BDSA101D - Introduction To Aviation Industry PDF

(c) UNIT 20: Case Study
UP
E S,
No
t for
Re
pro
du
cti
on
/Sa
le
Introduction to Aviation Industry
le
Course Design
/Sa
Advisory Council
on
Chairman
Dr Parag Diwan
cti
Members
Dr Shrihari Dr Anirban Sengupta Dr Ashish Bhardwaj
Dean Dean CIO
du
Dr Satya Sheel Prof I M Mishra Mr M K Goel
VP – Academic Affairs Dean – IIT Roorkee Management Consultant
SLM Development Team

Wg Cdr P K Gupta
pro
Dr Joji Rao
Re
Dr Neeraj Anand
Dr K K Pandey
for
Print Production
Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Manager – Material Sr Manager – Printing
t
No
Author
Raju G
S,
All rights reserved. No parts of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from Hydrocarbon Education Research & Society.
E
UP
Course Code: BDSA-101D
Course Name: Introduction to Aviation Industry

(c)
Version: July 2013
© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

UNIT 20: Case Study
le
/Sa
Contents
on
Block-I
Unit 1 History of Aviation................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 3
cti
Unit 2 History of Aviation- Before the 20th Century................................ .............................. 9
Unit 3 History of Aviation- The Pioneer Era................................ ................................ ......... 23
Unit 4 History of Aviation – 1914 till date ................................ ................................ ............ 33
du
Unit 5 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 47
Unit 6
Block-II pro
Aviation................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 55
Unit 7 Aircraft................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 63
Re
Unit 8 Glider Aircraft................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 75
Unit 9 Helicopter................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 89
Unit 10 Case Studies................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 101
for
Block-III
Unit 11 Theory of Flight ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 107

t
No
Unit 12 Introduction to Aircraft Components ................................ ................................ ....... 115

Unit 13 History and Formation of Airlines ................................ ................................ ........... 127
Unit 14 Key Functions of Airlines ................................ ................................ ......................... 135
Unit 15 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 153
S,
Block-IV
E
Unit 16 Airport................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 163

UP
Unit 17 Airport Users - I................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 171

Unit 18 Airport Users - II ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 179
Unit 19 Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of the World - I................................ ... 189
(c)
Unit 20 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 201

le
Block-V
/Sa
Unit 21 Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of the World - II ................................ . 213
Unit 22 Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of India ................................ ............... 235
Unit 23 The Aircraft Act 1934 - I................................ ................................ ........................... 249
on
Unit 24 The Aircraft Act, 1934 - II ................................ ................................ ........................ 259
Unit 25 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 271
cti
Glossary................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 275
du
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 1: History of Aviation
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-I
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 1: HISTORY OF AVIATION
___________________ UNIT 3: HISTORY OF AVIATION – THE PIONEER
ERA
 Introduction
___________________  Introduction
 The Prehistory of Powered Flight
___________________  1900 to 1914 (The “Pioneer Era”)
on
 The First Engine
___________________  The Wright Brothers
UNIT 2: HISTORY OF AVIATION – BEFORE THE
___________________  Other Early Flights
20TH CENTURY
cti
___________________
 Introduction UNIT 4: HISTORY OF AVIATION – 1914 TILL DATE
 ___________________
Before the 20th Century  Introduction
___________________
du
 Advancement in and around 19th century  1914 - 1918: World War I
___________________  1918 - 1939 (The “Golden Age”)
___________________  1939 - 1945: World War II
pro


1945 - 1991: The Cold War
2001-Future
UNIT 5: CASE STUDY

Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Make___________________
a presentation on the
History of Aviation history of aviation.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
cti
 History of aviation ___________________
 The Prehistory of Powered Flight ___________________
 The First Engine
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
From the earliest days, humans have dreamed of flying and have
attempted to achieve it. Greek and Roman mythology have
examples of gods who were gifted with flight. Daedalus and Icarus
flew through the air, and Icarus died when he flew too close to the
Re
sun. Religions relate stories of chariots that fly through the air and
winged angels that join humans with the heavens. Flying
creatures that were half human and half beast appear in legends.
Birds and fantastic winged creatures pulled boats and other
for
vehicles through the air.
The Prehistory of Powered Flight

t
The ancient Chinese invented spinning toys that were the earliest
No
helicopters, and their designs may have influenced Leonardo da

Vinci, one of the world’s greatest inventors, artists, and
visionaries. Chinese records also speak of human attempts to sail
through the air by attaching themselves to kites—one of the most
S,
significant inventions leading to flight which, with its inclined

wing, evolved into the airfoil.
E
Leonardo discovered and analysed several of the basic principles of

aerodynamics and physics and designed machines (but, in most
UP
cases, did not fly them) that applied these principles. He wrote
prolifically, and it was only because his written works were lost for
centuries that his influence on other inventors was not greater
(c)
than it was. His writings included hundreds of sketches that

illustrated his observations of flight in nature and the inventions
he designed. He wrote and drew on key problems of aeronautics,
le
including action and reaction; the structure of wings, carrying
Notes surfaces, and landing gear; and even devices for directional control.
/Sa
___________________
Others in the next centuries took tentative steps toward flight.
___________________ Various individuals tried to imitate the motion of birds and built
___________________ apparatus with flapping wings called ornithopters. Sometimes they
on
attached wings to their arms and sometimes also their legs. Some
___________________
mounted winged devices that they manipulated in various ways
___________________ and occasionally added foot-pedal power. Although a few were able
cti
___________________ to travel short distances, others died when they jumped off roofs or
towers and they and their devices crashed to the ground. Other
___________________
experimenters tried gliding rather than flapping. In general, these
___________________
du
were more successful than the flapping efforts, although the
___________________ distances were still very short. In any case, many claimed to have
___________________ flown but, not surprisingly, few had witnesses or could offer proof.
pro
The first experimenter who actually analysed the various forces
that contributed to flight was the Englishman George Cayley at
the end of the eighteenth century. Cayley identified and defined
the forces of flight and sketched out an airplane that had the
Re
primary elements of a modern aircraft. Cayley defined the
principles of mechanical flight and stated that, to fly, it was
necessary for surfaces to be able to support a weight by applying
“power to the resistance of air.” In other words, the force that
for
moved an object in a forward direction had to be greater than the

opposite force (resistance or drag) that the air exerted on an object.
His “On Aerial Navigation” was one of the important early works
on aviation. He also introduced the scientific method to the study
t
No
of aviation—stressing careful analysis of problems and thorough

testing. In the mid-nineteenth century, he demonstrated these
principles with glider models that actually were able to carry the
weight of a passenger a short distance. Cayley also experimented
with variously shaped wings and demonstrated the importance
S,
that wing shape had on the ability of an aircraft to generate the lift
that kept it afloat.
E
Cayley’s work influenced inventors for at least the next fifty years.
UP
Both unpowered gliders and planes that were powered by engines

were attempted. Gliders were built that progressively could fly
farther and farther and over which the pilots gradually gained
control. Some of these gliders were outlandish-looking devices with
(c)
various types of wing designs that had one, two, three, or even
more flying surfaces. Some had short stubby wings while others
le
had wings that were extremely long and narrow. In France, the
founding of the first aeronautical society, the Socite Arostatique et Notes
Activity
/Sa
Mtorologique de France, in 1852, marked the recognition of
With___________________
the help of the internet
aviation as a legitimate discipline. Louis Charles Letur built and view some pictures of the first
___________________
aircraft engine.
tested a parachute-glider, which was the first pilot-controlled
machine to be tested in flight. Michel Loup, Jean-Marie LeBris, ___________________
on
and others built flying machines that were modelled after birds. ___________________
Inventors added engines to their gliders or balloons to provide ___________________
cti
forward motion as they became available or built new designs that ___________________
were meant to use the power provided by an engine.
___________________
Check Your Progress
du
___________________
Fill in the blanks: ___________________
1. ……………………….. records also speak of human ___________________

pro
attempts to sail through the air by attaching themselves
to kites
2. ……………….. identified and defined the forces of flight
Re
and sketched out an airplane that had the primary
elements of a modern aircraft.
The First Engine

for
The first engines were steam-driven and generally were too heavy
to provide enough power for effective lift in relation to their weight
of the apparatus they were meant to power. In England, William
t
Henson designed and patented the Aerial Steam Carriage, a

No
powered device that was based on Cayley’s doctrines. It was never

built, but the steam engine that was designed to power it was
judged the best that had been built up to that time.
However, inventors had more success when an engine was used
S,
with a balloon. The year 1852 marked the first time a powered
device had been applied to an airframe—in this case, it was Henri
Giffard’s airship that was driven by a three horsepower steam
E
engine. Two decades later, Flix Du Temple built a steam-powered

UP
monoplane that managed to rise a few feet off the ground—the

first powered fixed-wing aircraft that carried a passenger, albeit
down a slope. Thomas Moy built an Aerial Steam Carriage that
was a monoplane powered by a steam engine that lifted a few
(c)
inches off the ground. These aircraft displayed various types of

propeller assemblies that were all sizes. Other inventors, such as
le
Alphonse Pénaud, used twisted rubber strips, basically a rubber
Notes band, to propel their flying machines. He developed theories about
/Sa
___________________ wing contours that he successfully applied to model airplanes,
helicopters, and ornithopters. He also designed an amphibian
___________________
monoplane that anticipated features that were implemented later.
___________________
But he committed suicide before the design took real shape. Others
on
___________________ used compressed air to generate thrust, and one inventor used
___________________ gunpowder to power a propeller. Others reshaped wing to make
them more aerodynamically effective and generate more lift.
cti
___________________
The final advances before the achievements of the Wright brothers
___________________
took place in Europe in the last decade of the nineteenth century.
___________________
du
The first was that of the French Clment Ader who flew one
___________________ machine more than 150 feet (50 meters) but only inches off the
___________________ ground and a second about ten feet (three meters) off the ground.
pro
He claimed he was the first to fly, but others categorized his
achievements as mere “hops.”
The second, and more significant development, was that of the
German engineer Otto Lilienthal, who was the first to launch
Re
himself into the air and fly. He built monoplane, biplane, and
triplane gliders--eighteen variations in all--and conducted
experiment after experiment that tested their flying abilities. He
earned the title the “father of aerial testing” with his more than
for
two thousand glider flights, some which covered distances of over a

thousand feet (300 meters) before he died as a result of a crash
landing in 1896.
t
The American Octave Chanute also was a major figure at the end
No
of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries.

Chanute, a respected and successful engineer and bridge builder,
documented the efforts of others who had experimented with
aviation, whether they had been successful or were abject failures.
S,
He was the first aviation historian and lent his considerable

reputation and analytical skills to publicizing and adding
respectability to the burgeoning discipline. He also constructed and
E
flew gliders with his colleague Augustus Herring along the shores
UP
of Lake Michigan near Chicago, Illinois. Chanute served as a

friend and mentor to the Wright brothers and encouraged them in
their efforts.
The final unsuccessful attempt at powered flight occurred in the
(c)
United States. Samuel Pierpont Langley, astronomer and

secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, tested
le
several small models that were powered by gasoline engines. These
were successful and he was encouraged to try a full-size plane Notes
/Sa
called an Aerodrome. He attempted two launches in 1903, just ___________________
days before the Wright brothers made their first powered flight,
___________________
from a houseboat anchored in the Potomac River near Washington,
D.C. Both attempts were unsuccessful. ___________________
on
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
cti
___________________
1. The year …………… marked the first time a powered
___________________
device had been applied to an airframe.
du
___________________
2. …………………… built a steam-powered monoplane that
managed to rise a few feet off the ground—the first ___________________
powered fixed-wing aircraft that carried a passenger, ___________________

albeit down a slope.
3. ………………….. built an Aerial Steam Carriage that
pro
was a monoplane powered by a steam engine that lifted
Re
a few inches off the ground.
Summary
for
Aviation is defined as the design, manufacture, use, or operation of

aircraft - in which the term aircraft refers to any vehicle capable of
flight. Aircraft can either be heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air:
lighter-than-air craft including balloons and airships, and heavier-
t
than-air craft including airplanes, autogiros, gliders, helicopters,

No
and ornithopters.
For centuries man has dreamed to soar with the birds. Famous
inventors such as Leonardo da Vinci, John Stringfellow, and
Lawrence Hargrave have conjured up ideas of how to get some of
S,
the strangest machines to fly long before the Wright brothers'

famous first flight at Kitty Hawk.
E
Lesson End Activity

UP
With the help of internet, collect pictures of early aircraft and

paste them in a scrap book.
(c)
le
Keywords
Notes
Aerial Steam Carriage: It is a powered device that was based on
/Sa
___________________
Cayley’s doctrines.
___________________
Balloon: A non-power-driven and lighter-than-air aircraft.
___________________
on
Monoplane: A form of an aeroplane whose main supporting
___________________
surface is a single wing extending equally on each side of the body.
___________________
Ornithopters: Apparatus with flapping wings.
cti
___________________
___________________
Questions for Discussion
___________________
du
1. Write a short note on history of aviation.
___________________
2. Who was Leonardo da Vinci? Explain his contributions to the
___________________
aviation industry.
3.
pro
Describe the process of invention of the first engine.
Further Readings
Re
Books
Wald, A. et al (2010) Introduction to Aviation Management, Gleich
for
LIT Verlag Münster.

Belobaba, P. et al (2009) The Global Airline Industry, John Wiley
& Sons.
Taneja, Nawal K. (1987) Introduction to civil aviation, Lexington
t
No
Books.
Ravi Kumar, V. V. (2006) Indian aviation industry: opportunities
and challenges, ICFAI University Press.
Cento, Alessandro (2009) The Airline Industry: Challenges in the
S,
21st Century, Physica Verlag Heidelberg.

E
Web Readings
http://www.globalaircraft.org/history_of_aviation.htm
UP
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/shiva_p5oauthor-
157474-aviation-history-education-ppt-powerpoint/
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/historyoffli
(c)
ght.html
UNIT 2: History of Aviation- Before the 20th Century
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
History of Aviation- Before the ___________________
20th Century ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Concept of Groups
du
 Before the 20th century ___________________
 Advancement in and around 19th century ___________________
___________________
Introduction pro
Aviation history deals with the development of mechanical flight,
including early attempts and practical aviation since the Wright
Re
brothers’ demonstration of sustained, controlled and powered
heavier-than-air flight on December 17, 1903.
Humanity’s desire to fly likely dates to the first time man observed
birds, an observation illustrated in the legendary story of Daedalus
for
and Icarus. Daedalus was imprisoned on the island of Crete by

king Minos, and so built wings out of feathers and wax for himself
and his son. Much of the focus of early research was on imitating
birds, but through trial and error, balloons, airships, gliders and
t
No
eventually aircraft and types of flying machines were invented.

Aircraft designers have struggled to make their craft go faster,
further, fly higher, and be controlled more easily.
 Aircraft engines have become more efficient and more
S,
powerful, from steam to piston, jet and rocket engines.

 Aircraft have become more streamlined and their materials
E
stronger and lighter. Initially aircraft were made of canvas

and wood. Then doped fabric replaced canvas, and steel tubing
UP
replaced wood. All aluminium monocoque construction became

dominant during WWII. Today, aircraft are and increasingly
made of composite materials, especially carbon fibre, which is
(c)
prized for its light weight and strength, as well as its ability to
be formed into any shape.
le
 The methods used to control aircraft continue to advance.
Notes
Activity Initially gliders were controlled by moving one’s entire body
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on the history of (Otto Lilienthal) or warping the wings (Wright brothers).
aviation before 20th century.
___________________ Modern airplanes are controlled with the help of computers
___________________ and avionics, which can, like the brain of a bird, help with
on
stabilizing shapes in flight. Modern fighter aircraft are
___________________
completely optimized for manoeuvring and are not stable in
___________________ flight without constant input from the on-board computer.
cti
___________________
___________________ Before the 20th Century

___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
Figure 2.1: Leonardo da Vinci’s Ornithopter body
List of Early Flying Machines and First Flying Machine

for
The Kongming lantern (proto hot air balloon) was invented around
the 2nd or 3rd Century BC.
In 559, the first documented attempt at human flight by means of
kite according to the Comprehensive Mirror for the Aid of
t
Government.
No
During the 9th century, the Muslim Moors Armen Firman and
Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas are known to have built and flown gliders.
Eilmer of Malmesbury did the same in circa 1010, flying over 200
S,
meters, possibly inspired by the description in the story of

Daedalus.
E
Upon visiting China in the 13th century, Marco Polo brought back
stories of human-carrying kites (which stay aloft via the wind’s
UP
power but are tethered to the ground) and flying tops. “Pao Phu
Tau” was a 4th century Chinese book containing some ideas
related to rotary wing aircraft (Bamboo-copters).
(c)
Roughly 2 centuries later, in the 15th century renaissance that

Polo’s journey presaged, Leonardo da Vinci designed an aircraft (a
glider – his drawings still exist). The aircraft was never built by
le
Leonardo but its plans were preserved, and it was constructed in
the late 20th century from materials that would have been Notes
/Sa
available to him. The design was deemed flight worthy and the ___________________
prototype actually flew, but the design was interpreted with
___________________
modern knowledge of aerodynamic principles. (Leonardo also
sketched designs for a helicopter, but this design would not have ___________________
on
flown.) ___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
Figure 2.2: Leonardo da Vinci’s Ornithopters Wings
In the 17th century Turkish scientist Lagari Hasan Çelebi

for
launched himself in the air in a rocket, which was composed of a

large cage with a conical top filled with gunpowder. The flight was
accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of
Ottoman Emperor Murat IV’s daughter.
t
No
He is believed to have made a soft landing in the Bosporus and was

rewarded by the sultan with a valuable military position in the
Ottoman army. The flight was estimated to have lasted about
twenty seconds and the maximum height reached around 300
meters.
S,
In 1638, his brother, Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi used wings of his

design to fly across the Bosphorus. He jumped off the Galata Tower
E
(55m high) in Europe, flew a distance of about 3km, and landed on

UP
the Asian side, uninjured.

In 1670 Francesco Lana de Terzi published work that suggested
lighter than air flight would be possible by having copper foil
spheres that contained a vacuum that would be lighter than the
(c)
displaced air, lift an airship (rather literal from his drawing).

le
While not being completely off the mark, he did fail to realize that
Notes the pressure of the surrounding air would smash the spheres.
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Figure 2.3: The 1884 La France, the First Fully Controllable Airship
Although many people think of human flight as beginning with the

aircraft in the early 1900s, in fact people had already been flying
Re
for some 200 years.
The first generally recognized human flight took place in Paris in
1783. Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent
d’Arlandes went 5 miles (8 km) in a hot air balloon invented by the
for
Montgolfier brothers. The balloon was powered by a wood fire, and

was not steerable: that is, it flew wherever the wind took it.
t
No
E S,
UP
Figure 2.4: The navigable balloon created by Giffard in 1852
Ballooning became a major “rage” in Europe in the late 18th

century, providing the first detailed understanding of the
relationship between altitude and the atmosphere.
(c)
Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon (now called an

airship) continued sporadically throughout the 1800s. The first
le
powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air flight is generally
believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 Notes
/Sa
miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine driven craft. ___________________
Another notable advance was made in 1884, when the first fully ___________________
controllable free-flight was made in a French Army electric
___________________
on
powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs.
The 170 foot long, 66,000 cubic foot airship covered 8 km (5 miles) ___________________
in 23 minutes with the aid of an 8-1/2 horsepower electric motor. ___________________
cti
However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and extremely ___________________
frail. Routine, controlled flights would not come to pass until the ___________________
advent of the internal combustion engine (see below.)
du
___________________
Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and
___________________
continue on a limited basis to this day, their development has been
___________________
largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air craft.
pro
Re
t for
No
S,
Figure 2.5: Sir George Cayley’s Governable Parachute

E
The first published paper on aviation was “Sketch of a Machine for

Flying in the Air” by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. This
UP
flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong

canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a
horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no
resistance while the down stroke provided lifting power.
(c)
Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it
as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He
le
Activity said, “It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into
Notes actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists
Make a presentation on the
/Sa
history of flight in and around
___________________ in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest
19th century.
a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and
___________________
requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come someone might
___________________
know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition to
on
___________________ be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet
___________________ there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such
flights can take place without danger, although when the first
cti
___________________
trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not
___________________ mind an arm or leg.” Swedenborg would prove prescient in his
___________________ observation that powering the aircraft through the air was the
du
___________________
crux of flying.
___________________ Check Your Progress

pro
Fill in the blanks:
1. The ………………………. lantern (proto hot air balloon)
was invented around the 2nd or 3rd Century BC.
Re
2. The first generally recognized human flight took place in
………………… in 1783.
3. The first published paper on aviation was “Sketch of a
for
Machine for Flying in the Air” by ……………………..

published in 1716.
Advancement in and Around 19th Century

t
No
During the last years of the 18th century, Sir George Cayley
started the first rigorous study of the physics of flight. In 1799 he
exhibited a plan for a glider, which except for planform was
completely modern in having a separate tail for control and having
the pilot suspended below the centre of gravity to provide stability,
S,
and flew it as a model in 1804. Over the next five decades Cayley
worked on and off on the problem, during which he invented most
E
of basic aerodynamics and introduced such terms as lift and drag.

He used both internal and external combustion engines, fuelled by
UP
gunpowder, but it was left to Alphonse Penaud to make powering

models simple, with rubber power. Later Cayley turned his
research to building a full-scale version of his design, first flying it
(c)
unmanned in 1849, and in 1853 his coachman made a short flight

at Brompton, near Scarborough in Yorkshire.
le
In 1848, John Stringfellow had a successful test flight of a steam-
Notes
powered model, in Chard, Somerset, England. This was
/Sa
‘unmanned’. ___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
Figure 2.6: Model of Jan Wnęk’s glider. Kraków Museum of Ethnography ___________________
In 1866 a Polish peasant, sculptor and carpenter by the name of ___________________

Jan Wnęk built and flew a controllable glider. Wnęk was illiterate
du
___________________
and self-taught, and could only count on his knowledge about
___________________
nature based on observation of birds’ flight and on his own builder
and carver skills. Jan Wnęk was firmly strapped to his glider by ___________________
pro
the chest and hips and controlled his glider by twisting the wing’s
trailing edge via strings attached to stirrups at his feet. Church
records indicate that Jan Wnęk launched from a special ramp on
Re
top of the Odporyszów church tower; The tower stood 45 m high
and was located on top of a 50 m hill, making a 95 m (311 ft) high
launch above the valley below. Jan Wnęk made several public
flights of substantial distances between 1866 - 1869, especially
for
during religious festivals, carnivals and New Year celebrations.

Wnęk left no known written records or drawings, thus having no
impact on aviation progress. Recently, Professor Tadeusz Seweryn,
director of the Kraków Museum of Ethnography, has unearthed
t
church records with descriptions of Jan Wnęk’s activities.

No
E S,
Figure 2.7: Jean-Marie Le Bris and his Flying Machine, Albatros II,
Photographed by Pépin fils (Pépin jr), a Brestman Photographer, 1868.
UP
In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first flight

higher than his point of departure, by having his glider “L’Albatros
artificiel” pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a
height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters.
(c)
In 1874, Félix du Temple built the “Monoplane”, a large plane

made of aluminium in Brest, France, with a wingspan of 13 meters
le
and a weight of only 80 kilograms (without the driver). Several
Notes trials were made with the plane, and it is generally recognized that
/Sa
___________________ it achieved lift off under its own power after a ski-jump run, glided
for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the
___________________
first successful powered flight in history, although the flight was
___________________
only a short distance and a short time.
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Figure 2.8: Félix du Temple’s 1874 Monoplane
Another person who advanced the art of flying was Francis

Herbert Wenham, who unsuccessfully attempted to build a series
Re
of unmanned gliders. During his work he found that the majority
of the lift from a bird-like wing appeared to be generated at the
front, and concluded that long, thin wings would be better than the
bat-like ones suggested by many, because they would have more
for
leading edge for their weight. Today this measure is known as

aspect ratio. He presented a paper on his work to the newly formed
Royal Aeronautical Society of Great Britain in 1866, and decided to
prove it by building the world’s first wind tunnel in 1871. Members
t
of the Society used the tunnel and learned that cambered wings
No
generated considerably more lift than expected by Cayley’s

Newtonian reasoning, with lift-to-drag ratios of about 5:1 at 15
degrees. This clearly demonstrated the ability to build practical
heavier-than-air flying machines; what remained was the problem
of powering them, and controlling the flight.
S,
The 1880s became a period of intense study, characterized by the

E
“gentleman scientists” who represented most research efforts until

the 20th century. Starting in the 1880s advancements were made
UP
in construction that led to the first truly practical gliders. Three

people in particular were active: Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher and
Octave Chanute. One of the first truly modern gliders appears to
have been built by John J. Montgomery; it flew in a controlled
(c)
manner outside of San Diego on August 28, 1883. It was not until
many years later that his efforts became well known. Another
le
delta hang-glider had been constructed by Wilhelm Kress as early
as 1877 near Vienna. Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
Figure 2.8: Otto Lilienthal, one of the First Men to Glide ___________________
in a Heavier than air Machine
du
___________________
Otto Lilienthal of Germany duplicated Wenham’s work and greatly
___________________
expanded on it in 1874, publishing all of his research in 1889. He
also produced a series of ever-better gliders, and in 1891 was able ___________________
pro
to make flights of 25 meters or more routinely. He rigorously
documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is
one of the best known of the early pioneers. He also promoted the
idea of “jumping before you fly”, suggesting that researchers
Re
should start with gliders and work their way up, instead of simply
designing a powered machine on paper and hoping it would work.
His type of aircraft is now known as a hang glider.
for
Lilienthal knew that once an engine was attached to the plane it

would be nearly impossible to further study the laws of aviation.
The finding and describing of many of those laws were his greatest
heritage to his successors, as they were able to construct their
t
planes accordingly and thereby saves themselves years of trial and

No
error.
By the time of his death in 1896 he had made 2500 flights on a
number of designs, when a gust of wind broke the wing of his latest
design, causing him to fall from a height of roughly 56 ft (17 m),
S,
fracturing his spine. He died the next day, with his last words
being “sacrifices must be made”. Lilienthal had been working on
E
small engines suitable for powering his designs at the time of his
death.
UP
Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up

aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded the
development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896 his troop
(c)
flew several of their designs many times at Miller Beach, Indiana,

eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design that looks
le
surprisingly modern. Like Lilienthal, he heavily documented his
Notes work while photographing it, and was busy corresponding with
/Sa
___________________ like-minded hobbyists around the world. Chanute was particularly
interested in solving the problem of natural stability of the aircraft
___________________
in flight, one which birds corrected for by instinct, but one that
___________________
humans would have to do manually. The most disconcerting
on
___________________ problem was longitudinal stability, because as the angle of attack
___________________ of a wing increased, the centre of pressure moved forward and
made the angle increase more. Without immediate correction, the
cti
___________________
craft would pitch up and stall.
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
Figure 2.9: Patent Drawings of Clément Ader’s Eole, which Accomplished
the first Self-propelled Flight in History
tfor
No
figure 2.10: Clément Ader ‘Avion III (1897 Photograph)
Throughout this period, a number of attempts were made to

produce a true powered aircraft. However the majority of these
efforts were doomed to failure, being designed by hobbyists who
S,
did not have a full understanding of the problems being discussed

by Lilienthal and Chanute.
E
In France Clément Ader successfully launched his steam powered

Eole for a short 50 meter flight near Paris in 1890, making it the
UP
first self-propelled “long distance” flight in history. After this test

he immediately turned to a larger design, which took five years to
build. However, this design, the Avion III, was too heavy and was
(c)
barely able to leave the ground. The plane reportedly managed to

fly a distance of 300 meters, at a small height.
le
Sir Hiram Maxim studied a series of designs in England,
Notes
eventually building a monstrous 7,000 lb (3,175 kg) design with a
/Sa
wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), powered by two advanced low weight ___________________
steam engines which delivered 180 hp (134 kW) each. Maxim built ___________________
it to study the basic problems of construction and power and it
___________________
on
remained without controls, and, realizing that it would be unsafe
to fly, he instead had a 1,800 foot (550 m) track constructed for test ___________________
runs. After a number of test runs working out problems, on July ___________________
cti
31, 1894 they started a series of runs at increasing power settings. ___________________
The first two were successful, with the craft “flying” on the rails. In
___________________
the afternoon the crew of three fired the boilers to full power, and
du
after reaching over 42 mph (68 km/h) about 600 ft (180 m) down ___________________
the track the machine produced so much lift it pulled itself free of ___________________
the track and crashed after flying at low altitudes for about 200
___________________
pro
feet (60 m). Declining fortunes left him unable to continue his work
until the 1900s, when he was able to test a number of smaller
designs powered by gasoline.
Another less successful early experimenter was Samuel Pierpont
Re
Langley. After a distinguished career in astronomy and a tenure at
the Smithsonian Institution, Langley started a serious
investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of
Pittsburgh. In 1891 he published Experiments in Aerodynamics
for
detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. On

May 6, 1896, Langley’s Aerodrome No.5 made the first successful
flight of an unpiloted, engine driven heavier-than-air craft of
substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult
t
No
mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near

Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of
1,005 m (3,300 ft) and a second of 700 m (2,300 ft), at a speed of
approximately 25 miles per hour.
S,
On November 28, 1896, another successful flight was made with

the Aerodrome No.6. This flight was witnessed and photographed
by Alexander Graham Bell. It was flown a distance of
E
approximately 1,460 m (4,790 ft).

UP
In the United Kingdom an attempt at heavier-than-air flight was

made by the aviation pioneer Percy Pilcher. Pilcher had built
several working gliders, The Bat, The Beetle, The Gull and The
Hawk, which he flew successfully during the mid to late 1890s. In
(c)
1899 he constructed a prototype powered aircraft which, recent

research has shown, would have been capable of flight. However,
le
he died in a glider accident before he was able to test it, and his
Notes plans were forgotten for many years.
/Sa
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
on
1. During the last years of the 18th century, ……………….
___________________
started the first rigorous study of the physics of flight.
___________________
2. In 1848, …………… had a successful test flight of a
cti
___________________
steam-powered model, in Chard, Somerset, England.
___________________
3. One of the first truly modern gliders appears to have
___________________
du
been built by ………………
___________________ 4. In France, ……………. successfully launched his steam
___________________ powered Eole for a short 50 meter flight near Paris in
1890. pro
Summary
Re
Modern aerospace began way back with Sir George Cayley in 1799
when he proposed an aircraft with a fixed wing and a horizontal
and vertical tail, defining characteristics of modern airplane. The
19th century saw the creation of the Aeronautical Society of Great
for
Britain, the American Rocketry Society, and the Institute of

Aeronautical Sciences, all of which made aeronautics a more
serious scientific discipline. Airmen like Otto Lilienthal, who
introduced cambered airfoils in 1891, used gliders to analyze
t
aerodynamic forces.
No
Lesson End Activity

With the help of the internet, prepare a chart on the evolution of
S,
aviation.
Keywords
E

UP
Monoplane: A form of an aeroplane whose main supporting

surface is a single wing extending equally on each side of the body.
Pao Phu Tau: It was a 4th century Chinese book containing some
(c)
ideas related to rotary wing aircraft (Bamboo-copters).

le
Notes
1. Write a short note on the achievements of Otto Lilienthal,
/Sa
___________________
Percy Pilcher and Octave Chanute.
___________________
2. What was the status of aviation industry before 20th century?
___________________
on
3. It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into
___________________
actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than
exists in a human body. Comment. ___________________
cti
___________________
Further Readings ___________________
du
___________________
Books
___________________
___________________
pro
& Sons.
Re
Books.
for

Web Readings
t
No
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-
S,
12/UEET/StudentSite/historyofflight.html
E
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 3: History of Aviation- The Pioneer Era
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Prepare a timeline of the
History of Aviation- The Pioneer events in the aviation history
from___________________
1900 to 1914.
Era ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 1900 to 1914 (The “Pioneer Era”)
du
 The Wright Brothers ___________________
 Other Early Flights ___________________
___________________
Introduction
The century following Kitty Hawk has been filled with amazing
pro
accomplishments in aviation, but it was the first dozen years that
Re
laid the foundation for this adventure. These were the years of the
"firsts" – the first kilometre, the first circle, the first international
flight, the first air mail; the first bomb dropped, the first airline,
and so on. During this time aviation records were shattered daily
for
as each pilot who went aloft flew higher, further, longer, or faster
than pilots had flown before. With each milestone passed, new
possibilities for this versatile invention presented themselves. In
1903, there was only "the airplane," but during this short period of
t
pioneer aviation the raw metal of the airplane was forged into a
No
dozen different flying machines that quickly became essential for

the way we conduct war and peace, over land and water.
1900 to 1914 (The “Pioneer Era”)

S,
The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were non-rigid

airships (later called “blimps”.) The most successful early pioneer
E
of this type of aircraft was the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont.

UP
Santos-Dumont effectively combined a balloon with an internal

combustion engine. On October 19, 1901 he became world famous
when he flew his airship “Number 6” over Paris from the Parc
Saint Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back in under thirty
(c)
minutes to win the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. After this

triumph in airships, Santos-Dumont would go on to design and
le
build several aircraft. The subsequent controversy surrounding his
Notes and others’ competing claims with regard to aircraft would come to
/Sa
___________________ overshadow and obscure his unparalleled contributions to the
development of airships.
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
Figure 3.1: Santos-Dumont #6 rounding the Eiffel Tower in the process of
winning the Deutsch Prize. (Photo courtesy of the Smithsonian
Institution (SI Neg. No. 85-3941)
At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have

for
some success, rigid airships were also becoming more advanced.

Indeed, rigid body dirigibles would be far more capable than fixed
wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying capacity for decades.
Dirigible design and advancement was brought about by the
German count, Ferdinand von Zeppelin.
t
No
Construction of the first Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in a

floating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of Manzell,
Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the starting procedure,
as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype
S,
airship LZ 1 (LZ for “Luftschiff Zeppelin”) had a length of 128 m,

was driven by two 14.2 ps (10.6 kW) Daimler engines and balanced
by moving a weight between its two nacelles.
E
The first Zeppelin flight occurred on July 2, 1900. It lasted for only
UP
18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the

winding mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon
repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent flights,
beating the 6 m/s velocity record of French airship La France by 3
(c)
m/s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It would be

le
several years before the Count was able to raise enough funds for
another try. Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
Figure 3.2: Aviation Experiment on the Potomac River, ___________________

1903, by Samuel Pierpont Langley.
___________________
On May 6, 1896, Langley’s Aerodrome No.5 made the first pro
successful flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air
craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated
catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near
Re
Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of
1,005 m (3,300 ft) and a second of 700 m (2,300 ft), at a speed of
approximately 25 miles per hour. On both occasions, the
Aerodrome No.5 landed in the water, as planned, because, in order
for
to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear.

On November 28, 1896, another successful flight was made with
the Aerodrome No.6. This flight was witnessed and photographed
t
by Alexander Graham Bell. It was flown a distance of

No
approximately 1,460 m (4,790 ft). The Aerodrome No.6 was

actually Aerodrome No.4 greatly modified. So little remained of the
original aircraft that it was given the new designation of
Aerodrome No.6.
S,
With the success of the Aerodrome No. 5 and its follow-on No. 6,
Langley started looking for funding to build a full-scale man-
E
carrying version of his designs. He succeeded in winning $50,000

in funding from the government, perhaps spurred on by the recent
UP
opening of the Spanish-American War. Langley planned on

building a scaled-up version known as the Aerodrome A, and
started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, which flew
twice on June 18, 1901, and then again with a newer and more
(c)
powerful engine in 1903.

le
With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then
Notes
Activity turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He contracted Stephen
/Sa
___________________
Write a biography on Wright Balzer to build him one, but was disappointed when it delivered
brothers.
___________________ only 8 horsepower (6 kW) instead of 12 hp (9 kW) as he expected.
___________________ Langley’s assistant, Charles M. Manly, then reworked the design
on
into a five-cylinder water-cooled radial that delivered 52
___________________
horsepower (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate.
___________________ Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together
cti
___________________ with great hopes.
___________________ To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. He

___________________
had apparently overlooked the effects of minimum gauge, and
du
simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design
___________________
that was too heavy to hold itself up. Two launches in late 1903
___________________ both ended with the Aerodrome crashing into the water almost
pro
immediately after launch.
His attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended --
only weeks later the Wright brothers successfully flew their aptly-
Re
named Flyer. (Glenn Curtiss made several modifications to the
Aerodrome and successfully flew it in 1914 -- the Smithsonian
Institution thus continued to boast that Langley’s Aerodrome was
the first machine “capable of flight”.)
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were
t
…………………….. airships (later called “blimps”.)

No
2. Construction of the first …………………… airship began

in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake Constance in
the Bay of Manzell, Friedrichshafen.
S,
3. The first Zeppelin flight occurred on ……………….

E
The Wright Brothers

Following Lilienthal’s principles of jumping before flying, the
UP
brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from
1900 to 1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The
gliders worked but not as well as the Wrights had expected based
(c)
on the experiments and writings of their 19th century

predecessors. Their first glider, launched in 1900, had only about
le
half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the
following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, Notes
/Sa
the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and created a ___________________
number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the
___________________
200 wing designs they tested. As a result, the Wrights corrected
earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift, though ___________________
on
they missed the effect of Reynolds number (known since 1883), ___________________
which would have given them an even bigger advantage. Their
___________________
testing and calculating produced a third glider design, which they
cti
___________________
flew in 1902. It performed far better than the previous models. In
the end, by establishing their rigorous system of designing, wind- ___________________
tunnel testing of models and flight testing of full-size prototypes,
du
___________________
the Wrights not only built a working aircraft but also helped
___________________
advance the modern science of aeronautical engineering.
___________________
pro
Re
for
Figure 3.3: The Wright Flyer: the First Sustained Flight with a Powered,
Controlled Aircraft
t
The Wrights appear to be the first design team to make serious

No
studied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and control

problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost
interest. Eventually, they designed and built an engine that could
provide the needed power, and solved the control problem through
S,
a system known as “wing warping”. Although this method was

used only briefly during the history of aviation, it worked at the
E
low airspeeds their designs would fly at, and proved to be a key
advance, leading directly to modern ailerons. While many aviation
UP
pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights’

design was greatly influenced by the need to teach themselves to
fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving
crashes. This, not lack of power, was the reason for the low speed
(c)
and for taking off in a head wind. It was also the reason for the
rear-heavy design, for the canard, and for the anhedral wings.
le
The Wrights made the first sustained, controlled and powered
Notes
Activity heavier-than-air flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, a town
/Sa
___________________
Write short biographies of five miles down the road from Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on
early fliers with the help of
___________________
internet. December 17, 1903
___________________ The first flight by Orville Wright, of 121 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds,
on
___________________ was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the
same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. The
___________________
flights were witnessed by 4 lifesavers and a boy from the village,
cti
___________________ making them the first public flights and certainly the first well-
___________________ documented ones.
___________________ The telegram station the Wright Brothers used to send their
du
___________________ message of successful, sustained, powered flight is now a
restaurant named “The Black Pelican.”
___________________
pro
Fill in the blanks:
Check Your Progress
1. The ……………. appear to be the first design team to

Re
make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve
the power and control problems.
2. The first flight by Orville Wright, of 121 feet (37 m) in
for
………………… seconds, was recorded in a famous

photograph.
Other Early Flights

t
At the time, a number of other inventors had made (or claimed to

No
have made) short flights. Gustave Whitehead reported that he had

flown a powered aircraft on 14 August, 1901. He failed to
document the flight, but a later replica of his Number 21 was flown
successfully. Lyman Gilmore also claimed to have achieved success
S,
on 15 May, 1902. In New Zealand, South Canterbury farmer and

inventor Richard Pearse constructed a monoplane aircraft that he
E
reputedly flew on March 31 1903. However, even Pearse himself

admitted the flight was uncontrolled and ended in a crash-landing
UP
on a hedge without having gained any altitude.

Karl Jatho conducted a short motorized flight in August 1903, just
a few months after Pearse. Jatho’s wing design and airspeed did
(c)
not allow his control surfaces to act properly to control the aircraft.
le
Also in the summer of 1903, eyewitnesses claimed to have seen
Notes
Preston Watson make his initial flights at Errol, near Dundee in
/Sa
the east of Scotland. Once again, however, lack of photographic or ___________________
documentary evidence makes the claim difficult to verify. Many ___________________
claims of flight are complicated by the fact that many early flights
___________________
on
were done at such low altitude that they did not clear the ground
effect, and by the complexities involved in the differences between ___________________
unpowered and powered aircraft. ___________________
cti
The Wright Brothers conducted numerous additional public flights ___________________
(over 80) in 1904 and 1905 from Huffman Prairie in Dayton, Ohio ___________________
and invited friends, neighbours and newspaper reporters to them
du
___________________
although few came.
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
Figure 3.4: 14 Bis
Alberto Santos-Dumont made a public flight in Europe on

September 13, 1906 in Paris. He used a canard elevator and wing-
warping, and covered a distance of 221 m (725 ft). Since the plane
t
did not need headwinds or catapults to take off, this flight is

No
considered by some as the first true powered flight. Also, since the
earlier attempts of Pearse, Jatho, Watson, and the Wright brothers
received less attention from the popular press than Santos-
Dumont’s flight, its importance to society, especially in Europe and
S,
Brazil, is often considered to be greater despite occurring some

years later.
E
Two English inventors Henry Farman and John William Dunne

were also working separately on powered flying machines. In
UP
January 1908, Farman won the Grand Prix d’Aviation with a

machine which flew for 1 km, though by this time many longer
flights had already been done. For example, the Wright Brothers
(c)
had made flights over 39 km long by 1905. Dunne’s early work was
sponsored by the British military, and tested in great secrecy in
Glen Tilt in the Scottish Highlands. His best early design, the D4,
le
flew in December 1908 near Blair Atholl in Perthshire. Dunne’s
Notes main contribution to early aviation was stability, which was a key
/Sa
___________________ problem with the planes designed by the Wright brothers and
Samuel Cody.
___________________
___________________ On May 14, 1908 the Wright Brothers made what is accepted to be
on
the first two-person aircraft flight, with Charlie Furnas as a
___________________
passenger. On 8 July 1908, Ms Thérèse Peltier became the first
___________________ woman to fly as a passenger in an airplane when she made a flight
cti
___________________ of 656 feet with Léon Delagrange in Milan, Italy. Mr Thomas
Selfridge became the first person killed in a powered aircraft on
___________________
September 17, 1908, when Orville crashed his two passenger plane
___________________
du
during military tests at Fort Myer in Virginia.
___________________
In late 1908, Mrs Hart O. Berg became the first American woman
___________________ to fly as a passenger in an airplane when she flew with Wilbur
pro
Wright in Le Mans, France.
On 25 July 1909 Frenchman Louis Blériot became the first person
to cross the English Channel in an aircraft. His flight from Calais
Re
to Dover lasted 37 minutes. The flight followed the development of
his Blériot XI monoplane which he used in the crossing. Upon
successfully crossing the Channel Blériot received a prize of £1000
from the London Daily Mail.
for
On 22 October 1909 Raymonde de Laroche became the first woman

to pilot and solo in a powered heavier than air craft. She was also
the first woman in the world to receive a pilot’s licence.
Controversy over who gets credit for invention of the aircraft has
t
No
been fuelled by Pearse’s and Jatho’s essentially non-existent efforts

to inform the popular press, by the Wrights’ secrecy while their
patent was prepared, by the pride of nations, and by the number of
firsts made possible by the basic invention. For example, the
Romanian engineer Traian Vuia (1872 - 1950) has also been
S,
claimed to have built the first self-propelled, heavier-than-air

aircraft able to take off autonomously, without a headwind and
E
entirely driven by its own power. Vuia piloted the aircraft he

designed and built on March 18, 1906, at Montesson, near Paris.
UP
None of his flights were longer than 100 feet (30 m) in length. In
comparison, in October 1905, the Wright brothers had a sustained
flight of 39 minutes and 24.5 miles (39 km), circling over Huffman
(c)
Prairie.
le
The first helicopter known to have risen off the ground took place
Notes
in 1907 (Cornu, France) though the first practical helicopter was
/Sa
the Focke FA-61 (Germany, 1936). ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
on
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ……………… reported that he had flown a powered
___________________
aircraft on 14 August, 1901.
cti
___________________
2. ……………. conducted a short motorized flight in August
1903, just a few months after Pearse. ___________________
du
___________________
3. On May 14, 1908 the Wright Brothers made what is
accepted to be the first ……………… flight, with Charlie ___________________
Furnas as a passenger. ___________________
Summary
pro
In the years after the first sustained, controlled flights at Kitty
Re
Hawk, aircraft technology progressed at a pace that has been
unequalled by any other invention, save the computer. The Wright
brother's best flight on December 17, 1903 covered only 852 feet at
a speed of about 34 mph. Today, aircraft routinely fly across oceans
for
at speeds in excess of 1000 mph. The space shuttles circles the

globe at over 15,000 mph.
Lesson End Activity

t
No
Find out more about the pioneer era with the help of the internet.
Keywords
Aerodrome: A defined area of land or water which is intended to
S,
be used for the arrival, departure and movements of aircraft. It

may be provided with facilities for shelter and repair of aircraft
E
and for processing of passengers, baggage, mail and cargo. Unlike

airport it may not necessarily be used for all scheduled air flights.
UP
Sometimes the term aerodrome is used in place of airport.

