individuals as they leave prison and return home to their families and communities is

fundamentally a dynamic, social process” (Visher). There are many tools in place to help this

process: educational programs, aid, and laws protecting returning citizens, but the factors that

make recidivism more likely are more widespread and complex than the simple solutions.
III. Data Collection

Source State and Recidivism Rate Inmate educational Re-entry

Inmate comparisons programs programs/results
Population (Control group vs
information experimental
participants)

Steurer, Stephen Maryland Without education CEA programs and OCE Both groups reported
J., et al. program: re-arrest - programs were provided similar rates of
“OCE/CEA
A Three State 275 57%, re-conviction- preparedness for
Recidivism participants 37%, reincarceration- 10,063 inmates were enrolled return to the
Study.” and 610 37% (Steurer 40) as students community
Correctional
Education non-participa after release from
Association, nts With education “​Program goals include incarceration. Less
2001, program: re-arrest - attainment of functional than half of both
https://www.gov Study 54%, re-conviction - literacy skills, attainment of a groups (49% for the
info.gov/content
/pkg/ERIC-ED4 includes 31%, re-incarceration high school diploma, or participants
65886/pdf/ERIC same testing - 32% (Steurer 40) attainment of a certification of and 48% for the
-ED465886.pdf in Minnesota completion for an entry level non-participants) said
Accessed 2 Mar.
2020 and Ohio The analysis of the occupational education they had a job in the
data indicates that program.” (Steurer 55) community upon
(Steurer ) inmates who release.
Medium participated in “During fiscal 1999, 753
sized prison education programs inmate students completed
population while incarcerated occupational training, 1,336
showed lower rates of earned literacy certificates,
recidivism after three and 95 1 earned high school
years. diplomas. In addition to those
inmates engaged as students,
“In every year, for the an additional 544 inmates
three years that the were employed as educational
study participants aides assisting with the school
were followed, the and library programs as their
wages reported . . . daily work assignment.”
were higher for the (Steurer 55)
education participants
compared to the
non-participants”
(Steurer 8)

“Alabama Alabama "The recidivism rate, “Approximately

Public Safety which is ​defined as one-third of
and
Sentencing (High the percentage of Department of
Coalition” ​Pew incarceration inmates who return Corrections releases,
Trusts rate) to Alabama prisons 4,100 per year, result
Consensus within three years of from
Report,​ 2011, release​, has increased the expiration of a
https://www.pe
wtrusts.org/-/me each year (except sentence and include
dia/legacy/uploa one) since at least neither
dedfiles/alabama 1997. For inmates post-release
correctionsreport
pdf.pdf​Accessed released that year, the supervision nor
2 Mar. 2020 three year return rate reentry services.”
was a little over 24 (​Alabama Public
percent, while for Safety and
inmates released in Sentencing Coalition
2006, the rate was 6).
nearly 35 percent."
(​Alabama Public Mandatory reentry
Safety and supervision would
Sentencing Coalition provide
2) non-violent offenders
with up to six months
of supervision under
the Board of Pardons
and Paroles.
(​Alabama Public
Safety and
Sentencing Coalition
6)

Hull, Kim A., et Virginia (Recidivism: ​to be The Department of “Transition

al. “Analysis of physically Correctional Education offers programs” have
Recidivism
Rates for Sample size recommited to the academic programs like the become more
Participants of of 3000 men Virginia penal Literacy Incentive program, common, preparing
the and women system after having Adult Basic Education inmates in the areas
Academic/Vocat
ional/Transition released been released from a Courses, and GED of employment skills,
Education between previous period of preparatory instruction, some financial literacy and
Programs 1979 and incarceration​ (Hull also give vocational training.budgeting, and life
Offered by the 1994 (Hull 257)) (Hull 257) planning (Hull 258)
Virginia
Department of 256) -- ​this source does
Correctional 37.9% of those who Literacy courses are mandated not report on any
Education.” didn't complete for those who score below a post-release
Journal of
Correctional education program certain level on standardized programs
Education​, vol. recidivated, 20.17% testing (Hull 257).
51, no. 2, 2000, of those who did
pp. 256–261. participate Vocational courses provide
JSTOR,​
www.jstor.org/st recidivated. (Hull instruction in 36 trade areas
able/41971944​ . 259) (Hull 257).
Accessed 2 Mar.
2020
Recidivism rate for
(Hull, 256-261 educational
). involvement: 49.1%
 Academic enrolled
but no completion:
38.2%
Vocational enrolled
but no completion:
37.3%
Academic completed:
19.1% Vocational
completion: 21.3%.
(Hull 259)