Air Ship: A power driven lighter than air aircraft.
Elevator: The movable part of the tail whose only purpose is to
(c)
ensure longitudinal control and contributes to the longitudinal

stability.
le
Notes
1. Write a short note on Wright brothers.
/Sa
___________________
___________________
2. Explain why the period of 1900 to 1914 is termed as the pioneer
era?
___________________
on
3. Examine some of the early fights and their fliers.
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
cti
___________________
___________________ Books
___________________ Wald, A. et al (2010) Introduction to Aviation Management, Gleich
du
___________________ LIT Verlag Münster.
___________________ Belobaba, P. et al (2009) The Global Airline Industry, John Wiley
& Sons. pro
Books.
Re
for
Web Readings
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 4: History of Aviation – 1914 till date
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
History of Aviation – 1914 till ___________________
date ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 1914 - 1918: World War I
du
 1918 - 1939 (The “Golden Age”) ___________________
 1939 - 1945: World War II ___________________

 1945 - 1991: The Cold War ___________________
 2001-Future pro
Introduction
Re
The history of aviation has extended over more than two thousand
years from the earliest attempts in kites and gliders to powered
heavier-than-air, supersonic and hypersonic flight. Experiments
with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier-than-air craft,
for
and by the early 20th century advances in engine technology and

aerodynamics made controlled, powered flight possible for the first
time.
t
1914 - 1918: World War I

No
Almost as soon as they were invented, planes were drafted for

military service. The first country to use planes for military
purposes was Bulgaria, whose planes attacked and reconnoitred
S,
the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War 1912-13. The
first war to see major use of planes in offensive, defensive and
reconnaissance capabilities was World War I. The Allies and
E
Central Powers both used planes extensively. The most famous

UP
plane of the war is the Sop with Camel; it was credited with more
aerial victories than any other Allied plane, but was also notorious
for its awkward handling resulting in the death of many pilots.
While the concept of using the aero plane as a weapon of war was
(c)
generally laughed at before World War I, the idea of using it for

photography was one that was not lost on any of the major forces.
le
All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically
Notes derived from pre-war sporting designs, attached to their
/Sa
___________________ reconnaissance departments. While early efforts were hampered by
the light loads carried, improved two-seat designs soon appeared
___________________
that were entirely practical.
___________________
on
It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the
___________________
lack of any sort of steady point for the gun was a problem. The
___________________ French solved this problem when, in late 1914, Roland Garros
cti
___________________ attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane, but it was
Adolphe Pegoud who would become known as the first “ace”,
___________________
getting credit for five victories, before also becoming the first ace to
___________________
du
die in action.
___________________
Aviators were styled as modern day knights, doing individual
___________________ combat with their enemies. Several pilots became famous for their
pro
air to air combats; the most well-known is Manfred von Richthofen,
better known as the Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air to
air combat with several different planes, the most celebrated of
which was the Fokker Dr.I. On the allied side, René Paul Fonck is
Re
credited with the most victories at 80. For the Americans, the most
successful ace was Eddie Rickenbacker with 26 victories.
tfor
No
S,
Figure 4.1: German Taube Monoplane, Illustration from 1917

E
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
UP
1. Several pilots became famous for their air to air

combats, the most well-known is …………………………..
2. In late 1914, …………………………… attached a fixed
(c)
machine gun to the front of his plane.

le
1918 - 1939 (The “Golden Age”)
Notes
The years between World War I and World War II saw a large
/Sa
___________________
advancement in aircraft technology. Aircraft evolved from being
constructed of mostly wood and canvas to being constructed almost ___________________
entirely of aluminium. Engine development proceeded apace, with ___________________
on
engines moving from in-line water cooled gasoline engines to
___________________
rotary and radial air cooled engines, with a commensurate increase
in propulsive power. Pushing all of this forward were prizes for ___________________
cti
distance and speed records. For example Charles Lindbergh took ___________________
the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for his solo non-stop crossing of the ___________________
Atlantic, the first person to achieve this, although not the first to
du
___________________
carry out a non-stop crossing. That was achieved eight years
earlier when Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown ___________________
co-piloted a Vickers Vimy nonstop from St. John’s, Newfoundland ___________________
pro
to Clifden, Ireland on June 14, 1919, winning the £10,000
($50,000) Northcliffe prize.
After WWI experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their
Re
new skills. Many American pilots became barnstormers, flying into
small towns across the country and showing off their flying
abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually
the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows
for
sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and
feats of air superiority. The air races drove engine and airframe
development - the Schneider Trophy for example led to a series of
ever faster and sleeker monoplane designs culminating in the
t
super marine S.6B, a direct forerunner of the Spitfire. With pilots

No
competing for cash prizes, there was an incentive to go faster.

Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most famous of those on the
barnstorming/ air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot
to achieve records such as crossing of the Atlantic and English
S,
channels.
The first lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were made by
E
airship in July 1919 by His Majesty’s Airship R34 and crew when
they flew from East Lothian, Scotland to Long Island, New York
UP
and then back to Pulham, England. By 1929, airship technology

had advanced to the point that the first round-the-world flight was
completed by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in October, the
same aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic
(c)
service. However the age of the dirigible ended in 1937 with the
terrible fire aboard the Zeppelin Hindenburg. After the now
le
famous footage of the Hindenburg burning and crashing on the
Notes Lakehurst, New Jersey, landing field, people stopped using
/Sa
___________________ airships, despite the fact that most people on board survived. The
Hindenburg, combined with the Winged Foot Express disaster that
___________________
occurred on 21 July, 1919, in Chicago, Illinois, in which 12 civilians
___________________
died, started the demise of the airship. Flammable gas dirigibles
on
___________________ did not burn and crash often, but when they did crash they caused
___________________ a disproportionate amount of destruction to the crash zone
compared with the aeroplanes of the time. It was more shock value
cti
___________________
than the number of fatalities that caused the retirement of the
___________________ world’s airships. This may not have been the case had helium been
___________________ available to the Zeppelin company. The United States, holder of
du
___________________
the world’s only reserves of helium at the time, was loathe to
supply it to the company, which was based in Nazi Germany.
___________________
pro
In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Germany and
in England. In England Frank Whittle patented a design for a jet
engine in 1930 and began developing an engine towards the end of
the decade. In Germany Hans von Ohain patented his version of a
Re
jet engine in 1936 and began developing a similar engine. The two
men were unaware of each other’s work, and both Germany and
Britain had developed jet aircraft by the end of World War II.
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………….. took the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for his solo
non-stop crossing of the Atlantic
t
No
2. In England, ……………. patented a design for a jet

engine in 1930 and began developing an engine towards
the end of the decade.
S,
1939 - 1945: World War II

E
UP
(c)
Figure 4.2: B-29 Superfortress, a Heavy Bomber

le
World War II saw a drastic increase in the pace of aircraft
development and production. All countries involved in the war Notes
/Sa
stepped up development and production of aircraft and flight based ___________________
weapon delivery systems, such as the first long range bomber. The
___________________
P-51 Mustang was critical to the success of the heavy bomber,
___________________
allowing much lower losses than otherwise.
on
___________________
World War II saw a number of technological advances that were
remarkable for its day: first functional jet plane which was the ___________________
cti
Heinkel He 178 (Germany), flown by Erich Warsitz in 1939. An ___________________
earlier prototype was the Coanda-1910 that did a short flight in
___________________
December 16, 1910. The first cruise missile (V-1), and the first
du
___________________
ballistic missile (V-2) were also developed by Germany. However,
Jet fighters did not have significant impact, nor cruise and ballistic ___________________
missiles in part because the V-1 was not very effective and the V-2 ___________________
was never produced in useful numbers. pro
The following table shows aircraft production in the United States,
and how it drastically increased over the course of the war.
Re
Table 4.1: Aircraft Production in United States
t for
No
S,
Check Your Progress

E
Fill in the blanks:

UP
1. The ………………… was critical to the success of the

heavy bomber, allowing much lower losses than
otherwise.
(c)
2. …………………. saw a number of technological advances

that were remarkable for its day.
le
1945 - 1991: The Cold War
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
Figure 4.3: D.H. Comet, the World’s First Jet Airliner. As in this
___________________
Picture, it also saw RAF Service
___________________
Commercial Aviation took hold after World War II using mostly ex-
pro
military aircraft in the business of transporting people and goods.
Within a few years many companies existed, with routes that criss-
crossed North America, Europe and other parts of the world. This
Re
was accelerated due to the glut of heavy and super heavy bomber
airframes like the B-29 and Lancaster that could easily be
converted into commercial aircraft. The DC-3 also made for easier
and longer commercial flights. The first North American
for
commercial jet airliner to fly was the Avro C102 Jetliner in

September 1949, shortly after the British Comet. By 1952, the
British state airline BOAC had introduced the De Havilland Comet
into scheduled service. While a technical achievement, the plane
t
suffered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the

No
windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused
by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of the cabin, and
eventually led to catastrophic failure of the plane’s fuselage. By the
time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had
already taken to the skies, including the Boeing 707, which
S,
established new levels of comfort, safety and passenger

expectations. The 707 ushered in the age of mass commercial air
E
travel as we enjoy it today.

UP
Even with the end of World War II, there was still a need for
advancement in aircraft and rocket technology. Not long after the
war ended, in October of 1947, Chuck Yeager took the rocket
powered Bell X-1 past the speed of sound. Although anecdotal
(c)
evidence exists that some fighter pilots may have done so while
dive-bombing ground targets during the war, this is the first
le
controlled, level flight to cross the sound barrier. Further barriers
of distance were eliminated in 1948 and 1952 as the first jet Notes
/Sa
crossing of the Atlantic occurred and the first nonstop flight to ___________________
Australia occurred.
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
Figure 4.4: The Canadian made Avro Arrow, Circa 1950s.
___________________
During the 1950s, a new age of military aviation history would be ___________________
pro
written. When the Soviet Union developed long-range bombers
that could deliver nuclear weapons to North America and Europe,
Western countries responded with interceptor aircraft that could
engage and destroy the bombers before they reached their
Re
destination. The “minister-of-everything” C.D. Howe in the
Canadian government was the key proponent of the Avro Arrow,
designed as a high-speed interceptor, reputedly the fastest aircraft
in its time. However, by 1955, most Western countries agreed that
for
the interceptor age was replaced by guided missile age.

Consequently, the Avro Arrow project was eventually cancelled in
1959 under Prime Minister John Diefenbaker.
In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned flight, as Yuri
t
No
Gagarin orbited once around the planet within 108 minutes. This
action further heated up the space race that had started in 1957
with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. The United
States responded by launching Alan Shepard into space on a
suborbital flight in a Mercury space capsule. With the launch of
S,
the Alouette I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a

satellite in space. The Space race between the United States and
E
the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to the current pinnacle of

human flight, the landing of men on the moon in 1969.
UP
This historic achievement in space was not the only progress made
in aviation at this time however. In 1967, the X-15 set the air
speed record for an aircraft at 4,534 mph or Mach 6.1 (7,297 km/h).
(c)
Aside from vehicles designed to fly in outer space, this record still
stands as the air speed record for powered flight.
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
Figure 4.5: Apollo 11 Lifts off on its Mission to Land a man on the Moon
___________________
The same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the
___________________
pro
moon, 1969, Boeing came out with its vision for the future of air
travel, unveiling the Boeing 747 for the first time. This plane is
still one of the largest aircraft ever to fly, and it carries millions of
passengers each year. Commercial aviation progressed even
Re
further in 1976 as British Airways inaugurated supersonic service
across the Atlantic, courtesy of the Concorde. A few years earlier
the SR-71 Blackbird had set the record for crossing the Atlantic in
under 2 hours, and Concorde followed in its footsteps with
for
passengers in tow.
The last quarter of the 20th century saw a slowing of the pace of
advancement seen in the first three quarters of the century. No
longer was revolutionary progress made in flight speeds, distances
t
and technology. This part of the century saw the steady

No
improvement of flight avionics, and a few minor milestones in

flight progress. For example, in 1979 the Gossamer Albatross
became the first human powered aircraft to cross the English
Channel. This achievement finally saw the realization of centuries
S,
of dreams of human flight, but this has not had any significant
impact on either commercial or military aviation. In 1986 Dick
E
Rutan and Jeana Yeager flew an aircraft around the world un-
refuelled, and without landing. In 1999 Bertrand Piccard became
UP
the first person to circle the earth in a balloon. By the end of the
20th Century there were no major or minor accomplishments left
to be made in subsonic aviation. Focus was turning to the ultimate
conquest of space and flight at faster than the speed of sound. The
(c)
ANSARI X PRIZE inspired entrepreneurs and space enthusiasts to

le
build their own rocket ships to fly faster than sound and climb into
the lowest reaches of space. Notes
/Sa
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
on
1. The “minister-of-everything” ………………. in the
___________________
Canadian government, was the key proponent of the
Avro Arrow ___________________
cti
2. The United States responded by launching ___________________
………………… into space on a suborbital flight in a ___________________
Mercury space capsule.
du
___________________
___________________
2001-Future
___________________
pro
In the beginning of the 21st century, subsonic aviation focused on
eliminating the pilot in favour of remotely operated or completely
autonomous vehicles. Several Unmanned aerial vehicles or UAVs
have been developed. In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft Global
Re
Hawk flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and
unrefuelled. This is the longest point-to-point flight ever
undertaken by an unmanned aircraft, and took 23 hours and 23
minutes. In October 2003 the first totally autonomous flight across
for
the Atlantic by a computer controlled model aircraft occurred.

In commercial aviation, the early 21st century saw the end of an
era with the retirement of Concorde. Supersonic flight was not
t
very commercially viable, as the planes were required to fly over

No
the oceans if they wanted to break the sound barrier. Concorde

also was fuel hungry and could carry a limited amount of
passengers due to its highly streamlined design. Nevertherless, it
seems to have made a significant operating profit for British
Airways.
S,
Despite this setback, and the general slowing of progress, it is

generally agreed that the 21st century will be a bright one for
E
aviation. Planes and rockets offer unique capabilities in terms of

UP
speed and carrying capacity that should not be underestimated. As

long as there is a need for people to get to places quickly, there will
be a need for aviation.
The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999
(c)
to encourage the broadest national and international participation

in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight. It publicized and
le
encouraged a number of programs, projects and events intended to
Notes educate people about the history of aviation. The obvious limits are
/Sa
___________________ Future energy development and Global warming. It does not
appear to be possible to decrease the fuel consumption of aircraft
___________________
as much as that of cars or of space heating.
___________________
on
Having achieved success in the field of aviation where lots of new
___________________
technologies have developed not only in the airframe but also on
___________________ the power plants. Today the engine of the aircraft are much more
cti
___________________ quitter and consume less fuel thus enabling the airlines to survive
in the ever increasing the cost of the fuel. Tremendous change has
___________________
come from the metal based fuselage to the composite fibre fuselage
___________________
du
which is lighter and stronger to withstand the strong wind and the
___________________ atmospheric pressure.
___________________
pro
Re
for
Figure 4.6: Space Ship One

t
No
E S,
UP
Figure 4.7: Spaceship one slung below the twin-jet White

Knight Carrier Aircraft
Another chapter has been added by the development of ―Spaceship

(c)
One‘ which has enabled the man to go up into the space which
starts beyond 100 Km from the surface of the earth , feel the space
le
for few minutes and land back to the same port or land in other
country. Though this is the beginning but it is going to be very Notes
/Sa
beneficial in reducing the time of flight and also it will start a new ___________________
Era of Space Tourism. Mr Branson who own Virgin Galactic has
___________________
already started booking for the passenger for Space Tourism
___________________
on
Various governments like USA. Russia has developed a space
station International Space Station (ISS) which will be used for the ___________________
further research of aviation and also for other scientific research. ___________________
cti
In this space station, astronauts can stay beyond 6 months at a ___________________
stretch.
___________________
In the end we may state that the day is not far off when the
du
___________________
fantasies which are being shown on Television as “Space
Adventure＂ may become a reality for the mankind. ___________________
___________________
Fill in the blanks:

Check Your Progress pro
1. In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft …………………….
Re
flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop
and unrefuelled.
2. Mr Branson who own ……………………. has already
started booking for the passenger for Space Tourism.
for
Summary
The history of aviation has extended over more than two thousand
t
years from the earliest attempts in kites and gliders to powered

No
heavier-than-air, supersonic and hypersonic flight.

The first form of man-made flying objects was kites. The earliest
known record of kite flying is from around 200 BC in China, when
a general flew a kite over enemy territory to calculate the length of
S,
tunnel required to enter the region. Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese

prince, survived by tying himself to the kite.
E
Leonardo da Vinci's (15th c.) dream of flight found expression in

UP
several designs, but he did not attempt to demonstrate his ideas by

actually constructing them.
With the efforts to analyse the atmosphere in the 17th and 19th
century, gases such as hydrogen were discovered which in turn led
(c)
to the invention of hydrogen balloons. Various theories in

mechanics by physicists during the same period of time, notably
le
fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the foundation
Notes of modern aerodynamics. Tethered balloons filled with hot air were
/Sa
___________________ used in the first half of the 19th century and saw considerable
action in several mid-century wars, most notably the American
___________________
Civil War, where balloons provided observation during the Battle
___________________
of Petersburg.
on
___________________
Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier-
___________________ than-air craft, and by the early 20th century advances in engine
cti
___________________ technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered flight
possible for the first time.
___________________
___________________
du
Lesson End Activity
___________________
Prepare a timeline with relation to the developments in aviation
___________________
pro
industry from 1914 till date.
Keywords
Re
Subsonic Aircraft: Aircraft which travels at speed less than the
speed of sound.
Supersonic Aircraft: Aircraft which travels at speed greater than
the speed of sound.
for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV): It is commonly known as a

drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot on board.

t
No
1. How did aviation progress during the World War I?

2. What do you mean by the “Golden Age” in aviation? Write a
short note on the same.
S,
3. Explain the development of aviation during World War II

4. How did the Cold War affect the pace of aviation development?
E
5. What is the future course of aviation industry? Discuss.

UP
Further Readings
Books
(c)

le
Notes
& Sons.
/Sa
___________________
Books. ___________________
___________________
on
and challenges, ICFAI University Press. ___________________
Cento, Alessandro (2009) The Airline Industry: Challenges in the ___________________
cti
21st Century, Physica Verlag Heidelberg. ___________________
___________________
Web Readings
du
___________________
___________________
157474-aviation-history-education-ppt-powerpoint/ ___________________
pro
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/historyoff
light.html
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
After analysing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
cti
___________________
Introducing a Pan-European Product: An Eurofighter Case
Study ___________________
du
___________________
Introduction
The Chiefs of Air Staff of Germany, Italy, Spain and the United ___________________
Kingdom signed an agreement to develop a new European fighter
___________________
pro
aircraft in January 1994. This agreement defined the requirement
for an extremely agile, multi-role combat aircraft which could
dominate the skies to the mid-21st Century, now called the
Eurofighter Typhoon. Seven prototype development aircraft have
been built and are undergoing an intensive flight test programme
Re
across the four countries.
t for
No
It is clear that the Typhoon will be the world’s most advanced

combat aircraft. Initial results seem to surpass all expectations.
The aircraft is exceptionally agile, unrivalled in technology,
S,
highly manoeuvrable and has demonstrated its abilities in several

spectacular flying displays, most recently at the 1999 Paris Air
Show.
E
Several of the world’s air forces are interested in purchasing the

aircraft and with production underway and orders for 620 aircraft
UP
already secured, the consortium members are confident of the

success of the Eurofighter Typhoon. First delivery of operational
aircraft to the Air Forces of Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK is
planned for 2002.
(c)
This case study looks at the strategies involved in developing and

manufacturing a pan-European product.
Contd…
le
Pan-European Partnerships
Notes
The Eurofighter consortium consists of four industrial partners:
/Sa
___________________
 British Aerospace, a world leader in aerospace and defence
___________________  Alenia Aerospazio, the leading Italian manufacturer in the
aerospace industry
___________________
CASA, a Spanish company which is a world leader in
on

___________________ materials development
___________________  Daimler Chrysler Aerospace, a leading German aerospace
manufacturer.
cti
___________________
The partners agreed to divide the development, testing and
___________________ production of the new fighter between themselves using facilities
in each of the four countries, making this a genuinely pan-
___________________
du
European project. The production work-share between the four
countries was set according to each country’s planned purchase of
___________________
the aircraft.
___________________ Therefore, Britain took on 37% of the production work in line with
pro
their planned orders for 232 aircraft, Germany 30% (180 aircraft),
Italy 19% (121 aircraft) and Spain 14% (87 aircraft). Two separate
groups were set up, one to develop the actual aircraft and the
other to develop the EJ200 engine. The whole programme is
managed by the NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management
Re
Agency (NETMA).
Collaborative Production
The production of something as technically complex as a fighter
aircraft across four countries creates difficulties, but also offers
for
tremendous benefits. The primary major advantage is that of cost

because the substantial costs of development, which would in
other circumstances be prohibitive to an individual country, are
spread. This effectively reduces the risk involved to each partner.
Without this collaboration, it is unlikely that any European
country would unilaterally undertake such a project. The costs
t
and risks would simply be too high and European air forces would
No
be reliant on other countries for their aircraft. However, the

collaboration of the requirements of four European NATO nations
has resulted in an order for 620 aircraft - the largest production
order for a military aircraft anywhere in the world.
E S,
UP
(c)
Contd…
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
Secondly, the four industrial partners can share their expertise in
the aerospace industry. For instance, by sharing the technology Notes
used in work on commercial aircraft both products benefit from
/Sa
continual improvement in technology and materials. For example, ___________________
CASA, the Spanish aerospace manufacturer has developed a high
___________________
degree of specialisation in composite materials and is a world
leader in the manufacturing of carbon fibre, an essential material ___________________
on
in the Eurofighter’s construction.
___________________
The four partners have been involved in previous development
projects and have built up their own areas of technological ___________________
expertise. This wealth of technological knowledge is subsequently
cti
shared with the other partners to ensure cost-effective ___________________
manufacturing. As this expertise is shared, it ensures that the
aerospace industries of the partners will be world leaders with ___________________
true global competitiveness.
du
___________________
The four partner companies will not only benefit from the
___________________
technological challenges in the Eurofighter programme. There are
around 400 first and second line suppliers - and thousands more ___________________
pro
suppliers beyond that - and 150,000 people who will be involved
over the next 20 years at least, in the development and production
of the Eurofighter Typhoon. It is believed this will create many
positive benefits for the economy and, in particular, the industrial
base of each of the member countries. However, the significance of
Re
the Eurofighter project is likely to have other important social
and political implications - helping to cement international
relations, strengthening the European defence pillar and its place
in NATO.
The production contract established a maximum price for 620
for
aircraft worth $45 billion. These will be produced in three batches

and Eurofighter is under obligation to reduce the unit cost of the
aircraft with each batch, the ultimate and ambitious objective - to
deliver the Typhoon at a lower average cost than the previous
generation of fighters, the Tornado. If successful, this would be an
t
unprecedented achievement as successive combat aircraft have

No
always proved more expensive than their predecessors.

Managing the Supply Chain
British Aerospace and its partners know the penalties for failing
with the Eurofighter project could be severe even as far as
cancellation of the project. However, they recognised that it also
S,
represented a unique opportunity to develop and construct a new

combat aircraft programme from the ground up, based on an
entirely new business strategy.
E
UP
(c)
Contd…
le
Production is already underway in the four countries and final
Notes assembly of the first aircraft commences in 2000 for delivery in
2001. Each country is responsible for producing particular
/Sa
___________________ sections of the aircraft; for example, the left wing is being built in
___________________ Italy and the right wing in Spain. British Aerospace is
manufacturing amongst other sections the front fuselage and the
___________________ central and rear fuselage is being made in Germany. This
on
specialisation creates considerable economies of scale and
___________________ therefore lower unit costs.
___________________ The only duplication that will occur is in the final stages of
production as each country undertakes the (final) assembly of its
cti
___________________ own aircraft. This will provide the infrastructure necessary in
___________________
each nation to support the aircraft when in service with the Air
Forces. This attention to cost has been forced on the production
___________________ partners as the NATO defence budgets have shrunk since the end
du
of the Cold War. Lean production techniques, which were
___________________ developed in Japan and successfully applied to the western car
industry during the 1980s, have been introduced at all the
___________________
pro
production centres.
Since British Aerospace has to buy in 70% of its raw materials
from outside its own resources, the management of the industrial
supply chain is of critical importance. Although having to rely on
a myriad of suppliers is always a potentially high-risk area within
Re
such a project, it has also presented British Aerospace with an
opportunity to transform its approach to production. The
intention has been to move away from the traditional batch
production methods and towards a regime called ‘one -piece flow’,
a pull system from the customer right back to the suppliers of raw
for
materials.
The factories operate a just-in-time approach to the control of
stocks, with components arriving only when they are needed.
Previously, these supplies had been delivered in batches because
of unreliable forecasting techniques. Having inventory lying
t
around on the factory floor, whether it be small components or

No
fully assembled aircraft, resulted in much more cost to the

manufacturer than the direct labour costs, long understood to be
the cause of similar projects going over budget in the past.
New materials have been developed specifically for the
Eurofighter, particularly carbon fibre composites and advanced
alloys, which have demanded new standards in manufacturing. A
S,
£100 million investment programme has equipped British

Aerospace with highly technical machinery, capable of delivering
panels and fittings that are accurate to 70 microns (three
E
thousands of an inch). This ‘right first time’ approach has reduced

wastage and thereby further reduced the unit cost. It has also
UP
made fitting replacement parts and repairs much more

straightforward, increasing the aircraft’s operational availability.
Almost every aspect of the aircraft’s performance was computer
modelled before any of the prototypes took to the air. The
extensive test flight programme has confirmed most of the
(c)
computer predictions of the plane’s capabilities. The Kosovo

conflict demonstrated that Europe did not have a true multi-role
Contd…
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
aircraft, and had to pass aircraft responsibilities to the US Air
Force. Consequently, the Typhoon’s air-to-air and air-to-surface Notes
capabilities are eagerly awaited by the European Air Force.
/Sa
Anticipating the Future ___________________
The four consortium countries would clearly like to sell the ___________________
aircraft to other countries’ Air Forces. Potential export sales of
___________________
over 400 Aircraft are hoped for. This is an extremely competitive
on
market and there will be many economic and political obstacles. ___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
The first pilot from a potential new customer nation, Norway, has
Re
already completed a series of evaluation flights in one of the
prototypes in 1999. Not only would Norway become a customer, it
would be offered full participation in the Eurofighter programme,
ensuring full access to all the technology used.
In April 1999, Greece confirmed its decision to join the
for
Eurofighter programme, expressing an interest in procuring 60-90

Eurofighters. Interest has been expressed from as far and wide as
Australia, South Korea, the Middle East and several European
countries. The positioning and image of the product within this
highly competitive market is extremely important.
t
Conclusion
No
The logistical, cultural and organisational problems that had to be

overcome to achieve this level of collaboration and co-operation
are substantial and history has not been on the Eurofighter’s side.
Indeed there have been many twists and turns since 1979 when
the development of a new multi-role fighter was first called for, as
S,
interested parties either expressed interest or dropped out before

the four partners finally came to agreement.
E
UP
(c)
Contd…
le
Many of these problems were as much political as industrial, for
Notes example, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, which plunged the
initial negotiations into turmoil. Nevertheless, the partners are
/Sa
___________________ confident they will be able to fulfil their commitments, as
___________________ production is now on target. This is likely to have long term
implications for future projects involving collaboration and
___________________ consortia in all fields, proving that pan-European co-operation can
on
harness expertise and deliver world beating results.
___________________
The Eurofighter project has so far proved to be a unique example
___________________ of successful collaboration between companies and governments
in a fiercely competitive world market for a high-technology
cti
___________________ defence product.
___________________ Questions
___________________ 1. Analyse the case and interpret it.
du
2. Write down the case facts.
___________________
3. Write down an effective executive summary of given case.
___________________
pro
Source: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/eurofighter/introducing-a-pan-european-
product/introduction.html#axzz2OvDQrj00
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 6: Aviation
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-II
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 6: AVIATION
___________________ UNIT 8: GLIDER AIRCRAFT
 Introduction  Introduction
___________________
 Early Aviation  Glider Aircraft: An overview
___________________
on
 The 19th Century  History of Gliders
___________________
 Kitty Hawk and After  From Rocket Gliders to Flying Bombs
___________________
cti
UNIT 7: AIRCRAFT
___________________ UNIT 9: HELICOPTER
___________________
 Categories of Aircraft  Helicopter: An Overview
___________________
du
 Types of Aircraft  History of Helicopters
___________________
 Birth of an Industry
___________________
pro
UNIT 10: CASE STUDIES
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 6: Aviation
le
Notes
Activity
Activity
/Sa
Write
D a report on early
___________________
Aviation aviation.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Early Aviation ___________________
 The 19th Century ___________________
 Kitty Hawk and After
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Aviation is defined as the design, manufacture, use, or operation of
aircraft - in which the term aircraft refers to any vehicle capable of
flight. Aircraft can either be heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air,
lighter-than-air craft including balloons and airships; and heavier-
Re
than-air craft including airplanes, autogiros, gliders, helicopters,
and ornithopters.
For centuries man has dreamed to soar with the birds. Famous
for
inventors such as Leonardo da Vinci, John String fellow, and

Lawrence Hargrave have conjured up ideas of how to get some of
the strangest machines to fly long before the Wright brothers’
famous first flight at Kitty Hawk.
t
No
Early Aviation
The first form of an aircraft was the kite, designed in the 5 th
century BC. Later on in the 13th century, Roger Bacon, an English
monk, performed studies which later gave him the idea that air
S,
could support a craft just like water supports boats. In the 16th
century, Leonardo da Vinci studied birds‘flight, and later produced
E
the airscrew and the parachute. The airscrew, leading to the

propeller later on, and the parachute were tremendously important
UP
contributions to aviation. He envisioned three different types of

heavier-than-air craft; the helicopter, glider, and ornithopters (a
machine with mechanical wings which flap to mimic a bird).
(c)
Although Leonardo’s designs were impractical, seeing they

required human muscular power which was insufficient to
le
generate flight with the aircraft he envisioned, he was vital to
Notes aviation because he was the first to make scientific suggestions.
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Prepare a presentation on the
developments in aviation in Check Your Progress
the ___________________
19th century.
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
on
1. The first form of an aircraft was the …………………
___________________
2. ………………… studied birds‘ flight, and later produced
___________________
the airscrew and the parachute.
cti
___________________
___________________
The 19th Century
___________________
du
Some of the more credible developments in actual flight and
___________________ stability occurred in the 19th century. British Sir George Cayley
___________________ designed a combined helicopter and horizontally propelled aircraft,
pro
and British Francis Herbert Wenham used wind tunnels in his
studies and predicted the application of multiple wings placed
above each other. Another famous inventor was John Stringfellow,
who designed a steam engine powered aircraft which was launched
Re
from a wire. This model demonstrated lift but failed to actually
climb. Lawrence Hargrave, a British-born Australian inventor,
created a rigidwing aircraft with flapping blades operated by a
compressed- air motor, it flew 312 ft (95m) in 1891. A famous
for
glider developer in the 19th century was Jean Marie Le Bris, a

Frenchman who tested a glider with movable wings.
Kites also played an important role in the development of aviation,
t
they could be used to test aerodynamics and flight stability.

No
Lawrence Hargrave first created the box kite in 1893, and

Alexander Graham Bell developed a gigantic passenger carrying
tetrahedral-celled kite from 1895 to 1910.
E S,
UP
Some of the most important full-scale model flight attempts were

made by Samuel Langley, who created the first heavier-than-air,
(c)
gasoline-powered engine which actually flew. The ‘aerodrome’,

which he called it, was powered by a 53 horsepower 5-cylinder
UNIT 6: Aviation
le
radial engine and later crashed into the Potomac River on
December 1903 -- days before the Wright’s historic flight. Notes
Activity
/Sa
Throughout this century, major developments would give inventors With___________________
the help of the internet,
find out more about Kitty
a sound basis in experimental aerodynamics, although stability Hawk.
___________________
and control required for sustained flight had not been acquired.
___________________
on
Most importantly, inventors noticed that successful powered flight
required light gasoline engines instead of the cumbersome steam ___________________
engines previously used. ___________________
cti
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
du
___________________
1. British ……………. designed a combined helicopter and
horizontally propelled aircraft. ___________________
___________________
2. ……………….. first created the box kite in 1893.
3. ………………….. created the first heavier-than-air,
gasoline-powered engine which actually flew.
pro
Re
Kitty Hawk and After
From 1903 to today, it’s remarkable how far aviation has come. On
December 17, 1903, at 10:35 a.m., the Wright brothers’ (Orville at
for
the controls) made the first heavier-than-air, machine powered

flight which lasted 12 seconds and spanned 120 feet.
Their first flight was 102 feet short of the wingspan of the C-5
Galaxy today, yet they did what every man and woman has
t
dreamed for centuries they flew. Yet, not all flights were victorious,
No
on September 17, their aircraft crashed, injuring Orville and his

passenger (Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge). Selfridge later died of
a concussion and was the first person to be killed in a powered
airplane. Yet the show went on and Wilbur went to France in
S,
August 1908 and on December 31, 1908, he completed a 2 hour 20

minute flight which demonstrated full control over his Flyer. The
E
Flyer was purchased on August 2 and became the first successful

military airplane. It remained in service for around two years and
UP
was retired to the Smithsonian Institution where it rests today.

Well-known in the aviation field by this time, Glenn Hammond
Curtiss won the first American award, the Scientific American
(c)
Trophy, for an airplane flight when he flew the ‘June Bug’ 5090 ft
(1552m) in 1 min 42.5 sec on July 4, 1908. Curtiss also went on to
le
win the first international speed event, at about 47mph (75.6
Notes km/h), on August 28, 1910. He also became the first American to
/Sa
___________________ develop and fly a seaplane -- the first successful seaplane flight
having been done by Henri Fabre of France on March 28, 1910.
___________________
___________________ Before World War I, airplane design greatly improved. Pusher
on
biplanes (two-winged airplanes with the engine and propeller
___________________
behind the wing) were succeeded by tractor biplanes (twowinged
___________________ airplanes with the engine and propeller in front of the wing).
cti
___________________ Monoplane designs were rare, and when World War I began, huge
biplane bombers with two to four engines were developed. Airmail
___________________
was also started, although it only lasted a week. The first airmail
___________________
du
officially approved by the U.S. Post Office Department began on
___________________ September 23, 1911, and the pilot (Earle Ovington) would carry
___________________ the mail on his legs and tossed the bag overboard when he reached
pro
his destination. Also in 1911, the first transcontinental flight
across the U.S. was completed by Calbraith P. Rodgers. His flight
from New York to California took 3 days, 10 hours, and 14
minutes, and was by a Wright aircraft.
Re
tfor
No
Before World War II

Between 1919 and 1926, some amazing progress in record breaking
for aviation took place. Captain E. F. White made a nonstop flight
from Chicago to New York (727 mi - 1170km) in 1919, and
S,
Lieutenant Oakley Kelly and Lieutenant John A. Macready made

the first nonstop transcontinental flight from May 2 to May 3,
E
1923. This flight was made from Roosevelt Field; Long Island to
Rockwell Field, San Diego; and the first round the world flight was
UP
made from April 6 to September 28, 1924. Also in 1919, the first
nonstop transatlantic flight was made by John William Alcock and
Arthur Whitten Brown on June 14 to June 15. It took a little over
16 hours to complete and they won the “London Daily Mail” prize
(c)
of $50,000.
UNIT 6: Aviation
le
Mail delivery also took a major turn during these years. In 1925,
Notes
Congress passed the Kelly Air Mail act which authorized the Post
/Sa
Office Department to contract with air-transport operators. This ___________________
made it possible to transport U.S. mail by air; after this, 14 ___________________
domestic airmail companies were created in 1926.
___________________
on
During World War II ___________________
During World War II, aircraft became a decisive factor in warfare. ___________________
cti
The largest operator of all international airlines in operation at ___________________
this time was Pan American Airways. Pan American served 46
___________________
countries and colonies linking all continents and nearly all oceans.
du
Small aircraft production increased significantly. Before World ___________________
War II only about 193,000 people were employed in the aviation ___________________
industry, and during 1941 the number increased to 450,000; also,
___________________
pro
around 3,375,000 passengers were transported by 18 U.S. airlines
at this time, around 1 million more than in 1940. Airmail and
express cargo would also increase by around 30 per cent. But by
the end of World War II, a new frontier of flight would take shape,
Re
jet and rocket propelled aircraft.
t for
No
After World War II

After World War II and by 1947 all the basic technology needed for
aviation had been developed; jet propulsion, aerodynamics, radar,
S,
etc. Civilian aircraft orders drastically increased from 6,844 in

1941 to 40,000 by the end of 1945. One of the minor military
contractors was the Boeing Company who later became the largest
E
aircraft manufacturer in the world. With all the new technologies

UP
developed by this time, airliners were larger, faster, and featured

pressurized cabins. New aerodynamic designs, metals, and power
plants would result in high-speed turbojet airplanes. These planes
would later be able to fly supersonically and make transoceanic
(c)
flights regularly.
le
One of the more famous record breaking flights around this time
Notes
was the Voyager, developed by Burt Rotan. The aircraft held 1,200
/Sa
___________________
gallons (4500 litters) of fuel in its 17 fuel tanks. It weighed about
___________________ 9,750 lb. (4420 kg) at take-off and only 1,858 lb (840kg) on landing.
___________________ The flight, maintaining an average speed of 115.8 mph (186.3
on
km/h), lasted 9 days, 3 minutes, 44 seconds and covered 25,012
___________________
miles (40254 km) and was completed in December 1986.
___________________
Check Your Progress
cti
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________ 1. Before World War I, …………. design greatly improved.
du
___________________ 2. ………………… and ……………. made the first nonstop
transcontinental flight from May 2 to May 3, 1923.
___________________
pro
3. One of the more famous record breaking flights around
this time was the Voyager, developed by ………………….
Summary
Re
The first form of an aircraft was the kite, designed in the 5th
century BC. Later on in the 13th century, Roger Bacon, an English
monk, performed studies which later gave him the idea that air
for
could support a craft just like water supports boats. In the 16th
century, Leonardo da Vinci studied birds‘ flight, and later produced
the airscrew and the parachute. Some of the more credible
developments in actual flight and stability occurred in the 19th
t
century. British Sir George Cayley designed a combined helicopter

No
and horizontally propelled aircraft, and British Francis Herbert

Wenham used wind tunnels in his studies and predicted the
application of multiple wings placed above each other. From 1903
to today, it’s remarkable how far aviation has come. On December
S,
17, 1903, at 10:35 a.m., the Wright brothers’ (Orville at the

controls) made the first heavier-than-air, machine powered flight
which lasted 12 seconds and spanned 120 feet.
E
UP
Lesson End Activity

Prepare a chart on the various developments in aviation.
(c)
UNIT 6: Aviation
le
Keywords
Notes
Aviation: It is defined as the design, manufacture, use, or
/Sa
___________________
operation of aircraft - in which the term aircraft refers to any
vehicle capable of flight. ___________________
Pusher Biplanes: Two-winged airplanes with the engine and ___________________
on
propeller behind the wing. ___________________
Tractor Biplanes: Two-winged airplanes with the engine and ___________________
cti
propeller in front of the wing. ___________________
___________________
du
___________________
1. Write short note on early aviation ___________________
2. Examine how aviation developed in the 19th century. ___________________
pro
3. Describe the achievements of Kitty Hawk and the status of
aviation in that era.
Re
Further Readings
Books
for

& Sons.
t

No
Books.
S,

E
Web Readings
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 7: Aircraft
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
With___________________
the help of the internet
Aircraft collect pictures of different
___________________
categories of aircraft and
prepare a scrap book of the
___________________
same.
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Concept of Aircraft ___________________
 Categories of Aircraft ___________________
 Types of Aircraft
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Aircraft are vehicles which are able to fly by being supported by
the air, or in general, the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft
counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using
the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust
Re
from jet engines
Although rockets and missiles also travel through the atmosphere,
most are not considered aircraft because they use rocket thrust
for
instead of aerodynamics as the primary means of lift. However,

rocket planes and cruise missiles are considered aircraft because
they rely on lift from the air. Another type of aircraft is the space
plane which is an aircraft designed to fly up to extreme altitudes
t
into space and land as a conventional aircraft

No
Categories of Aircraft
Aircraft fall into two broad categories:
S,
 Heavier than air

 Lighter than air
E
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
Figure 7.1: Balloon: Lighter than Air
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
Figure 7.2: Aircraft: Heavier than Air
Heavier than Air

for
Heavier than air aircraft, or aerodynes, include autogyros, gyro

dynes, helicopters, powered lifts, and conventional fixedwing
aircraft (aero planes). Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an
internal-combustion engine in the form of a piston engine (with a
t
propeller) or a turbine engine (jet or turboprop), to provide thrust

No
that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air
over the wings produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly.
Exceptions include gliders which have no engines and gain their
thrust, initially, from winches or tugs and then from gravity and
S,
thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it

must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation
to the ground). Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a
E
rotary wing) to provide lift; helicopters also use the rotor to provide
UP
thrust. Gyrodynes are aircraft intermediate between helicopters

and autogyros, whose rotor is sometimes powered (often by a jet at
its tips) but which do not have a tail rotor. Heliplanes are
combination aircraft with both a rotor and wings; they can take off
(c)
and land vertically, and hover, like a helicopter, but use their
wings for high speed flight. The abbreviation “VTOL” is applied to
UNIT 7: Aircraft
le
aircraft that can take off and land vertically. “STOL” stands for
Short Take Off and Landing. Notes
Activity
/Sa
Give___________________
examples of each type of
Lighter than Air aircraft.
___________________
Lighter than air aerostats: balloons and airships. Aerostats use
buoyancy to float in the air in much the same manner as ships ___________________
on
float on the water. In particular, these aircraft use a relatively low ___________________
density gas such as helium, hydrogen or heated air, to displace the
___________________
air around the craft. The distinction between a balloon and an
cti
___________________
airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its
forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along ___________________
with the wind.
du
___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………….. aircraft generally use an internal-
pro
combustion engine in the form of a piston engine.
2. Helicopters and autogyros use a ………………. (a rotary
Re
wing) to provide lift
3. “STOL” stands for ……………………
for
Types of Aircraft
There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe
classifications by design, propulsion and usage.
t
By Design
No
A size comparison of some of the largest aircraft in the world – the

Airbus A380-800 (largest airliner), the Boeing 747-8, the Antonov
An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the Hughes H-4
S,
“Spruce Goose” (aircraft with greatest wingspan).

A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter than-
E
air, aerostat, and heavier-than-air aircraft, aerodyne.

Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable
UP
balloons, such as hot air balloons and gas balloons, and steerable
airships (sometimes called dirigible balloons) such as blimps (that
have non-rigid construction) and rigid airships that have an
internal frame. The most successful type of rigid airship was the
(c)
Zeppelin. Several accidents, such as the Hindenburg fire at

le
Lakehurst, NJ, in 1937 led to the demise of large rigid airships due
Notes to safety fears.
/Sa
___________________
In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift:
___________________ aerodynamic lift and engine lift. In the case of aerodynamic lift, the
___________________ aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors. With engine lift, the
on
aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical thrust. Examples of
___________________
engine lift aircraft are rockets, and VTOL aircraft (powered lift
___________________ aircraft) such as the Hawker Siddeley Harrier.
cti
___________________ Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category of
___________________ fixed-wing aircraft where horizontal airfoils produce lift by
___________________
deflecting air downward to create an equal and opposite upward
du
force according to Newton’s third law of motion.
___________________
The forerunner of these types of aircraft is the kite. Kites depend
___________________
pro
upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground
and the force of the wind currents. Much aerodynamic work was
done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer
modelling programs became available.
Re
In a “conventional” configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in
front of a control surface or tail plane. The other configuration is
the canard where small horizontal control surfaces are placed
forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are
for
becoming more common as supersonic aerodynamics grows more

mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during
straight-and-level flight.
t
No
E S,
UP
Figure 7.3: A collection of NASA test Aircraft
The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-1950 period, as

biplanes (two wings) and triplanes (three wings) were numerous in
the early days of aviation. Subsequently most aircraft are
(c)
monoplanes. This is principally an improvement in structures and

not aerodynamics.
UNIT 7: Aircraft
le
Other possibilities include the delta wing, where lift and horizontal
Notes
control surfaces are often combined, and the flying wing, where
/Sa
there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g., the B-2 Spirit). ___________________
A variable-geometry wing (or “swing-wing”) has also been ___________________
employed in a few examples of combat aircraft, such as the F-111, ___________________
on
Panavia Tornado, F-14 Tomcat and B-1 Lancer, among others.
___________________
The lifting body configuration is where the body itself produces lift. ___________________
So far, the only significant practical application of the lifting body
cti
___________________
is in the Space Shuttle, but many aircraft generate lift from
nothing other than wings alone. ___________________
du
A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft is the rotary- ___________________
wing aircraft. Here, the lift is provided by rotating aerofoil‘s or ___________________

rotors. The best-known examples are the helicopter, the auto gyro ___________________
pro
and the tilt rotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey). Some craft
have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most
have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts.
A further category might encompass the wing-in-ground-effect
Re
types, for example the Russian ekranoplan also nicknamed the
“Caspian Sea Monster” and hovercraft; most of the latter
employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance
for
to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by boats

of similar weight.
A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, the fan
wing. This uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by
t
cylindrical fans mounted above. It is (2005) in development in the

No
United Kingdom.
And finally the flapping-wing ornithopters are a category of its
own. These designs may have potential, but currently have no
major practical applications.
E S,
UP
(c)
Figure 7.4: Gossamer Albatross, a Human-Powered Aircraft

le
By Propulsion
Notes
Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon or glider, do not have
/Sa
___________________ any propulsion. Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the
___________________ pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by
releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind
___________________
direction changes with altitude). For gliders, takeoff takes place
on
___________________
from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a
___________________ ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered “tug”
cti
___________________ aircraft. Airships combine a balloon’s buoyancy with some kind of
propulsion, usually propeller driven.
___________________
Until World War II, the internal combustion piston engine was
___________________
du
virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft. The
___________________
piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced,
___________________ since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft, but
pro
the radial engine (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around
the crankshaft) has largely given way to the horizontally-opposed
engine (with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft).
Water cooled V engines, as used in automobiles, were common in
Re
high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine
power. Piston engines typically operate using avgas or regular
gasoline, though some new ones are being designed to operate on
diesel or jet fuel. Piston engines normally become less efficient
for
above 7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is

less oxygen available for combustion; to solve that problem, some
piston engines have mechanically powered compressors (blowers)
or turbine-powered turbochargers or turbo formalizers that
t
compress the air before feeding it into the engine; these piston
No
engines can often operate efficiently at 20,000 ft (6100 m) above

sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental
oxygen or cabin pressurization
E S,
UP
(c)
Figure 7.5: A Turboprop-engined DeHavilland Twin

Otter adapted as a Floatplane
UNIT 7: Aircraft
le
During the forties and especially following the 1973 energy crisis,
development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even Notes
/Sa
scimitar-shaped blades for use in high-speed commercial and ___________________
military transports.
___________________
Pressurized aircraft, however, are more likely to use the turbine ___________________
on
engine, since it is naturally efficient at higher altitudes and can
___________________
operate above 40,000 ft. Helicopters also typically use turbine
engines. In addition to turbine engines like the turboprop and ___________________
cti
turbojet, other types of high-altitude, high-performance engines ___________________
have included the ramjet and the pulse jet. Rocket aircraft have
___________________
occasionally been experimented with. They are restricted to rather
du
___________________
specialized niches, such as spaceflight, where no oxygen is
available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxygen). ___________________
___________________
By Use
The major distinction in aircraft usage is between military
pro
aviation, which includes all uses of aircraft for military purposes
(such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance,
Re
transport, and training), and civil aviation, which includes all uses
of aircraft for non-military purposes.
t for
No
S,
Figure 7.6: The fifth-generation Military Aircraft, F-22

Raptor Military aircraft
E
Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority

of the category. Many civil aircraft have been produced in separate
UP
models for military use, such as the civil Douglas DC-3 airliner,
which became the military C-47/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S.
military and the “Dakota” in the UK and the Commonwealth. Even
(c)
the small fabric-covered two-seater Piper J3 Cub had a military

version, the L-4 liaison, and observation and trainer aircraft. In
the past, gliders and balloons have also been used as military
le
aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the
Notes American Civil War and World War I, and cargo gliders were used
/Sa
___________________ during World War II to land troops.
___________________ Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for
___________________ reconnaissance and surveillance during the Italo-Turkish War, did
on
not come into widespread use until the Balkan War.
___________________
During World War I many types of aircraft were adapted for
___________________
attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and
cti
___________________ the first aircraft designed as bombers were born. In order to
___________________ prevent the enemy from bombing, fighter aircraft were developed
___________________
to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft. Tankers were
du
developed after World War II to refuel other aircraft in mid-air,
___________________
thus increasing their operational range. By the time of the
___________________ Vietnam War, helicopters had come into widespread military use,
pro
especially for transporting, supplying, and supporting ground
troops.
Civilian Aircraft
Re
tfor
No
Figure 7.7: Interior of Qatar Airways Flight

E S,
UP
(c)
Figure 7.8: Bell 206B Jet Ranger III Helicopter

UNIT 7: Aircraft
le
Civilian aviation includes scheduled airline flights and general
aviation, a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial Notes
/Sa
use. The vast majority of flights flown around the world each day ___________________
belong to the general aviation category, which covers a wide range
___________________
of activities such as business trips, civilian flight training,
___________________
recreational balloon flying, firefighting, medical transport
on
(medevac) flights, and cargo transportation on freight aircraft, to ___________________
name a few. ___________________
cti
Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private ___________________
flights (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and
___________________
commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or
du
___________________
employer). Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel,
business travel, or recreation. Usually these private pilots own ___________________
their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized ___________________
pro
lenders to purchase them. Commercial general aviation pilots use
aircraft for a wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline
surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting,
and medevac flights. Piston powered propeller aircraft (single-
Re
engine or twin- engine) are especially common for both private and
commercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally
own and operate helicopters like the Bell Jet Ranger or turboprops
like the Beech craft King Air. Business jets are typically flown by
for
commercial pilots, although there is a new generation of small jets

arriving soon for private pilots.
Future Developments
t
A number of future aircraft development projects are under way,

No
ranging from relatively simple aerodynamic enhancements (e.g.

addition of winglets) to the development of new engine
technologies (e.g. Pratt and Whitney’s Geared Turbofan) to all-new
designs such as the Blended Wing-Body. The Peebles Fan wing is
S,
an example of a new approach to lift.

To date there has been only limited consideration of alternative
E
fuels for aircraft. Hydrogen is perhaps the most obvious alternative

to existing kerosene/gasoline-type fuels, but the technical and
UP
infrastructural challenges inherent in developing a commercially

usable hydrogen-powered aircraft are huge. The Russian
manufacturer Tupolev built prototype hydrogen powered version of
(c)
the Tu-154 airliner, named the Tu-155, which made its first flight
in 1989.
le
There are two giants Airbus and Boeing which is in the mad race
Notes
for getting supremacy in the civil aircrafts. While Boeing is the
/Sa
___________________
oldest aircraft Manufacturer of USA, the Airbus has been formed
___________________ by the cooperation of 5 five European nations who were
___________________ remanufactures of the civil Aircraft and are giving a tough
on
challenge to Boeing Industry. Air Bus company has a stake of five
___________________
countries: France, Germany, UK, Belgium and Sweden.
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
Figure 7.9: Boeing 787-Dreamliner

tfor
No
E S,
UP
Figure 7.10: Airbus 380
While Airbus has launched A 380 a double Decker aircraft with a

seating capacity of 800 (all economy) with a range of 15 hrs, Boeing
(c)
is yet to introduce its B 787 the Dream liner which is far superior
UNIT 7: Aircraft
le
with the carbon fibre body , thus reducing the weight of the
aircraft enabling to carry more passenger with less operating cost. Notes
/Sa
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
on
1. In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to
___________________
produce lift: ……………. lift and …………… lift.
___________________
2. ………………… depend upon the tension between the
cti
cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the ___________________
wind currents. ___________________
du
3. A ………………….. wing (or “swing-wing”) has also been ___________________
employed in a few examples of combat aircraft. ___________________
4. ………………... aircraft, however, are more likely to use ___________________
pro
the turbine engine, since it is naturally efficient at
higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft.
Summary
Re
Aircraft are vehicles which are able to fly by being supported by
the air, or in general, the atmosphere of a planet. Aircraft fall into
two broad categories: Heavier than air and Lighter than air.
for
Heavier than air aircraft, or aerodynes, include autogyros, gyro

dynes, helicopters, powered lifts, and conventional fixed wing
aircraft (aero planes). Lighter than air aerostats include: balloons
and airships. Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the
t
same manner as ships float on the water. There are several ways
No
to classify aircraft. In this unit, describe classifications by design,

propulsion and usage.
Lesson End Activity

S,
Find out the various types of aircraft found in India.

E
Keywords
UP
Canard: It is a wing configuration of fixed-wing aircraft in which

the forward horizontal surface is smaller than the rearward one,
the former sometimes being known as the "canard" or fore plane,
(c)
while the latter is the main wing.

le
STOL: It means short takeoff and landing.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
VTOL: Aircraft that can take off and land vertically.
___________________
___________________
on
1. Define the concept of aircraft.
___________________
___________________
2. Explain the various categories of aircrafts with suitable
examples.
cti
___________________
3. Enumerate the different types of aircrafts based on different
___________________
classification styles.
___________________
du
___________________ Further Readings
___________________
Books
pro
Re
& Sons.
for
Books.
t

No
Web Readings
http://www.boeingblogs.com/randy/archives/2008/03/best_aircraft_t
ypes.html
S,
http://www.aircraft-charter-world.com/aircraft_types.htm
E
http://traveltips.usatoday.com/three-types-commercial-aircraft-
used-major-airlines-63148.html
UP
(c)
UNIT 8: Glider Aircraft
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Prepare a chart on the various
Glider Aircraft types of glider
___________________
available.
aircraft
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Glider Aircraft: An overview ___________________
 History of Gliders ___________________
 From Rocket Gliders to Flying Bombs
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Glider aircraft are heavier-than-air craft that are supported in
flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against their lifting
surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine.
Mostly these types of aircraft are intended for routine operation
Re
without engines, though engine failure can force other types of
aircraft to glide. Some gliders have engines for extending their
flights and some have engines powerful enough to launch.
for
There are a wide variety of types differing in the construction of

their wings, aerodynamic efficiency, location of the pilot and
controls. Some may have power-plants to take off and/or extend
flight. Some are designed simply to descend, but the most common
t
varieties exploit meteorological phenomena to maintain or even

No
gain height. Gliders are principally used for the air sports of
gliding, hang gliding and paragliding but are also used for
recovering spacecraft. Perhaps the most familiar type is the paper
plane.
S,
Glider Aircraft: An Overview

E
 Glider aircraft or simply glider, heavier-than-air aircraft

primarily intended for unpowered flight
UP
 Glider (sailplane), a type of glider aircraft used in the sport of

gliding
 Hang glider, foot-launched aircraft with framed wings, usually
(c)
used for recreation

le
 Military glider, used to transport combat troops and
Notes
Activity equipment to a combat zone
/Sa
___________________
Prepare a chart on the various
types of glider aircraft  Motor glider, a glider with a power plant
___________________
available.
 Para glider, foot-launched aircraft with unframed wings,
___________________
usually used for recreation
on
___________________
 Rocket glider, a rocket propelled aircraft that routinely lands
___________________
as a glider
cti
___________________
 Walk along glider, a model glider with updraft generated by a
___________________ person walking behind
___________________
du
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
pro
1. ……………….. glider is a type of glider aircraft used in
the sport of gliding
2. ……………. Glider is a rocket propelled aircraft that
routinely lands as a glider
Re
History of Gliders
Early Attempts
for
Early pre-modern accounts of flight are in most cases sketchy and

it is unclear whether each craft was a glider, kite or parachute and
to what degree they were truly controllable. Often the event is only
t
recorded at a great time interval after it allegedly took place. A

No
17th century account reports an attempt at flight by the 9th

century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas near Cordoba, Spain which ended in
heavy back injuries. The monk Eilmer of Malmesbury is reported
by William of Malmesbury (c. 1080-1143), a fellow monk and
S,
historian, to have flown off the roof of his Abbey in Malmesbury,

England, sometime between 1000 and 1010 AD, gliding about 200
metres (220 yd) before crashing and breaking his legs. Going by
E
the sketchy reports, both used a set of (feathery) wings, and both
UP
blamed their crash on the lack of a tail.
19th Century
The first heavier-than-air (i.e. non-balloon) man-carrying aircraft
(c)
that were based on published scientific principles were Sir George

Cayley’s series of gliders which achieved brief wingborne hops from
le
around 1849. Thereafter gliders were built by pioneers such as
Jean Marie Le Bris, John J. Montgomery, Otto Lilienthal, Percy Notes
Activity
/Sa
Pilcher, Octave Chanute and Augustus Moore Herring to develop ___________________
Write a report on the history of
aviation. Lilienthal was the first to make repeated successful gliders.
___________________
flights (eventually totalling over 2,000) and was the first to use
rising air to prolong his flight. ___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 8.1: Otto Lilienthal in Flight
The Wright Brothers developed a series of three manned gliders

after preliminary tests with a kite as they worked towards
pro
achieving powered flight. They returned to glider testing in 1911
Re
by removing the motor from one of their later designs.
Development of Gliders
After World War I recreational gliders were built in Germany (see
for
link to Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft) and in the United States

(Schweizer brothers). The sporting use of gliders rapidly evolved in
the 1930s and is now the main application. As their performance
improved gliders began to be used to fly cross-country and now
t
regularly fly hundreds or even thousands of kilometres in a day, if

No
the weather is suitable.

Military gliders were developed during World War II by a number
of countries for landing troops. A glider - the Colditz Cock - was
even built secretly by POWs as a potential escape method at Oflag
S,
IV-C near the end of the war in 1944.

E
Development of Flexible-wing Hang Gliders

Foot-launched aircraft had been flown by Lilienthal and at the
UP
meetings at Wasserkuppe in the 1920s. However the innovation

that led to modern hang gliders was in 1951 when Francis Rogallo
and Gertrude Rogallo applied for a patent for a fully flexible wing
with a stiffening structure. The American space agency NASA
(c)
began testing in various flexible and semi-rigid configurations of

this Rogallo wing in 1957 in order to use it as a recovery system for
le
the Gemini space capsules. Charles Richards and Paul Bikle
Notes developed the concept producing a wing that was simple to build
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Prepare a timeline for
which was capable of slow flight and as gentle landing. From 1960-
development from rocket 1962 Barry Hill Palmer used this concept to make foot-launched
___________________
gliders to flying bombs.
hang gliders, followed in 1963 by Mike Burns who built a kite-hang
___________________
glider called Ski plane. In 1963, John W. Dickenson began
on
___________________ commercial production.
___________________
Development of Paragliders
cti
___________________
January 10, 1963 American Domina Jalbert filed a patent US
___________________ Patent 3131894 on the Para foil which had sectioned cells in an
___________________ aerofoil shape; an open leading edge and a closed trailing edge,
du
___________________
inflated by passage through the air – the ram-air design. The ‘Sail
Wing’ was developed further for recovery of NASA space capsules
___________________
by David Barish. Testing was done by using ridge lift. After tests
pro
on Hunter Mountain, New York in September 1965, he went on to
promote ‘slope soaring’ as a summer activity for ski resorts
(apparently without great success) NASA originated the term
Re
‘paragliders’ in the early 1960s, and ‘paragliding’ was first used in
the early 1970s to describe foot-launching of gliding parachutes.
Check Your Progress

for
Fill in the blanks:

1. The ……………….. developed a series of three manned
gliders after preliminary tests with a kite as they
worked towards achieving powered flight.
t
No
2. ……………….. was the first to make repeated successful

flights (eventually totalling over 2,000) and was the first
to use rising air to prolong his flight.
3. A glider ……………………….. was even built secretly by
S,
POWs as a potential escape method at Oflag IV-C near

the end of the war in 1944.
E
From Rocket Gliders to Flying Bombs

UP
Let’s discuss the further development of gliders from rocket gliders

to present day flying bombs. All these are used for varied
purposes.
(c)
le
Rocket Gliders
Notes
Although the sail wing was not used for spacecraft, based on
/Sa
German research on the Antipodal bomber going back to World ___________________
War II, the Space Age in the 60s saw more interest in rocket ___________________
gliders. Some research was done on gliding lifting bodies, and
___________________
there was the X-20 Dyna-Soar project, but after cancellation this
on
research eventually leads to the Space Shuttle. ___________________
On April 12, 1981, the Space Shuttle orbiter first flew. The Shuttle ___________________
cti
re-enters at Mach 25 at the end of each spaceflight, and lands ___________________
entirely as a glider. As with Buran these represent by far the ___________________
fastest type of gliders of all time.
du
___________________
Other gliding rocket launched aircraft such as Spaceship One and
___________________
XCOR aerospace’s EZ-rocket were produced in the early 21st
century. ___________________
Recreational Types
pro
The main application today of glider aircraft is sport and
Re
recreation.
Glider (Sailplane)
t for
No
S,
Figure 8.2: A Typical Training Glider, Schleicher ASK 21

E
just before Landing
Gliders were developed from the 1920s for recreational purposes.

UP
As pilots began to understand how to use rising air, gliders were

developed with a high lift-to-drag ratio. These allowed longer
glides to the next source of ‘lift’, and so increase their chances of
flying long distances. This gave rise to the popular sport known as
(c)
gliding although the term can also be used to refer to merely

descending flight.
le
Gliders were mainly built of wood and metal but the majority now
Notes
have composite materials using glass, carbon fibre and aramid
/Sa
___________________
fibres. To minimize drag, these types have a fuselage and long
___________________ narrow wings, i.e. a high aspect ratio. Both singleseat and two-seat
___________________ gliders are available.
on
___________________ Initially training was done by short ‘hops’ in primary gliders which
are very basic aircraft with no cockpit and minimal instruments.
___________________
Since shortly after World War II training has always been done in
cti
___________________ two-seat dual control gliders, but high performance two-seaters are
___________________ also used to share the workload and the enjoyment of long flights.
___________________
Originally skids were used for landing, but the majority now land
du
on wheels, often retractable. Some gliders, known as motor gliders,
___________________
are designed for unpowered flight, but can deploy piston, rotary, jet
___________________ or electric engines. Gliders are classified by in the FAI for
pro
competitions into glider competition classes mainly on the basis of
span and flaps.
Re
tfor
No
Figure 8.3: Ultralight “Airchair” Goat 1 Glider
A class of ultra light sailplanes, including some known as micro lift

S,
gliders and some as ‘air chairs’, has been defined by the FAI based
on a maximum weight. They are light enough to be transported
E
easily, and can be flown without licensing in some countries. Ultra

light gliders have performance similar to hang gliders, but offer
UP
some additional crash safety as the pilot can be strapped in an

upright seat within a deformable structure. Landing is usually on
one or two wheels which distinguishes these craft from hang
gliders. Several commercial ultra light gliders have come and gone,
(c)
but most current development is done by individual designers and

home builders.
le
Hang Gliders
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
Figure 8.4: Modern ‘Flexible Wing’ Hang Glider ___________________
Unlike a sailplane, a hang glider is capable of being carried, foot ___________________

launched and landed solely by the use of the pilot’s legs. ___________________
 pro
In the original and still most common designs, Class 1, the
pilot is suspended from the center of the flexible wing and
controls the aircraft by shifting his/her weight.
Re
 Class 2 (designated by the FAI as Sub-Class O-2) have a rigid
primary structure with movable aerodynamic surfaces, such as
spoilers, as the primary method of control. The pilot is often
enclosed by means of a fairing. These offer the best
for
performance and are the most expensive.

 Class 4 hang gliders are unable to demonstrate consistent
ability to safely take-off and/or land in nil-wind conditions, but
otherwise are capable of being launched and landed by the use
t
No
of the pilot’s legs.

 Class 5 hang gliders have a rigid primary structure with
movable aerodynamic surfaces as the primary method of
control and can safely take-off and land in nil-wind conditions.
S,
No pilot fairings are permitted.

In a hang glider the shape of the wing is determined by a
E
structure, and it is this that distinguishes them from the other

main type of foot-launched aircraft, paragliders, technically Class
UP
3. Some hang gliders have engines, and are known as powered

hang gliders. Due to their commonality of parts, construction and
design, they are usually considered by aviation authorities to be
hang gliders, even though they may use the engine for the entire
(c)
flight. Some flexible wing powered aircraft, Ultra light trikes, have
a wheeled undercarriage, and so are not hang gliders.
le
Paragliders
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________ Figure 8.5: A Paragliders Taking off in Brazil
du
___________________ A paraglider is a free-flying, foot-launched aircraft. The pilot sits in
a harness suspended below a fabric wing. Unlike a hang glider
___________________
pro
whose wings have frames, shape of a paraglider’s wing is formed
by its suspension lines and the pressure of air entering vents in the
front of the wing. The concept of ram-air inflated wings has been
refined so that the best of these have a glide ratio of 10 at 45 km/h.
Re
Like sailplanes and hang gliders, paragliders use rising air to gain
height and this process is the basis for most recreational flights
and competitions, though aerobatics and ‘spot landing
competitions’ also occur. Launching is often by stepping from a
for
slope, but winch launches are also used. Para motors are attached
to some types which are known as powered paragliders. These in
turn have spawned paraplanes, which are wheeled and motorized
but which still use ram-air wings.
t
No
Military gliders
E S,
UP
Figure 8.6: Waco CG-4A of the USAF
Military gliders were used mainly during the Second World War
(c)
for carrying troops and heavy equipment to a combat zone. These

aircraft were towed into the air and most of the way to their target
le
by military transport planes, e.g. C-47 Dakota, or by bombers that
had been relegated to secondary activities, e.g. Short Stirling. Once Notes
/Sa
released from the tow near the target, they landed on as close to ___________________
target as possible. The advantage over paratroopers was that
___________________
heavy equipment could be landed and that the troops were quickly
assembled rather than being dispersed over a drop zone. The ___________________
on
gliders were treated as disposable leading to construction from ___________________
common and inexpensive materials such as wood, though a few
___________________
were retrieved and re-used. By the time of the Korean War,
cti
___________________
transport aircraft had also become larger and more efficient so that
even light tanks could be dropped by parachute, causing gliders to ___________________
fall out of favour.
du
___________________
Research Aircraft ___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
Figure 8.7: Horten Ho IV Flying Wing Sailplane Recumbent Glider

t
Even after the development of powered aircraft, gliders have been

No
built for research. The NASA Parasev Rogallo flexible wing is an

example that was built to investigate alternative methods of
recovering spacecraft. Although this application was abandoned,
publicity inspired hobbyists to adapt the flexible wing airfoil for
modern hang gliders.
S,
Unpowered flying wings are another type of aircraft that have

E
been built for aerodynamic research. Examples are the Horten

flying wings, Armstrong Whitworth A.W.52G and the Baynes Bat.
UP
In contrast to the flying wings, lifting bodies have been also

developed using unpowered prototypes. Although the idea can be
dated to Vincent Justus Burnelli in 1921, interest increased as an
alternative for returning spacecraft. Traditional space capsules
(c)
have very little control over where they land, whereas a steerable
craft using wings would have more options. The lifting bodies use
le
the fuselage itself to generate lift without employing the usual thin
Notes and flat wing. The objective of the lifting body is to minimize the
/Sa
___________________ drag and structure of a wing for very high supersonic or hypersonic
flight as might be experienced during the re-entry of a spacecraft.
___________________
This can be compared with a flying wing that seeks to minimise
___________________
drag at subsonic speeds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces.
on
___________________ Examples of type are the Northrop HL-10 and Martin-Marietta X-
___________________ 24.
cti
___________________
Rocket Gliders
___________________ Rocket powered aircraft consume their fuel quickly and so most
___________________ must land unpowered, unless there is another type of engine. The
du
___________________
first was the Lippisch Ente. Later examples include the
Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptor and the
___________________
Messerschmitt Me 323 military glider which was tested with
pro
rocket engines to assist take-off. The American series of research
aircraft starting with the Bell X-1 in 1946 up to the North
American X-15 spent more time flying unpowered than under
Re
power. The Space Shuttle orbiters and the Russian Buran are the
culmination of these types and are by far the fastest type of
aircraft of all to date. The latest examples of rocket glider are the
privately-funded Spaceship One which is intended for sub-orbital
for
flight and the XCOR EZ-Rocket which is being used to test

engines.
t
No
E S,
UP
Figure 8.8: Me 163B on Display at the National Museum of the USAF
Rotary Wing
(c)
Most unpowered rotary-wing aircraft are kites rather than gliders,

i.e. they are usually towed behind a car or boat rather than being
capable of free flight. These are known as rotor kites. However
le
rotary-winged gliders, ‘gyrogliders’, were investigated that could
descend like an auto gyro or helicopter, using the lift from rotors to Notes
/Sa
reduce the vertical speed. These were evaluated as a method of ___________________
dropping people or equipment from other aircraft.
___________________
Unmanned Gliders ___________________
on
___________________
Model gliders
___________________
A paper aero plane, also known as a ‘paper plane’ or ‘paper dart’, is
cti
an example of a model glider, other types are made of balsa or ___________________
plastic. ___________________
du
___________________
Radio Controlled Model Gliders
___________________
A ‘radio-controlled glider’ is a type of radio-controlled airplane that
___________________
pro
normally does not have any form of propulsion. Like piloted gliders
they can remain airborne for extended periods by using the lift
produced by slopes and thermals. They are controlled remotely
from the ground with a transmitter.
Re
Flying Bombs
Glide bombs are bombs with aerodynamic surfaces to allow a
gliding flightpath rather than a ballistic one. This increases the
for
protection of the carrying aircraft that is attacking a heavily

defended target. Remote control systems allow the carrying
aircraft to direct the bomb to the target. These were developed in
Germany from as early as 1915. In World War Two they were most
t
successful as anti-shipping weapons. Some air forces today are

No
equipped with gliding devices that can remotely attack airbases

with a cluster bomb warhead
Check Your Progress

S,
Fill in the blanks:

1. On April 12, 1981, the ………………… orbiter first flew.
E
2. Unlike a sailplane, a …………………. is capable of being

carried, foot launched and landed solely by the use of
UP
the pilot’s legs.

3. A ………………… is a free-flying, foot-launched aircraft.
(c)
4. A ………………… is a type of radio-controlled airplane

that normally does not have any form of propulsion.
le
Summary
Notes
Glider aircraft are heavier-than-air craft that are supported in
/Sa
___________________
flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against their lifting
___________________
surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine.
___________________ Mostly these types of aircraft are intended for routine operation
on
___________________ without engines, though engine failure can force other types of
aircraft to glide. There are a wide variety of types differing in the
___________________
construction of their wings, aerodynamic efficiency, location of the
cti
___________________ pilot and controls. Early pre-modern accounts of flight are in most
___________________ cases sketchy and it is unclear whether each craft was a glider,
kite or parachute and to what degree they were truly controllable.
___________________
du
The further development of gliders from rocket gliders to present
___________________
day flying bombs has also been discussed here.
___________________
Lesson End Activity pro

Conduct a research on gliders and prepare a report of the same.
Re
Keywords
Glider (Sailplane): It is a type of glider aircraft used in the sport
of gliding.
for
Hang Glider: It is a foot-launched aircraft with framed wings,

usually used for recreation.
Military Glider: It is used to transport combat troops and
t
equipment to a combat zone.

No
Motor Glider: It is a glider with a power plant.

Para Glider: It is a foot-launched aircraft with unframed wings,
usually used for recreation.
S,
Rocket Glider: It is a rocket propelled aircraft that routinely

lands as a glider.
E
Walk Along Glider: It is a model glider with updraft generated

by a person walking behind.
UP

1. Explain the concept of glider aircrafts.
(c)
2. Examine the history of glider aircrafts.

le
3. Write short notes on:
Notes
/Sa
(a) Rocket Gliders
___________________
(b) Hang Gliders
___________________
(c) Paragliders ___________________
on
(d) Military gliders ___________________
(e) Research Aircraft ___________________
cti
(f) Flying bombs ___________________
___________________
Further Readings
du
___________________
___________________
Books
___________________
pro
& Sons.
Re
Books.
for

t
Web Readings
No
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/glider.html
http://www.ehow.com/list_6115459_types-gliders.html
http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/setf/HTML/StudentResource/so
S,
urce/topic_five.html
E
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 9: Helicopter
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Find___________________
out the various types of
Helicopter helicopters in India.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Helicopter: An Overview ___________________
 History of Helicopters ___________________
 Birth of an Industry
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
A helicopter is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or
more horizontal rotors, each rotor consisting of two or more rotor
blades. Helicopters are classified as rotorcraft or rotary-wing
aircraft to distinguish them from fixed-wing aircraft because the
Re
helicopter derives its source of lift from the rotor blades rotating
around a mast. The word ‘helicopter’ is adapted from the French
hélicoptère, coined by Gustave de Ponton d’Amecourt in 1861. It is
linked to the Greek words helix/helik- (ἕλικ-) = “spiral” or “turning”
for
and pteron (πτερόν) = “wing”.
Helicopter: An Overview
t
As an aircraft, the primary advantages of the helicopter are due to

No
the rotor blades that revolve through the air, providing lift without
requiring the aircraft to move forward the way an airplane does.
This creates the ability for the helicopter to take off and land
vertically without the need for runways. For this reason,
S,
helicopters are often used to operate in congested or isolated areas

where airplanes are generally not able to take off or land. The lift
E
from the rotor also allows the helicopter to hover in one area for
extended periods of time, and to do so more efficiently than other
UP
forms of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft, allowing it to

accomplish tasks that airplanes are unable to perform.
Although helicopters were developed and built during the first
(c)
half-century of flight, some even reaching limited production; it

wasn’t until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky
became the first helicopter to enter full-scale production, with 131
le
aircraft built. Even though most previous designs utilized more
Notes than one main rotor, it was the single main rotor with antitorque
Activity
/Sa
___________________
tail rotor configuration of this design that would come to be
history of helicopters. recognized worldwide as the helicopter.
___________________
on
___________________ Fill in the blanks:
___________________ 1. As an aircraft, the primary advantages of the
cti
___________________ ………………. are due to the rotor blades that revolve
through the air, providing lift without requiring the
___________________
aircraft to move forward the way an airplane does.
___________________
du
2. The ……………. from the rotor also allows the helicopter
___________________
to hover in one area for extended periods of time.
___________________
pro
History of Helicopters
Since 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying
tops. Eventually, this flying top made its way to Europe and is
Re
depicted in a 1463 European painting. Pao Phu Tau was a 4th-
century book in China reported to describe some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.
for
Paul Cornu’s Helicopter in 1907

Someone asked the master about the principles of mounting to
dangerous heights and traveling into the vast inane. The Master
said, “Some have made flying cars with wood from the inner part of
t
the jujube tree, using ox-leather [straps] fastened to returning

No
blades so as to set the machine in motion.

Leonardo da Vinci conceived a machine that could be described as
an “aerial screw”. He wrote that he made small flying models but
could not stop the rotor from making the whole craft rotate. Later
S,
machines would more closely resemble the ancient bamboo flying

top, with spinning wings rather than screws.
E
In July 1754, Mikhail Lomonosov showed the Russian Academy of

UP
Sciences a small coaxial rotor powered by a wound-up spring,

intended to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de
Launoy, and his mechanic, Bienvenu, made a model pair of
counter-rotating rotors (not coaxial) using turkey’s flight feathers
(c)
as rotor blades, and in 1784 demonstrated it to the French

Academy of Sciences. In 1861, the word “helicopter” was coined by
UNIT 9: Helicopter
le
Gustave de Ponton d’Amécourt, a French inventor who
demonstrated a small steam-powered model. Notes
/Sa
From 1860 to 1880, many small helicopter models were designed ___________________
and made. These included Alphonse Pénaud’s model coaxial rotors, ___________________
powered by twisted rubber bands (1870). Enrico Forlanini’s
___________________
on
unmanned helicopter was powered by a steam engine. It was the
first of its type that rose to a height of 13 meters, where it ___________________
remained for some 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from a park ___________________
cti
in Milan (1877). Emmanuel Dieuaide’s design featured counter- ___________________
rotating rotors and was steam-powered through a hose from a
___________________
boiler on the ground (1877). Melikoff designed a “man carrier,” but
du
it was almost certainly not built (1877). Dandrieux’s design had ___________________
counter-rotating rotors and a 7.7-pound (3.5-kilogram) steam ___________________

engine. It rose more than 40 feet (12 meters) and flew for 20
___________________
seconds (circa 1878).
pro
In the 1880s, Thomas Edison experimented with small helicopter
models in the USA. First with a guncotton-powered engine which
caused damage by explosions, and tests were ended. Next he used
Re
an electric motor. His tests showed that a large rotor with low
blade area was needed. Ján Bahýľ, a Slovak inventor, developed a
model helicopter powered by an internal combustion engine that in
1901 reached a height of 0.5 meters. On 5 May 1905, his helicopter
for
reached four meters in altitude and flew for over 1,500 meters.
First Flights
In 1906, two French brothers, Jacques and Louis Breguet, began
t
No
experimenting with airfoils for helicopters and in 1907; those

experiments resulted in the Gyroplane No.1. Although there is
some discrepancy about the dates, sometime between 14 August
and 29 September 1907, the Gyroplane No. 1 lifted its pilot up into
the air about two feet (0.6 meters) for a minute.
S,
However, the Gyroplane No. 1 proved to be extremely unsteady

and required a man at each corner of the airframe to hold it
E
steady. For this reason, the flights of the Gyroplane No. 1 are
UP
considered to be the first manned flight of a helicopter, but not a

free or untethered flight. That same year, fellow French inventor
Paul Cornu designed and built a helicopter that used two 20-foot
(6-meter) counter-rotating rotors driven by a 24 hp (18-kW)
(c)
Antoinette engine. On 13 November 1907, it lifted its inventor to 1

foot (0.3 meters) and remained aloft for 20 seconds. Although this
le
flight was smaller in its achievement than that of the Breguet
Notes brothers, it was greater in accomplishment in that it was the first
/Sa
___________________ true free flight with a pilot. The Cornu helicopter would achieve a
height of nearly 2 meters but also proved to be unstable and was
___________________
abandoned after only a few flights.
___________________
on
___________________ Early Development
___________________ In the early 1920s, Raul Pateras Pescara, an Argentinian working
in Europe, demonstrated one of the first successful applications of
cti
___________________
cyclic pitch. His coaxial, contra-rotating, biplane rotors were able
___________________ to be warped to cyclically increase and decrease the lift they
___________________ produced; and the rotor hub could also tilt, both allowing the
du
___________________
aircraft to move laterally without a separate propeller to push or
pull it. Pescara is also credited with demonstrating the principle of
___________________
autorotation, the method by which helicopters land safely after
pro
engine failure. By January 1924, Pescara’s helicopter No. 3 was
capable of flights up to 10 minutes.
One of Pescara’s contemporaries, Frenchman Etienne Oemichen,
Re
set the first helicopter world record recognized by the Fédération
Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) on 14 April 1924, flying his
helicopter 360 meters (1,181 feet). On 18 April 1924, Pescara beat
Oemichen’s record, flying for a distance of 736 m (nearly a half
for
mile) in 4 minutes and 11 seconds (about 8 mph, 13 km/h)

maintaining a height of six feet. Not to be outdone, Oemichen
reclaimed the world record on 4 May when he flew his No. 2
machine again for a 14-minute flight covering 5,550 feet (1.05 mi,
t
1.692 km) while climbing to a height of 50 feet (15

No
meters).Oemichen also set the 1-km closed-circuit record at 7

minutes 40 seconds.
Meanwhile, Juan de la Cierva was developing and introducing the
first practical rotorcraft in Spain. In 1923, the aircraft that would
S,
become the basis for the modern helicopter rotor began to take
shape in the form of an autogyro, Cierva’s C.4. Cierva had
E
discovered aerodynamic and structural deficiencies in his early

designs that could cause his autogyros to flip over after takeoff.
UP
The flapping hinges that Cierva designed for the C.4 allowed the
rotor to develop lift equally on the left and right halves of the rotor
disk. A crash in 1927 led to the development of a drag hinge to
relieve further stress on the rotor from its flapping motion. These
(c)
two developments allowed for a stable rotor system, not only in a

hover, but in forward flight.
UNIT 9: Helicopter
le
Albert Gillis von Baumhauer, a Dutch aeronautical engineer,
Notes
began studying rotorcraft design in 1923. His first prototype “flew”
/Sa
(“hopped” and hovered in reality) on 24 September 1925, with ___________________
Dutch Army-Air arm Captain Floris Albert van Heijst at the ___________________
controls. The controls that Captain van Heijst used were Von
___________________
on
Baumhauer’s inventions, the cyclic and collective. Patents were
granted to von Baumhauer for his cyclic and collective controls by ___________________
the British ministry of aviation on 31 January 1927, under patent ___________________
cti
number 265, 272. ___________________
In 1930, the Italian engineer Corradino D’Ascanio built his D’AT3, ___________________
a coaxial helicopter. His relatively large machine had two, two-
du
___________________
bladed, counter-rotating rotors. Control was achieved by using
auxiliary wings or servo-tabs on the trailing edges of the blades, a ___________________
concept that was later adopted by other helicopter designers, ___________________

pro
including Bleeker and Kaman. Three small propellers mounted to
the airframe were used for additional pitch, roll, and yaw control.
The D’AT3 held modest FAI speed and altitude records for the
time, including altitude (18 m), duration (8 minutes 45 seconds)
Re
and distance flown (1,078 m).
The Bréguet-Dorand Gyroplane Laboratoire was built in 1933.
After many ground tests and an accident, it first took flight on 26
for
June 1935. Within a short time, the aircraft was setting records
with pilot Maurice Claisse at the controls. On 14 December 1935
he set a record for closed-circuit flight with a 500 m diameter. The
next year, on 26 September 1936, Claisse set a height record of 158
t
m. And, finally, on 24 November 1936, he set a flight duration

No
record of one hour, two minutes and 5 seconds over a 44 km closed

circuit at 44.7 km/h. The aircraft was destroyed in 1943 by an
Allied air strike at Villacoublay airport.
Check Your Progress

S,
Fill in the blanks:

E
1. Leonardo da Vinci conceived a machine that could be

described as an …………………
UP
2. In the 1880s, ……………….. experimented with small

helicopter models in the USA.
(c)
Contd…
le
3. In the early 1920s, ………………….., an Argentinian
Notes
Activity working in Europe, demonstrated one of the first
/Sa
With___________________
the help of the internet, successful applications of cyclic pitch.
find out the uses of helicopter.
___________________
4. The ………………….. Laboratoire was built in 1933.
___________________
on
___________________ Birth of an Industry
___________________
Despite the success of the Gyroplane Laboratoire, the German
cti
___________________ Focke-Wulf Fw 61, first flown in 1936, would eclipse its
___________________ accomplishments. The Fw 61 broke all of the helicopter world
records in 1937, demonstrating a flight envelope that had only
___________________
du
previously been achieved by the autogyro. In February 1938,
___________________ Hanna Reitsch became the first female helicopter pilot, exhibiting
___________________ the Fw 61 before crowds in the Deutschlandhalle.
pro
Nazi Germany would use helicopters in small numbers during
World War II for observation, transport, and medical evacuation.
The Flettner Fl282 Kolibri synchropter was used in the
Re
Mediterranean Sea, while the Focke Achgelis Fa 223 Drache was
used in Europe. Extensive bombing by the Allied forces prevented
Germany from producing any helicopters in large quantities during
the war.
for
In the United States, Igor Sikorsky and W. Lawrence LePage, were

competing to produce the United States military’s first helicopter.
Prior to the war, LePage had received the patent rights to develop
helicopters patterned after the Fw 61, and built the XR-1, utilizing
t
the transverse rotor layout. Meanwhile, Sikorsky had settled on a

No
simpler, single rotor design, the VS-300. After experimenting with

configurations to counteract the torque produced by the single
main rotor, he settled on a single, smaller rotor mounted vertically
on the tailboom.
S,
Developed from the VS-300, Sikorsky’s R-4 became the first mass
produced helicopter with a production order for 100 aircraft. The
E
R-4 was the only Allied helicopter to see service in World War II,
primarily being used for rescue in Burma, Alaska, and other areas
UP
with harsh terrain. Total production would reach 131 helicopters

before the R-4 was replaced by other Sikorsky helicopters such as
the R-5 and the R-6. In all, Sikorsky would produce over 400
helicopters before the end of World War II.
(c)
UNIT 9: Helicopter
le
As LePage and Sikorsky were building their helicopters for the
Notes
military, Bell Aircraft hired Arthur Young to help build a
/Sa
helicopter using Young’s semi-rigid, teetering-blade rotor design, ___________________
which utilized a weighted stabilizing bar. The subsequent Model ___________________
30 helicopter demonstrated the simplicity and ease of the design.
___________________
on
The Model 30 was developed into the Bell 47, which became the
first aircraft certificated for civilian use in the United States. ___________________
Produced in several countries, the Bell 47 would become the most ___________________
cti
popular helicopter model for nearly 30 years. ___________________
Turbine Age ___________________
du
In 1951, at the urging of his contacts at the Department of the ___________________
Navy, Charles H. Kaman modified his Ka-225 helicopter with a ___________________

new kind of engine, the turboshaft engine. This adaptation of the
___________________
pro
turbine engine provided a large amount of horsepower to the
helicopter with a lower weight penalty than piston engines, with
their heavy engine blocks and auxiliary components. On 11
December 1951, the Ka-225 became the first turbine powered
Re
helicopter in the world. Two years later, on 26 March 1954, a
modified Navy HTK-1, another Kaman helicopter, became the first
twin-turbine helicopter to fly. However, it was the Sud Aviation
Alouette II that would become the first helicopter to be produced
for
with a turbine-engine.
Reliable helicopters capable of stable hover flight were developed
decades after fixed-wing aircraft. This is largely due to higher
engine power density requirements than fixed-wing aircraft.
t
No
Improvements in fuels and engines during the first half of the 20th
century were a critical factor in helicopter development. The
availability of lightweight turboshaft engines in the second half of
the 20th century led to the development of larger, faster, and
higher-performance helicopters. While smaller and less expensive
S,
helicopters still use piston engines, turboshaft engines are the

preferred power plant for helicopters today.
E
Due to the unique operating characteristics of the helicopter— its

UP
ability to takeoff and land vertically, and to hover for extended

periods of time, as well as the aircraft’s handling properties under
low airspeed conditions—it has grown increasingly popular for
conducting tasks that were previously not possible, or were time-
(c)
or work-intensive. Today, helicopters are used for transportation,

le
for construction, for firefighting, search and rescue, and a variety
Notes of other jobs that require the special capabilities of the helicopter.
/Sa
___________________
As aerial cranes, helicopters carry loads connected to long cables or
___________________ slings in order to place heavy equipment such as transmission
___________________ towers and large air conditioning units on the tops of tall buildings
on
or when an item must be raised up in aremote area, such as a
___________________
radio tower raised on the top of a hill or mountain, far from the
___________________ nearest road. The most popular use of helicopters as aerial cranes
cti
___________________ is in the logging industry to lift large trees out of rugged terrain
where vehicles aren’t able to reach, or where environmental
___________________
concerns prohibit the building of roads. These operations are
___________________
du
referred to as longline because of the long, single sling line used to
___________________ carry the load.
___________________ Aerial firefighting (or water bombing) is a method to combat
pro
wildfires that often uses helicopters. Helicopters may be fitted with
tanks or carry buckets or deliver firefighters who rappel to the
ground below. Buckets, such as the Bambi bucket, are usually
filled by submerging in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, or portable tanks.
Re
Tanks may be filled on the ground or water may be siphoned from
lakes or reservoirs through a hanging snorkel. Helicopters are also
used to resupply firefighters on the ground with tools, food, water
and other supplies. Popular firefighting helicopters include
for
variants of the Bell 205 and the Erickson S-64 Aircrane helitanker.
Helicopters are used as an air ambulance for emergency medical
assistance in situations where either a traditional ambulance
t
cannot easily or quickly reach the scene or when a patient needs to

No
be transported at a distance where air transportation is most

practical. Air ambulance helicopters are equipped to provide
medical treatment to a critically injured or ill patient while in
flight. The use of helicopters as an air ambulance is often referred
S,
to as MEDEVAC and patients are referred to as being “airlifted”,

or “medevaced”.
E
Police departments and other law enforcement agencies use

helicopters to search for and pursue suspects. Since helicopters can
UP
achieve a unique aerial view and don’t need to negotiate ground

obstacles, they are often used in conjunction with police on the
ground to report on suspects’ locations and movements. They are
often mounted with lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night
(c)
pursuits.
UNIT 9: Helicopter
le
Military forces use attack helicopters to conduct aerial attacks on
Notes
ground targets. Such helicopters are mounted with missile
/Sa
launchers and miniguns. Transport helicopters are used to ferry ___________________
troops and supplies where the lack of an airstrip would make ___________________
transport via fixed-wing aircraft impossible. Transport helicopters
___________________
on
used to deliver troops as an attack force on an objective is referred
to as Air Assault. ___________________
___________________
Other Uses
cti
___________________
Aerial photography
___________________
Motion picture photography
du
___________________
Electronic news gathering ___________________
Search and Rescue ___________________
Touring or personal pleasure
Transport
pro
Re
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
1. The ………………… was used in the Mediterranean Sea.
for
2. Developed from the VS-300, ………………… became the

first mass produced helicopter with a production order
for 100 aircraft.
3. …………………. (or water bombing) is a method to
t
combat wildfires that often uses helicopters.