Howle, Elaine California The State defines “Budget for in-prison

M ., et al. recidivism as ​when a rehabilitation programs has
“California
Department of person gone from $234 million in
Corrections and Large prison is convicted of a 2013-2014 to $298 million in
Rehabilitation” population subsequent crime 2018-2019” (Howle 1)
CALIFORNIA
STATE within three years of
AUDITOR​, being released from “We considered inmates as
2019, custody​." [Study is having their needs met if
https://www.bsa. limited to one and they completed at least half of
ca.gov/pdfs/repo
rts/2018-113.pdf two‑year recidivism the CBT programs that
. Accessed 2 rates] (Howle 1) Corrections determined they
Mar. 2020 needed. Conversely, we
Recidivism rate for considered inmates as having
“inmates in California no needs met if they were not
has remained assigned to any CBT
stubbornly high, programs that Corrections
averaging determined they needed”
about 50 percent from (Howle 14)
fiscal years 2002–03
through 2012–13” From 2010-2018: the number
(Howle 5) of prisons in California with
these programs increased:
"​the recidivism rate Academic education: 33-36
for inmates in the prisons
group Vocational education: 29-36
who had most of their prisons
needs met was similar Substance abuse/anger
to that of the management/conflict
group with inmates resolution education: 0-36
who had no needs prisons (Howle 8).
met. In fact, the
two‑year
recidivism rates for
both groups of
inmates were between
 24 and
25 percent. Our
review analyzed
inmates who were
released in
fiscal year 2015–16
and, using data from
DOJ, determined
whether
those individuals
were subsequently
convicted of a
misdemeanor or
felony within two
years of release."
(Howle 14)

The group that was at

a high risk of
committing crimes
saw a 16% decrease
of recidivism when
the assigned CBT
classes were
completed. (Howle
15)

Rationale
The method of meta-analysis is the most efficient and effective way to collect data on the

topic of the factors that increase or decrease an inmate’s chance of recidivating. The research

collects data from similar studies on four different states, Maryland, Virginia, California, and

Alabama, which all examine the effects of educational classes or re-entry programs on

recidivism in their state. Since the research deals with real people, an experimental design or a

survey would raise ethical concerns, require unavailable time and resources, and a survey could

easily introduce response bias. The meta-analysis allows for the objective comparison of results

from similar research to determine correlation between specific factors in influencing the
recidivism rate. The limitations of this research design however are that it relies on existing data

being available and accurate. While the sources used are credible, they express their own

limitations. Each study has a limited scope since they focus on only the population of a specific

state. Each study also presents their results in the way that they chose to, leaving the possibility

that a confounding variable is present and unaccounted for. These limitations have the potential

to lead to conclusions that may not be able to be generalized or will not address major factors on

the topic. If performed again, a smaller scope of research would be ideal, such as recidivism rate

by county in Maryland. This study would be more reliable since the studies used for the

meta-analysis would be more similar and lead to results that are easier to compare. The

methodology of this study is able to determine similar factors which appear to limit the chance of

recidivism and indicate the extent to which they are effective. The hypothesis that participation

in an educational program as an inmate reduces the likelihood of recidivating is supported to a

degree by these sources. Each source with data available on the topic reported a statistically

significant decrease in the probability of recidivism for the group which participated in the

educational program, despite having different programs across the states. By collecting data on

the categories of state and sample population, educational classes provided, re-entry aid

provided, and recidivism rates determined, the thesis can be fully addressed.

IV. Results and Analysis

The purpose of this research is to determine the factors that make recidivism less likely.

Because of the qualitative and broad nature of the possible results, a meta-analysis is ideal. This

meta-analysis which incorporates findings from four studies on the effects of educational and

r-entry programs on the probability of recidivism addresses all parts of the research question as
well as the thesis. The thesis that the ideal rehabilitation program which would reduce the risk of

recidivism for citizens returning from prison, should include educational services, should include

aid in obtaining stable employment, and should persist over three years following release was

fully addressed by the meta-analysis. It was predicted that educational program participation as

well as re-entry program participation would be negatively correlated with the probability of

recidivism and that three years was the point at which re-entry programs begin declining in their

ability to significantly prevent recidivism.