No
Summary
A helicopter is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or
S,

blades. Helicopters are classified as rotorcraft or rotary-wing
aircraft to distinguish them from fixed-wing aircraft because the
E
helicopter derives its source of lift from the rotor blades rotating
UP
around a mast.
Since 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying
tops. Eventually, this flying top made its way to Europe and is
depicted in a 1463 European painting. Pao Phu Tau was a 4th-
(c)
century book in China reported to describe some of the ideas

inherent to rotary wing aircraft. Despite the success of the
le
Gyroplane Laboratoire, the German Focke-Wulf Fw 61, first flown
Notes in 1936, would eclipse its accomplishments. The Fw 61 broke all of
/Sa
___________________ the helicopter world records in 1937, demonstrating a flight
envelope that had only previously been achieved by the autogyro.
___________________
In February 1938, Hanna Reitsch became the first female
___________________
helicopter pilot, exhibiting the Fw 61 before crowds in the
on
___________________ Deutschlandhalle.
___________________ Due to the unique operating characteristics of the helicopter— its
cti
___________________ ability to takeoff and land vertically, and to hover for extended
periods of time, as well as the aircraft’s handling properties under
___________________
low airspeed conditions—it has grown increasingly popular for
___________________
du
conducting tasks that were previously not possible, or were time-
___________________ or work-intensive. Today, helicopters are used for various
___________________ purposes.
Lesson End Activity

pro
Write a report on the current status of helicopters in India.
Re
Keywords
Aerial Firefighting: It is a method to combat wildfires that often
for
uses helicopters.
Helicopter: It is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or
blades.
t
MEDEVAC: The use of helicopters as an air ambulance is often

No
referred to as MEDEVAC.

S,
1. Write an overview on helicopters.

2. Write a short note on the history of helicopters.
E
3. Examine the various uses of helicopters.

UP
Further Readings
Books
(c)

UNIT 9: Helicopter
le
Notes
& Sons.
/Sa
___________________
Books. ___________________
___________________
on
and challenges, ICFAI University Press. ___________________
Cento, Alessandro (2009) The Airline Industry: Challenges in the ___________________
cti
21st Century, Physica Verlag Heidelberg. ___________________
___________________
Web Readings
du
___________________
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/what-is-a-
helicopter-k4.html ___________________
http://community.warplanes.com/2010/04/15/different-types-of- ___________________
military-helicopters/ pro
http://inventors.about.com/od/hstartinventions/a/helicopter.htm
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 10: Case Studies
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Studies ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
After analysing these cases, the student will have an appreciation of the
cti
___________________
Case Study 1: Running on Empty by Linda Werfelman
___________________
A fatal S-92A crash prompts a TSB (Transport Safety Board) call
du
for action to keep large transport helicopters running for at least ___________________
30 minutes without main gearbox oil.
___________________
The helicopter departed from St. John’s International Airport,
___________________
pro
(Newfoundland, off the east coast of Canada), at 0917 local time
and, at 0932, levelled off at 9,000 ft; the amended instrument
flight plan estimated a 1040 arrival time at the oil rig. At 0945,
according to data from the flight data recorder (FDR), MGB (main
gearbox) oil pressure began decreasing. An amber “MGB OIL
Re
PRES” caution message illuminated and was followed almost
immediately by a red “MGB OIL PRES” warning message,
accompanied by the aural warning of “GEARBOX PRESSURE …
GEARBOX PRESSURE.” The crew began checklist procedures,
and by 0945, MGB oil pressure had decreased to less than 5 psi,
for
down from the normal range of between 45 and 70 psi.

“The combination of the red ‘MGB OIL PRES’ warning message
… and MGB oil pressure below 5 psi … constituted a ‘land
immediately’ condition, as per the S-92A Rotorcraft Flight
Manual,” the report said, noting that the captain declared an
t
emergency and requested clearance from the Gander area control

No
centre (ACC) to return to St. John’s.

ACC began issuing radar vectors, and seconds later, after the
pilots turned the helicopter back toward the airport, 54 nautical
miles (100 km) to the west, they began a descent. At 0947, MGB
oil pressure was 0 psi. The pilots discussed emergency
preparations with ACC and the company dispatcher, and at 0951,
S,
the first officer said that the helicopter was in a “land

immediately” condition. The captain responded by saying he
planned to level the helicopter at 1,000 ft, but the helicopter
E
descended to 800 ft — to “provide approximately 300 ft of terrain

clearance over the highest point of land on the direct track” to the
UP
St. John’s airport and about 600 ft above the highest point near
Cape Spear, the piece of land closest to the helicopter’s position.
At 0952, in response to a question from the Cougar dispatcher,
the crew said they believed a ditching was “possible” rather than
“imminent” or “probable.” At 0955, the captain indicated to
(c)
Cougar Dispatch that they were ditching. Less than one minute
later, the helicopter struck the water in a slight right-bank, nose
Contd…
le
high attitude. Both crew members and 15 out of the 16 passengers
Notes drowned.
/Sa
___________________
A “complex web” of factors, including a total loss of oil in the
transmission’s main gearbox (MGB), led to the fatal crash of the
___________________ S-92A, the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) said in
its subsequent report. The helicopter was manufactured in 2006
___________________ and had total airframe time of 2,194 hours and 1,773 cycles. It
on
was configured for two crewmembers and up to 17 passengers.
___________________
The helicopter was certified and equipped as specified by
___________________ regulations, and maintenance records did not indicate that there
were any problems before the accident flight.
cti
___________________
The MGB is part of the helicopter’s main transmission assembly.
___________________ The oil filter bowl in the accident helicopter was attached to the
MGB housing with “three equally spaced titanium alloy stud and
___________________
du
self-locking nut assemblies,” the report said.
___________________ The TSB supplemented its final report on the March 12, 2009,
accident with safety recommendations calling for major changes
___________________ in helicopter operations, including one provision to require S-92s
pro
and other large transport helicopters to be capable of operating
for at least 30 minutes after a massive loss of MGB oil.
Questions:
1. Can you think of any other measures which would make long
Re
helicopter flights over water safer?
2. With your partner, plan how you would organise an
investigation into the causes of such an accident, make a list
of the information you would require and define the various
steps and actions in the investigation. Then present your
for
plans to the group and discuss any differences in the

approach.
Source: http://www.cambridge.org/servlet/file/Case+study
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 10: Case Studies
le
Case Study 2: Something changed By Marc Lacagnina
Notes
The pilots had flown into Fox Harbour Aerodrome in Nova Scotia
/Sa
many times. The runway is short, and the customary procedure ___________________
was to drop below the visual flight path indication on short final
approach to maximize the available roll-out distance after ___________________
touchdown. In the afternoon of Nov. 11, 2007, the pilots employed
___________________
this familiar procedure in an unfamiliar aircraft, a Bombardier
on
Global 5000 that had been acquired by their company only three ___________________
weeks earlier. Accustomed to flying smaller jets, they had not
adjusted fully to the new aircraft according to the Transportation ___________________
cti
Safety Board of Canada.
___________________
The glide path was too shallow for the bigger aircraft, and the
captain held an inordinate right-wing-low crosswind correction on ___________________
short final approach. The aircraft began to sink, and the captain
du
___________________
corrected by increasing angle of attack. He left the throttles at
idle, however. The aircraft continued to sink, and the right main ___________________
landing gear collapsed when it struck the edge of the runway
threshold. After travelling a short distance with the right wing ___________________
pro
dragging on the runway, the aircraft veered off the pavement,
struck mounds of dirt and came to a stop near a housing complex.
The aircraft was substantially damaged, but there was no fi re.
The first officer and a passenger were seriously injured; the
Re
captain and the seven other passengers sustained minor injuries.
New Plane, Old SOPs
The company had an operations reference manual (ORM) for the
Global 5000 but did not successfully adapt the standard operating
procedures (SOPs) for the new aircraft. The SOPs required pilots
for
to use visual glide slope indicator (VGSI) guidance on approach

and to plan to touch down about 1,000 ft (305m) from the runway
threshold. A note advised that descending below VGSI glide path
“is not a recommended technique and is not an accepted practice.”
Nevertheless, the SOPs included this exception: “When operating
t
on short runways or when braking action is reduced by

No
contamination on the runway, landing as early as conditions

permit is generally considered to be good airmanship.”
Short and Damp
The pilots, who were conducting a corporate flight from Hamilton,
Ontario, did indeed plan to “land early” at Fox Harbour. The
S,
runway, 15/33, was 4,885 ft (1,489m) long and 75 ft (23m) wide,

and it was damp.
E
“Using performance charts, the captain had estimated that, for

the conditions, 4,300 ft (1,310m) of runway was required for
landing,” the report by the Transportation Safety Board of
UP
Canada said.
The airport did not have weather-reporting services. “Aside from
the wind sock located near the threshold of Runway 33, there is
no equipment available to give accurate wind speed and direction
(c)
information,” the report said.
Contd…
le
The nearest station, 28 nm (52km) north east, was reporting
Notes winds from 360 degrees at 21 kt, gusting to 33 kt; 7 miles (11 km)
/Sa
___________________
visibility with light rain, and a 900-ft overcast. As they neared
Fox Harbour, the pilots decided that their reference landing speed
___________________ (Vref) would be 113 kt, with 5 kt added for gusts during the
approach.
___________________
Eye-to-Wheel Height
on
___________________ The report said that the interviews during the investigation with
___________________ several pilots holding transport pilots licenses revealed a general
lack of knowledge about eye-to-wheel height (EWH) and how it
cti
___________________ applies to different types of VGSIs. EWH is “the vertical distance
from a pilot’s eyes to the lowest portion of the aircraft in the
___________________ landing attitude,” the report said. “This distance varies from less
than 4 ft to 45 ft (1.2m to 13.7m) for some wide-body aircraft, such
___________________
du
as a Boeing 747.” However, EWH information is not readily
___________________ available to pilots. The Global 5000 aircraft flight manual, for
example, does not include this information.
___________________
pro
The report said that although the abbreviated precision approach
path indicator (APAPI) installation at Fox Harbour was not
appropriate for the Global 5000, if the crew had followed its
guidance to touchdown, the main gear would have cleared the
runway threshold by about 8 ft and the aircraft would have
Re
touched down about 500 ft (152m) from the threshold.
Moreover, if they had followed the vertical guidance provided by
the onboard flight management system, the aircraft would have
crossed the threshold at 58 ft and touched down 1,000 ft from the
threshold.
for
Questions:
1. Analyse the case and interpret it.
t
Source: http://www.cambridge.org/servlet/file/Case+study
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 11: Theory of Flight
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-III
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 11: THEORY OF FLIGHT
___________________ UNIT 13: HISTORY AND FORMATION OF
AIRLINES
 Introduction
___________________  Introduction
 Concept of Flight
___________________  History and Formation of Airlines
on
 Lift, Drag, Weight and Thrust
___________________  What is An Airline Business
UNIT 12: INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT
___________________
COMPONENTS UNIT 14: KEY FUNCTIONS OF AIRLINES
cti
___________________
 ___________________
Fixed-wing Aircraft Components  Key Functions of the Airlines
___________________
du
 Control Surfaces  The Commercial (Traffic) Department
 ___________________
Lift Control Devices  Engineering Department
 Power Plant and Propulsion Devices

___________________  Flight Operations

Landing Gear
Gyroplane
pro
UNIT 15: CASE STUDY
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Take a trip to your local airport
Theory of Flight or an air show. Visit the
___________________
control tower and the aircraft
hangers.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Concept of Flight ___________________
 Lift ___________________
 Drag
du
___________________
 Weight
___________________
 Thrust
___________________
Introduction
pro
Flight is a phenomenon that has long been a part of the natural
world. Birds fly not only by flapping their wings, but by gliding
Re
with their wings outstretched for long distances. Smoke, which is
composed of tiny particles, can rise thousands of feet into the air.
Both these types of flight are possible because of the principles of
for
physical science. Likewise, man-made aircraft rely on these

principles to overcome the force of gravity and achieve flight.
Concept of Flight
t
Lighter-than-air craft, such as the hot air balloon, work on a

No
buoyancy principle. They float on air much like rafts float on

water. The density of a raft is less than that of water, so it floats.
Although the density of water is constant, the density of air
decreases with altitude. The density of hot air inside a balloon is
S,
less than that of the air at sea level, so the balloon rises. It will
continue to rise until the air outside of the balloon is of the same
E
density as the air inside. Smoke particles rise on a plume of hot air
being generated by a fire. When the air cools, the particles fall
UP
back to Earth.
(c)
le
Heavier-than-air flight is made possible by a careful balance of
Notes
Activity four physical forces: lift, drag, weight, and thrust. For flight, an
/Sa
___________________
Build paper airplanes and aircraft’s lift must balance its weight, and its thrust must exceed
demonstrate the effects of lift, its drag. A plane uses its wings for lift and its engines for thrust.
___________________
drag, thrust, and weight.
Drag is reduced by a plane’s smooth shape and its weight is
___________________
controlled by the materials it is constructed of.
on
___________________

Fill in the blanks:
cti
___________________
___________________ 1. Lighter-than-air craft, such as the hot air balloon, work

on a ……………… principle.
___________________
du
___________________
2. Although the density of water is constant, the density of
air …………….. with altitude.
___________________
pro
Lift, Drag, Weight and Thrust
In this section, we will discuss about the various concepts of lict,
drag, weight and thrust.
Re
Lift
In order for an aircraft to rise into the air, a force must be created
that equals or exceeds the force of gravity. This force is called lift.
for
In heavier-than-air craft, lift is created by the flow of air over an

airfoil. The shape of an airfoil causes air to flow faster on top than
on bottom. The fast flowing air decreases the surrounding air
pressure. Because the air pressure is greater below the airfoil than
t
No
above, a resulting lift force is created. To further understand how

an airfoil creates lift, it is necessary to use two important
equations of physical science.
The pressure variations of flowing air are best represented by
S,
Bernoulli’s equation. It was derived by Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss

mathematician, to explain the variation in pressure exerted by
flowing streams of water. The Bernoulli equation is written as:
E
1 
drag = CD   ρV 2   A
UP
 2 
Where:
P = pressure (force exerted divided by area exerted on)
(c)
rho = density of the fluid

le
V = velocity of the moving object or fluid
Notes
/Sa
To understand the Bernoulli equation, one must first understand
___________________
another important principle of physical science, the continuity
equation. It simply states that in any given flow, the density (rho) ___________________
times the cross-sectional area (A) of the flow, times the velocity (V) ___________________
on
is constant. The continuity equation is written as:
___________________
ρ × A × V = constant ___________________
cti
Where: ___________________
ρ= pressure ___________________
du
V = velocity ___________________
A = cross sectional area of flow ___________________
Using the Bernoulli equation and the continuity equation, it can be ___________________
pro
shown how air flowing over an airfoil creates lift. Imagine air
flowing over a stationary airfoil, such as an aircraft wing.
Far ahead of the airfoil, the air travels at a uniform velocity. To
Re
flow past the airfoil, however, it must “split” in two, part of the
flow traveling on top and part traveling on the bottom.
t for
No
The shape of a typical airfoil is asymmetrical - its surface area is

greater on the top than on the bottom. As the air flows over the
airfoil, it is displaced more by the top surface than the bottom.
S,
According to the continuity law, this displacement, or loss of flow

area, must lead to an increase in velocity. Consider an airfoil in a
E
pipe with flowing water. Water will flow faster in a narrow section
of the pipe. The large area of the top surface of the airfoil narrows
UP
the pipe more than the bottom surface does. Thus, water will flow
faster on top than on bottom. The flow velocity is increased some
by the bottom airfoil surface, but considerably less than the flow on
(c)
top.
le
The Bernoulli equation states that an increase in velocity leads to
Notes
a decrease in pressure. Thus the higher the velocity of the flow, the
/Sa
___________________
lower the pressure is. Air flowing over an airfoil will decrease in
___________________ pressure. The pressure loss over the top surface is greater than
___________________ that of the bottom surface. The result is a net pressure force in the
on
upward (positive) direction. This pressure force is lift.
___________________
There is no predetermined shape for a wing airfoil; it is designed
___________________
based on the function of the aircraft it will be used for. To aid the
cti
___________________ design process, engineers use the lift coefficient to measure the
___________________ amount of lift obtained from a particular airfoil shape. Lift is
___________________
proportional to dynamic pressure and wing area. The lift equation
du
is written as:
___________________
1 
___________________ lift = CL   ρV 2   S
pro  2 
where S is wing area and the quantity in parentheses is the

dynamic pressure. In designing an aircraft wing, it is usually
advantageous to get the lift coefficient as high as possible.
Re
Drag
Every physical body that is propelled through the air will
experience resistance to the air flow. This resistance is called drag.
for
Drag is the result of a number of physical phenomena. Pressure

drag is that which you feel when running on a windy day. The
pressure of the wind in front of you is greater than the pressure of
the wake behind you. Skin friction, or viscous drag, is that which
t
swimmers may experience. The flow of water along a swimmer’s

No
body creates a frictional force that slows the swimmer down. A

rough surface will induce more frictional drag than a smooth
surface. To reduce viscous drag, swimmers attempt to make
contact surfaces as smooth as possible by wearing swim caps and
S,
shaving their legs. Likewise, an aircraft’s wing is designed to be

smooth to reduce drag.
E
Like lift, drag is proportional to dynamic pressure and the area on

which it acts. The drag coefficient, analogous to the lift coefficient,
UP
is a measure of the amount of dynamic pressure gets converted

into drag. Unlike the lift coefficient however, engineers usually
design the drag coefficient to be as low as possible. Low drag
(c)
coefficients are desirable because an aircraft’s efficiency increases

as drag decreases.
le
1 
drag = CD   ρV 2   A Notes
2 
/Sa
___________________
Weight
___________________
The weight of an aircraft is a limiting factor in aircraft design. A
heavy plane, or a plane meant to carry heavy payloads, requires ___________________
on
more lift than a light plane. It may also require more thrust to ___________________
accelerate on the ground. On small aircraft the location of weight is
___________________
also important. A small plane must be appropriately “balanced” for
cti
flight, for too much weight in the back or front can render the ___________________
plane unstable. Weight can be calculated using a form of Newton’s ___________________

second law:
du
___________________
W = mg ___________________
Where W is weight, m is mass, and g is the acceleration due to ___________________
gravity on Earth.
Thrust
pro
Propulsion involves a number of principles of physical science.
Re
Thermodynamics, aerodynamics, fluid mathematics, and physics
all play a role. Thrust itself is a force than can best be described by
Newton’s second law. The basic form of this law is:
for
F = ma
Which states that force (F) is equal to mass (m) times acceleration
(a). Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity over time. Thrust
(T) is produced therefore by accelerating a mass of air.
t
No
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. In order for an aircraft to rise into the air, a
………………. must be created that equals or exceeds the
S,
force of gravity.
2. Every physical body that is propelled through the air
E
will experience resistance to the air flow. This resistance

UP
is called …………………
Summary
(c)
Flight is a phenomenon that has long been a part of the natural

world. Lighter-than-air craft, such as the hot air balloon, work on a
le
buoyancy principle. Heavier-than-air flight is made possible by a
Notes careful balance of four physical forces: lift, drag, weight, and
/Sa
___________________ thrust. In order for an aircraft to rise into the air, a force must be
created that equals or exceeds the force of gravity. This force is
___________________
called lift. Every physical body that is propelled through the air
___________________
will experience resistance to the air flow. This resistance is called
on
___________________ drag. The weight of an aircraft is a limiting factor in aircraft
___________________ design. A heavy plane, or a plane meant to carry heavy payloads,
requires more lift than a light plane. Propulsion involves a number
cti
___________________
of principles of physical science. Thermodynamics, aerodynamics,
___________________ fluid mathematics, and physics all play a role.
___________________
du
___________________ Lesson End Activity
___________________ Determine the wing area of a large aircraft. Describe what kind of
plane it is. pro
Keywords
Re
Drag: Every physical body that is propelled through the air will
experience resistance to the air flow. This resistance is called drag.
Heavier-than-air Flight: It is made possible by a careful balance
for
of four physical forces: lift, drag, weight, and thrust.

Lift: In order for an aircraft to rise into the air, a force must be
created that equals or exceeds the force of gravity. This force is
called lift.
t
Lighter-than-air Craft: These, such as the hot air balloon, work

No
on a buoyancy principle

S,
1. Would more lift be provided by a fluid with a greater density

than air?
E
2. How do aircraft designers determine the correct shape for a

wing?
UP
3. Explain how a propeller provides thrust in the same way a

wing generates lift.
4. An equation for lift was supplied previously. What would be the
(c)
two forces involved on a propeller?

le
5. Would a propeller work better in a fluid with a greater density
Notes
than air?
/Sa
___________________
6. Do you think different planes need differently shaped airfoils?
___________________
7. During the design phase, how is a wing’s theoretical shape
___________________
tested?
on
___________________
8. How are the wings of a small plane, like a Cessna, different
from a large one, like a passenger jet? ___________________
cti
9. How are the propulsion systems of a biplane different than that ___________________
of a fighter jet? ___________________
du
10. What kind of propulsion does a Lear jet use? The Concorde? ___________________
11. Make a list of the differences between fixed wing aircraft and ___________________
helicopters. How does each generate lift? How fast can each go? ___________________
pro
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
12. Some planes have more than one engine to propel the craft. Are
the multiple engines necessary or a safety precaution?
Re
Further Readings
Books
for

t
& Sons.
No

Books.
S,

E
Web Readings
UP
http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/flighttheory.htm
http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/publications/tp690-section8-
1014.htm
(c)
http://web.mit.edu/16.00/www/aec/flight.html
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 12: Introduction to Aircraft Components
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on fixed wing
Introduction to Aircraft aircraft components.
___________________
Components ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Fixed-wing Aircraft Components
du
 Control Surfaces ___________________
 Lift Control Devices ___________________

 Power Plant and Propulsion Devices ___________________


Landing gear
Gyroplane
pro
Re
Introduction
There are thousands of designs and ideas about aircraft which
have been developed through aviation history. Despite this some
main components became permanent in every aircraft design. As
for
fix-wing aircrafts are the most common aircrafts they will be the
most studied.
Fixed-wing Aircraft Components

t
No
Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, most of

them have the same major components. The overall characteristics
are largely determined by the original design objectives. Most
airplane structures include a fuselage, wings, an empennage,
S,
landing gear, and a power plant. There are many other parts as
well.
E
Fuselage
UP
The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which contains

seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane. In
addition, the fuselage may also provide room for cargo and
attachment points for the other major airplane components. Some
(c)
aircraft utilize an open truss structure. The truss-type fuselage is

constructed of steel or aluminium tubing. Strength and rigidity is
le
achieved by welding the tubing together into a series of triangular
Notes shapes, called trusses.
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Prepare a presentation on
control surfaces. Empennage
___________________
The empennage (also called tail) is the rear part of the aircraft.
___________________
Usually it includes the stabilizers, rudder and elevator as many
on
___________________ other components. In fighter jets it may be constructed around the
___________________ exhaust nozzle, as in some three-engine airplanes (with the third
engine in the fuselage). In commercial aircrafts the empennage is
cti
___________________
built from the cabin pressure-cone and may contain the Flight
___________________ Data Recorder (“black box”), Cockpit Voice Recorder and the
___________________ pressure out-flow valve.
du
___________________
Wings
___________________
pro
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are
the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There
are numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various
manufacturers. Each fulfils a certain need with respect to the
Re
expected performance for the particular airplane.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
for
1. The …………………. includes the cabin and/or cockpit,

which contains seats for the occupants and the controls
for the airplane.
2. The ……………… (also called tail) is the rear part of the
t
No
aircraft.
Control Surfaces
E S,
UP
(c)
Figure 12.1: Airplane Control

le
As aircraft move in three dimensions we need various control
devices to control it. Fix-wing aircrafts have control surfaces for Notes
/Sa
each one of these dimensions. Usually these are placed in the ___________________
extremes of the aircraft (tail and wings) to get the maximum
___________________
strength and response using small moving parts thanks to the
___________________
lever concept.
on
___________________
Note that an airplane is easier to manoeuvre as more unstable it
is. Stability can be provided by stabilizers and fuselage and wing ___________________
cti
design. ___________________
___________________
Vertical Stabilizer and Rudder
du
___________________
The vertical stabilizer functions with the same principle a wing
does, but being symmetrical. It is a main control surface of ___________________
airplanes (fix-wing aircrafts). Obviously, it has a vertical position, ___________________
pro
usually in the tail of the aircraft. There can be multiple vertical
stabilizers (in large aircrafts usually).
The vertical stabilizer has a moving part which is called Rudder.
Re
This acts as an aileron does in the wing. When it is moved to one or
other side it produces a pressure difference over the stabilizer since
its movement is equal to change the angle of attack of this ‘wing’.
The rudder controls the Y-axis or Yaw of the plane and it is
for
controlled from the cockpit with the pedals. In a coordinated turn,

rudder and ailerons must be coordinated, but you can use rudder
only to ‘slide’ the aircraft. Some rudders are mixed with elevators
in the same control surface, creating V-tail aircrafts.
t
No
Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator

The horizontal stabilizer is the main control surface of the aircraft,
mainly of airplanes (fixed-wing aircraft). It functions as a wing
does, creating a second point of lift along the fuselage which
S,
provides stability to the aircraft in the Z-axis. Its function is not to

provide more lift but to control the Pitch of the aircraft (by
E
modifying the angle of attack of the wing). This is thanks to a

moving part or parts called Elevators, which act like an aileron,
UP
and are controlled by the longitudinal axis of the joystick or wheel.

Obviously, the horizontal stabilizer has a horizontal position,
usually in the tail of the aircraft. It can be on top of the vertical
stabilizer (T-tail aircraft), or divided in two parts crossing the
(c)
vertical stabilizer. Some horizontal stabilizers have no elevators

but are a whole elevator (mainly in gliders, since it has a better
le
aerodynamic performance). In Canard-configuration planes, the
Notes horizontal stabilizer is positioned not in the tail but in the nose of
/Sa
___________________ the aircraft (note that its movement to reduce or increase pitch will
be inverted from the one it does when it’s placed in the tail).
___________________
Sometimes, elevators are mixed with rudders in the same control
___________________
surface, creating V-tail aircrafts. It also can be combined with
on
___________________ ailerons, mainly in delta-wing planes.
___________________
Aileron
cti
___________________
Ailerons are moving surfaces usually placed near the tips of the
___________________ wings. The function of an aileron is simple, by moving upwards or
___________________ downwards it modifies the angle of attack of that section of the
du
___________________
wing, sinking or lifting it. This change in the aerodynamic is due to
the modification of relative curve of the airfoil. Note that ailerons
___________________
are complementary, so if one moves the other will move on the
pro
other direction in the same proportion. This improves the effect as
one wing is lifted and the other sunk. Ailerons control the X-axis or
roll movement of the aircraft.
Re
Ailerons are controlled by the pilot form the cockpit, with the
lateral axis of the joystick. To make coordinated turns their
movement must be combined with rudder in the same direction. In
some planes ailerons are just divided elevators, being possible to
for
use the same surface as aileron or elevator (delta-wing airplanes).
Trim Tab
Trim tabs are small surfaces connected to the trailing edge of a
t
larger control surface on a boat or aircraft, used to control the trim

No
of the controls, i.e. to counteract hydro- or aero-dynamic forces and

stabilise the boat or aircraft in a particular desired attitude
without the need for the operator to constantly apply a control
force. This is done by adjusting the angle of the tab relative to the
S,
larger surface.
Changing the setting of a trim tab adjusts the neutral or resting
E
position of a control surface (such as an elevator or rudder). As the

desired position of a control surface changes (corresponding mainly
UP
to different speeds), an adjustable trim tab will allow the operator

to reduce the manual force required to maintain that position—to
zero, if used correctly. Thus the trim tab acts as a servo tab.
(c)
Because the centre of pressure of the trim tab is further away from
the axis of rotation of the control surface than the centre of
pressure of the control surface, the moment generated by the tab
le
can match the moment generated by the control surface. The
position of the control surface on its axis will change until the Notes
Activity
/Sa
movements from the control surface and the trim surface balance
With___________________
the help of internet, find
each other. out some more about lift
___________________
control devices.
Check Your Progress ___________________
on
Fill in the blanks: ___________________
1. The ………………… functions with the same principle a ___________________
cti
wing does, but being symmetrical. ___________________
2. ………………. are moving surfaces usually placed near ___________________
the tips of the wings.
du
___________________
3. ……………. are small surfaces connected to the trailing ___________________
edge of a larger control surface on a boat or aircraft,
___________________
used to control the trim of the controls.
Lift Control Devices

pro
Re
To control speed and pitch (angle of attack), there are some devices
which make possible to modify the lift produced by the wing. These
act on the aerodynamics of the wing, mainly on the boundary layer.
Flap
for
Flaps increase the wing surface or curve generating more lift with
the same speed. They are very used on low speed operations,
mainly during landings and take offs. There are several types of
t
flaps:
No
 Plain Flap
 Split Flap
 Flap Zap or Slotted
S,
 Flap Fowler
 Flap Multi-Fowler
E
Slat
UP
A slat is a thin airfoil deployed form the leading edge of the wing.
This acts as a new little wing, but its objective is not to produce lift
but to generate the circulation needed for it. Slat circulation will be
(c)
opposite to wing circulation reducing the highest speed of the

boundary layer. This reduces the maximum lift also, making its
distribution along the wing softer, but allowing the boundary layer
le
to detach later (by reducing the adverse pressure generated in the
Notes trailing edge).
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on power plant Usually, slats are used with flaps during take-off and landing
and propulsion devices.
___________________ operations as both produce extra lift at low speed.
___________________
Spoiler
on
___________________
Spoilers are not used for generating lift but for reducing it. They
___________________ are moving surfaces which are placed vertically across the airfoil.
cti
___________________ This produces the detachment of the boundary layer before than
usual as an adverse pressure is generated. These devices are not
___________________
very common in piston engine or turboprop airplanes but in
___________________
du
turbojet airplanes and gliders. Spoilers are used mainly after touch
___________________ down (landing) and rarely used during descend and approach.
___________________
pro
Fill in the blanks
Check Your Progress
1. ………….. increase the wing surface or curve generating

more lift with the same speed.
Re
2. A ……………. is a thin airfoil deployed form the leading
edge of the wing.
for
Power Plant and Propulsion Devices
Propeller
A propeller is a device which transmits power by converting it into
t
thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an airplane, ship, or

No
submarine though a fluid such as water or air, by rotating two or

more twisted blades about a central shaft, in a manner analogous
to rotating a screw through a solid. The blades of a propeller act as
rotating wings, and produce force through application of both
S,
Bernoulli’s principle and Newton’s third law, generating a

difference in pressure between the forward and rear surfaces of the
E
airfoil-shaped bladesss.
UP
Piston Engine
Piston engines are common four-stroke cycle engines. Of course
they are designed in particular for airplanes, so they use aviation
gas and have special characteristics, but their function is very
(c)
similar to a car engine. Transmission of these engines is connected

le
to a propeller so they can provide thrust. Full details in this page
end to see more option in their websites. Notes
Activity
/Sa
With___________________
Jet engine collect some pictures of
___________________
landing gear.
A jet engine produces thrust by compressing air and releasing it
through a directed pipe or nozzle. We will study more deeply this ___________________
on
subject in Chapter 3, but essentially an aircraft jet engine is ___________________
composed of an intake chamber or valve, a fan, one or several
___________________
compressors, a combustion chamber, one or several turbines and
cti
___________________
an exhaust nozzle.
___________________
The process the air suffers through a jet engine begins with the
du
intake and initial compression, a much higher compression, ___________________
combustion, discharge into turbines and release. It is common to ___________________

see jet engines with one more step which is to afterburn the
___________________
mixture while being released.
 TurboJet
pro
 TurboFan
Re
TurboProp
A TurboProp engine consists in a jet engine which drives a
propeller. The result of this is that we have a much more reliable
for
engine than a piston engine (as much as a jet engine) but not as
complicated and big as a jet engine since we don’t need the jet-
blast for generating thrust but the propeller.
Check Your Progress

t
No
Fill in the blanks:

1. ……………………. are common four-stroke cycle engines.
2. A ………………. engine produces thrust by compressing
air and releasing it through a directed pipe or nozzle.
S,
Landing Gear
E
The undercarriage or landing gear in aviation is the structure that

UP
supports an aircraft on the ground and allows it to taxi, takeoff

and land. Typically wheels are used, but skids, skis, floats or a
combination of these and other elements can be deployed,
depending on the surface. Present day aircrafts are of Tricycle
(c)
undercarriage in which one wheel or a group of two small wheel in

the nose and the main undercarriage in the rear.
le
Main Gear
Notes
Activity It is the main load bearing part of the aircraft. The Main gears are
/Sa
___________________
Make a presentation on to be strong enough to take care of the entire aircraft and
gyroplanes.
___________________ withstand the entire load of fully loaded aircraft.
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Figure 12.2: Main Undercarriage or Main Wheels
This landing gear are generally retractable and give more speed to
the aircraft once retracted, and also the smooth surface to have
Re
more aerodynamics shaped for passing through the air with
minimum resistance and get more speed.
Check Your Progress

for
Fill in the blanks:

1. …………… is the main load bearing part of the aircraft.
2. These landing gear are generally …………………
t
No
Gyroplane
Although gyroplanes are designed in a variety of configurations,
for the most part the basic components are the same. The
minimum components required for a functional gyroplane are an
S,
airframe, a power plant, a rotor system, tail surfaces, and landing

gear. An optional component is the wing, which is incorporated
E
into some designs for specific performance objectives.

UP
Airframe
The airframe provides the structure to which all other components
are attached. Airframes may be welded tube, sheet metal,
(c)
composite, or simply tubes bolted together. A combination of

construction methods may also be employed. The airframes with
the greatest strength-to-weight ratios are a carbon fibre material
le
or the welded tube structure, which has been in use for a number
of years. Notes
/Sa
___________________
Landing Gear
___________________
The landing gear provides the mobility while on the ground and
may be either conventional or tricycle. Conventional gear consists ___________________
on
of two main wheels, and one under the tail. The tricycle ___________________
configuration also uses two mains, with the third wheel under the
___________________
nose. Early autogyros, and several models of gyroplanes, use
cti
___________________
conventional gear, while most of the later gyroplanes incorporate
tricycle landing gear. As with fixed wing aircraft, the gyroplane ___________________
landing gear provides the ground mobility not found in most
du
___________________
helicopters.
___________________
Powerplant ___________________
pro
The powerplant provides the thrust necessary for forward flight,
and is independent of the rotor system while in flight. While on the
ground, the engine may be used as a source of power to prerotate
Re
the rotor system. Over the many years of gyroplane development, a
wide variety of engine types have been adapted to the gyroplane.
Automotive, marine, ATV, and certificated aircraft engines have
all been used in various gyroplane designs. Certificated gyroplanes
for
are required to use FAA certificated engines. The cost of a new

certificated aircraft engine is greater than the cost of nearly any
other new engine. This added cost is the primary reason other
types of engines are selected for use in amateur built gyroplanes.
t
No
Lifting Systems
Rotor
The rotor system provides lift and control for the gyroplane. The
fully articulated and semi-rigid teetering rotor systems are the
S,
most common. The teeter blade with hub tilt control is most
common in homebuilt gyroplanes. This system may also employ a
E
collective control to change the pitch of the rotor blades. With

sufficient blade inertia and collective pitch change, jump takeoffs
UP
can be accomplished.
Wings
(c)
Wings may or may not comprise a component of the gyroplane.

When used, they provide increased performance, increased storage
le
capacity, and increased stability. Gyroplanes are under
Notes development with wings that are capable of almost completely
/Sa
___________________ unloading the rotor system and carrying the entire weight of the
aircraft. This will allow rotary wing takeoff performance with fixed
___________________
wing cruise speeds.
___________________
on
___________________ Empennage
___________________ The tail surfaces provide stability and control in the pitch and yaw
axes. These tail surfaces are similar to an airplane empennage and
cti
___________________
may be comprised of a fin and rudder, stabilizer and elevator. An
___________________
aft mounted duct enclosing the propeller and rudder has also been
___________________
du
used. Many gyroplanes do not incorporate a horizontal tail surface.
___________________ On some gyroplanes, especially those with an enclosed cockpit, the
___________________ yaw stability is marginal due to the large fuselage side area
pro
located ahead of the centre of gravity. The additional vertical tail
surface necessary to compensate for this instability is difficult to
achieve as the confines of the rotor tilt and high landing pitch
attitude limits the available area. Some gyroplane designs
Re
incorporate multiple vertical stabilizers and rudders to add
additional yaw stability.
Other Aircraft Components

for
Airships, hot-air balloons, gliders and other kind of aircraft have

specific components in their designs. They can also use airplane
components (renamed or non) or even devices which do the same
function but are different. Anyway, all these should be studied.
t
No
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The ……………. provides the structure to which all
S,
other components are attached.

2. The …………………… provides the mobility while on the
E
ground and may be either conventional or tricycle.

UP
Summary
In this unit, you have learned about aircraft construction and the
materials used in construction. You have also learned about the
(c)
features and materials used to absorb stress on both fixed-wing

and rotary-wing aircraft. Although airplanes are designed for a
le
variety of purposes, most of them have the same major
components. The overall characteristics are largely determined by Notes
/Sa
the original design objectives. Most airplane structures include a ___________________
fuselage, wings, an empennage, landing gear, and a power plant.
___________________
There are many other parts as well which were discussed in this
unit. ___________________
on
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________
cti
Visit an aircraft and check whether you can identify the aircraft’s ___________________
parts after knowing about them from this unit. Prepare a report ___________________
for the same.
du
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
pro
Empennage: The empennage (also called tail) is the rear part of
the aircraft.
Flaps: Flaps increase the wing surface or curve generating more
Re
lift with the same speed.
Fuselage: The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which
contains seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane.
Piston Engines: Piston engines are common four-stroke cycle
for
engines.
Propeller: A propeller is a device which transmits power by
converting it into thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an
t
airplane, ship, or submarine though a fluid such as water or air, by

No
rotating two or more twisted blades about a central shaft, in a

manner analogous to rotating a screw through a solid.
Slat: A slat is a thin airfoil deployed form the leading edge of the
wing.
S,
Spoilers: They are moving surfaces which are placed vertically

across the airfoil.
E
Wings: The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage
UP
and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in
flight.

(c)
1. Enumerate the various fixed-wing aircraft components.

le
2. Describe the concept of Control Surfaces.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
3. Write short notes on Lift Control Devices.
___________________ 4. Define a Power Plant. What do you understand by Propulsion

Devices? Elaborate.
___________________
on
5. List the various types of landing gear.
___________________
___________________
6. Write a short note on Gyroplane.
cti
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
___________________ Books
du
pro
& Sons.
Re
Books.
for

Web Readings
t
http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov/aeronautics/4.html
No
http://www.siampilot.com/Aircraft%20Parts%20&%20Function.htm
http://home.iitk.ac.in/~mohite/Basic_construction.pdf
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 13: History and Formation of Airlines
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
History and Formation of Airlines history and formation of
___________________
airlines.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 History of Airlines ___________________
 Formation of Airlines ___________________
 What is an Airline Business?
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
After the end of world war, there were plenty of Aircraft and now
the desire of the people to fly to another country in the aircraft,
raised and that is how the airlines came into to operations. With
practically plenty of planes in hand in 1918 the organization of an
Re
airline to operate these craft on a scheduled basis over a consistent
route was attempted.
for
History and Formation of Airlines

With practically plenty of planes in hand in 1918 the organization
of an airline to operate these craft on a scheduled basis over a
consistent route was attempted. The first airline was formed in
t
Germany; the Deutsche Luftreederie began service from Berlin to

No
Leipzig and Weimar on Feb. 5, 1919. After three days, a Paris

based airlines French Farman Company started its flight on the
trans-channel crossing from Paris to London using a converted
Goliath bomber. And in August 1919, the first daily service was
S,
established on this route from Le Bourget to Hounslow.

The oldest surviving airline, KLM, was organized in The
E
Netherlands in 1919 and jointly with a British company began

flying the Amsterdam-London route the following year. Outside
UP
Europe, the Queensland and Northern Territories Aerial Services,

Ltd. (Qantas) was founded in 1920; it eventually became the
Australian national airline and now known as Qantas Airways
(c)
Limited)
le
Most of the airlines founded in the 1920s and ‘30s were created at
Notes
least in part to encourage the purchase of aircraft of domestic
/Sa
___________________
manufacture in the Europe only but the privately owned Swissair
___________________ was the first European airline to purchase American aircraft. The
___________________ inter twining of domestic aircraft manufacture and national airline
on
operation was widely advocated as critical to national defence.
___________________
In the United States airline pioneers were private operators, as
___________________
were the aircraft builders, and there was no national policy
cti
___________________ concerning either operation. Throughout the 1920s there were no
___________________ adequately financed airlines, and most lasted for only short periods
___________________
before failing or merging. Given the large area of the United
du
States, an airline with routes of national or even regional coverage
___________________
was the exception. And it was only in the late 1920s that any
___________________ thought was given to the question of encouraging a domestic
pro
aircraft industry or the promotion of domestic airline companies.
A second factor, especially in Europe, was the colonial airline.
Britain, France, The Netherlands, and Germany all developed
Re
colonial airlines, with Belgium, Italy, and the United States joining
the operation less extensively. Routes for national airlines were
limited to destinations within a country or its possessions, except
by agreement. The extensive colonial empires still in existence in
for
the 1920s and ‘30s became natural sites for extended airlines.
Britain, for example, created Imperial Airways by first using
bilateral agreements with other European countries to reach the
Mediterranean and, once there, to project a continuation based on
t
British colonies and protectorates in Malta, Cyprus, Palestine,

No
Trans-Jordan, the Iraq and Persian Gulf protectorates. India,

Burma, the Malay Protectorate, Australia, and New Zealand.
China, Central Africa, and South Africa could be reached by other
routes.
S,
Only the North Atlantic and the northern Pacific resisted a

“British” national airline. France shaped a colonial airline from
E
Province across the Mediterranean to Algeria, the French Sahara,

French Equatorial Africa, and Madagascar. Working out landing
UP
rights between Belgium and France provided a route to the

Belgian Congo. The Netherlands, again through trades with
Britain, shaped a colonial route for KLM to the Dutch East Indies.
(c)
In the 1930s these colonial routes were the main long-distance air
routes available not only because a far-flung empire simplified the
problem of securing landing rights but also because the operating
le
“stage”--that is, the maximum distance that might be flown
without stopping to refuel--was then only about 500 miles. Notes
/Sa
The Pacific and the Atlantic were the major “water jumps” that ___________________
remained unconquered by civil aircraft in 1930. The American air ___________________
routes showed the way to the solution.
___________________
on
Pan American Airlines was first organized to fly from Miami to
___________________
Key West in Florida and to Havana and by the 1930s from
___________________
Brownsville, Texas, to Mexico City and Panama. Pan American
cti
founder Juan Trippe advocated the concept of the “chosen ___________________
instrument”--international connections for the United States ___________________
should be provided by a single American company flying only
du
___________________
outside the country. The American “empire” in this sense was
Latin America, where American investment was extensive but ___________________
political control was only indirect. ___________________

pro
Germany, which after World War I lost its empire, similarly
turned to South America, particularly Colombia, to shape an
extensive system of air routes. In the American case, Pan
Re
American’s ultimately extensive route structure in the Caribbean,
on the east coast of South America, and in Central America
provided experience in operating a long-distance international
airline.
for
By the early 1930s three airlines in particular were seeking to

develop world-scale route patterns
1. Pan American
t
2. Imperial Airways, and

No
3. KLM.
Such a development called for a set of aircraft that were entirely
new in concept from those that had been derived from the planes of
S,
World War I. Specifically, what was needed were seaplanes, which

offered some of the advantages that the Zeppelin company,
DELAG, had obtained with their dirigibles.
E
They could fly stages of considerably greater length than could be

UP
flown with standard land planes because the sea-based plane

enjoyed an almost infinite takeoff runway, that of a long stretch of
water in a sheltered embayment. Several miles might be used at a
time when a 1,000-foot airport runway was the norm. Long
(c)
runways, either on land or on water, meant that planes could be

quite large, use multiple engines, have large enough fuel tanks to
le
fly an extended stage, and require less strength in the
Notes undercarriage.
/Sa
___________________
The tradition of high-powered planes introduced between 1907 and
___________________ 1909 by Glen Curtiss continued. In addition to the Curtiss
___________________ Company, Martin and Sikorsky each produced large four-engine
on
seaplanes with the potential for stages of more than 500 miles.
___________________
Because of its size, the United States showed a concern for
___________________ lengthening the stage even of land-based planes. When Pan
cti
___________________ American adopted the seaplane in the early 1930s, the Sikorsky S-
42 flying boat had four engines that permitted it to fly to Buenos
___________________
Aires, Argentina, by making a series of water crossings between
___________________
du
Puerto Rico and the Rio de la Plata.
___________________
After World War I, another factor contributed to airline
___________________ development: the desire for an air service to speed up the mails.
pro
Unlike Europe, where the nationalized airlines carried the mail, in
the United States the Army Air Corps was assigned the job, with
generally dreary results.
Re
The problems of flying in a country the size of the United States
were considerable. Particularly in the East, with the broad band of
the Appalachians lying athwart the main routes, bad flying
conditions were endemic and crashes were frequent.
for
The introduction of aircraft beacons helped, but the low altitudes

at which most contemporary planes could operate continued to
plague service.
t
Commercial flying began in earnest in 1925 when, under the Kelly

No
Act, the United States Post Office Department established

contracts for carrying mail over assigned routes. Payments were
made in return for the weight of mail carried. This practice often
gave earnings that made the difference between marginal
S,
operation and flying at outright losses. Later, the method of

airmail payments was revised; instead of paying for the weight of
mail carried, the Post Office paid instead for the space reserved for
E
airmail were it to be offered to the airline company to transport.

UP
The result was an incentive to the companies to increase the size of

the planes they normally flew.
(c)
le
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
Find___________________
out the names of airline
1. The first airline was formed in …………………… business companies of India.
___________________
2. …………………. was first organized to fly from Miami to
___________________
on
Key West in Florida and to Havana and by the 1930s
___________________
from Brownsville, Texas, to Mexico City and Panama.
___________________
cti
What is An Airline Business ___________________
Airline is a business entity which is engaged in the transportation ___________________
du
of passenger and goods by air. Airline industry is a capital ___________________
intensive industry. The equipment used is the aircraft and it ___________________
requires a huge amount of money. Being a capital intensive
___________________
pro
industry, this business is restricted to big industrial houses which
have enough capital available or alternatively it is generally owned
and managed by States.
Equipment required for the air transportation is known as Aircraft
Re
or an aero plane which is quite costly and also its maintenance
requires a sophisticated man power to operate and service it. Up
keep and needs further investment. Not only the plane‘s cost and
maintenance is costly, it also require special place for its landing
for
and takeoff which is known as Runway and also the associated

activities.
Runways are constructed by states and there are few which are
t
privately owned India has only one such airport which is run and
No
managed privately i.e. Cochin and now known as Kozikode. But in

other American and European countries there are several
examples for the airport being construed, run and managed
privately.
S,
However the operation of airlines is not entirely free for private

operation. All over the World the control of the aircraft movement
is with the States as the air space is very strategic from the
E
defence point of view.

UP
Due to changing pattern of world economy more and more

governments are encouraging private enterprises to involve
themselves in the nation‘s development and as such, once which
was a dominant point for the states to have their own Airline is
(c)
being reduced to only a administrator of the airlines operation and

le
more and more private airlines are being introduced in the
Notes countries.
/Sa
___________________
Take the case of Australia, where the air transportations was
___________________ deregulated in 1994 and after that ,there has been a spurt in the
___________________ air traffic growth which led to 17 % in the first year itself.
on
___________________ Another example is of India itself. In 1992 government decided to
permit private carrier also to operate and provide air service to
___________________
Indian public. This led to the start of few carriers like Jet air,
cti
___________________ Modiluft, East West, NEPC, and Damania. But due to limited
___________________ improvement in the Indian Economy, only Jet Air could survive
___________________
and other wound up their operation. The main reasons were:
du
___________________ 1. Lack of funds
___________________ 2. Low growth of air traffic

pro
But after a decade we have seen the re-emergence of more private
airlines. Today Air Sahara has attained 3rd domestic carrier in
terms of passenger and in 2004, we saw the spurt of NO FRILL
airlines like Air Deccan, & Kingfisher and Spice Jet. Air India also
Re
started its no frill airlines ‗ Air India express‘and are responsible
for the growth of stagnant air traffic of 4% to 21 %. Keeping this
trend of NO FRILL airlines, the second national carrier Indian
for
Airlines has also plan to start a low cost ‘No Frill’ airlines by end of
Dec 2005.
In addition to these big players, there are various small airlines
which are with two or three small aircraft and are operating to
t
small airfield like Dehradun, Pant Nagar, Kullu and Simla.

No
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………………. is a business entity which is engaged
S,
in the transportation of passenger and goods by air.

2. …………………… has attained 3rd domestic carrier in
E
terms of passenger.
UP
Summary
With practically plenty of planes in hand in 1918 the organization
(c)
of an airline to operate these craft on a scheduled basis over a

consistent route was attempted. The first airline was formed in
Germany; the Deutsche Luftreederie began service from Berlin to
le
Leipzig and Weimar on Feb. 5, 1919. After three days, a Paris
based airlines French Farman Company started its flight on the Notes
/Sa
trans-channel crossing from Paris to London using a converted ___________________
Goliath bomber. And in August 1919, the first daily service was
___________________
established on this route from Le Bourget to Hounslow.
___________________
on
Airline is a business entity which is engaged in the transportation
of passenger and goods by air. Airline industry is a capital ___________________
intensive industry. The equipment used is the aircraft and it ___________________
cti
requires a huge amount of money. Being a capital intensive ___________________
industry, this business is restricted to big industrial houses which
___________________
have enough capital available or alternatively it is generally owned
du
and managed by States. ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________

pro
With the help of the internet, find out what led to the downfall of
Kingfisher Airlines.
Re
Keywords
Airline: It is a business entity which is engaged in the
transportation of passenger and goods by air.
for
Imperial Airways: It was the early British commercial long range

air transport company, operating from 1924 to 1939 and serving
parts of Europe but principally the Empire routes to South Africa,
India and the Far East, including Malaya and Hong Kong.
t
KLM: Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V. (Royal Aviation

No
Company), known by its initials KLM, is the flag carrier airline of

the Netherlands.
Pan American World Airway: Commonly known as Pan Am, it
S,
was the principal and largest international air carrier in the

United States from 1927 until its collapse on December 4, 1991.
E

UP
1. Write short notes on the business of airlines

2. Elaborate on the history of airlines.
3. What led to the formation of airlines?
(c)
le
Further Readings
Notes
/Sa
___________________ Books
on
___________________ & Sons.
cti
___________________ Taneja, Nawal K. (1987) Introduction to civil aviation, Lexington
___________________
Books.
___________________ Ravi Kumar, V. V. (2006) Indian aviation industry: opportunities
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Web Readings
http://www.airlinehistory.co.uk/
Re
http://www.century-of-
flight.net/new%20site/frames2/airliner_frame.htm
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 14: Key Functions of Airlines
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Conduct some research on
Key Functions of Airlines the key functions of the
___________________
airlines.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Key Functions of the Airlines ___________________
 The Commercial (Traffic) Department ___________________
 Engineering Department
du
___________________
 Flight Operations
___________________
___________________
Introduction
pro
Now since we have known that the airlines is a business entity
(private or state owner) which is engaged in the transportation of
passenger by air and the equipment used by them is aero plane, let
Re
us find out what are the key functions of the airlines.
Key Functions of the Airlines

for
The primary function of the Airlines is to transport the passenger

by air and also to provide connectively to the places which are
landlocked and are difficult to reach by other means of
transportation i.e. by road, rail or by sea.
t
No
To perform their function airlines has two types of functions:

A. Operating
B. Supporting
S,
Operating functions are performed by the following departments:

(i) Commercial or Traffic (Marketing, Reservations, ticketing and
E
passenger handling)
(ii) Engineering
UP
(iii) Flight Operations

Supporting functions are performed by the following departments:
(c)
(i) Finance & Audit

(ii) Procurement or Purchase
le
(iii) Personal and HR
Notes
/Sa
___________________
(iv) Public Relations
___________________ (v) Ground Handling
___________________ (vi) Security
on
___________________
Business of Airlines
___________________
Since the job of the airlines is to provide transportation to the
cti
___________________ traveling public, its main function is to create space (also known as
___________________ seats) in the aircraft and sell it to the public.
___________________ Though it seems to be a simple function but it requires a lot of
du
planning, procuring and detailing the right equipment in a right
___________________
market and at the right time. So the function which is most
___________________
important is PLANNING.
Planning
pro
Planning in a business entity is the base for its success. Planning
Re
require the demand forecast for its products and also the required
manpower to produce the product All the operating departments
i.e. Commercial/Marketing, Operation & Engineering are actively
associated in the job of Planning.
for
The operating departments are associated in the planning as

under:
Marketing: Is responsible for providing the data for the demand
and supply and the future markets trend and forecast.
t
No
Engineering department is responsible for the availability of the

aircraft which is fit to operate by meeting all the safety and
security requirement.
Operation Department is responsible to provide trained manpower
S,
to fly the aircraft for the various destinations.
‘Schedule’ the Product

E
The planning department‘s main function is to produce and design

UP
and plan the product. The product of the Airlines is ‘Schedule’

which is finalized after coordinating the availability of the required
equipment and manpower to match the demand forecast of the
product.
(c)
The product schedule is required to be made available in the market by

the Commercial or traffic department by using all channel of
le
communication i.e. Print, and Electronically both. In the present
days the schedule is required to be given to other airlines and has Notes
Activity
/Sa
to be fed in to the various Global Distribution System to give it a ___________________
Write a report on the
vide circulation. The more the circulation and access and commercial department of
___________________
Indian Airlines.
availability of the product more will be the sale Earlier, before the
spread of IT, sending the schedule i.e. selling the product was a big ___________________
on
task but now schedule are sent to the GDS electronically and it get ___________________
fed into their system within 48 hrs. And the entire world gets to
___________________
know of the change in the schedule and also the new product of the
cti
___________________
airlines.
___________________
Check Your Progress
du
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. To perform their function airlines has ……………. types
___________________
of functions.
pro
2. ………………… in a business entity is the base for its
success.
Re
3. …………………….. Department is responsible to provide
trained manpower to fly the aircraft for the various
destinations.
for
The Commercial (Traffic) Department

Since the product is to be sold to the prospective customer, the
department which is to perform this job is known either as
t
commercial or Traffic. This department is a front line department

No
who is responsible to market and sell the product. They are trained
in such a way that they represent the true culture of the airlines.
They are efficient, smart and are empathetic to the customer
needs.
S,
This department is having its own set up and it has Marketing,

Sales, Administration, Customer Relation, Airport handling and
Cargo sub- sections who are performing their assigned job to attain
E
the defined tasks of the marketing department.

UP
Another function of this department is to earn the revenue that is

also known as the Earning department whereas all other
department are Spending department.
(c)
This department is responsible for the growth of the airlines.

Airlines with better equipped marketing department steer the
le
airlines to become as the Market Leader. Since the key function of
Notes the Airlines to provide space to the traveling public, let us examine
/Sa
___________________ how this is being achieved.
___________________ As said earlier, the product is created by the planning department
___________________ of the airlines after considering the availability of aircraft,
on
operating crew and also the infrastructure required for the
___________________
operation of the aircraft. Once the schedule is printed and,
___________________ circulated to all GDS and other airline‘s enough publicity is given
cti
___________________ through its PR department in print media and also through their
CRS (central reservation system).
___________________
___________________
Before advertising the new product, it also has a responsibility to
du
price the product and decide a fare to be charged. Normally the
___________________
fare is fixed considering the operating cost. But some time due to
___________________ fierce competition, the fare has to match the prevalent market
pro
scenario which may or may not match the cost & some time may be
below the cost even.
Another function of Commercial department is to deploy adequate
Re
manpower to handle the flights at the airport, reservation, cargo
offices. and also at all the station where the flight are being
operated and are likely to operate .In the case of a new route or the
new station, deploy adequate manpower well in advance to handle
for
the flights smoothly.

It is also responsible to have office location which is very
conveniently located in the city and are easily accessible to the
traveling public
t
No
The most important function of the airlines is to make available its

product to the traveling public. The product should be easily
accessible to the public. In the present day availability of schedule
on the Internet is a must.
S,
It must also have a reliable information desk where the customer

can check about the availability and seek any information
regarding their travel.
E
Sales Outlets
UP
Airlines sell its products through

(1) Own offices and GSA
(c)
(2) Other associate Airlines

le
(3) Agents
Notes
/Sa
(4) Though Internet
___________________
Since the airlines work is a global business, the network should be
___________________
as wide as possible so as to give wide publicity to the product and
___________________
can also sell effectively.
on
___________________
Own Offices
___________________
Normally the airlines have their own offices in the cities/countries
cti
___________________
where they operate but some cases when the operation is very
small they appoint a General Sales Agent who acts on behalf of the ___________________
du
airlines for which he gets extra commissions known as ―GSA ___________________
commission which at present is fixed at 3% of the sale for tickets.
___________________
Almost all airlines are member of International Airlines Transport ___________________
pro
Association generally known as IATA and by virtue of this
association they sell the products, of one an other‘s freely. There
are some airlines who may not be members of IATA but they also
participate in such activities as these agreements which are known
Re
as multilateral agreement are beneficial to all airlines.
Agents
In these days due to increase in volume for traffic it is not possible
for
for the airlines to perform the sales job through its own offices and
also to control the inventory of the flight. There are cases where
the airlines are selling more than 50,000 seats in a day throughout
their network and hence they are using the Mega computers and
t
are control only the inventory of the flights and for the selling they
No
have appointed agents and are giving them certain percentage of

sale which is known as agency commissions
In return of the commissions the agents perform all the sales, issue
tickets and remit the money to airline concerned and are equally
S,
responsible to the customer. Here the agent acts on behalf of the

airlines and follows all the rules and regulations of the airline(s).
E
Thus airlines save their manpower and concentrate in inventory

management of their flights and develop new products as per the
UP
demand and need of the market.

(c)
le
Reservation Offices
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________ Figure 14.1: A view of a Reservation office of an Airline
pro
To sell the products airlines must have their Reservations office
where the passenger can approach and get any service which an
agent may not be in a position to give. In the reservation offices
passenger can get their ticket changed & rerouted.
Re
tfor
No
S,
Figure 14.2: A view of the backup Office of an Airlines Reservation
Internet
E
With the advent of Internet and IT facilities, the airlines are

UP
encouraging passenger to book the seats directly with the airlines

directly. This not only save the time of the passenger but also give
them the instant confirmation or the status of the reservation.
Though this has affected the business of Agents but it is boon for
(c)
the Low Cost Airlines which are not having travel agents for filling
up their aircraft.
le
Check-in Activities
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
Commercial Department is also responsible for handling and ___________________
provide the check –in service for the passenger and ensure that
du
___________________
they are sent to the right aircraft after have given their ticket and
___________________
obtain the boarding card.
___________________
pro
Re
for
Boarding
This is a very important activity as the passenger him/herself
t
comes to the airport and any lack or delay can harm the image of
No
the airlines
Cargo Office
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Airlines has to have an office at airport where to receive the cargo
Notes
Activity from agent, segregate for the various flight and sector and also to
/Sa
Find___________________
out more about the receive from other stations and deliver to the consignees.
function of engineering
___________________
department in aviation
industry.
Arrival or Receiving of the Aircraft
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
It is an example of one of the functions at the airport to ensure
proper arrival of the flight and receive the passenger from the
aircraft and bring them to the terminal and deliver their baggage.
Check Your Progress

for
Fill in the blanks:

1. Another function of ………………. department is to earn
the revenue that is also known as the Earning
t
department.
No
2. Almost all airlines are member of …………………

generally known as IATA.
Engineering Department
S,
This is also known as the technical department. This department

E
is responsible for the proper maintenance of the Aircraft.

In the airlines the safety of the aircraft is the most important
UP
factor. No aircraft can fly if this has not undergone a mandatory

check which is to be performed by the qualified personals that are
given license by the federal government authorities of civil
(c)
aviation. In case of India it is Director General of Civil Aviation

and in USA is it FAA and in UK it is known as CAA.
le
To make sure the aircraft are airworthy, the manufacture and the
Notes
government authorities have devised a system of checks which are
/Sa
known as periodical check. The checks are known as under: ___________________
___________________
Transit Check
___________________
on
This is performed by the qualified engineer before each take off.
___________________
This is a general inspection, visible and now through the computer
reports and ensures that the aircraft is fit to fly for the next take ___________________
cti
off. In case any system is malfunctions it is rectified and then ___________________
released for the flight.
___________________
Daily Inspection
du
___________________
This is done during night stops on each aircraft. Next high ___________________
inspection is done before the aircraft complete a fixed number of
___________________
pro
hours which range between 100 hrs to 125 hrs in the conventional
aircraft and in the advanced high tech computer controlled aircraft
alike A320 this is around 500 hrs.
Then are major check which are done at the interval of 100 hrs,
Re
4000 hrs, 8000 hrs and 1600 0 hrs. However they differ as per the
type of aircraft .In a-320 they are done after the number of years
instead of hrs and are done after 5 year or 9 years.
for
During the major check the aircraft are taken out from the active
service and each components is removed, tested as per the safety
regulation and requirement of the aviation authorities and the
manufacturer and then only the aircraft is put back to the service.
t
Engineering Department has to perform these tasks generally at

No
the time of night stop of the aircraft for Daily Inspection which is
performed at the apron itself but for the other major check the
aircraft is required to be positioned in a shed or cover area which,
in aviation is known as “HANGER” where all type of testing
S,
equipments are installed for the proper inspection and

maintenance.
E
Generally three types of inspections are performed for the aircraft:

UP
 Airframe
 Engines and
 Avionic (aircrafts related electronic)
(c)
Another important function of the Engineering department is

ensure the time frame for each activity and make manpower
le
wherever the aircraft goes and the manpower has be fully trained
Notes for the types of aircraft.
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Conduct a survey on how Thus engineering department also has its own small
flight operations are carried
out ___________________
in India and prepare a administrative wing to plan its manpower development for the jobs
report for the same. entrusted to it.
___________________
on
cti
___________________
1. ……………………….. is also known as the technical
___________________ department.
___________________
du
2. Generally ……………….. types of inspections are
___________________ performed for the aircraft.
___________________
Flight Operations pro
As stated earlier this third department Flight operations is a part
of the operating department. The engineering department is
Re
responsible to provide the airworthy aircraft for the flight and the
commercial department is responsible for the selling and filling up
the capacity thus created by the planning department in the shape
of “Schedule”.
for
We need a set of people who are capable to fly the aircraft and have
obtained the proper licensees from the government agency This
government agencies stipulate certain norms for the license which
is to be kept current and for this they are to be given regular
t
training even after they have and got license.

No
Not only this, they also have to be medically fit as the safety of the
aircraft depend on the sharp reflexes of the pilots and have to
undergo medical checks at the regular interval. All governments
have a proper Medical Board for medical check and they follow a
S,
firm rules and procedures. This ensure absolute safety of the

aircraft
E
To take all the precaution thus airlines have created a department

which is known as ―Operation Department and their functions are
UP
as under:
 To provide trained manpower for different types of aircraft
(c)
 To draw a flight plan for the rote on which the aircraft has to
operate
le
 To maintain the contact with the aircraft during flying and
Notes
also monitor its movement
/Sa
___________________
 To keep a record for the training needs of the operating crew
___________________
 To deploy them for the flying duties within the frame work of
___________________
safety regulation so as to ensure that the pilot are given
on
adequate rest and not tires for the next flight ___________________
 The pilots and the other flight crew follow the safety norms. ___________________
cti
They also keep a record for the various licenses of the pilot and ___________________
medical check-up and sent them for renewals
___________________
The operating Department has two wings:
du
___________________
 Cock- pit Crew ___________________
 Cabin crew ___________________
Cockpit Crew
pro
The persons who actually fly the aircraft are known as Cock pit
crew and generally known as Pilot or Co Pilot. Sometime the Pilot
Re
who is the overall in charge for the aircraft is known as Captain or
Commander.
Since they sit in that portion of the aircraft which is known as
for
“COCKPIT” they are called as the Cockpit Crew.
Cabin Crew
Aircraft has basically two portions: Upper portion and lower
t
portion. In the upper portion, are two parts one for the cockpit and
No
the second is known as CABIN? It is these parts where the

passengers are seated and. staffs who are working in this part are
known as Cabin Crew.
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Cabin crew looks after the needs of the passenger during flying
Notes
and they also service as a guide to passenger in case of emergency.
/Sa
___________________ Though they are not technical personal in nature but they are also
___________________ subject to some training like rescue procedure, first aid and the
cabin service. They are slow subject to medical check-up at regular
___________________
intervals. Like cockpit crew they are also trained in different type
on
___________________ of aircraft and can work in that aircraft only.
___________________
The duties and functions of this department are somewhat similar
cti
___________________ to the Cockpit crew. In many airlines this department function
___________________ under the operation department and some airlines it is
independent and is known as In-flight Service Department. This
___________________
du
department has to provide a minimum number of cabin crew for
___________________ each flight who are fully trained to work in the aircraft. Now the
___________________ catering department which look after the providing the provisions
pro
and meal in the aircraft has also been put under IFS department
thus allocating all sorts of the cabin requirement under one
department which enhances the efficacy of the airlines
Re
Support Departments
Ground Handling
The most important support function of the airlines comes from the
for
Ground Handling department. This department is responsible to

provide all equipment for the ground handling of the aircraft and
consists of the following activities:
 Providing and maintaining the load unit devices such as
t
No
Trolleys, Container and pallets

 Provide transport from the passenger from /to aircraft from
the terminal building
 Provide tractors/dollies for the moving the ULDs to/from
S,
aircraft
 Provide water and toilet service to the aircraft
E
 Provide ground power and air conditioning units to the aircraft

UP
on arrival and save the use of costly aircraft equipments

 Provide mechanized loading and unloading equipments for the
loading and offloading the cargo and other dead loads to/from
aircraft
(c)
le
Finance & Audit
Notes
In any business organization or entity there has to be a Finance
/Sa
Department, the same is true for the airlines also. As we know ___________________
that the airlines is a heavily capital intensive industry where the ___________________
finance required is very huge. In such an industry the role of
___________________
on
finance department is very crucial .Finance department has
___________________
always to see that the sufficient funds are available to meet the
following requirements: ___________________
cti
 Purchase of Stores required for the maintenance of aircraft ___________________
 Pay the bills for the service providers such as fuel, landing and ___________________
du
navigation charges etc. ___________________
 Arrange the salaries for the employees in time ___________________
Pay the statuary charges such income tax, professional tax ___________________


pro
after deduction from the salaries of the employees.
Repay the loans and its interest well in time
 In case of purchase of more aircraft, arrange finance either
Re
from the internal sources or through other financial
institutions
 Keep record of the receipt and income.
for
 Account for the sale proceeds of the tickets and other services
provided to the customer and outside parties.
 Keep a check on the expense by other department
t
 Have an internal audit to scrutinize the finance related

No
matters
 Negotiate the deal for the purchase of aircraft and other
equipment which are quite costly
Prepare annual report each year as per the statuary
S,

requirement
E
Since the role of finance department is quite crucial, it must have

its own set up of administration to ensure deployment of adequate
UP
manpower for the associated work. It must have a proper system

on record to ensure proper accounting of the finance
Procurement or Purchase
(c)
Another function of the airlines is to ensure that it has the

requisite inventory for the spare required for the maintenance of
le
the aircraft. The efficiency of the airline depends upon the
Notes availability of the spares well in time so that at any stage the work
/Sa
___________________ gets hampered due non- availability of spare in the stores. To fulfil
its role it has to perform the followings functions:
___________________
___________________  Order well in time the spares required for the maintenance of
on
aircraft
___________________
 Have complete control on the inventory management of the
___________________
assets
cti
___________________
 Procure items from the vender which are the best and are cost
___________________
effective
___________________
du
 Weed out the store and equipment which are not required due
___________________ to improvement in the equipment
___________________  Ensure minimum but sufficient number of items in such a way

pro
that they never reached a critical stage
Place order with the manufacturers keeping the lead time
required for the supplier
Re
 Monitor the proper working of the equipments during the
warrantee period
Personal and HR
for
As we have seen the working of the airlines required highly skilled

manpower both in the Engineering and operation departments and
hence there is a need for then proper recruitment of the employees
who could perform the jobs properly and efficiently
t
No
It is very important to have a department who can recruit right

type of staff or the right job and hence this duty is allocated to the
Personal Department. The function of the Personal department is
to support to operating department to function
S,
The important functions of the Personal department are as under:

 Recruit requirement manpower so as the maintain the
E
minimum no of tech and non tech personal for the performance

of Airlines
UP
 Make sure that the employees follow a code of conduct

 Recruit people who are actually fit
(c)
 To ensure loyalty of the employees by giving them reward and

punishment
le
 Device the rules and regulations for the self-development of
Notes
the employees.
/Sa
___________________
 Have a policy for the growth of the employees within the
organization. ___________________
___________________
 Ensure that the salaries are as per the market and are not less
on
otherwise the employees will leave the jobs for better pastures ___________________
and there will be continuity of the job and the function of the ___________________
airlines will suffer.
cti
___________________
 In case of dispute, there should be a mechanism to resolve
___________________
amicably and satisfactorily.
du
___________________
Public Relations ___________________
Since the airlines proved a public utility service it is very ___________________

pro
important for the entity to have a department who can ensure the
right publicity for the organization and any adverse criticism is
contradicted which is not based on the fact Being a consumer
based organization, there is bound to be complaints from the
Re
traveling public and such complaint are properly attended and
media is given the right picture of the situation. There can be a lob
our strike or natural reason for the delay etc. The duty of the PR
department is to ensure and making the positive image of the
for
organization and also for its employees and the management. This
is very essential for any airlines or even for any business
organization.
t
Security
No
In recent year this department has gain quite importance with the
expansion of the organization more and more worker are recruited
and also the more installations. Airlines primarily function from
airports and the airports have become quite vulnerable to the
S,
unsocial element including terrorist who have created havoc at

such place because of the sensitive nature of the equipments and
E
also of the security installation. This department ensure the entry

control of the employees and visitors and also take step to secure
UP
the installations. It also ensures that the equipment which is

installed for the surveillance for the activities, is working properly
and no employee or outsider damages them.
(c)
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
___________________
___________________
1. The persons who actually fly the aircraft are known as
………………. Crew.
___________________
on
2. ………………… crew looks after the needs of the
___________________
passenger during flying and they also service as a guide
___________________ to passenger in case of emergency.
cti
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________
du
The primary function of the Airlines is to transport the passenger
___________________ by air and also to provide connectively to the places which are
landlocked and are difficult to reach by other means of
___________________
pro
transportation i.e. by road, rail or by sea. To perform their function
airlines has two types of functions: Operating and Supporting.
Operating functions are performed by the following departments:
Re
(i) Commercial or Traffic (Marketing, Reservations, ticketing and
passenger handling)
(ii) Engineering
(iii) Flight Operations
for
Supporting functions are performed by various other departments.
Lesson End Activity

t
No
Observe any airline and find out whether the key functions are
properly followed or not.
Keywords
S,
Cock Pit Crew: The persons who actually fly the aircraft are
known as Cock pit crew.
E
Engineering Department: It is responsible for the availability of

the aircraft which is fit to operate by meeting all the safety and
UP
security requirement.
Marketing Department: It is responsible for providing the data
for the demand and supply and the future markets trend and
(c)
forecast.
le
Operation Department: It is responsible to provide trained
Notes
manpower to fly the aircraft for the various destinations.
/Sa
___________________
Questions for Discussion ___________________
___________________
1. Enumerate the key functions of the airlines.
on
___________________
2. Write a short note on the Commercial (Traffic) Department.
___________________
3. Describe the Engineering Department of airlines.
cti
___________________
4. Examine the flight operations of airlines.
___________________
du
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
Books ___________________
pro
Re
& Sons.
Books.
for

t
No
Web Readings
http://www.studymode.com/essays/Key-Functions-Of-Airlines-
360806.html
S,
http://www.iata.org/training/courses/pages/talg50.aspx
http://www.avjobs.com/history/structure-of-the-airline-industry.asp
E
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 15: Case Study
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Costing Aircraft Components: A British Aerospace Case Study
___________________
Introduction
du
___________________
When we think about the cost of an aircraft, we tend to think of
the cost of buying the product rather than the costs of running it! ___________________
British Aerospace’s service to the customer does not stop at the
___________________
pro
aircraft acquisition stage, when the aeroplane is sold to the
customer. If anything, this is when the customer relationship
begins.
This case study focuses upon the processes involved in costing
aircraft components. Given the high specifications to which
Re
designers have to work, it is important to develop a price for
customers which provide ‘Customer Satisfaction at Competitive
Cost.’ British Aerospace is a major player in the world aviation
industry. Its Military Aircraft Division aims ‘to remain number
one in Europe and World Leader in the Military Aircraft
for
Business.’
The Design Challenge
The challenge to design teams is to design an aircraft that
achieves maximum mission effectiveness at minimum cost to the
customer. Typically, a military aircraft has a service life of over
t
30 years. The total operation and support costs such as those

No
involved in owning and operating an aircraft (spares, repairs and

servicing) over this time, outweigh the initial cost of acquisition.
Therefore, total Life Cycle Cost (LCC) must be minimised in the
customer’s interest. The study of the cost of acquisition, operation
and support and disposal is known as Life Cycle Cost analysis. To
achieve the design challenge, British Aerospace uses two main
S,
cost reduction techniques.

Re-Engineering
E
Re-Engineering to reduce the business cost base since 70% of the

final product consists of vendor/bought out equipment, British
UP
Aerospace’s suppliers’ performance is critical to enable British

Aerospace to achieve improvement, obtain better customer
satisfaction and win more business in this competitive
environment. Within the Military Aircraft Division, British
Aerospace has introduced a Preferred Supplier Process which is
(c)
designed to improve the performance of the supplier base in
Contd…
le
meeting the wider aims of the business. There are three elements
Notes against which a supplier’s business is assessed:
/Sa
___________________  Statistical process control;
___________________  Detailed business assessment;

 Measurement of performance.
___________________
Multi-functional teams are examining the ways in which these
on
___________________ companies operate to ensure that these compliment British
Aerospace’s internal business process re-engineering (BPR) in the
___________________
production of a ‘world class’ best practice.
cti
___________________ Life-cycle Cost Analysis
___________________ The other cost reduction technique is Life Cycle Cost Analysis to
influence design. To avoid products being developed with a low
___________________
du
acquisition cost but high operation and support costs, or vice
versa, life cycle cost analysis considers the full cost of ownership
___________________
of the products in the engineering and decision making process, to
___________________ establish the correct balance of acquisition and in-service cost,
pro
whilst maintaining the required effectiveness of the product.
Re
for
British Aerospace uses sophisticated cost modelling to investigate

and estimate the life cycle cost of an aeroplane. This provides
t
insight into the hidden costs of operation and support hence

No
overcoming the iceberg syndrome. All investment involves

providing a balance between reliability and the cost of ownership.
Investment in improving the reliability and ease of maintenance
of an aircraft will help to reduce the cost of ownership, but usually
with an increase in the cost of acquisition.
E S,
UP
(c)
Contd…
UNIT 15: Case Study
le
During the design stage, the earlier the opportunity for
improvement can be identified, the less it will cost to incorporate. Notes
Initially the benefits exceed the associated cost of investment,
/Sa
resulting in a reduction in the life cycle cost. However, there is a ___________________
point beyond which increased investment will not yield greater
___________________
savings and the life cycle cost cannot be reduced further.
Life cycle cost analysis is the technique of predicting future costs ___________________
on
early enough to enable decisions to be taken that influence design
___________________
to minimise lifecycle costs without compromising the performance
of an aircraft. ___________________
cti
Production Costs
___________________
In considering the life cycle cost elements of a project, which
relate to the costs of design, development, manufacture, operation ___________________
and support of the aircraft, this study now focuses on the
du
___________________
manufacture element of the life cycle cost with particular
reference to the ‘in-house’ production manufacture cost. ___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
This part of the life cycle cost, the in-house production cost,
accrues all the costs related to turning the concept and design into
an actual flying aircraft, capable of performing to its desired
requirements.
This complex manufacturing process basically involves the stages
t
of:- planning the manufacturing methods, converting raw

No
materials into high precision airframe components, assembling

the airframe, integrating the vendor manufactured components
with the airframe, ground testing the compatibility and function
of the systems throughout the complete aircraft, flight testing
each aircraft to ensure compliance to full performance and safety
and finally painting the aircraft in the required livery ready for
S,
despatch to the customer.

E
UP
(c)
Contd…
le
Having highlighted earlier the importance of the utmost
Notes reliability and ease of maintenance, it can be seen that it is
essential for components to be designed and manufactured with
/Sa
___________________ this in mind, whilst ensuring the need for accuracy in
___________________ productability, quality and affordability.
Pricing
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
The Commercial directorate within Military Aircraft Division is
responsible for the generation of sales campaigns, preparation of
contracts, contract negotiation, contract administration,
Re
production of estimates and pricing analysis, as well as the
preparation and management of industrial collaboration and
offset strategies. As the commercial environment becomes
increasingly competitive, the need for sound estimating
judgement in balancing conflicting requirements of affordability
for
and profitability become ever more onerous.

It is important to understand the overall process from receipt of
the request for price to the delivery of a product to a Customer.
Within this case study, we will focus on the manufacturing cycle
and the associated costs for the manufacture and supply of Wing
t
Rib Assembly kits.