Steurer’s study regarding Maryland inmates found that with participation in an

educational course the chance of re-arrest, re-incarceration, and re-conviction all decreased by

between 3% and 6% (Steurer). Hull’s study of Virginia inmates found an even larger difference

in the recidivism rate between participants and non-participants. ​37.9% of those who did not

complete education programs recidivated while only 20.17% of those who did participate

recidivated (Hull 259).​ This study also found that participation in a vocational educational

program is slightly more effective in reducing recidivism than participation in an academic

educational program by 2.2% (Hull 259). The study performed by Howle (et al.) of California

inmates came to a different conclusion than the Maryland, Alabama, and Virginia studies did,

reporting that despite having a slightly low rate in recidivism for the group which did participate

in the educational program, the educational programs implemented in many California prisons

are not effective and should be revisited. This does not directly support the educational

component of the thesis, but does indicate the significance of the other factors discussed in the

thesis such as that prisoner re-entry programs are needed and that they should persist over three

years, the time period in which most returned citizens recidivate. This study also strongly
implies the need for a degree of personalization of the rehabilitation program. The Corrections

department determined the need for each inmate which decided the classes and programs they

would participate in. (Howle 14) The researchers also found differences between outcomes based

on risk level, for instance, when inmates who were assessed to be at high risk completed the

assigned CBT programs, they saw a 16% decrease in the likelihood of recidivism (Howle 15).

These components of the thesis are also supported by the other studies. Each study used three

years without recidivism as the indication of success. This may also be for logistical reasons due

to the difficulty to track individuals’ progress over many years, however it is more likely that this

benchmark was chosen because of the national trend of recidivism being more likely in the first

three years after release than in later years, supporting the thesis that the rehabilitation programs

should last at least the first three years upon release.

While not all consistently coming to the same specific conclusions, the studies all support

certain common conclusions. The conclusions reached by all studies in the meta-analysis are that

recidivism levels across the country are too high and that participation in educational programs

can be expected to reduce recidivism, although not always to a statistically significant level.

Specifically, academic, financial literacy, and vocational programs all have the potential to

reduce recidivism and transitional programs as well as reentry supervision is important to the

success of a returning citizen. The knowledge found by comparing these studies in regards to the

probability of recidivism can be used to help define the ideal system for returning citizens

.
 V. Data Conclusion

These results indicate that educational programs and multi-year reentry supervision have

the potential to decrease recidivism. The central ideas of these studies and the conclusions of the

meta-analysis are supported by the other sources used for background literature review. Hall

agrees with the four studies and the connection drawn between them that participation in

educational programs will decrease the probability of recidivism. The findings of this study are

significant for the audience of case workers and those who run reentry programs at correctional

facilities. These results would allow them to take researched steps towards reducing the

recidivism rate of the area. These findings have the goal of making inmate educational programs

more common, academic, or vocational, and ultimately of making the individual likelihood of

recidivism per person lower. From here, more research needs to be done on exactly what makes

educational programs effective since results are varied in reducing recidivism. Change is also

needed at the local and federal level. Corrections facilities can use the results of this study and

related ones to support the conclusions found and begin to move forward accordingly on reentry

rehabilitation and inmate educational programs.

VI. Conclusions

Mass incarceration and recidivism are major problems in the United States, problems that

must be solved by a reevaluation of the way crime, poverty, and rehabilitation is regulated and

designed. Rehabilitation programs and policy makers must seek out ways to improve the justice

system and the situations encountered by those returning to society from prison. It is established

through research that a lack of employment, the difficulty of upward mobility, and opportunities
made available to the incarcerated during and after incarceration have strong influence on the

probability for an individual to recidivate. This meta-analysis shows that inmate educational

programs are effective in improving the probability of finding employment upon release and

decreasing the probability of recidivating. It is also indicated that programs intended to aid in

the transition back to society decrease recidivism rates over three years, the most crucial time

period for recidivating, and longer. To further the understanding of the factors which make

recidivism more and less likely it is important for research to look further into the types, lengths,

and average participants of the programs which seem to improve recidivism rates. Actions that

should be taken to prevent recidivism must occur at multiple levels. At the state and federal

level, there should be more regulation for the opportunities given to inmates such as academic,

vocational, and transitional programs. There should also be a closer evaluation of the merits of

increasing sentence lengths. In the private sector, companies and organizations should look

towards a reformation of their hiring policies so that returning citizens are able to gain

employment. Companies and organizations which are able to provide educational or transitional

services should work towards a closer partnership with the justice system to make such programs

more common and accessible. The cyclical nature of poverty, incarceration, and recidivism

makes it difficult for a lasting solution to be reached, but a stronger understanding of the causes

of recidivism and of the broad solutions provides for the potential to reform this destructive

pattern.
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