No
The first stage is developing the manufacturing process,

associated tooling methodologies and identifying raw material
requirements for all components within the assembly. There are
two elements to consider:
 Non-recurring costs;
S,
 Recurring costs.
Non-recurring costs refer to the start-up costs and usually include
E
items such as the design and the manufacture of specialist tooling

which is a one-off cost prior to commencement of the component
production manufacturing phase
UP
The recurring element refers to the specific component

manufacture costs and relates to the quantity per aircraft set.
Production engineering break out the individual parts of the wing
track assembly and plan the sequence of events and operations to
(c)
convert the raw material into the finished components. A

planning document holds various information specific to the part.
This ensures that the format is consistent across all the parts. Its
Contd…
UNIT 15: Case Study
le
prime responsibility is to provide an accurate best practice
method of manufacture for all processes. Best practice refers to Notes
the optimum method of manufacture to ensure British Aerospace
/Sa
retains its competitive edge in the marketplace. ___________________
Recurring Costs within the Manufacture Process ___________________
Raw material is purchased in a configuration suitable for loading
___________________
on to the PRIME machine - Automax III The billet condition of
on
supply has been established via a ‘Make’ or ‘Buy’ exercise. The ___________________
relatively ‘low value’ processes of shaping, drilling and tapping
has been proved most cost-effective when performed by the ___________________
material supplier.
cti
___________________
Material costs are a fairly straightforward. The major cost driver
within the assembly is the Aluminium Rib which constitutes 80% ___________________
of the total material cost. In this case, aluminium billet is a
du
relatively routine purchase. Values have to be agreed with the ___________________
supplier covering the drilling and tapping of holes in conjunction ___________________
with the surfacing and shaping of the billet. This will result in
increased costs being agreed for work over and above the raw ___________________
£s per kg.
Labour Costs
pro
material costs, which are calculated on current market prices of
The planned method of manufacture, known as the process and

Re
mini statement of work, will form the basis of the labour cost. It
will initially be generated in man-hours. This activity is
undertaken via the Work Measurement Group who is part of the
Production Engineering Department. Their task is to measure in
man hours, the length of time required to complete the activity
for
identified in each of the planned operations. Each of the operation

times will conform to British Standards, thereby making sure
that the values are accurate and consistent and this will be done
for all of the parts within the assembly.
t
No
E S,
UP
The measurement system used to generate these man-hours is

based on the development of synthetics. Synthetics are tables and
formulae derived from the analysis of accumulated work
measurement data, arranged in a form suitable for building up
standard time, machine processing times etc. by syntheses.
(c)
Syntheses are a technique for establishing the time for a job, at a

defined level of performance by totalling individual element
Contd…
le
times. These element times being obtained from time studies on
Notes other similar jobs. Pre-determined motion time system (PMTS) is
/Sa
___________________
a work measurement technique whereby times are established for
a job at a defined level of performance. The advantage of such a
___________________ system is the consistency of the output irrespective of the aircraft
project being measured.
___________________
Man-hour estimates are derived and presented in terms of run
on
___________________ and set-up times providing the basic values. Set time relates to a
one off cost associated with the manufacture of a quantity of the
___________________ same component known as the batch size. For example, the prime
machine used for the manufacture of the Wing Rib will require
cti
___________________
the tooling specific to that part and the tooling carousel loaded
___________________ with the cutters prior to the loading of the first component billet.
The batch size is linked to the customer delivery programme. The
___________________
du
availability of the facility is balanced against other projects, but
___________________ the batch should be of a size that is cost efficient. The run time
relates to the repetitive activity performed for each component in
___________________ the batch.
pro
Converting Data into a Cost
Performance is effectively the variance between the measured
theoretical time and recorded actuals. The decision to apply
performance and at what level, depends upon the activity being
Re
undertaken. For example, an automated process is far more likely
to achieve 100% of the theoretical target, than a labour intensive
process. Therefore, the manufacturing process and the component
design are critical to the performance decision making process
considerations.
for
The standard time man-hour value represents the application of

techniques designed to establish time for a qualified worker to
carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance. The
motivated operator would be familiar with the task being
performed and have all the necessary tools, equipment and
t
components readily available at the work station. Whilst the

No
application of a performance to standard times can bring reality

to the value for some of the above criteria, another allowance has
to be added to account for learning. This is done by application of
learning curves.
These are widely used in industries where the typical number of
units manufactured in a products life cycle is between 5 and 1000;
S,
typically shipbuilding, special electronic equipment and of course

the aerospace industry. It is difficult to decide whether learning
curves are invented or discovered. In the 1930s, philosophers
E
investigating how people learnt conducted laboratory experiments

which recorded how the length of time to complete a task re duced
UP
with the number of repetitions of that task. They noticed a

mathematical relationship between the results and without going
into the maths, the time taken reduced by a fixed percentage
every time the total number of repetitions doubled.
(c)
Generally speaking, in the aircraft industry, learning curves are

in the range of 75% to 95%. The value of the curve varies
depending on a number of factors including:
Contd…
UNIT 15: Case Study
le
 build rate at which units are made;
Notes
 level of skill required to perform tasks;
/Sa
 organisational experience in managing this type of work; ___________________
 level of automation involved; ___________________

 levels of planned investment to update production equipment ___________________
with new technologies;
on
 standard of special tooling/jigging and fixturing. ___________________
We have now established within the costing process: ___________________
cti
 material costs; ___________________
 man-hours/performance;
___________________
 a learning curve.
du
___________________
Other Costs
Material scrap values - The allowance for scrap is usually ___________________
estimated by referring to historical level of spend incurred. The ___________________
this. The SPC approach is based on the prevention concept.

Critical product characteristics are monitored during the
manufacturing process. Excessive variation due to changing
pro
introduction of Statistical Process Concept (SPC) should change
process elements such as tool wear are detected by the control

Re
charts and the process parameters are then adjusted accordingly
before the statistical process limits are exceeded and scrap
produced. These percentage values applied to future work is likely
to be lower than past historical data and these improvements in
working practices help to create a competitive advantage over
for
British Aerospace’s competitors.

Support costs - These relate to the various supporting
departments within any organisation including Project
Management, Production Engineering and Technical
Departments which are involved in the project and whose
t
contribution must be included in a price. A charging rate is

No
provided by the Finance Department. This rate is comprised of all

the other cost to the company, such as the building, electricity and
depreciation. The format of this charging rate varies between
companies and will be dependant upon the methods used to
allocate cost.
Converting data into a selling price - These processes are key
S,
activities which ultimately provide man hours and material costs

to the Commercial organisation that are responsible for
converting the basic data into a selling price. Should the company
E
be successful with the bid, then the basic man hours and material
costs will form the basis of the manufacturing budget against
UP
which performance will be regularly monitored. Adverse

performance is highlighted and corrective action taken to ensure
the appropriate level of return on the business is delivered.
Responding to the request for price - A request for price may not
always include a target price. If a target price is not supplied,
(c)
comparisons can be made when the costs are compiled. These may
be either a comparison with similar work packages under
Contd…
le
manufacture or an assessment of competitor’s prices. This
Notes approach provides an overall view of the proposal’s
competitiveness.
/Sa
___________________
Once the price has been decided within a competitive cost
___________________ structure, it is time to consider other customer requirements. For
example, what delivery programme is the customer looking for
___________________ and over what time frame does the customer want a price. Do
on
they want a price at 1996 economic conditions or a price for a
___________________
delivery of a number of sets over a five year period? Exact
___________________ requirements are usually identified within the request for price.
Should the requirement be for an average price fixed over a five
cti
___________________ year period, then consideration must be given to:
___________________  Rises in material and labour costs;
 Financing costs;
___________________
du
 Risks associated with the terms and conditions within which the
___________________ suppliers and customer will operate.
___________________ Conclusion
pro
Cost is the term used to describe the consumption of money. This
case study provides a detailed analysis which identifies how
information about costs is extracted from a business to produce a
price for a customer. The use of costs in this way is necessary to
provide information for control and decision making activities by
Re
senior management.
Questions:
for

Source: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/british-aerospace/costing-aircraft-components/
introduction.html#axzz2OvDQrj00
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 16: Airport
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-IV
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 16: AIRPORT
___________________ UNIT 18: AIRPORT USERS - II
___________________
 What is An Airport?  Airport Concessionaries and other Users
___________________
on
 Modern Airports  Companies, Offices and Agencies as Users
___________________
UNIT 17: AIRPORT USERS - I
___________________ UNIT 19: IMPORTANT AVIATION REGULATORY
AUTHORITIES OF THE WORLD - I
Introduction
cti

___________________
 Introduction
 Terminal Building
___________________  The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
 Airlines and their Employees
___________________
du
 EASA: European Aviation Safety Agency
 Passengers
___________________
UNIT 20: CASE STUDY
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 16: Airport
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Make a presentation on the
Airport evolution of airports.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 What is an Airport? ___________________
 Modern Airports ___________________
du
___________________
Introduction ___________________
 An airfield equipped with control tower and hangars as well as ___________________

accommodations for passengers and cargo.
AirPort and AirPort Extreme are local area wireless
pro
networking products from Apple Inc. based on the IEEE
Re
802.11 standard (also known as Wi-Fi).
An Air-port or Sky-bay is a location where aircraft such as fixed-
wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and land. Aircraft
may be stored or maintained at an airport.
for
What is An Airport?
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, an
t
aerodrome is a defined area on land or water (including buildings,

No
installations, and equipment) that is intended to be used either

wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement
of aircraft.
Aerodrome is now largely a technical term and is no longer in
S,
common use. More usually the terms airport and airfield are
employed, although there is some lack of precision in their
E
meanings.
Airport is used particularly to denote areas where air-transport
UP
passengers are carried, especially where movement occurs on a

considerable scale and always where full-time customs facilities
are available.
(c)
le
Airfield commonly refers to small aerodromes (often without paved
Notes
runways) or facilities for handling air-transport aircraft or their
/Sa
___________________
passengers and cargo.
___________________
In addition, at large airports the term often designate the
___________________ operational areas for aircraft, including the runways, taxiways,
on
___________________ aprons, and strips.
___________________
Evolution of Airports
cti
___________________
The requirements for aerodromes, or airports, have increased in
___________________ complexity and scale since the earliest days of flying. Before World
___________________ War II the landing and takeoff distance of most passenger-
du
transport aircraft was at most 650 yards (600 meters). Additional
___________________
clear areas were provided for blind landings or bad-weather runs
___________________ but the total area involved rarely exceeded 500 acres (200
hectares). pro
It was not until the general introduction of heavy monoplanes for
transport, such as the Douglas DC-3, during the late 1930s that
Re
extensive takeoff and landing distances were needed. Even then,
the pre-war airfields at New York City (La Guardia), London
(Croydon), Paris (Le Bourget), and Berlin (Tempelhof) were laid
out on sites close to the city centres. Because even transport
for
aircraft of the period were relatively light, paved runways were a

rarity. Croydon, Tempelhof, and Le Bourget, for example, all
operated from grass strips only. Early airports were also major
centres of leisure activity, often attracting more visitors than
t
passengers.
No
In 1939 La Guardia Airport attracted almost a quarter-million

visitors per month, reaching a peak of 7,000 in one day, compared
with a maximum daily throughput of only 3,000 passengers. In
1929 Berlin’s airport reported 750,000 visitors and boasted a
S,
restaurant that could seat 3,000 people on the roof of the passenger
terminal. The status of pre-war airports as major social centres
E
was reflected in their design, especially where the requirements of

catering, observation decks, and parking were paramount. Indeed,
UP
the requirements of aircraft and passengers were not at all

dominant at early airfields.
Much long-distance air transport was handled by the large
(c)
seaplanes known as flying boats or clippers. These aircraft though

slow and of limited range, offered a level of comfort that was
necessary for long-distance travel. Air terminal facilities were
UNIT 16: Airport
le
necessarily constructed close to large, open stretches of water. La
Guardia Airport and Santos Dumont Airport in Rio de Janeiro are Notes
/Sa
examples of airports that still operate on sites originally chosen for ___________________
their ability to handle large seaplanes.
___________________
The large facilities at Southampton Water in the United Kingdom
___________________
on
have now disappeared, but the artificial lake at Linate Airport
near Milan, Italy, is still to be found close to the present ___________________
administration facilities. ___________________
cti
The vast majority of airfields throughout the world are still ___________________
relatively simple facilities. Even now, many have unpaved ___________________
runways or at most lightly paved runways with tiny terminal or
du
___________________
administration buildings, a rudimentary control tower, and crude
landing aids. Such facilities can deal only with light aircraft and a ___________________
negligible flow of passengers or freight. ___________________

pro
Heavy air traffic, on the other hand, is now almost entirely
handled by sophisticated airport facilities that can accommodate
the needs of crew, passengers, and freight and the great range of
Re
aircraft types that have evolved to meet the needs of modern air
transport and general aviation.
Approximately 50 airports around the world now handle more than
10 million passengers per year; half of these are in the United
for
States. Six airports regularly move 30 million passengers on a

yearly basis – Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport alone
handling 60 million. In order to meet the increasing demand for air
travel, large transport aircraft powered by multiple jet and
t
turboprop engines have been built.

No
Such aircraft require extensive ground facilities, runways,

taxiways, fire-fighting and rescue services, passenger- and cargo-
handling facilities, access to car parking and public transport,
lighting, navigational and approach aids, and various support
S,
facilities such as catering, meteorology, and governmental

inspection.
E
In order to be attractively convenient, the complex of activities and

UP
facilities that make up a modern airport must be located

sufficiently close to the main centres of world population. At the
same time, they must be adequately distant, so that the
environmental problems associated with the noise of large aircraft
(c)
and the activities of large numbers of passengers, workers, and

visitors do not become intolerable to the cities that are served.
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
Find___________________
out more about modern
airports.
___________________
1. ……………… commonly refers to small aerodromes
(often without paved runways) or facilities for handling
___________________
air-transport aircraft or their passengers and cargo.
on
___________________
2. Approximately ……….. airports around the world now
___________________ handle more than 10 million passengers per year.
cti
___________________
___________________ Modern Airports

___________________
du
The largest airports in the world employ more than 100,000
___________________ workers each. They are immensely complex entities with regard to
the physical facilities that they comprise, the organizations that
___________________
pro
are active within their boundaries, and the services that are
provided in conjunction with their operation.
Physical facilities include runways, taxiways, aprons, and strips,
which are used for the landing and takeoff of aircraft, for the
Re
manoeuvring and positioning of aircraft on the ground, and for the
parking of aircraft in order to load and discharge passengers and
cargo. For the safe landing and takeoff of aircraft, lighting and
radio navigational aids are provided. These are supplemented by
for
airfield markings, signs and signals, and air traffic control

facilities. Support facilities on the airside of the field include
meteorology, fire and rescue, power and other utilities, aircraft
maintenance, and airport maintenance. Landside facilities are the
t
passenger and cargo terminals and the access system, which

No
includes parking, roads, public transport facilities, and loading and

unloading areas.
Many organizations are involved in the operation of a modern
airport. Overall management is usually in the control of an
S,
organization, authority, or company that holds a license to operate

the facility. This license is granted subject to a judgment by the
E
national civil aviation authorities that the managing body is fit

and competent to run an airport within national and, if applicable,
UP
international laws governing safety and operations.

While overall responsibility for efficient, safe, and legal operation
lies with the airport management, many of the individual services
(c)
at an airport are provided by other organizations. Such

organizations include airlines; air traffic control authorities;
UNIT 16: Airport
le
ground handling companies; fixed-base operators; concessionaires;
security organizations; governmental agencies responsible for Notes
/Sa
customs, immigration, health control, and police; support ___________________
companies providing flight catering, fuelling, aircraft engineering,
___________________
and maintenance; aero clubs; and flying schools. Since the early
1980s, when privatization began to sweep through civil aviation, ___________________
on
terminal-operation companies have also become more frequent, ___________________
such as those that own terminals in Birmingham, Eng.; Brussels;
___________________
and Toronto.
cti
___________________
Air Side ___________________
Airport services related to the aircraft are frequently referred to as
du
___________________
airside. Many of these services are concentrated on the apron, or
___________________
ramp, which is that part of the operational surface adjacent to the
terminals where aircraft are maneuvered or parked. They include ___________________
pro
the apron handling of aircraft, airside passenger transfer to the
aircraft, the handling of baggage and cargo, aircraft fuelling,
catering and cabin cleaning, engine starting, deicing, ground power
Re
and air-conditioning, and minor maintenance engineering. Other
airside services are runway inspection, lighting and navigational
aids, fire fighting and rescue, airside maintenance, and air traffic
control. Among the landside services are those related to ground
for
passenger handling; these include check-in, security, customs and

immigration, baggage delivery, information, catering, cleaning and
maintenance, shops and concessionary facilities, automobile rental,
ground transportation, porters, special help for the elderly and
t
handicapped, automobile parking, and public transportation

No
(including taxis). In addition, because airports employ such a large

number of workers, extensive provision must be made for their
daily requirements.
Land Side
S,
The land side to the terminal building is open to the public. The
passenger and visitor arrive to the airport or terminal building
E
from the land side. The landside of the airport has become very
important in view of the latest concept of aero cities. The following
UP
facilities must be provided by the airport authorities for the

landside:
 Proper approach to the terminal building
(c)
 Taxi stand
le
 Parking space for personal cars/Buses
Notes
/Sa
___________________
 An access to enquiry counters to the airlines

on
___________________ 1. Airport services related to the aircraft are frequently
___________________ referred to as ……………….
cti
___________________ 2. The …………………… to the terminal building is open to
___________________ the public.
___________________
du
Summary
___________________
___________________
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, an
pro
aerodrome is a defined area on land or water (including buildings,
installations, and equipment) that is intended to be used either
wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement
of aircraft. Airport is used particularly to denote areas where air-
Re
transport passengers are carried, especially where movement
occurs on a considerable scale and always where full-time customs
facilities are available. The requirements for aerodromes, or
airports, have increased in complexity and scale since the earliest
for
days of flying. Before World War II the landing and takeoff

distance of most passenger-transport aircraft was at most 650
yards (600 meters). Additional clear areas were provided for blind
landings or bad-weather runs but the total area involved rarely
t
exceeded 500 acres (200 hectares). Approximately 50 airports

No
around the world now handle more than 10 million passengers per
year. The largest airports in the world employ more than 100,000
workers each.
S,
Lesson End Activity

Visit any airport and list its important features.
E
UP
Keywords
Aerodrome: It is a defined area on land or water (including
buildings, installations, and equipment) that is intended to be used
(c)
either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface

movement of aircraft.
UNIT 16: Airport
le
Airfield: It commonly refers to small aerodromes (often without
Notes
paved runways) or facilities for handling air-transport aircraft or
/Sa
their passengers and cargo ___________________
Airport: It is used particularly to denote areas where air-transport ___________________
passengers are carried, especially where movement occurs on a ___________________
on
considerable scale and always where full-time customs facilities
___________________
are available.
___________________
Airside: Airport services related to the aircraft are frequently
cti
___________________
referred to as airside.
___________________
Land side: The land side to the terminal building is open to the
du
public. ___________________
___________________
Questions for Discussion ___________________
1. Elaborate on the evolution of airports.

pro
2. Differentiate between airport and aerodrome.
Re
3. What is the difference between air side and land side?
4. Write a short note on modern airports.
Further Readings
for
Books
t

No

& Sons.
Books.
S,

E

UP

(c)
le
Web Readings
Notes
http://www.eurocontrol.int/articles/airport-operations
/Sa
___________________
http://www.galvestonairport.com/pdf/Scholes_Rules_and_Regulatio
___________________
ns.pdf
___________________
http://a0768b4a8a31e106d8b0-
on
___________________ 50dc802554eb38a24458b98ff72d550b.r19.cf3.rackcdn.com/scho019
___________________ 5bjju-e-e.pdf
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 17: Airport Users - I
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on Terminal
Airport Users - I building.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Terminal Building ___________________
 Airlines and their Employees ___________________
 Passengers
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In the civil aviation airport play a very vital part. Aviation means
a mode of transport or equipment which is used to transport
manpower or equipment from one place to other and uses
equipment which can fly in the air.
Re
As per the technical requirement any aircraft which has to fly in
the air must develop enough speed and lift to go in the air and for
which it has to perform some run to develop the speed and lift.
for
In the small aircraft it may be possible to develop this lift through

rotor, like Helicopter and small fighter aircraft for the Navy using
VTOL but all civil aircraft which carry 100 to 350 passenger need a
place to make a run and develop the necessary movement and get
t
lift. This is only possible if clear road is made available for takeoff
No
or landing and is free from any blockage and birds flying in the
vicinity. Such a place is known as Runway and this has to be
controlled by an authority whose role is clearly defined in the
books of the sate governments. This entity is known as Airport and
S,
this has the following facilities/services which make the civil aviation
possible.
E
Terminal Building
UP
Terminal Building consists of,

 Departure, Arrival and Transit Hall
(c)
 Conveyer belts for the baggage delivery in the arrival halls

 Check in counter
le
 Conveyor belt to carry the baggage to /from the terminal
Notes
building to the apron where the baggage is made up
/Sa
___________________
 Restaurant facilities
___________________
 Tea/Coffee Bar
___________________
on
 TRS counter
___________________
___________________
 Counter for the insurance
cti
___________________  Bank or money exchange counter
___________________  Duty free shops
___________________  Offices of the airlines
du
___________________  Medical units
___________________  Governmental agencies like Custom, Passport control and

health pro
Airline administrative offices
Terminal building has two sides:
Re
Airside and the Landside
Facilities on the airside include:
 Apron
for
 Control Tower
 Runway
 Taxiway
t
No
 Hangers
 Parking areas for Ground handling equipment of various
airlines
 Storage facilities of oil companies and their offices
S,
Facilities on the Land side:

E
 Parking space for the vehicle- Private and Taxies

Area for the visitor
UP
 Area for the basics shopping

 Area for law enforcing agencies
(c)
 Terminal for Rail or buses

 Left Luggage Areas
le
 Space for the agents, banks, shops, rail and also law enforcing
Notes
agencies
/Sa
___________________
Airport is a self-contained town in a city It has its own
administration and specific rules for its user and the visitors. ___________________
Airport is basically meant for the use by passenger, visitors and ___________________
on
the consignor/.consignees and hence they are the MAIN Users.
___________________
Airport authorities have to provide various facilities for them and ___________________
for which various agencies are working. They are police or other
cti
___________________
security forces for the safety and security of the installations and
other vital equipments. Airlines and their offices for providing aviation ___________________
facilities too the passenger.
du
___________________
 Handling agents to provide assistance to airlines for handling ___________________

of the flight. ___________________


pro
Oil companies to provide aviation fuel to the aircraft
Engineering companies to provide maintenance of the aircraft
 Cleaning and maintenance service of the terminal building for
Re
the upkeep
 Restaurant for the meal and snack requirement of the
passengers/airlines
for
 Lounges and other waiting areas for the passenger

 Custom offices for the international passenger and cargo
 Immigration or the passport control offices both in the arrival
t
and departure areas of the international terminals

No
 Provision to provide emergency service like fire fighting

After going through the above, now we can analyse the following
are airport Users:
S,
1. Airlines and their employees

2. Passenger
E
3. Visitors
UP
4. Restaurant and Lounges

5. Agents
6. Banks
(c)
7. Custom
8. Immigration or the passport control officer
le
9. Oil Companies
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
10. Security agencies
Make a presentation on airline
and its employees. 11. Airport authorities
___________________
___________________ 12. Metrological Office
on
___________________ 13. ATC officer
___________________ 14. Medical unit
cti
___________________ 15. Taxi service providers
___________________ 16. Hotel representative
___________________
du
17. Tourism offices
___________________
Now let us analyse the role of these airport users with the airlines
___________________ and passengers.
pro Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
Re
1. Terminal building has two sides, namely, ………………
and the ……………………..
2. Airport is a self-contained ……………… in a city.
for
Airlines and their Employees

The main service providers are the airlines and their employees.
These business entities own the aircraft and carry the passenger
t
on their flight and also bring them from various parts of the world.
No
They have their own set up at the airport. Their set up is basically
of two types:
 Counter
S,
 Back up and Main office at the airport

Counter means check in counter, facilitation counter, ticketing
E
counter, excess baggage charge counter etc. are those counter

which are visible to the passenger and visitor.
UP
Back up and Main Office

Back up office is the office of the airlines which is a control room
also for the handling of the flight. The main job of this back up
(c)
office to keep up-to-date information of the flight (delay ETA etc.)

and keep the passenger informed. It is also required to send the
le
complete flight data to the other en route and destination station
once the flight has taken off. It is also responsible for the Notes
Activity
/Sa
accounting of all the document i.e. flight coupon , EBT and also
All ___________________
airlines & airport exist
account -for the cash collection of the sale proceed of the ticket because of passenger.
___________________
Comment.
issued at the airport.
___________________
on
Whereas the main office of the airlines is not in the departure or
arrival area but it is a little away from the operational area. In ___________________
these offices they plan and execute the policies of the airlines and ___________________
cti
do all other administrative work. ___________________
The employees of the airlines are quite efficient and courteous not ___________________
only to the passenger but also to the other users as they represent
du
___________________
the passenger and passenger look toward the airlines for any type
of assistance during their short stay at the airport for taking the ___________________
flight. ___________________
Check Your Progress

pro
Fill in the blanks:
Re
1. The main service providers are the ………………….. and
their ………………...
2. …………………… is the office of the airlines which is a
control room also for the handling of the flight.
for
Passengers
The most important person at the airport is a “passenger” or a
t
“visitor”. All airlines & airport exists because of passenger. If the

No
Passengers are not there, then no airlines will operate and no

requirement of the airport and the entire huge infrastructure.
The passenger is the main user of the facilities of the airport. The
airport design starts from the passenger and ends with the
S,
passenger.
The passenger requires a place to sit before the security is
E
announced, and once inside the security area also need a place to
relax, have a coffee or watch a TV or listen to news. The present
UP
airports are designed in such a way that at every stage the

passenger does not feel lost and is always get what are his basic
needs
(c)
Passenger does not want to spend time which is unwarranted. He

wants to spend the minimum time waiting for the departure of the
le
flight and on arrival, from a flight; he wants fast clearance from
Notes the Passport control, custom and to have quick baggage delivery.
/Sa
___________________ He desires to have easy availability of taxies or other modes of
transport to take him from the airport to down town
___________________
___________________ Similarly when a visitor comes, he reaches at the airport either to
on
see off someone or to receive someone, he hopes to have correct
___________________
information about the departure or arrival of the flight, a place to
___________________ meet the passenger, proper logistics for transport, to/from
cti
___________________ downtown
___________________ The passenger and the visitor are two important entities for the
___________________
airport. The third important entity is the Cargo consignee or
du
consignor. They are equally important. They come to the airport
___________________
either to send their merchandize or receive their merchandize.
___________________ They also need proper arrangement to book their consignment duly
pro
cleared through custom and other law enforcing agencies and want
to receive their goods immediately on their arrival so that they do
not suffer the ‗opportunity loss.‘
Re
Normally all airports have special cargo terminals where the
facilities of proper warehousing, custom clearance and delivery, re-
packing etc. is all available. This is necessary as all the goods
which arrive have to be cleared by the custom by opening and
for
inspecting and then repacking before delivery to the consignees.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
t
1. The most important person at the airport is a

No
……………….. or a …………………
2. Passenger does not want to spend time which is
…………………
S,
Summary
E
Terminal Building consists of departure, arrival and transit Hall

and conveyer belts for the baggage delivery in the arrival halls.
UP
Terminal building has two sides, namely, airside and the landside.
Both have a variety of facilities. Airport is a self-contained town in
a city It has its own administration and specific rules for its user
and the visitors. Airport is basically meant for the use by
(c)
passenger, visitors and the consignor/.consignees and hence they

are the MAIN Users. The main service providers are the airlines
le
and their employees. These business entities own the aircraft and
carry the passenger on their flight and also bring them from Notes
/Sa
various parts of the world. The most important person at the ___________________
airport is a “passenger” or a “visitor”. All airlines & airport exists
___________________
because of passenger. If the Passengers are not there, then no
airlines will operate and no requirement of the airport and the ___________________
on
entire huge infrastructure. ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
cti
___________________
Visit an airport and prepare a report on its important users. ___________________
du
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Back up Office: It is the office of the airlines which is a control ___________________
room also for the handling of the flight. pro
Counter: It means check in counter, facilitation counter; ticketing
counter, excess baggage charge counter etc. are those counter
Re
which are visible to the passenger and visitor.
Main Office: The main office of the airlines is not in the departure
or arrival area but a little away from the operational area.
for

1. Examine the terminal building of an airport and discuss its
parts and features.
t
2. Write a short note on airlines and their employees.

No
3. How are passengers the most important thing for airlines?

4. Differentiate between back up office and main office.
S,
Further Readings
E
Books
UP

& Sons.
(c)

Books.
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
Web Readings
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/acrp/acrp_rpt_026.pdf
___________________
http://forums.macworld.com/index.php?/topic/53775-identifying-
cti
___________________
users-on-airport/
___________________
http://ardent.mit.edu/airports/ASP_current_lectures/ASP%2007/Ai
___________________
du
rport%20Charges%2007.pdf
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 18: Airport Users - II
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on airport
Airport Users - II concessionaries.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Airport Concessionaries and other users ___________________
 Companies and offices as users ___________________
 Agencies as users
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In the previous unit, we had enumerated the different types of
airport users. We had also discussed the two most important users,
viz., airport employees and passengers without which the airport
would not be functional at all. In this unit, we will discuss the
Re
remaining airport users and their importance.
Airport Concessionaries and other Users

for
All the three categories of passenger and consignees have to

interface the airlines personal, custom, immigration (except when
they are on domestic travel), and security personal, both on arrival
and departures. It is very important both on the part of passenger
t
and also on the part of employees that they respect the law of the
No
land more so the enforcing authorities should be more friendly but

firm, while dealing with the people who are either not aware or
behave differently if they are regular offenders.
It is these three categories which need to be serviced properly by
S,
the entire airport a support departments working at the airport.

The work of the airport starts from the passenger and ends with
E
the passengers.
UP
Restaurant and Lounges

The airlines do require the services of restaurant and lounges for
various reasons. Lounges are needed to look after the comfort of
(c)
the higher class passenger i.e. executive or First class and also for
CIP/VIPs.
le
Interface with their management is very important on day to day
Notes
basis as the passenger give their good or bad feeling to the airlines
/Sa
___________________
that in turn get in touch with them to ensure their upkeep and to
___________________ upgrade the facilities from time to time.
___________________ In any public place people need the services of a restaurant to have
on
___________________ some meal or light refreshment and hence the restaurant should
be at the airport and should be accessible to the visitors also.
___________________
cti
___________________ Agents
___________________ At airport, lots of agencies work like ground handling, mini
___________________ reservation office agents etc. These entire agents are for the
du
service to the passenger directly or indirectly.
___________________
For example, a handling agent provides the service for handling
___________________
pro
the flight departure to airlines but in indirect manner he is dealing
with the passenger, because it is the passenger who has to travel.
Banks
Re
One of the important requirements is the existence of a bank at the
airport where the passenger can exchange their currency to the
local currency or deport the local currency and obtain the foreign
currency as the local currency of the country does not work in the
for
other countries. The bank official has to very clear and courteous to
the passenger.
Customs
t
Custom authorities have a major role to play in the international

No
traffic. They have to ensure that people don‘t take the banned item
like article of historically important art and craft which are not
replaceable. Since most of the counties are the members CITES
(Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild
S,
Fauna and Flora), the custom authorities are also responsible to

see that live or dead animal of endangered species is neither
transported out nor brought in to the country.
E
Immigration or the Passport Control Offices

UP
This is an important department of the state government which

regulates the arrival of foreign national and also keeps a track of
nationals going abroad. The passenger comes in direct contact with
(c)
this department both at the time of going abroad and also on

arrival. Once upon a time this department had gathered a
le
notorious status and absolutely unfriendly which has now changed
its image to more user friendly and a helping natured department. Notes
Activity
/Sa
Find___________________
out more about other
Check Your Progress companies and offices and
___________________
users and prepare a report on
Fill in the blanks: it.
___________________
on
1. ………………… have to ensure that people don‘t take the
___________________
banned item like article of historically important art and
craft which are not replaceable. ___________________
cti
2. ………………….. is an important department of the state ___________________
government which regulates the arrival of foreign ___________________
national and also keeps a track of nationals going
du
___________________
abroad.
___________________
Companies, Offices and Agencies as Users ___________________
Oil Companies
pro
Aviation uses aircraft which need power to fly. This power is
Re
derived by using aviation fuel by engines. These oil companies are
required to provide this facility to the aircraft .They come in
contact with the airlines and in an indirect manner with the
passenger.
for
These companies must have the storage facilities at the airport

and also the equipment to refuel the aircraft. The process of
refuelling has to be completed within a short period of not more
than 15 minutes in normal aircraft and approximately in 30
t
minutes in bigger aircraft.

No
The oil companies have developed expertise for this and are doing
a good job at all the airports.
Security Agencies
S,
At the airport security is of a great concern. And almost all entry

points are manned by the security personal. These are either
E
drawn from the security forces of the state or employed by the

airlines themselves.
UP
Frisking of passenger, x-raying of the baggage and allowing

passenger to the aircraft through gate controlled are all properly
controlled and manned.
(c)
On the apron side, the aircraft and all other equipment are
guarded once the aircraft arrive and is parked.
le
These activities are of essential nature as any small adventure by
Notes
any miscreant can cause heavy damages and a bad reputation of
/Sa
___________________
the country.
___________________
Airport Authorities
___________________
on
All airports are controlled either by an independent government
___________________
body or by private entities.
___________________
Airports are built, maintained and operated by these bodies. They
cti
___________________
employ huge number of employees depending upon the size of the
___________________ airport
___________________
du
All airlines depend upon airport authorities for all sorts of facilities
___________________ which are required. It may be on the airside or landside and off-
course in the terminal building itself.
___________________
pro
It is the responsibility of airport authority officer to maintain the
building in a best method and always upgrade the facilities as per
the latest development in the aviation industry.
Re
In return of the facilities, airport authorities do charge some
amount not only from the airlines as rent for the building, parking
area at the apron and landing and navigation charge, passenger
also pay an amount for the using the services at the airport by way
for
of departure tax etc. which are collected by the airlines from the
passengers and deposited with the respective authorities.
Metrological Office
t
Another important component of the aviation industry is the

No
Metrological office.
We are aware that the flying depends upon the clear weather. If
the weather is not conducive to this safety of the aircraft, the flight
will not be operated at that time and route.
S,
The reason being in case of emergency the aircraft has to come

back the pilot is in a position to sight the runway and also on the
E
type of aircraft, its weight and speed. And the on board

navigational equipment and also the matching navigational
UP
equipment installed at the runway,

Each airlines train its pilot to land in the minimum visibility. In
such situation there is a need to have a weather forecast from an
(c)
independent body which also constituted by a state to prove its

authority and this department is known as ‘metrological
le
department’ and in short it is known as “MET＂ and its reports are
known as “MET＂ reports which are mandatory for the any flight, Notes
/Sa
whether it is a commercial or non-commercial or military flying. ___________________
As per the regulatory authorities the pilot must obtain the ___________________
metrological report from the met office before departure for its ___________________
on
destination and also for the en route weather and should also give
___________________
a ‘Debriefing＇ on arrival at the destination more so if the
deviation was observed during the flying than that of the met ___________________
cti
forecast given from the origin of the station. ___________________
Earlier the pilot or the co-pilot used to go personally to the Met ___________________
office and obtain briefing and discuss the weather conditions but
du
___________________
now due to more accurate forecasting an officer from the operation
___________________
department of the airlines obtains the met report from met office
and then handover to the pilot when they report for the duties. ___________________
pro
This saves a good amount of time of the pilot which is used for the
flying duties.
ATC (Air Traffic Control) Office

Re
The full form of ATC is Air Traffic Control. This is generally a
vertical, tall and round building very near to the runway so as to
give it the clear picture of the runway. All aircraft have to take
for
persimmons from ATC to land or to take off. This is a very

sophisticated service which is performed by experienced controller.
The job is more difficult at the major airport where the flying is
quite high.
t
At the major airports, there is more than one runway and hence
No
the job of coordinating the arrival and departure of the aircraft

requires sophistication. This has become somewhat easier with the
use of IT where the computer tracks the movement and takes
corrective measure in case of any emergency.
S,
Medical Unit
E
As per ICAO all airport should have a qualified medical officer

round the clock.
UP
There should also be a clinic to take care of the medical

emergencies of the passengers. Thus the medical officer and
medical units are provided by the airport authorities.
(c)
Generally the location is accessible to all passengers from inside

the terminal and also from the landside.
le
The airport clinics are equipped with the basic medical facilities
Notes
and in case of emergency or serious nature sickness, passengers
/Sa
___________________
are immediately taken to the near- by hospital in the ambulances
___________________ which area available at the airports.
___________________
Tourism Offices
on
___________________
International Airports are the entry points for tourist. Each
___________________ country has to provide a place inside the arrival and departure hall
cti
___________________ of the terminal building for providing the useful information about
the Tourist places of the countries.
___________________
___________________ These offices are quite equipped with the literature of the various
du
tourists interesting place. They are the good guide to the incoming
___________________
tourists who depends upon them for all types of solution in case of
___________________ need of the information.
pro
Taxi Service Providers
At each terminal, both arrival and departure, particular in arrival
a counter is provided to the taxi operators to provide taxies to the
Re
arriving passenger. Generally, they are of two types: government
controlled or privately owned. They are very essential for the
development of tourism and also for the benefits of the arrival
passenger
for
Hotel Representative
At all airport a counter or sometime more than one counter is
available to the important hotel who provide assistance to the
t
No
passenger who intend to stay with them They provide transfer to

and from hotel, generally courtesy service and do not charge,
specially 5 star hotels.
Terminal for Rail or Buses

S,
There are some other users of the airport like Rail or Bus terminus
which are very essential for the passenger/visitors to reach airport
E
or vice versa. This is also planned at the time of development of the

airport. Cities like Paris. London etc. are well connected by the rail
UP
to and from city and also inter terminal buses.
Left Luggage Areas

(c)
This is an important facility for the passenger. Earlier it used to be

inside the terminal building But now due to security problem, a
le
building has been constructed which quite away from the main
terminal building but within the airport premises. Notes
/Sa
___________________
Law Enforcing Agencies
___________________
State law enforcing agencies are also having their offices at the
airport which is also an essential element for the airport user ___________________
on
group ___________________
___________________
Entities
cti
___________________
 Airport Administration, Airlines, Agents, Concessionaires,
Emergency and support service providers ___________________
du
 People - Passengers, Employees, Visitors ___________________
___________________
 Mobile Objects - Aircraft, Vehicles and Rail
___________________
Fill in the blanks:

Check Your Progress pro
1. At the airport, …………………….. is of a great concern.
Re
2. Another important component of the aviation industry is
the …………………… office.
3. The full form of ATC is ……………………….
for
Summary
All the three categories of passenger and consignees have to
interface the airlines personal, custom, immigration (except when
t
No
they are on domestic travel), and security personal, both on arrival

and departures. The airlines do require the services of restaurant
and lounges, agents, banks, customs, immigration or the passport
control offices, oil companies, security agencies, airport authorities,
metrological office, ATC (Air Traffic Control) office, medical unit,
S,
tourism offices, taxi service providers, hotel representative,

terminal for rail or buses, left luggage areas, law enforcing
E
agencies, entities for various reasons.

UP
Lesson End Activity

Among the various users of the airport, which do you think is the
most important? Give reasons to support your answer.
(c)
le
Keywords
Notes
ATC: The full form of ATC is Air Traffic Control. This is generally
/Sa
___________________
a vertical, tall and round building very near to the runway so as to
___________________
give it the clear picture of the runway. All aircraft have to take
___________________ persimmons from ATC to land or to take off.
on
___________________ Metrological Department: There is a need to have a weather
___________________ forecast from an independent body which also constituted by a
state to prove its authority and this department is known as
cti
___________________
‘metrological department’ and in short it is known as “MET”.
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
1. Write short notes on the following users of airport:
___________________
pro
(a) Restaurant and Lounges
(b) Agents
(c) Security Agencies
Re
(d) Metrological Office
(e) ATC (Air Traffic Control) office
(f) Tourism offices
for
2. All airlines depend upon airport authorities for all sorts of

facilities which are required. Elaborate.
Further Readings
t
No
Books
S,

& Sons.
E

Books.
UP

(c)

le
Web Readings
Notes
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/acrp/acrp_rpt_026.pdf
/Sa
___________________
http://forums.macworld.com/index.php?/topic/53775-identifying-
users-on-airport/ ___________________
http://ardent.mit.edu/airports/ASP_current_lectures/ASP%2007/Ai ___________________
on
rport%20Charges%2007.pdf ___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 19: Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of the World - I
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
With___________________
Important Aviation Regulatory find out the history of JAA.
___________________
Authorities of the World - I ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
du
 EASA: European Aviation Safety Agency ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
In this unit, we will discuss the two most important aviation

regulatory authorities of the world: JAA and EASA. The JAA was
pro
headquartered at Hoofddorp, North Holland. One difference
Re
between EASA and JAA is that EASA has legal regulatory
authority within the European Union (EU) through the enactment
of its regulations through the European Commission, Council of
the European Union and European Parliament, while most of the
for
JAA regulatory products were harmonised codes without direct

force of law. Also, some JAA nations such as Turkey were outside
the EU whereas by definition, EASA is an agency of the EU and
other nations adopt its rules and procedures on a voluntary basis.
t
Let’s discuss each in detail.

No
The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)

The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) was an associated body of the
S,
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) representing the civil

aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States
who had agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing
E
common safety regulatory standards and procedures. This co-

UP
operation was intended to provide high and consistent standards of

safety and a “level playing field” for competition in Europe. Much
emphasis was placed on harmonizing the JAA regulations with
those of the USA.
(c)
The JAA Membership was based on signing the “JAA

Arrangements” document originally signed by the then current
le
Member States in Cyprus in 1990. Based on these Arrangements
Notes and related commitments, the JAA’s objectives and functions may
/Sa
___________________ be summarized as follows:
___________________
JAA’s Objectives
___________________
on
Aviation Safety
___________________
___________________
To ensure, through co-operation amongst Member States, that JAA
members achieve a high, consistent level of aviation safety.
cti
___________________
___________________ Co-operation with EASA

___________________ To co-operate with the European Aviation Safety Agency in
du
___________________ performing its functions and tasks in accordance with an agreed
programme ensuring the involvement of the JAA non-EASA
___________________
pro
countries with the aim of maintaining the present unity in
regulations on a pan-European dimension and the mutual
acceptance/recognition of certificates/ approvals and of
implementing the FUJA decisions.
Re
Business Effectiveness
To achieve a cost effective safety system so as to contribute to an
efficient civil aviation industry.
for
Consolidation of Common Standards

To contribute, through the uniform application of the highest
possible common standards and through regular review of the
t
existing regulatory situation, to fair and equal competition within

No
Member States.
International Co-operation
To co-operate with other regional organizations or national
S,
authorities of States playing an important role in Civil Aviation in

order to reach at least the JAA safety level, and to foster the world-
E
wide implementation of harmonized safety standards and

requirements through the conclusion of international
UP
arrangements and through participation in technical assistance

programmes without affecting community competence.
JAA’s functions
(c)
The JAA’s work began in 1970 (when it was known as the Joint
Airworthiness Authorities). Originally its objectives were only to
le
produce common certification codes for large aeroplanes and for
engines. This was in order to meet the needs of European Industry Notes
/Sa
and particularly for products manufactured by international ___________________
consortia (e.g. Airbus). Since 1987 its work has been extended to
___________________
operations, maintenance, licensing and certification/design
standards for all classes of aircraft. With the adoption of the ___________________
on
Regulation (EC) No 1592/2002 by the European Parliament and ___________________
the Council of the European Union (EU) and the subsequent set up
___________________
of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) a new regulatory
cti
___________________
framework was created in European aviation.
___________________
According to this Regulation, for EU Member States national
du
regulation in the airworthiness domain has been replaced by EU ___________________
Regulation and certification tasks have been transferred from ___________________

National Authorities to EASA, Non EU States maintain their
___________________
responsibility in all fields.
Consequently, a “Roadmap” for the establishment of clear
pro
milestones for JAA’s future was developed and adopted by the
JAAB and by ECAC’s DGs in August 2005 (FUJA Report)
Re
proposing a transformation from JAA into JAA T (T for
“transition”), comprising a Liaison Office (LO) in Cologne
(Germany) and a Training Office (TO) in Hoofddorp (The
Netherlands).
for
In November 2005, the EU Commission began the legislative

process to amend EASA Regulation (EC) 1592/2002 to extend the
competences of EASA into the fields of operations and licensing.
t
In May 2006, minor amendments to the FUJA Report were agreed

No
by the JAAB and ECAC’s DGs contemplating practical

arrangements to take into account the revised anticipated dates for
the extension of EASA competences.
Furthermore EU Regulation 1899/2006, dated 12 December 2006
S,
was published on 27 December 2006. This Regulation amends

Council Regulation 3922/1991. The amendment contained a new
E
Annex II dealing with commercial flight operations and is referred

to as EU OPS. Following an implementation period of 18 months,
UP
EU OPS became directly applicable as of 16 July 2008.
JAA T functions
(c)
The JAA T existed of and functioned with two offices – the Liaison
Office and the Training Office:
le
 The Liaison Office “JAA LO” liaised between EASA and the
Notes
Civil Aviation Authorities of the non EASA JAA Member
/Sa
___________________
States to integrate the activities of these States with those of
___________________ EASA. In addition, JAA LO ensured the general management
___________________ of the rulemaking, including that in the fields of operations
on
and licensing. The technical work was undertaken by EASA
___________________
for all JAA members.
___________________
 The Training Office “JAA TO” provided relevant training to
cti
___________________ the aviation community to ensure that it is sufficiently
___________________ familiar with the European aviation safety rules and
___________________
regulations, and to assist the non EASA JAA Member States
du
in their efforts to obtain EASA membership. As of 1 July 2009
___________________
JAA-TO continued to provide training courses as a Dutch
___________________ Foundation and associated body of ECAC.
pro
JAA LO in general maintained the relationship between EASA and
non EASA JAA Member States in the following fields:
 Ensuring the dissemination of information regarding the
Re
European evolutions in the field of air safety;
 Ensuring a forum to express the views of the non EASA JAA
Member States with the possibility to contribute with these
for
views to EASA;
 Assisting the non EASA JAA Member States in their efforts to
become EASA members;
 Further ensuring the role of JAA as a technically specialized
t
body;
No
 Standardization;
 ESSI;
 and International function (ECAC, ICAO & other regional
S,
bodies).
In the fields of operations and licensing the LO would:
E
 Provide general management of the JAA’s rulemaking

UP
activities;
 Provide the secretariat of the Sectorial Teams in the fields of
rulemaking for operations and licensing;
(c)
 Complete the NPA publication process;

 Assist in the coordination of standardization activities.
le
 The technical work will be done by EASA, based upon a
Notes
commonly agreed Rulemaking Process.
/Sa
___________________
In the field of airworthiness the LO would:
___________________
 Establish the necessary regulatory framework for the non
___________________
EASA JAA Member States by transposing EASA regulatory
on
measures to non-EASA JAA membership through the agreed ___________________
consultation/transposition process to ensuring the continuing ___________________
pan-European system. In particular it will:
cti
___________________
 Keep the JARs “in the new form” up to date in line with EASA
___________________
texts;
du
___________________
 Ensure the necessary support in implementing the JARs “in
___________________
the new form” in these countries through consultancy as
required; ___________________
 Co-ordinate with EASA the further steps necessary to ensure

the involvement of EASA and the non EASA JAA Member
pro
States in certification and maintenance processes and mutual
Re
acceptance of findings;
 Ensure the necessary technical support through initiation of
either safety bilateral agreements in order to preserve the
mutual recognition of certificates issued by the national
for
aviation authorities of these countries or full association

agreements with the EC.
The JAA TO continue to provide training for authorities and
t
stakeholders in the field of the European aviation safety rules. It

No
also introduced all necessary steps to ensure that it would be able

to stand on its own feet after disbanding of JAA.
Membership
S,
(a) Membership was open to members of the European Civil

Aviation Conference (ECAC), which currently consists of 44
member countries. Membership took effect when the 1990
E
“Arrangements” were signed. There were 43 member countries

in the JAA T.
UP
(b) “Three-Phase” membership of the JAA. The JAA had a three-

phase membership system. The procedure, consistent with the
arrangements, started with a familiarization visit by a
(c)
“candidate” Authority to JAA T (Transition), leading to a report

to the Chairman of the JAA Committee (JAAC) after a
le
satisfactory conclusion. The Authority could then formally
Notes apply to the Chairman of the JAA Board (JAAB) for
/Sa
___________________ membership, expressing its willingness to commit itself to the
terms and commitments in the Arrangements.
___________________
___________________ The JAAC submitted its report to the JAAB and subject to a
on
two-third majority positive vote, the applicant Authority could
___________________
sign the Arrangements. At this stage the Authority would
___________________ become a “candidate member” and would have access to
cti
___________________ meetings, documentation etc., but would not have: Voting
rights, and the right or obligation to automatic recognition of
___________________
the approvals issued by its own authority or those of other
___________________
du
states.
___________________
In phase 2, subsequent to the signing of the JAA
___________________ Arrangements, JAA T would arrange a visit by a fact-finding
pro
team to the Authority. This team consisted of representatives
from the JAAC and JAA T. A report was prepared and sent to
the JAAC Chairman and when considered satisfactory, the
JAAC recommended to the JAAB to grant full membership. At
Re
this stage JAA standardisation team visits were arranged. This
process could for some countries, be very prolonged. It was felt
however, that such a process was essential to safeguard the
high standards and credibility of the JAA T. The third phase
for
was the one leading to full recognition for Member States. The
JAA T comprised 37 full Members and 6 candidate Members.
Closing
t
No
Based upon a decision of ECACs DGs in adopting the FUJA II

Report it was decided to disband the JAA system per 30 June 2009
and to keep the JAA Training Organization running.
Check Your Progress

S,
Fill in the blanks:

1. The JAA’s work began in 1970 when it was known as
E
the ……………………
UP
2. Based upon a decision of ECACs DGs in adopting the

FUJA II Report it was decided to disband the JAA
system per 30 June 2009 and to keep the …………………
running.
(c)
le
EASA: European Aviation Safety Agency
Notes
The European Aviation Safety Agency is the centrepiece of the Activity
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on EASA.
European Union’s strategy for aviation safety. Our mission is to
promote the highest common standards of safety and ___________________
environmental protection in civil aviation. ___________________
on
___________________
A Common Strategy
___________________
Air transport is one of the safest forms of travel. As air traffic
cti
continues to grow a common initiative is needed at the European ___________________
level to keep air transport safe and sustainable. The Agency ___________________
develops common safety and environmental rules at the European
du
___________________
level. It monitors the implementation of standards through
inspections in the Member States and provides the necessary ___________________
technical expertise, training and research. The Agency works hand ___________________
in hand with the national authorities which continue to carry out
many operational tasks, such as certification of individual aircraft
pro
or licensing of pilots.
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
Towards a Single Aviation Market

(c)
The European Aviation Safety Agency also carries out executive

responsibilities in the area of type- certification: the certification of
le
specific models of aircraft, engines or parts approved for operation
Notes in the European Union. The aviation industry benefits from
/Sa
___________________ common specifications, cost-efficient services and a single point of
contact.
___________________
___________________ Executive and Regulatory Tasks
on
___________________ The main tasks of the Agency currently include:
___________________  Rulemaking: drafting aviation safety legislation and
cti
___________________ providing technical advice to the European Commission and to
the Member States;
___________________
___________________  Inspections, training and standardization programmes to
du
ensure uniform implementation of European aviation safety
___________________
legislation in all Member States;
___________________


and parts; pro
Safety and environmental type-certification of aircraft, engines
Approval of aircraft design organizations world-wide as and of

production and maintenance organizations outside the EU;
Re
 Authorization of third-country (non EU) operators;
 Coordination of the European Community programme SAFA
(Safety Assessment of Foreign Aircraft) regarding the safety of
for
foreign aircraft using Community airports;

 Data collection, analysis and research to improve aviation
safety.
t
In a few years, the Agency will also be responsible for safety

No
regulations regarding airports and air traffic management

systems.
Independent and Accountable

S,
The European Aviation Safety Agency became operational in 2003

on the basis of a European Parliament and Council Regulation
(1592/2002). As an independent EU body under European law, it is
E
accountable to the Member States and the EU institutions. A

Management Board with representatives from the Member States
UP
and the European Commission adopts the Agency’s budget and

work programme. The aviation industry is actively involved in the
Agency’s work through a number of consultative and advisory
(c)
committees. There is also an independent Board of Appeal.

le
Growing Fast
Notes
Based in Cologne, Germany, the Agency already employs some 500
/Sa
professionals from all Member States. It will continue to recruit ___________________
highly qualified specialists and administrators in the next years as ___________________
it consolidates its position as Europe’s centre of excellence in
___________________
aviation safety.
on
___________________
International Co-operation ___________________
cti
The European Aviation Safety Agency is developing close working
___________________
relationships with counterpart organizations across the world
___________________
including the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
du
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States ___________________
and the aviation authorities of Canada, Brazil, Israel, China and ___________________
Russia. Working arrangements between the Agency and these
___________________
organizations are aimed at harmonizing standards and promoting
best practice in aviation safety world-wide.
pro
What EASA Do
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Air transport is one of the safest modes of travel. It is also the

fastest growing. That is why the European Union decided on a
common initiative to keep air transport safe and sustainable,
le
allowing for growth and improved safety. It is called the European
Notes Aviation Safety Agency.
/Sa
___________________
The European Aviation Safety Agency promotes the highest
___________________ common standards of safety and environmental protection in civil
___________________ aviation in Europe and worldwide. It is the centrepiece of a new
on
regulatory system which provides for a single European market in
___________________
the aviation industry.
___________________
A milestone achievement of the agency in December 2006 was the
cti
___________________ certification of the Airbus A380, the world’s largest airliner.
___________________
The agency’s responsibilities include:
___________________
du
 expert advice to the EU for drafting new legislation;
___________________
 implementing and monitoring safety rules, including
___________________ inspections in the Member States;

pro
type-certification of aircraft and components, as well as the
approval of organisations involved in the design, manufacture
and maintenance of aeronautical products;
Re
 authorization of third-country (non EU) operators;
 Safety analysis and research.
The agency’s responsibilities are growing to meet the challenges of
for
the fast-developing aviation sector. In a few years, the Agency will

also be responsible for safety regulations regarding airports and
air traffic management systems. Based in Cologne, the agency
already employs some 500 professionals from across Europe. It will
t
continue to recruit highly qualified specialists and administrators

No
in the coming years as it consolidates its position as Europe’s

centre of excellence in aviation safety.
Our vision is to see European citizens benefit from the safest and
most environment-friendly civil aviation system in the world.
S,
Check Your Progress

E
Fill in the blanks:

UP
1. The ………………….. develops common safety and

environmental rules at the European level.
2. A milestone achievement of the agency in December
2006 was the certification of the …………………, the
(c)
world’s largest airliner.

le
Summary
Notes
In this unit, we discussed the two most important aviation
/Sa
___________________
regulatory authorities of the world: JAA and EASA.
___________________
The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) was an associated body of the
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) representing the civil ___________________
on
aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States ___________________
who had agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing
___________________
common safety regulatory standards and procedures.
cti
___________________
The European Aviation Safety Agency is the centrepiece of the
___________________
European Union’s strategy for aviation safety. Our mission is to
du
promote the highest common standards of safety and ___________________
environmental protection in civil aviation. ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
Compare and contrast between the workings of JAA and EASA.
pro
Re
Keywords
EASA: The European Aviation Safety Agency is the centrepiece of
the European Union’s strategy for aviation safety.
for
JAA LO: It maintained the relationship between EASA and non

EASA JAA Member States.
JAA: The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) was an associated body
of the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) representing
t
the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European

No
States who had agreed to co-operate in developing and

implementing common safety regulatory standards and
procedures.
S,

E
1. What does JAA stand for?

2. Enumerate the functions of JAA.
UP
3. List the objectives of JAA.

4. How are the functions of JAA different from JAA T?
(c)
5. Write the full form of EASA. Where are its headquarters?

6. Explain the functions and objectives of EASA.
le
Further Readings
Notes
/Sa
___________________ Books
on
___________________ & Sons.
cti
___________________ Taneja, Nawal K. (1987) Introduction to civil aviation, Lexington
___________________
Books.
___________________ Ravi Kumar, V. V. (2006) Indian aviation industry: opportunities
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Web Readings
http://www.jaa.nl/
Re
https://www.easa.europa.eu/
http://www.easa.europa.eu/home.php
http://www.easa.europa.eu/ws_prod/g/doc/Events/industrymeeting1
for
8112004/EASA_QS_standardisation_jaa_easa_industrymeeting_18
112004.pdf
http://aviationgeeks.com/read/2010/07/15/the_history_of_the_europ
ean_aviation_safety_agency_(easa)
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 20: Case Study
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Effective Strategies for Long-term Growth: A NATS Case Study
Introduction ___________________
du
___________________
Air travel has become a regular part of life for many people, but
managing the processes surrounding it is far from simple. During ___________________
the summer of 2012 the UK welcomed around 200,000 more air
passengers through Heathrow and Gatwick airports than in a ___________________
non-Olympic year. pro
Over 3,000 extra flight slots were needed for the visitors and
athletes for the London Olympic Games. Making sure all flights
have a safe landing and take-off is part of the responsibilities of
Re
NATS.
t for
No
NATS is a global air navigation provider. The organisation was

originally established in 1962 as a government body but in 2001
S,
became a Public/Private Partnership (PPP). The PPP model of

ownership meant that private funding could be invested into
NATS services and infrastructure. Over £123 million has been
E
invested since the PPP was set up.

NATS manages the world’s busiest section of airspace as well as
UP
the busiest single and dual runway airports in Europe and the
Middle East. Its systems and people manage over 6,000 flights a
day through UK airspace – over 2 million a year – safely and
efficiently. NATS-managed flights experienced delays of just 7.3
seconds per flight in 2011, around 1/10 of the European average.
(c)
The majority of delays to flights in and out of the UK are caused

by factors outside NATS’ control.
Contd…
le
Rate of Growth
Notes
NATS has grown phenomenally in the last year. Its strategies
/Sa
___________________ have taken it from operating in just UK and Gibraltar to offering
the full range of its services in 28 countries, with contracts of
___________________ different sizes and values. NATS offers and operates a range of
___________________ services. A main function is to manage runways and airspace
through Air Traffic Control (ATC). Other roles include providing
on
___________________ consultancy and developing solutions for operational, economic
and environmental issues, engineering infrastructure and
___________________ software, defence services and training. Its customers include
airports, airlines and aviation authorities.
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
As well as managing 15 of the UK’s busiest airports, NATS

projects currently include air traffic controller training and
redesigning airspace in Hong Kong; providing start-up training
t
for ATC and safety management in Slovakia; as well as providing

No
and integrating all ATC equipment for the new control tower at
Manchester airport.
NATS recognises that its people are a cornerstone of its strategy
and essential to its future development. NATS offers a broad mix
of challenging and exciting job roles which are open to men and
S,
women equally. These include the essential ATC role, scientists,

marketing, business development, IT, finance, HR, safety, quality
and business processing. With its expansion, NATS is moving
E
from a national to international employer. This means future

recruits will have a world of job opportunities to choose from.
UP
This case study explores the strategies NATS is employing to

achieve its vision of being a global provider of air traffic solutions.
Aims and Vision
An organisation’s vision describes where the business wants to be
(c)
in an ideal world. A vision is aspirational and can be inspirational

for employees and stakeholders. Aims describe what the business
Contd…
UNIT 20: Case Study
le
intends to do in the long term and help to deliver the vision.
Examples of aims might be to increase profit or to improve the Notes
/Sa
business’ impact on the environment.
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
The aviation sector as a whole is experiencing significant change
with air traffic management services now being a global market. ___________________
pro
NATS needs to be able to respond to economic pressures and meet
efficiency and environmental targets. It also has to be able to
meet the challenge of increasing numbers of competitors bidding
for global contracts.
NATS' Vision
Re
NATS’ vision is: ‘to be acknowledged as a global leader in
innovative air traffic solutions and airport performance’. In order
to achieve its vision, NATS has established several key aims:
 Continuous growth for the business, both organic and inorganic
for
with a view to achieving and sustaining turnover of over £1bn by

2015.
 Reducing safety risks across the business – NATS handled 2.1
million flights in 2011. For the fourth year running, there were
no incidents where the distance between aircraft under NATS air
t
traffic control was compromised. In an industry where safety is of

No
the greatest importance, NATS has also developed safety

innovations such as a GPS-based device to help private pilots
avoid controlled airspace, as well as a system to track helicopter
flights between oil platforms in the North Sea.
 Engaging with and focusing on its customers’ needs – this
S,
includes implementing technical developments that will deliver

fuel savings for airlines, improve efficiency and ensure continued
punctuality and reduced operating costs for airports.
E
 Increasing efficiency and effectiveness of internal operations –

for example, NATS efficiency in purchasing has been recognised
UP
with the award of the Gold certificate from CIPS (the Chartered
Institute of Purchasing and Supply). This has resulted in cost
savings and established best practice for all parts of the business.
 Reducing carbon emissions – for example NATS made over 100
operational and procedural changes in air traffic flows. These
(c)
have saved an estimated 115,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions since

2009 – a fuel saving worth £22 million.
Contd…
le
Objectives
Notes
Objectives set out the outcomes the business needs in order to
/Sa
___________________ achieve its aims and may relate to functions or the whole
business.
___________________
SMART Objectives
___________________
The use of SMART objectives helps a business to ensure that its
on
___________________ progress towards achieving its objectives can be measured.
___________________ Specific – so that everyone knows exactly what is to be achieved
cti
___________________ Measurable – sets out the level to be achieved
Agreed – relevant staff are involved in setting the objectives and
___________________
are committed to keeping them
___________________
du
Relevant – to the organisation’s overall purpose
___________________ Time-framed – to ensure that it will fit within the organisation’s
overall plans.
___________________

pro
Examples of SMART objectives set by NATS include:
To reduce the level of safety risk across the business by 40% over
a period of four years.
 To reduce CO2 emissions related to air traffic management by an
Re
average of 10% per flight by 2020, from a 2006 baseline. The
interim target is to achieve an average of 4% per flight reduction
by 2015.
Airlines bear significant costs, for example of fuel, fees for airport
slots or in maintaining safety. Delays or flight inefficiency adds to
for
these costs. In response to its customers’ needs, NATS helps to

limit delays by effective air traffic control and improves use of fuel
by providing more efficient flight routes.
t
No
E S,
UP
As an example, at Gatwick airport, which is the busiest single

(c)
runway airport in Europe, 53 planes are scheduled to take off or

land each hour and NATS has even managed up to 60 planes on
the runway in peak hours. NATS is aiming to increase this
Contd…
UNIT 20: Case Study
le
scheduled capacity to 55 by the summer of 2014 through use of
new technology and by improving the design of airspace and Notes
runway usage.
/Sa
Strategy ___________________
A strategy is the plan by which the aims and objectives will be put ___________________
into action. NATS’ strategies centre around three key areas:
___________________
on
 Innovation – developing new and creative products and services
to retain market position and grow the business ___________________
 Partnerships – creating alliances to strengthen its position and ___________________

open up new markets
cti
___________________
 People – enhancing the organisation’s skills and competencies so
it has the resources to meet challenges. ___________________
Innovation
du
___________________
NATS is moving from a UK-focused business to a global one. For
example, new contracts for consultancy services in the USA, ___________________
Middle East and Asia-Pacific have contributed to forward orders ___________________
pro
worth £495 million. NATS’ strengths in innovation are helping to
deliver ground-breaking products and solutions. These will help it
compete and establish the business as a market player in other
countries, ensuring continued growth and expansion. For
example, the ‘Heathrow Dashboard’ now provides live, real-time
Re
data on arrival and departure delays to help air traffic control
operators make decisions.
t for
No
Partnerships
S,
Working with and through partners to deliver new solutions is

helping NATS to expand its reach into global markets. For
example, NATS has established a relationship in Spain with
E
Ferroser, a private investor in transportation infrastructures. The

joint venture (known as FerroNATS) enabled NATS to win a bid
for running airport tower operations in Spain.
UP
People
NATS’ services are dependent on the expertise and innovation
that its people can deliver. NATS’ Human Resource Management
strategy is focused not just on attracting but also retaining people
(c)
with high levels of skill. NATS needs people with scientific or

engineering backgrounds, as well as wider business skills such as
Contd…
le
finance, administration, intelligence gathering or sales. With its
Notes increasingly global markets, NATS people have the opportunity to
/Sa
___________________
work around the world.
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
NATS training and development schemes enable the organisation
___________________ to continue to develop the competencies which give it competitive
pro
edge and drive its vision forwards. People may join NATS at all
levels – from school or college as air traffic controllers or
engineering technicians or as graduates on its science or
engineering graduate schemes.
In addition, NATS also offers industrial placement schemes,
Re
where students can include a year working with NATS as part of
their degree courses to develop skills and learn about the
industry. NATS employees have opportunities to develop their
abilities, for example, through secondments.
for
Evaluation
Effective strategies require careful assessment of the progress
made during the timescale of the strategies being set. The
monitoring of the changes is summarised in the final section of
the case study.
t
Tactics
No
Tactics are specific programmes of work or activities which help

to achieve objectives. They may be customer-focused or
operationally based.
E S,
UP
(c)
Contd…
UNIT 20: Case Study
le
Around 26,000 flights a day cross European airspace – at different
heights and along different routes. NATS solutions which support Notes
its strategy of innovation focus on making the most efficient use of
/Sa
this space. ___________________
3Di - a World 'First' ___________________

For example, NATS delivered a world ‘first’ by developing an
___________________
entirely new way of measuring the environmental performance of
on
the airspace network above the UK. The flight efficiency metric, ___________________
known as 3Di, will help air traffic control to route flight paths as
close to the environmental optimum as possible. NATS’ regulator, ___________________
cti
the Civil Aviation Authority, estimates that it will deliver 600,000
___________________
tonnes of CO2 savings over the next three years, worth up to £120
million. ___________________
'Perfect Flight' Test
du
___________________
NATS was also involved with British Airways in developing the
‘Perfect Flight’. The programme, a UK ‘first’, involved measuring ___________________
a trial flight under optimum conditions and flight plan in order to
___________________
more than 10% of emissions could be saved. NATS is nowpro

establish the potential for carbon savings. The trial proved that
investigating how it could make this possible for every flight.

Re
t for
No
Management of Data
Timely and accurate management of data and information is vital
for airports, airlines and air traffic control services. NATS is
implementing a virtual and secure ‘cloud’-based infrastructure for
all its desktop IT services. This will reduce IT costs by £9 million
S,
over four years and allow better use of information for NATS
6,000 staff, as well as improved collaboration between NATS and
its business partners.
E
Single European Sky Initiative

NATS and the Irish Aviation Authority (IAA) are working in
UP
partnership as part of the Single European Sky (SES) initiative.

This initiative organises airspace into Functional Airspace Blocks
(FABs) according to traffic flows rather than to national borders.
This aims to improve efficiency and reduce costs. Achievements
between NATS and IAA so far have included establishing night
(c)
time routes to save fuel. These have resulted in savings of
Contd…
le
around €24 million (mostly from fuel efficiency) against costs of
Notes just €2 million.
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
Developing People
___________________
In line with its HR strategy, NATS opened a new training centre
___________________ in 2011. This specialised centre of excellence for training
pro
engineers and air traffic controllers has delivered cost savings
and improved the training environment through the use of
innovative simulation technology. NATS recognises that its
people are a valuable asset and has therefore also introduced a
new performance management and career development
Re
programme to enable it to manage and reward its talented people
appropriately.
Conclusion
NATS has grown from a UK-only to an international air traffic
for
management provider. Its range of services and wealth of

expertise help to deliver efficient and effective solutions to the
challenges its customers in the aviation industry face.
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Its strategies for continued growth rely on its innovation,

partnerships and people. Statistical appraisal has shown that the
Contd…
UNIT 20: Case Study
le
strategies have helped to generate new business in the UK and 20
other countries worth over £495 million in 2011/12. Notes
/Sa
At a time of global economic recession, NATS has delivered ways
to help its customers add value, reduce emissions and save fuel. ___________________
In 2011, by implementing operational and procedural changes ___________________
from the air traffic control centres, NATS enabled fuel savings of
over 19,000 tonnes. This was worth almost £13 million and saved ___________________
on
60,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions.
___________________
Questions:
___________________
cti
2. Write down the case facts. ___________________
3. Write down an effective executive summary of given case. ___________________

Source: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/nats/effective-strategies-for-long-term-growth/
du
___________________
introduction.html#axzz2OvDQrj00
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 21: Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of the World - II
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-V
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 21: IMPORTANT AVIATION
___________________ UNIT 23: THE AIRCRAFT ACT 1934 - I
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES OF THE
 Introduction
WORLD - II
___________________
 Introduction  Aircraft Act, 1934
___________________
on
 Federal Aviation Authority (FAA)
___________________ UNIT 24: THE AIRCRAFT ACT, 1934 - II
 International Civil Aviation Organization  Introduction
___________________
(ICAO)
Aircraft Act 1934 (contd.)
cti

___________________
UNIT 22: IMPORTANT AVIATION
___________________
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES OF INDIA UNIT 25: CASE STUDY
 Introduction
___________________
du
 Airport Economic Regulatory Authority of
___________________
India(AERA)
___________________
 Airport Council International
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Make a presentation on FAA.
Important Aviation Regulatory ___________________
Authorities of the World - II ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Federal Aviation Authority (FAA)
du
 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
In the previous unit, we covered two most prestigious aviation

regulatory bodies, namely, JAA and EASA. In this unit we will
pro
discuss about ICAO and FAA.
Re
The ICAO is an international organization. Countries, including
the United States, join the ICAO as charter members to support
the goals of the organization regarding standards for all civil
flights, airport regulations, and encourage the development of civil
for
airways around the world.

The FAA has authority to prevent aviation hazards by whatever
means necessary. They have set the standards for aspects of
t
domestic flights including aircraft noise standards. The FAA also is

No
solely responsible for developing and maintaining civil and

military systems of air navigation. Let’s discuss in detail about
them.
S,
Federal Aviation Authority (FAA)
A Brief History
E
The modern age of powered flight began in 1903, when Orville

UP
Wright made the first sustained, powered flight on December 17 in

a plane he and his brother Wilbur built. This twelve-second flight
led to the development of the first practical airplane in 1905, and
launched worldwide efforts to build better flying machines. As a
(c)
result, the early twentieth century witnessed myriad aviation

developments as new planes and technologies entered service.
le
During World War I, the airplane also proved its effectiveness as a
Notes military tool and, with the advent of early airmail service, showed
/Sa
___________________ great promise for commercial applications.
___________________ Despite limited post-World War I technical developments, early
___________________ aviation remained a dangerous business. Flying conditions proved
on
difficult since the only navigation devices available to most pilots
___________________
were magnetic compasses. Pilots flew 200 to 500 feet above ground
___________________ so they could navigate by roads and railways. Low visibility and
cti
___________________ night landings were made using bonfires on the field as lighting.
Fatal accidents were routine.
___________________
___________________
The Air Mail Act of 1925 facilitated the creation of a profitable
du
commercial airline industry, and airline companies such as Pan
___________________
American Airways, Western Air Express, and Ford Air Transport
___________________ Service began scheduled commercial passenger service. By the
pro
mid-1930s, the four major domestic airlines that dominated
commercial travel for most of the twentieth century began
operations: United, American, Eastern, and Transcontinental and
Western Air (TWA).
Re
As air travel increased, some airport operators, hoping to improve
safety, began providing an early form of air traffic control (ATC)
based on visual signals. Early controllers stood on the field and
for
waved flags to communicate with pilots. Archie League, the

system’s first flagmen, began work in the late 1920s at the airfield
in St. Louis, Missouri.
Origins of the FAA

t
No
Aviation industry leaders believed the airplane could not reach its
full commercial potential without federal action to improve and
maintain safety standards. At their urging, the Air Commerce Act
was passed in 1926. This landmark legislation charged the
S,
Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and

enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certifying aircraft,
establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air
E
navigation. A new Aeronautics Branch in the Department of

UP
Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight,

and William P. McCracken, Jr., became its first director.
In 1934 the Department of Commerce renamed the Aeronautics
Branch the Bureau of Air Commerce to reflect the growing
(c)
importance of aviation to the nation. In one of its first acts, the

Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first air
le
traffic control centres (Newark, New Jersey, Cleveland, Ohio, and
Chicago, Illinois) to provide en route air traffic control. In 1936 the Notes
/Sa
Bureau took over these centres. Early en route controllers tracked ___________________
the position of planes using maps and blackboards and little boat-
___________________
shaped weights that came to be called “shrimp boats.” They had no
direct radio link with aircraft, but used telephones to stay in touch ___________________
on
with airline dispatchers, airway radio operators, and airport traffic ___________________
controllers. Although en route ATC became a federal
___________________
responsibility, local government authorities continued to operate
cti
___________________
airport towers. While the Department of Commerce worked to
improve aviation safety, a number of high profile accidents called ___________________
the department’s oversight responsibilities into question. A 1931
du
___________________
crash that killed all on board, including popular University of
___________________
Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne, elicited public calls for
greater federal oversight of aviation safety. Four years later, a DC- ___________________
2 crash killed U.S. Senator Bronson Cutting of New Mexico.

To ensure a federal focus on aviation safety, President Franklin
pro
Roosevelt signed the Civil Aeronautics Act in 1938. The legislation
Re
established the independent Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA),
with a three-member Air Safety Board that would conduct accident
investigations and recommend ways of preventing accidents. The
legislation also expanded the government’s role in civil aviation by
for
giving CAA power to regulate airline fares and determine the

routes individual carriers served. In 1940 President Roosevelt split
the CAA into two agencies, the Civil Aeronautics Administration,
which went back to the Department of Commerce, and the Civil
t
Aeronautics Board (CAB). The offshoot of the original CAA

No
retained responsibility for ATC, airman and aircraft certification,

safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB responsibilities
included safety rulemaking, accident investigation, and economic
regulation of the airlines.
S,
On the eve of America’s entry into World War II, for defence
purposes, CAA extended its air traffic control system to include
E
operation of airport towers. In the post-war era, ATC became a

permanent federal responsibility at most airports. The post-war
UP
era also witnessed the advent of commercial jets. The British

Overseas Aircraft Corporation introduced the first commercial jet
service in 1952. The 36-seat Comet flew at 480 miles per hour. The
top cruising speed of the DC-3 piston aircraft, in comparison, was
(c)
about 180 miles per hour. By the mid-1950s, U.S. companies began
designing and building their own jet airliners.
le
On June 30, 1956, a Trans World Airlines Super Constellation and
Notes
a United Air Lines DC-7 collided over the Grand Canyon, Arizona,
/Sa
___________________
killing all 128 occupants of the two airplanes. The collision
___________________ occurred while the aircraft were flying under visual flight rules in
___________________ uncongested airspace. The accident dramatized the fact that, even
on
though U.S. air traffic had more than doubled since the end of
___________________
World War II, little had been done to mitigate the risk of mid-air
___________________ collisions.
cti
___________________
Birth of Federal Aviation Agency
___________________
On May 21, 1958, Senator A. S. “Mike” Monroney (D-OK)
___________________
du
introduced a bill to create an independent Federal Aviation Agency
___________________ to provide for the safe and efficient use of national airspace. Two
___________________ month later, on August 23, 1958, the President signed the Federal
pro
Aviation Act, which transferred the Civil Aeronautics Authority’s
functions to a new independent Federal Aviation Agency (FAA)
responsible for civil aviation safety. Although FAA technically
came into existence with the passage of the act, it actually
Re
assumed its functions in stages. Under the provisions of the act,
the FAA would begin operations 60 days after the appointment of
the first FAA Administrator. On November 1, 1958, retired Air
Force General Elwood “Pete” Quesada became the first FAA
for
Administrator. Sixty days later, on December 31, FAA began

operations.
With no dedicated office space for the FAA, employees of the
growing agency were housed in several widely dispersed buildings
t
No
around Washington, DC, including some “temporary” buildings of

World War II vintage. The FAA worked to obtain a headquarters
building to consolidate employees in one location, and on
November 22, 1963, FAA’s Washington headquarters staff began
moving into the newly completed Federal Office
S,
Building 10A, at 800 Independence Avenue, SW. Excitement about

the new building quickly evaporated on move day as employees
E
heard the news that President Kennedy had been assassinated in

UP
Texas.
From Agency to Administration

President Johnson, concerned about the lack of a coordinated
(c)
transportation system, believed a single department was needed to

develop and carry out comprehensive transportation policies and
le
programs across all transportation modes. In 1966, Congress
authorized the creation of a cabinet department that would Notes
/Sa
combine major Federal transportation responsibilities. This new ___________________
Department of Transportation (DOT) began full operations on
___________________
April l, 1967. On that day, the Federal Aviation Agency became
one of several modal organizations within DOT and received a new ___________________
on
name, the Federal Aviation Administration. At the same time, ___________________
Civil Aeronautics Board’s accident investigation function was
___________________
transferred to the new National Transportation Safety Board.
cti
___________________
Labour Organizations ___________________
In January 1968, New York controllers formed an employee
du
___________________
organization, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization,
___________________
or PATCO. Within six months, PATCO had a national membership
of over 5,000 controllers. To highlight difficult working conditions ___________________
and growing NAS congestion, in July 1968, the PATCO chairman

announced “Operation Air Safety,” which he described as a
pro
campaign to maintain FAA prescribed separation standards
Re
between aircraft. A period of discord between management and
PATCO culminated in a 1970 “sickout” by 3,000 controllers.
Although controllers subsequently gained additional wage and
retirement benefits, tensions between the union and management
for
did not ease.

In February 1972, the National Association of Air Traffic
Specialists (NAATS) became the exclusive representative for all
flight service station specialists, those controllers who supported
t
general aviation pilots. FAA and NAATS concluded an agency-wide

No
collective bargaining agreement on June 1, 1972, the first such

contract between FAA and a national labour organization.
Evolving Duties
S,
Almost from its creation, the agency found itself faced with a
number of unexpected challenges. In 1961, for example, the first
E
series of aircraft hijackings in the U.S. occurred. In August of that

year, the federal government began employing armed guards,
UP
border patrolmen recruited from the U.S. Immigration and

Naturalization Service, on civilian planes. In September, President
Kennedy signed an amendment to the Federal Aviation Act of
1958, which made it a crime to hijack an aircraft, interfere with an
(c)
active flight crew, or carry a dangerous weapon aboard an air

carrier aircraft. To help enforce the act, a special corps of FAA
le
safety inspectors began training for duty aboard airline flights. In
Notes March 1962 Attorney General Robert Kennedy swore in FAA’s first
/Sa
___________________ “peace officers,” as special U.S. deputy marshals. These men
worked as safety inspectors for the FAA flight standards
___________________
organization and carried out their role as armed marshals on
___________________
flights only when specifically requested to do so.
on
___________________
FAA responsibilities increased even more in the late 1960s. An
___________________ economic boom brought with it growing concerns about pollution
cti
___________________ and noise. Aviation, on the cutting edge of technological
innovation, became an early area of environmental concern for the
___________________
public, especially as more and more airplanes traversed the
___________________
du
national airspace system (NAS). In 1968, Congress vested in FAA’s
___________________ Administrator the power to prescribe aircraft noise standards.
___________________ With continued growth in the nation’s airspace, it quickly became
pro
evident that airport safety and capacity had to be increased to
prevent system delays. Between mid-1959 and mid-1969, the
number of aircraft operations at FAA’s airport traffic control
towers had increased by 112 per cent. Schedule delays cost the air
Re
carriers millions of dollars annually, not to mention the cost to
passengers over and above inconvenience and discomfort. The
Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 placed the agency in
charge of a new airport aid program funded by a special aviation
for
trust fund and made FAA responsible for safety certification of

airports served by air carriers.
Air Traffic Control Automation

t
No
Realizing the need for continued air traffic control system

modernization to keep up with technological developments, FAA
began modernizing the NAS in the mid-1960s. The civilian ATC
system being replaced by NAS En Route Stage A was essentially a
manually operated system employing radar, general purpose
S,
computers, radio communications, and air traffic controllers. For

terminal airspace, the FAA was developing the automated radar
E
traffic control system (ARTS).

UP
To help monitor and even restrict flights moving from one air route
traffic control centre to another, FAA established the Central Flow
Control Facility at its Headquarters. Opened in April 1970, the
new facility collected, correlated system wide air traffic and
(c)
weather data, detected potential trouble spots, and suggested

solutions. On July 29, FAA established the Air Traffic Control
le
Systems Command Centre to integrate the functions of the Central
Flow Control Facility, Airport Reservation Office, the Air Traffic Notes
/Sa
Service Contingency Command Post, and Central Altitude ___________________
Reservation Facility.
___________________
Deregulation ___________________
on
The Airline Deregulation Act, signed on October 24, 1978, created ___________________
a highly competitive airline industry. Deregulation increased FAA
___________________
workload exponentially. FAA had to certify every new airline and
cti
___________________
there were hundreds of applications after deregulation that the
FAA had to review and approve or disapprove. In the immediate ___________________
years after the deregulation act, FAA flight standards and other
du
___________________
offices focused primarily on the new applicants.
___________________
By the time airline deregulation became law, FAA had achieved a
___________________
semi-automated air traffic control system based on a marriage of
radar and computer technology. Despite its effectiveness, however,
the air traffic control system required enhancement to keep pace
pro
with the increased volumes of traffic that resulted from the new,
Re
deregulated environment.
Labour Unrest
The labour contract between FAA and PATCO expired in March
for
1981. Formal contract negotiations had begun in February, but

those ended after 37 negotiating sessions. Informal talks, however,
continued until June 17, when PATCO rejected a Reagan
Administration contract proposal. After the failure of last minute
t
negotiations, on August 3 approximately 12,300 members of the

No
15,000-member PATCO went on strike, grounding about 35 per

cent of the nation’s 14,200 daily commercial flights. Approximately
four hours after the strike began; President Reagan issued the
strikers a firm ultimatum — returns to work within 48 hours or
S,
face permanent dismissal. After expiration of the grace period,

FAA fired approximately 11,400 controllers. Most of those fired
E
appealed the action, and FAA eventually reinstated 440 as a result

of their appeals.
UP
The strike and dismissals drastically curtailed FAA’s controller

workforce. To keep the airways open, approximately 3,000 air
traffic controller supervisory personnel worked at controlling
(c)
traffic. FAA assigned assistants to support the controllers, and

accelerated the hiring and training of new air traffic personnel.
le
Military controllers arrived at FAA facilities soon after the strike
Notes began, and about 800 were ultimately assigned to the agency.
/Sa
___________________
In the aftermath of the strike, PATCO disbanded and the
___________________ controllers remained without a union until June 19, 1987, when
___________________ the National Air Traffic Controllers Association became the
on
exclusive representative of terminal and centre controllers.
___________________
During this time, FAA electronics technicians unionized. On
___________________
December 29, 1981, the Professional Airway Systems Specialists
cti
___________________ (PASS) became the exclusive representative of the technicians.
___________________ FAA and PASS concluded their first national labour agreement
___________________
during fiscal year 1984.
du
___________________ Technological Innovation
___________________ Aviation system disruptions in the aftermath of the PATCO strike
pro
led many in FAA to come to the realization that the agency needed
a systematic, long-term plan for modernization. In January 1982,
FAA publicly released the first annual National Airspace System
(NAS) Plan, a comprehensive 20-year blueprint for a state-of-the-
Re
art traffic control and air navigation system to accommodate
projected growth in air travel over the next 20 years.
As the modernization program evolved, problems in developing
for
ambitious automation systems prompted a change in strategy.

FAA shifted its emphasis from the advanced automation system
toward enhancing the ATC system through more manageable,
step-by-step improvements through the new Free Flight program.
t
At the same time, the agency worked to speed the application of

No
the Global Positioning System satellite technology to civil

aeronautics.
In February 1991, FAA replaced the NAS Plan with the more
comprehensive Capital Investment Plan. The new plan
S,
incorporated the NAS plan projects and included higher levels of

automation as well as new radar, communications, and weather
E
forecasting systems. FAA also addressed a wide variety of

technical issues as the rapid evolution of aeronautics continued.
UP
The Aviation Safety Research Act of 1988, for example, mandated

greater emphasis on long-range research planning and on study of
such issues as aging aircraft structures and human factors
affecting safety. FAA engineers and scientists also investigated
(c)
areas such as human performance in aeronautical tasks,

le
improvement of runways, and the effects of corrosion on aircraft
structures. Notes
/Sa
___________________
Organizational Restructuring
___________________
In November 1995, DOT transferred the commercial space
transportation office to the FAA. Originally established within ___________________
on
DOT in 1984, the new FAA office regulated the U.S. commercial ___________________
launch industry, licensed commercial launch operations to ensure
___________________
public health and safety and the safety of property, and protected
cti
___________________
national security and foreign policy interests of the United States
during commercial launch operations. It also issued licenses for ___________________
commercial launches of orbital and suborbital rockets.
du
___________________
The fiscal year 1996 DOT appropriations bill signed in November ___________________
1995 included important provisions for FAA personnel and
___________________
procurement reform. FAA began the mandated reforms by first
creating a new acquisition management system designed to reduce
the time and cost of acquiring systems and services. FAA then
pro
placed all employees into a new personnel system intended to
Re
speed recruitment and reward outstanding employees, while
dealing effectively with substandard performance. While the
agency was no longer subject to certain Office of Personnel
Management rules, its employees continued to enjoy a range of
for
legal protections that applied to other federal workers.

In June 1998, FAA began testing a new compensation plan called
core compensation, which replaced the traditional grade and step
base pay method with a structure of pay bands, the value of which
t
No
were determined by comparison with similar jobs in government

and private industry. The program also linked compensation with
performance. On April 23, 2000, FAA transferred approximately
6,500 employees into the core compensation system.
S,
On September 11, 2001, nineteen radical Islamic extremists with

the group al Qaeda penetrated security at three major airports,
seized four U.S. domestic airliners, and turned three of the aircraft
E
into missiles that destroyed the World Trade Centre in New York
UP
City and damaged the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. Passengers

on the fourth plane fought the hijackers, causing the plane to crash
in a Pennsylvania field. To prevent any further hijackings, FAA
immediately put a ground stop on all traffic for the first time in
(c)
U.S. aviation history. The tragic events of this day radically

changed the FAA. On November 19, 2001, the president signed the
le
Aviation and Transportation Security Act, which among other
Notes provisions, established a new agency responsible for aviation
/Sa
___________________ security — the Transportation Security Administration (TSA),
within DOT. FAA remained responsible for aviation security until
___________________
February 13, 2002, when TSA took over those responsibilities. The
___________________
November 2002, passage of the Homeland Security Act moved TSA
on
___________________ into the new Department of Homeland Security on March 1, 2003.
___________________
Creation of FAA’s Air Traffic Organization (ATO)
cti
___________________
In April 2000, President Clinton signed into law the Wendell H.
___________________ Ford Aviation Investment and Reform Act for the 21st Century,
___________________ which contained a provision mandating the appointment of a chief
du
___________________
operating officer. In a December executive order, the president
directed FAA to create a performance-based organization that
___________________
focused solely on efficient operation of the air traffic control
system. pro
In June 2003, FAA selected its first ATO Chief Operating Officer
(COO), Russell Chew. With the COO in place, FAA went forward
Re
with a major reorganization of its air traffic and research and
acquisition organizations. On November 18, 2003, the Secretary of
Transportation announced initial details of the new ATO business
structure. The ATO consolidated FAA’s air traffic services,
for
research and acquisitions, and Free Flight Program activities into

a smaller, more efficient organization with a strict focus on
providing the best service for the best value to the aviation
industry and the traveling public.
t
No
The ATO officially began operations on February 8, 2004. It

consisted of five major service units: En Route & Oceanic;
Terminal; Flight Services; System Operations; and, Technical
Operations. Also included within the organization’s top level are
five staff-level business groups: Safety; Communications;
S,
Operations Planning; Finance; and Acquisition and Business

Services. In 2008, the ATO consolidated the service units and staff
E
offices into four business units, each led by a senior vice president.
UP
In line with other agency efforts to improve efficiency, in December

2005, the COO restructured ATO administrative and support
functions in the field. In June 2006, he instituted a new ATO
Service Centre structure. Three service centres replaced the nine
(c)
service area offices within En Route, Terminal, and Technical

Operations. Each of the service centres was made up of five
le
functional groups: administrative services, business services,
safety assurance, system support, and planning and requirements. Notes
/Sa
A sixth group, engineering services was a shared resource and ___________________
remained in place in the existing locations.
___________________
With the ATO structure in place, the agency’s first COO resigned
___________________
on
from FAA on February 23, 2007. Administrator Marion Blake
assigned COO responsibilities to Deputy Administrator Robert ___________________
Strudel as collateral duties until a new COO came on board. On ___________________
cti
October 1, 2007, Administrator Blake hired the agency’s second ___________________
COO, Hank Krakow ski.
___________________
The Next Generation Air Transportation System (Neaten)
du
___________________
The Vision 100 — Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act, signed ___________________

into law in December 2003, endorsed the concept of a Next
___________________
Generation Air Transportation System (Neaten). The following
month, the DOT Secretary announced plans for a new, multi-year,
multi-agency effort to develop an air transportation system for the
pro
year 2025 and beyond. He subsequently established a Joint
Re
Planning and Development Office (JPDO) at the FAA comprised of
representatives from FAA, NASA, the Departments of
Transportation, Defence, Homeland Security, and Commerce, and
the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy to create
for
and carry out an integrated plan for NextGen. On December 15,

2004, DOT unveiled the Integrated Plan for the Next Generation
Air Transportation System, which laid out goals, objectives, and
requirements necessary to create the NextGen system.
t
No
Enhancing Capacity
When constraints in en route airspace and the airspace
surrounding U.S. airports began to result in flight delays and
schedule disruptions, FAA began to look for immediate solutions
S,
while continuing NextGen activities. To improve capacity, FAA

began implementing a number of new concepts. The Required
E
Navigation Performance (RNP) concept, for example, would take

advantage of new onboard technologies for precision guidance to
UP
help transition the NAS from reliance on airways running over

ground-based navigation aids to a point-to-point navigation
concept. FAA also implemented the use of Reduced Vertical
Separation Minima (RVSM), which reduced the minimum vertical
(c)
separation between aircraft from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet for all
properly equipped aircraft flying between 29,000 feet and 41,000
le
feet. This increased the routes and altitudes available and allowed
Notes more efficient routings that would save time and fuel.
/Sa
___________________
Safety First, Last, and Always
___________________
Between 2001 and 2007, aviation witnessed one of its safest
___________________
periods for scheduled air carriers. Not counting the terrorist
on
___________________ activities of September 11, 2001, there were only three fatal
___________________ accidents in 2001; none in 2002; two in 2003; one in 2004; three in
2005; two in 2006; and none in 2007. Fatal accidents became rare
cti
___________________
events with only .01 accidents per 100,000 flight hours or .018
___________________ accidents per 100,000 departures.
___________________
du
Conclusion
___________________
Thanks to the work of FAA, over the past 50 years aviation has
___________________
pro
become central to the way we live and do business, linking people
from coast to coast and connecting America to the world. In fact,
FAA has created the safest, most reliable, most efficient, and most
productive air transportation system in the world.
Re
To ensure aviation’s future viability, FAA is now working with its
federal and industry partners to develop a flexible aerospace
system that fully responds to the changing needs of businesses and
customers in the 21st Century. The strength of the NextGen
for
system depends on lower costs, improved service, greater capacity,

and smarter security measures. That is why FAA has defined a
vision of the future that integrates achievements in safety,
security, efficiency, and environmental compatibility.
t
No
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. On May 21, 1958, ……………………… introduced a bill
to create an independent Federal Aviation Agency to
S,
provide for the safe and efficient use of national

airspace.
E
2. FAA began modernizing the ……………… in the mid-

UP
1960s.
3. The labour contract between ………………………. and
………………….. expired in March 1981.
(c)
le
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Notes
“WHEREAS the future development of international civil aviation Activity
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on ICAO and its
can greatly help to create and preserve friendship and
working.
understanding among the nations and peoples of the world, yet its ___________________
abuse can become a threat to the general security; and ___________________
on
“WHEREAS it is desirable to avoid friction and to promote that co- ___________________
operation between nations and peoples upon which the peace of the
___________________
world depends;
cti
___________________
“THEREFORE, the undersigned governments having agreed on
___________________
certain principles and arrangements in order that international
du
civil aviation may be developed in a safe and orderly manner and ___________________
that international air transport services may be established on the ___________________

basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and
___________________
economically;
“Have accordingly concluded this Convention to that end.”
pro
The above is the Preamble to the Convention on International Civil
Re
Aviation.
ICAO is a specialized agency of the United Nations, was created
with the signing in Chicago, on 7 December 1944, of the
Convention on International Civil Aviation. ICAO is the
for
permanent body charged with the administration of the principles

laid out in the Convention.
The Chicago Convention

t
The Second World War was a powerful catalyst for the technical
No
development of the aero plane. At that time, a vast network of

passenger and freight carriage was set up, but in order for air
transport to support and benefit a world at peace, there were many
obstacles, both political and technical, to overcome. In the early
S,
days of 1944, the Government of the United States conducted

exploratory discussions with other allied nations to develop an
E
effective strategy. On the basis of these talks, 52 States met in

Chicago in November 1944.For five weeks, the delegates
UP
considered the myriad issues of international civil aviation. The

outcome was the Convention on International Civil Aviation, also
referred to as the Chicago Convention.
(c)
At the Chicago talks, it was agreed that the Convention would only
come into force thirty days after its ratification by a 26th State. In
the interim, a provisional ICAO (PICAO) was formed and given
le
advisory powers, with instructions to lay the foundation for an
Notes international organization devoted to the needs of civil aviation.
/Sa
___________________ The Chicago Convention entered in force on 4 April 1947.
___________________ The 96 articles of the Chicago Convention establish the privileges
___________________ and restrictions of all Contracting States and provide for the
on
adoption of International Standards and Recommended Practices
___________________
(SARPs) regulating international air transport. The Convention
___________________ accepts the principle that every State has complete and exclusive
cti
___________________ sovereignty over the airspace above its territory and provides that
no scheduled international air service may operate over or into the
___________________
territory of a Contracting State without its previous consent. The
___________________
du
aims and objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the
___________________ Chicago Convention, are to develop the principles and techniques
___________________ of international air navigation and to foster the planning and

pro
development of international air transport so as to:
insure the safe and orderly growth of international civil
aviation throughout the world;
Re
 encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful
purposes;
 encourage the development of airways, airports and air
navigation facilities for international civil aviation;
for
 meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular,
efficient and economical air transport;
 prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition;
t
 insure that the rights of Contracting States are fully respected

No
and that every Contracting State has a fair opportunity to

operate international airlines;
 avoid discrimination between Contracting States;
S,
 promote safety of flight in international air navigation;

 promote generally the development of all aspects of
E
international civil aeronautics.

UP
ICAO: The Organization

ICAO has a sovereign body, the Assembly, and a governing body,
the Council. The Assembly meets at least once every three years
(c)
and is convened by the Council. Each Contracting State is entitled

to one vote, and decisions of the Assembly are taken by a majority
of the votes cast except when otherwise provided for in the
le
Convention. At these sessions, the complete work of the
Organization in the technical, economic, legal and technical Notes
/Sa
cooperation fields is reviewed in detail, and guidance is given to ___________________
the other bodies of ICAO for their future work.
___________________
The Council is a permanent body responsible to the Assembly and
___________________
on
is composed of representatives from 36 Contracting States elected
by the Assembly for a three-year term. In the election, adequate ___________________
representation is given to States of chief importance in air ___________________
cti
transport, States not otherwise included which make the largest ___________________
contribution to the provision of facilities for civil air navigation and
___________________
States not otherwise included whose designation will ensure that
du
all the major geographic areas of the world are represented on the ___________________
Council. The Council and its subsidiary bodies set the continuing ___________________
direction of the work of the Organization. One of the major duties
___________________
of the Council is to adopt International Standards and
Recommended Practices and to incorporate these as Annexes to the
Convention on International Civil Aviation. The Council may act
pro
as an arbiter between Contracting States on matters concerning
Re
aviation and implementation of the Convention; it may investigate
any situation which presents avoidable obstacles to the
development of international air navigation; and, in general, it
may take whatever steps are necessary to maintain the safety and
for
regularity of operation of international air transport.

A Standard is any specification whose uniform application is
recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of international
air navigation and to which Contracting States will conform in
t
No
accordance with the Convention. A Recommended Practice is any

specification whose uniform application is recognized as desirable
for the safety, regularity or efficiency of international air
navigation. ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices are
detailed in the 18 Annexes to the Chicago Convention that cover
S,
all aspects of international civil aviation.

Although the Council is responsible for the adoption of SARPs and
E
the approval of Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS), the

UP
principal body concerned with their development is the ICAO Air

Navigation Commission. The Commission is composed of fifteen
persons qualified and experienced in the science and practice of
aeronautics. Its members are nominated by Contracting States and
(c)
are appointed by the Council. They act in their personal expert

capacity and not as representatives of their nominators. The
le
Commission is assisted by small groups of experts nominated by
Notes Contracting States and international organizations and approved
/Sa
___________________ by the Commission.
___________________ The Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, is comprised of
___________________ five main divisions: the Air Navigation Bureau, the Air Transport
on
Bureau, the Technical Co-operation Bureau, the Legal Bureau and
___________________
the Bureau of Administration and Services. In order for the work
___________________ of the Secretariat to reflect a truly international approach,
cti
___________________ professional personnel are recruited on a broad geographical basis.
___________________ ICAO works in close collaboration with other specialized agencies

___________________
of the United Nations such as the International Maritime
du
Organization, the International Telecommunication Union and the
___________________
World Meteorological Organization. The International Air
___________________ Transport Association, the Airports Council International, the
pro
International Federation of Air Line Pilots‘Associations and other
international organizations participate in many ICAO meetings.
Strategic Action Plan

Re
Since 1944, the Convention has proved resilient by providing a
sufficiently flexible framework to enable ICAO to fulfil successfully
the responsibilities assigned to it. Today, however, international
civil aviation faces major challenges.
for
There is a great need for ICAO to adapt within the framework of

the Convention to rapidly changing circumstances such as:
 Globalization and trans- nationalization of markets and
t
operations
No
 Emergence of regional and sub-regional trading and regulatory

blocks
 Commercialization of government service providers
S,
 Diversification of fiscal measures to respond to budgetary

needs
E
 Liberalization of economic regulation

UP
 Potential evasion of safety regulation (along with labour,

competition and other regulations) as a consequence of the
blurring of sectoral boundaries and responsibilities of related
authorities
(c)
 Recognition of and response to environmental concerns

le
 Emergence of new technology
Notes
/Sa
 Reaching of physical limits of infrastructure capacity.
___________________
The Strategic Action Plan, adopted by ICAO‘s Council on 7
___________________
February 1997, was designed to adapt the vision of ICAO‘s
___________________
founders in Chicago to these and other challenges and to ensure
on
that the Organization responds to them in the coming years and ___________________
meets the related needs of all its Contracting States. The goal of ___________________
the Strategic Action Plan is to further the safety, security and
cti
___________________
efficiency of international civil aviation and promote the principles
enshrined in the Convention. The Plan comprises the following ___________________
eight strategic objectives:
du
___________________
A. Foster the implementation of ICAO Standards and ___________________

Recommended Practices (SARPs) to the greatest extent possible ___________________
worldwide;
B. Develop and adopt new or amended SARPs and associated
pro
documents in a timely manner to meet changing needs;
Re
C. Strengthen the legal framework governing international civil
aviation by developing new international air law instruments
as required and by encouraging the ratification by States of
existing instruments;
for
D. Ensure the currency, coordination and implementation of

regional air navigation plans and provide the framework for
the efficient implementation of new air navigation systems;
t
E. Respond on a timely basis to major challenges to the safe,

No
secure and efficient development and operation of civil aviation;

F. Ensure that guidance and information on the economic
regulation of international air transport are current and
effective;
S,
G. Assist in the mobilization of human, technical and financial

resources for civil aviation facilities and services; and
E
H. Ensure the greatest possible efficiency and effectiveness in the

UP
operations of the Organization, inter alia, to meet the above

objectives. The Strategic Action Plan drives the work
programme and associated prioritization and budgetary
processes of the Organization. The Plan is kept under review to
(c)
ensure that it remains alive to the changing needs of States in

an ever-evolving environment.
le
ICAO Headquarters
Notes
It is situated in Montreal Canada and the address is as under:
/Sa
___________________
999 University Street
___________________
Montréal, Quebec
___________________
on
Canada H3C 5H7
___________________
Tel: +1 (514) 954-8219
___________________
Fax: +1 (514) 954-6077
cti
___________________
___________________ E-mail: icaohq@icao.int
___________________ Web site: www.icao.int
du
___________________
Regional Offices
___________________
pro
ICAO also has regional office which is sited as under:
Asia and Pacific Office in Bangkok, Thailand
Eastern and Southern African Office in Nairobi, Kenya
Re
European and North Atlantic Office: Paris, France
Middle East Office: Cairo, Egypt
North American, Central American& Caribbean Office: Mexico,
for
D.F., Mexico
South American Office: Lima, Peru
Western and Central African Office; Dakar, Senegal
t
ICAO: How it Works

No
The constitution of ICAO is the Convention on International Civil

Aviation, drawn up by a conference in Chicago in November and
December 1944, and to which each ICAO Contracting State is a
party. According to the terms of the Convention, the Organization
S,
is made up of an Assembly, a Council of limited membership with

various subordinate bodies and a Secretariat. The chief officers are
E
the President of the Council and the Secretary General.

UP
The Assembly, composed of representatives from all Contracting

States, is the sovereign body of ICAO. It meets every three years,
reviewing in detail the work of the Organization and setting policy
for the coming years. It also votes a triennial budget.
(c)
The Council, the governing body which is elected by the Assembly

for a three-year term, is composed of 36 States. The Assembly
le
chooses the Council Member States under three headings: States of
chief importance in air transport, States which make the largest Notes
/Sa
contribution to the provision of facilities for air navigation, and ___________________
States whose designation will ensure that all major areas of the
___________________
world are represented. As the governing body, the Council gives
continuing direction to the work of ICAO. It is in the Council that ___________________
on
Standards and Recommended Practices are adopted and ___________________
incorporated as Annexes to the Convention on International Civil
___________________
Aviation. The Council is assisted by the Air Navigation
cti
___________________
Commission (technical matters), the Air Transport Committee
(economic matters), and the Committee on Joint Support of Air ___________________
Navigation Services and the Finance Committee.
du
___________________
The Secretariat, headed by a Secretary General, is divided into five ___________________

main divisions: the Air Navigation Bureau, the Air Transport
___________________
Bureau, the Technical Co-operation Bureau, the Legal Bureau, and
the Bureau of Administration and Services. In order that the work
of the Secretariat shall reflect a truly international approach,
pro
professional personnel are recruited on a broad geographical basis.
Re
ICAO works in close co-operation with other members of the
United Nations family such as the World Meteorological
Organization, the International Telecommunication Union, the
Universal Postal Union, the World Health Organization and the
for
International Maritime Organization. Non-governmental

organizations which also participate in ICAO’s work include the
International Air Transport Association, the Airports Council
International, the International Federation of Air Line Pilots’
t
No
Associations, and the International Council of Aircraft Owner and

Pilot Associations.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
S,
1. ICAO has a sovereign body, the ……………., and a

governing body, the …………………….
E
2. The ……………………….., adopted by ICAO‘s Council on

UP
7 February 1997, was designed to adapt the vision of

ICAO‘s founders in Chicago to these and other
challenges and to ensure that the Organization responds
to them in the coming years and meets the related needs
(c)
of all its Contracting States.

le
Summary
Notes
The ICAO is an international organization. Countries, including
/Sa
___________________
the United States, join the ICAO as charter members to support
___________________
the goals of the organization regarding standards for all civil
___________________ flights, airport regulations, and encourage the development of civil
on
___________________ airways around the world.
___________________ The FAA has authority to prevent aviation hazards by whatever

means necessary. They have set the standards for aspects of
cti
___________________
domestic flights including aircraft noise standards. The FAA also is
___________________ solely responsible for developing and maintaining civil and
___________________ military systems of air navigation. Let’s discuss in detail about
du
___________________
them.
___________________
Lesson End Activity
pro
Compare and contrast between the functioning of FAA and ICAO
and prepare a report for the same.
Re
Keywords
CAA: Civil Aeronautics Administration: reorganized into the
Federal Aviation Administration.
for
CAB: The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) is the agency of the

government mandated to regulate the economic aspect of air
transportation, and shall have the general supervision, control and
t
jurisdiction over air carriers, general sales agents, cargo sales

No
agents, and air freight forwarders as well as their property,

property rights, equipment, facilities, and franchise.
FAA: Federal Aviation Administration: the division of the
Department of Transportation that inspects and rates civilian
S,
aircraft and pilots, enforces the rules of air safety, and installs and
maintains air-navigation and traffic-control facilities.
E
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization promotes

understanding and security through cooperative aviation
UP
regulation.
PATCO: Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, a
historical trade union broken by Ronald Reagan
(c)
le
Notes
1. Briefly state the history of FAA.
/Sa
___________________
2. Enumerate the objectives and functions of FAA.
___________________
3. Throw some light on the working of ICAO.
___________________
on
4. WHEREAS it is desirable to avoid friction and to promote that ___________________
co-operation between nations and peoples upon which the
___________________
peace of the world depends. Elaborate.
cti
___________________
du
___________________
Books
___________________
___________________
pro
& Sons.
Re
Books.
for

Web Readings
t
No
http://www.faa.gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsId=9612
http://www.ehow.com/info_8764370_relationship-faa-icao-aviation-
security.html
http://www.icao.int/Pages/default.aspx
S,
http://www.faa.gov/
E
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 22: Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of India
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Make a presentation on
Important Aviation Regulatory AERA.
___________________
Authorities of India ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Airport Economic Regulatory Authority of India (AERA)
du
 Director General Civil Aviation of India ___________________
 Airport Council International ___________________

 Airport Authority of India ___________________
Introduction
pro
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the regulatory body in
Re
the field of Civil Aviation primarily responsible for regulation of air
transport services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil
air regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards.
for
The regulations are in the forms of the Aircraft Act, 1934, the
Aircraft Rules, the Civil Aviation Requirements, the Aeronautical
Information Circulars. The Advisory and guidance material is in
the form of circulars.
t
No
Airport Economic Regulatory Authority of India (AERA)

The Airports Economic Regulatory Authority (AERA) is a statutory
body constituted under the Airports Economic Regulatory
Authority of India Act, 2008 (27 of 2008) notified vide Gazette
S,
Notification dated 5th December 2008. The AERA was established

by the Government vide its notification no GSR 317 (E) dated
E
12.05.09 with its head office at Delhi. The statutory functions of

the AERA as enshrined in the Airports Economic Regulatory
UP
Authority of India Act, 2008 are as below:

(a) To determine the tariff for the aeronautical services taking
into consideration.
(c)
 The capital expenditure incurred and timely investment in

improvement of airport facilities.
le
 The service provided its quality and other relevant factors.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
 The cost for improving efficiency.
___________________  Economic and viable operation of major airports.
___________________  Revenue received from services other than the
on
aeronautical services.
___________________
___________________
 The concession offered by the Central Government in any
agreement or memorandum of understanding or
cti
___________________
otherwise.
___________________
 Any other factor which may be relevant for the purposes of
___________________
du
this Act.
___________________
(b) To determine the amount of the Development Fees in respect
___________________ of major airports.
pro
(c) To determine the amount of the Passengers Service Fee levied
under rule 88 of the Aircraft Rules, 1937 made under the
Aircraft Act, 1934.
Re
(d) To monitor the set Performance Standards relating to quality,
continuity and reliability of service as may be specified by the
Central Government or any authority authorized by it in this
behalf.
for
(e) To call for such information as may be necessary to determine

the tariff under clause (a).
(f) To perform such other functions relating to tariff, as may be
t
entrusted to it by the Central Government or as may be

No
necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act.
Director General Civil Aviation of India

Directorate General of Civil Aviation is an attached office of the
S,
Ministry of Civil Aviation.

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the regulatory body in
E
the field of Civil Aviation primarily dealing with safety issues. It is

responsible for regulation of air transport services to/from/within
UP
India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety and
airworthiness standards. It also co-ordinates all regulatory
functions with International Civil Aviation Organization.
(c)
The headquarters are located in New Delhi with regional offices in

the various parts of India. There are 14 (fourteen) Regional
Airworthiness Offices located at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata,
le
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Trivandrum, Bhopal, Lucknow, Patna,
Bhubaneswar, Kanpur, Guwahati and Patiala. Notes
/Sa
Apart from the Regional Airworthiness Offices, there are 5 (five) ___________________
Regional Air Safety offices located at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, ___________________
Kolkata and Hyderabad, the Regional Research and Development
___________________
on
Office located at Bangalore and the Gliding Centre at Pune.
___________________
India is participated in ICAO by the Representative of India.
___________________
cti
Vision of the Director General of Civil Aviation ___________________
Endeavour to promote safe and efficient Air Transportation ___________________
through regulation and proactive safety oversight system.
du
___________________
Functions ___________________
 Registration of civil aircraft; ___________________

pro
Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft
registered in India and grant of certificates of airworthiness to
such aircraft;
Re
 Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers and flight
engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that
purpose;
for
 Licensing of air traffic controllers;

 Certification of aerodromes and CNS/ATM facilities;
 Maintaining a check on the proficiency of flight crew, and also
of other operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and
t
cabin crew;
No
 Granting of Air Operator’s Certificates to Indian carriers and

regulation of air transport services operating to/from/within/
over India by Indian and foreign operators, including clearance
S,
of scheduled and non-scheduled flights of such operators;

 Conducting investigation into accidents/incidents and taking
E
accident prevention measures including formulation of

implementation of Safety Aviation Management Programmes;
UP
 Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act, the Aircraft

Rules and the Civil Aviation Requirements for complying with
the amendments to ICAO Annexes, and initiating proposals
(c)
for amendment to any other Act or for passing a new Act in

order to give effect to an international Convention or
amendment to an existing Convention;
le
 Coordination of ICAO matters with all agencies and sending
Notes
replies to State Letters, and taking all necessary action arising
/Sa
___________________
out of the Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme
___________________ (USOAP) of ICAO;
___________________  Supervision of the institutes/clubs/schools engaged in flying
on
___________________ training including Simulator training, AME training or any
other training related with aviation, with a view to ensuring a
___________________
high quality of training;
cti
___________________
 Granting approval to aircraft maintenance, repair and
___________________
manufacturing Organizations and their continued oversight;
___________________
du
 To act as a nodal agency for implementing Annex 9 provisions
___________________ in India and for Coordinating matters relating to facilitation at
___________________ Indian airports including holding meetings of the National

pro
Facilitation Committee;
Rendering advice to the Government on matters relating to air
transport including bilateral air services agreements, on ICAO
matters and generally on all technical matters relating to civil
Re
aviation, and to act as an overall regulatory and
developmental body for civil aviation in the country;
 Coordination at national level for flexi-use of air space by civil
for
and military air traffic agencies and interaction with ICAO for
provision of more air routes for civil use through Indian air
space;
 Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions in
t
accordance with ICAO Annex 16 and collaborating with the

No
environmental authorities in this matter, if required;

 Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft and
aircraft components by acting as a catalytic agent.
S,
 Approving training programmes of operators for carriage of

dangerous goods, issuing authorizations for carriage of
E
dangerous goods, etc.

UP
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The statutory functions of the AERA as enshrined in the
(c)
……………… Act, 2008.

2. There are ……………… Regional Airworthiness Offices.
le
Airport Council International
Notes
Activity
/Sa
ACI Overview: The Community of Airports ___________________
Write a report on Airport
Council International.
Airports are an invaluable asset for the communities they serve, ___________________
helping them to develop their full economic potential and ensure
___________________
stable growth, bolstering long-term business development and
on
employment. As stewards of this community resource, airport ___________________
operators need an organization that can help them add value to ___________________
cti
their business.
___________________
In 1991 airport operators around the world created Airports ___________________
Council International – the first worldwide association to represent
du
___________________
their common interests and foster cooperation with partners
throughout the air transport industry. Through ACI, the airport ___________________
community now speaks with a single voice on key issues and ___________________
pro
concerns and, despite regional diversity, can move forward as a
united industry.
ACI pursues airports interests in discussions with international
Re
organizations. The most important relationship is with the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), where
international standards for air transport are debated and
developed. ACI defends airports positions and develops standards
for
and recommended practices in the areas of safety, security and

environment initiatives. It also advances and protects airport
interests in important policy changes on airport charges and
regulation, strengthening the hand of airports in dealing with
t
airlines.
No
At the same time, ACI provides the platform for pursuing a

constructive and cooperative relationship with the airline
associations, governments and regulators. On critical industry
issues – liberalization, ownership, capacity planning, regulatory
S,
restrictions, and environmental action –ACI defends airports views

and strengthens their ability to shape the future of our industry,
E
backing up individual airport actions.

ACI offers its members numerous training opportunities, a
UP
customer service benchmarking programme, detailed industry

statistical analyses and practical publications.
Airport Authority of India

(c)
Airports Authority of India (AAI) was constituted by an Act of

Parliament and came into being on 1st April 1995 by merging
le
erstwhile National Airports Authority and International Airports
Notes Authority of India. The merger brought into existence a single
/Sa
___________________ Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating,
upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure
___________________
both on the ground and air space in the country.
___________________
on
AAI manages 125 airports, which include 11 International Airport,
___________________
08 Customs Airports, 81 Domestic Airports and 27 Civil Enclaves
___________________ at Defence airfields. AAI provides air navigation services over 2.8
cti
___________________ million square nautical miles of air space. During the year 2008-
09, AAI handled aircraft movement of 1306532 Nos. [International
___________________
270345 & Domestic 1036187], Passengers handled 44262137 Nos.
___________________
du
[International 1047614 & Domestic 33785990] and the cargo
___________________ handled 499418 tonnes [International 318242 & Domestic 181176]
___________________ AAI performs the following functions either directly or through
pro
private airport organizations:
1. Passenger Facilities: The main functions of AAI inter-alia
include construction, modification & management of passenger
terminals, development & management of cargo terminals,
Re
development & maintenance of apron infrastructure including
runways, parallel taxiways, apron etc., Provision of
Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes
provision of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids etc.,
for
provision of air traffic services, provision of passenger facilities

and related amenities at its terminals thereby ensuring safe
and secure operations of aircraft, passenger and cargo in the
country.
t
No
2. Air Navigation Services: In tune with global approach to

modernization of Air Navigation infrastructure for seamless
navigation across state and regional boundaries, AAI has been
going ahead with its plans for transition to satellite based
S,
Communication, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic

Management. A number of co-operation agreements and
memoranda of co-operation have been signed with US Federal
E
Aviation Administration, US Trade & Development Agency,

UP
European Union, Air Services Australia and the French

Government Cooperative Projects and Studies initiated to gain
from their experience. Through these activities more and more
executives of AAI are being exposed to the latest technology,
(c)
modern practices & procedures being adopted to improve the

overall performance of Airports and Air Navigation Services.
le
Induction of latest state-of-the-art equipment, both as
replacement and old equipments and also as new facilities to Notes
/Sa
improve standards of safety of airports in the air is a ___________________
continuous process. Adoptions of new and improved procedure
___________________
go hand in hand with induction of new equipment. Some of the
major initiatives in this direction are introduction of Reduced ___________________
on
Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) in India air space to ___________________
increase airspace capacity and reduce congestion in the air;
___________________
implementation of GPS and Geo Augmented Navigation
cti
___________________
(GAGAN) jointly with ISRO which when put to operation would
be one of the four such systems in the world. ___________________
du
3. Security: The continuing security environment has brought ___________________
into focus the need for strengthening security of vital ___________________

installations. There was thus an urgent need to revamp the
___________________
pro
security at airports not only to thwart any misadventure but
also to restore confidence of traveling public in the security of
air travel as a whole, which was shaken after 9/11 tragedy.
With this in view, a number of steps were taken including
Re
deployment of CISF for airport security, CCTV surveillance
system at sensitive airports, latest and state-of-the-art X-ray
baggage inspection systems, premier security & surveillance
systems. Smart Cards for access control to vital installations at
for
airports are also being considered to supplement the efforts of

security personnel at sensitive airports.
4. Aerodrome Facilities: In Airports Authority of India, the
basic approach to planning of airport facilities has been
t
No
adopted to create capacity ahead of demand in our efforts.

Towards implementation of this strategy, a number of projects
for extension and strengthening of runway, taxi track and
aprons at different airports has been taken up. Extension of
runway to 7500 ft. has been taken up to support operation for
S,
Airbus-320/Boeing 737-800 categories of aircrafts at all

airports.
E
5. HRD Training: A large pool of trained and highly skilled

UP
manpower is one of the major assets of Airports Authority of

India. Development and Technological enhancements and
consequent refinement of operating standards and procedures,
new standards of safety and security and improvements in
(c)
management techniques call for continuing training to update

the knowledge and skill of officers and staff. For this purpose
le
AAI has a number of training establishments, viz. NIAMAR in
Notes Delhi, CATC in Allahabad, Fire Training Centres at Delhi &
/Sa
___________________ Kolkata for in-house training of its engineers, Air Traffic
Controllers, Rescue & Fire Fighting personnel etc. NIAMAR &
___________________
CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under
___________________
which they share Standard Training Packages (STP) from a
on
___________________ central pool for imparting training on various subjects. Both
___________________ CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to
the Central pool under ICAO TRAINER programme. Foreign
cti
___________________
students have also been participating in the training
___________________ programme being conducted by these institution
___________________
du
6. IT Implementation: Information Technology holds the key to
___________________ operational and managerial efficiency, transparency and
___________________ employee productivity. AAI initiated a programme to
pro
indoctrinate IT culture among its employees and this is most
powerful tool to enhance efficiency in the organization. AAI
website with domain name www.airportsindia.org.in or
www.aai.aero is a popular website giving a host of information
Re
about the organization besides domestic and international
flight schedules and such other information of interest to the
public in general and passengers in particular.
The AAI is governed by a Board of Director which include a
for
Chairman, whole time member and the part time members
Current Board Members of AAI

Shri V. P. Agrawal Chairman
t
No
Whole Time Members

Shri S.C. Chhatwal Member (Finance)
Shri K.K. Jha, IRS Member ((Human Resource)
S,
Shri S. Raheja Member (Planning)

Shri V. Somasundaram Member (Air Navigation Services)
E
Shri G. K. Chaukiyal Member (Operations)

UP
Part-Time Members
Shri E.K. Bharat Bhushan, IAS Additional Secretary and
Financial Advisor Ministry of Civil Aviation (Official) & Director
(c)
General of Civil Aviation

le
Shri Alok Sinha, IAS Joint Secretary, Ministry of Civil Aviation
Notes
(Official)
/Sa
___________________
Shri Deepak Parekh Non-Official
___________________
Shri Arun L. Bongirwar Non-Official
___________________
on
Shri Sajjan Jindal Non-Official
___________________
Functions of AAI ___________________
cti
The functions of AAI are as follows: ___________________
1. Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of ___________________

international and domestic airports and civil enclaves.
du
___________________
2. Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending ___________________
beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by
___________________
3.
ICAO.
Construction, Modification and Management of passenger
pro
terminals.
Re
4. Development and Management of cargo terminals at
international and domestic airports.
5. Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the
passenger terminals at airports.
for
6. Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways,

Aprons, Taxiway etc.
7. Provision of visual aids.
t
8. Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS,

No
DVOR, DME, Radar etc. (Source Web site of DGCA)

The Airports at Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Calicut, Guwahati, Jaipur,
Trivandrum, Kolkata & Chennai, which today are established as
International Airports, are open to operations even by Foreign
S,
International Airlines. Besides, the International flights, National

Flag Carriers operate from Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Varanasi,
E
and Gaya Airports. Not only this but also the Tourist Charters now
touch Agra, Coimbatore, Jaipur, Lucknow, Patna Airports etc.
UP
AAI has entered into a Joint Venture at Mumbai, Delhi,

Hyderabad, Bangalore and Nagpur Airports to upgrade these
Airports and emulate the world standards.
(c)
All major air-routes over Indian landmass are Radar covered (29
Radar installations at 11 locations) along with VOR/DVOR
le
coverage (89 installations) co-located with Distance Measuring
Notes Equipment (90 installations). 52 runways are provided with ILS
/Sa
___________________ installations with Night Landing Facilities at most of these
Airports and Automatic Message Switching System at 15 Airports.
___________________
___________________ AAI’s successful implementation of Automatic Dependence
on
Surveillance System (ADSS), using indigenous technology, at
___________________
Calcutta and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres, gave India the
___________________ distinction of being the first country to use this advanced
cti
___________________ technology in the South East Asian region thus enabling effective
Air Traffic Control over oceanic areas using satellite mode of
___________________
communication. Use of remote controlled VHF coverage, along with
___________________
du
satellite communication links, has given added strength to our
___________________ ATMS. Linking of 80 locations by V-Sat installations shall vastly
___________________ enhance Air Traffic Management and in turn safety of aircraft
pro
operations besides enabling administrative and operational control
over our extensive Airport network. Performance Based Navigation
(PBN) procedures have already been implemented at Mumbai,
Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are likely to be implemented
Re
at other Airports in phased manner.
AAI has undertaken GAGAN project in technological collaboration
with Indian Space and Research Organization (ISRO), where the
satellite based system will be used for navigation. The navigation
for
signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to achieve

the navigational requirement of aircrafts. First Phase of
technology demonstration system has already been successfully
completed in February 2008. Development team has been geared
t
No
up to upgrade the system in operational phase.

AAI has also planned to provide Ground Based Augmentation
System (GBAS) at Delhi and Mumbai Airports. This GBAS
equipment will be capable of providing Category-II (curved
S,
approach) landing signals to the aircrafts thus replacing the

existing instrument landing system in the long run, which is
required at each end of the runway.
E
The Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System

UP
(ASMGCS), installed at Delhi, have upgraded operation to runway

28 from CAT-IIIA level to CAT-IIIB level. CAT-IIIA system
permits landing of aircrafts up to visibility of 200mtrs. However,
CAT-IIIB will permit safe landing at the Airports at a visibility
(c)
below 200mtrs but above 50mtrs.

le
AAI’s endeavour, in enhanced focus on ‘customer’s expectations’,
Notes
has evinced enthusiastic response to independent agency, which
/Sa
has organised customer satisfaction surveys at 30 busy Airports. ___________________
These surveys have enabled us to undertake improvements on ___________________
aspects recommended by the Airport users. The receptacles for our
___________________
on
‘Business Reply Letters’ at Airports have gained popularity; these
responses enable us to understand the changing aspirations of ___________________
Airport users. During the first year of the millennium, AAI ___________________
cti
endeavours to make its operations more transparent and also ___________________
make available the instantaneous information to customers by
___________________
deploying state-of-art Information Technology.
du
___________________
The specific training, focus on improving the employee response
and the professional skill up-gradation, has been manifested. AAI’s ___________________
four training establishments viz. Civil Aviation Training College ___________________

(CATC) - Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation Management
and Research (NIAMAR) - Delhi and Fire Training Centres (FTCs)
pro
at Delhi & Kolkata are expected to be busier than ever before.
Re
AAI has also undertaken initiatives to upgrade training facilities
at CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. Aerodrome Visual
Simulator (AVS) has been provided at CATC recently and non-
radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to
for
CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport.

AAI is having a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) and it has
fleet of three aircrafts fitted with latest state-of-art fully automatic
flight inspection system capable of inspecting.
t
No
1. ILS up to Cat-III
2. VOR (CVOR/DVOR)
3. DME
S,
4. NDB
5. VGSI (PAPI, VASI)
E
6. RADAR (ASR/MSSR)
UP
In addition to in house flight calibration of nav aids, AAI also

undertakes flight calibration of nav aids for Air force, Navy, Coast
Guard and other private Airfields in India.
(c)
le
Organizational Chart of Airport Authority of India
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
Source: http://www.aai.aero/public_notices/aaisite_test/images/chart_new_website.jpg
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
S,
1. AAI manages …………….……… airports, which include

……….…………… International Airport, ……….………
Customs Airports, ……….……… Domestic Airports and
E
……….……… Civil Enclaves at Defence airfields.

UP
2. ……………………… was constituted by an Act of

Parliament and came into being on 1st April 1995 by
merging erstwhile National Airports Authority and
International Airports Authority of India.
(c)
le
Summary
Notes
The Airports Economic Regulatory Authority (AERA) is a statutory
/Sa
___________________
body constituted under the Airports Economic Regulatory
Authority of India Act, 2008 (27 of 2008) notified vide Gazette ___________________
Notification dated 5th December 2008. The AERA was established ___________________
on
by the Government vide its notification no GSR 317 (E) dated
___________________
12.05.09 with its head office at Delhi. The statutory functions of
the AERA as enshrined in the Airports Economic Regulatory ___________________
cti
Authority of India Act, 2008. ___________________
Through ACI, the airport community now speaks with a single ___________________
voice on key issues and concerns and, despite regional diversity,
du
___________________
can move forward as a united industry. ACI pursues airports
___________________
interests in discussions with international organizations. The most
important relationship is with the International Civil Aviation ___________________
Organization (ICAO), where international standards for air

transport are debated and developed. ACI defends airports
pro
positions and develops standards and recommended practices in
Re
the areas of safety, security and environment initiatives.
Lesson End Activity

Visit Airport Authority of India and prepare a report on its
for
working.
Keywords
t
AAI: Airport Authority of India is entrusted with the responsibility

No
of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation

infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country.
ACI: Airport Council International (ACI) pursues airports
interests in discussions with international organizations.
S,
AERA: The Airports Economic Regulatory Authority (AERA) is a

statutory body constituted under the Airports Economic
E
Regulatory Authority of India Act, 2008 (27 of 2008) notified vide

UP
Gazette Notification dated 5th December 2008.

Directorate General of Civil Aviation: The Directorate General
of Civil Aviation is the regulatory body in the field of Civil Aviation
primarily dealing with safety issues.
(c)
le
Notes
1. Write a short note on the working of Airport Economic
/Sa
___________________
Regulatory Authority of India (AERA).
___________________
2. Enumerate the functions of Director General Civil Aviation of
___________________
India.
on
___________________
3. Explain the functioning of Airport Council International.
___________________
4. List the functions and objectives of Airport Authority of India.
cti
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
du
___________________
Books
___________________
LIT Verlag Münster. pro
& Sons.
Re
Books.
for

Web Readings
t
No
http://aera.gov.in/
http://www.dgca.nic.in/
http://www.aci.aero/
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 23: The Aircraft Act 1934 - I
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Find___________________
out if any amendments
The Aircraft Act 1934 - I were made in Aircraft Act
___________________
1934.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Definition and provisions of Aircraft Act 1934 ___________________
 Short title and extent of Act ___________________
 Powers of Central Government
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
The legislative and regulatory framework of civil aviation in India
is currently provided through the Aircraft Act, 1934 and the
Aircraft Rules, 1937 framed under the Act. Both Act and the Rules
have been amended numerous times. The Aircraft Act, 1934 was
Re
last amended in 2008 and last amendment to Aircraft Rules in
2012. The present Act and the Rules have also legislated
‘International Standards and Recommended Practices’ (SARPs)
stipulated by International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
for
wherever and whenever required. In this unit we will discuss the

first few rules of the Act.
t
Aircraft Act, 1934

No
It is an Act to make better provision for the control of the

manufacture, possession, use, operation, sale, import and export of
aircraft.
S,
Whereas it is expedient to make better provision for the control of

the manufacture, possession, use, operation, sale, import and
export of aircraft; it is hereby enacted as follows:-
E
1. Short title and extent

UP
(1) This Act may be called The Aircraft Act, 1934.

(2) It extends to the whole of India and applies also:
(c)
(a) To citizens of India wherever they maybe; and

le
(b) To, and to the persons on, aircraft registered in India
Notes
wherever they maybe.
/Sa
___________________
2. Definitions: In this Act, unless there is anything repugnant in
___________________
the subject or context:
___________________
(1) “Aircraft” means any machine which can derive support in
on
___________________ the atmosphere from reactions of the air, [other than
___________________ reactions of the air against the earth’s surface] and includes
balloons, whether fixed or free, airships, kites, gliders flying
cti
___________________
machines;
___________________
(2) “Aerodrome” means any definite or limited ground or water
___________________
du
area intended to be used, either wholly or in part, for the
___________________ landing or departure of aircraft, and includes all buildings,
___________________ sheds, vessels, piers and other structures thereon or
pro
appertaining thereto;
(2A) “aerodrome reference point”, in relation to any aerodrome,
means a designated point established in the horizontal
plane at or near the geometric centre of that part of the
Re
aerodrome reserved for the departure or landing of aircraft;
3. Power of Central Government to exempt certain aircraft:
The [Central Government] may, by notification in the [Official
for
Gazette], exempt from all or any of the provisions of this Act]

any aircraft or class of aircraft and any person or class of
persons, or may direct that such provisions shall apply to such
aircraft or persons subject to such modifications as may be
t
specified in the notification.

No
4. Power of Central Government to make rules to implement

the Convention of 1944: The Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, make such rules as appear
to it to be necessary for carrying out the Convention relating to
S,
International Civil Aviation signed at Chicago on the7th day of

December, 1944 (including any Annex thereto relating to
E
international standards and recommended practices) as

amended from time to time.
UP
5. Power of Central Government to make rules: The Central

Government may, by notification in the [Official Gazette], make
rules regulating the manufacture, possession, use, operation,
(c)
sale, import or export of any aircraft or class of aircraft and for

securing the safety of aircraft operation.
le
(1) Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power,
Notes
such rules may provide for:
/Sa
___________________
(a) The authorities by which any of the powers conferred
by or under this Act are to be exercised: ___________________
___________________
(i) the regulation of air transport services, and the
on
prohibition of the use of aircraft in such services ___________________
except under the authority of and in accordance ___________________
with license authorizing the establishment of the
cti
___________________
service,
___________________
(ii) the economic regulation of civil aviation and air
du
transport services, including the approval, ___________________
disapproval or revision of tariff of operators of air ___________________

transport services; the officers or authorities who ___________________
pro
may exercise powers in this behalf; the procedure
to be followed, and the factors to be taken into
account by such officers or authorities; appeals to
the Central Government against orders of such
Re
officers or authorities and all other matters
connected with such tariff. Explanation: For the
purposes of this clause, “tariff” includes fares,
rates, valuation charges and other charges for air
for
transport of passengers or goods, the rules,

regulations, practices or services affecting such
fares, rates, valuation charges and other charges
and rates, terms and conditions of commission
t
payable to passenger or cargo sales agents,

No
(iii) The information to be furnished by an applicant

for, or the holder of, a license authorizing the
establishment of an air transport service to such
authorities as may be specified in the rules.
S,
(b) The licensing, inspection and regulation of

aerodromes, the conditions under high aerodromes
E
may be maintained, the prohibition or regulation of

UP
the use of unlicensed aerodromes and the fees which

may be charged at those aerodromes to which the
Airports Authority of India Act, 1994 does not apply or
is not made applicable.
(c)
le
(c) The inspection and control of the manufacture repair
Notes
and maintenance of aircraft and of places where
/Sa
___________________
aircraft are being manufactured, repaired or kept;
___________________
(d) The registration and marking of aircraft;
___________________
(e) The conditions under which aircraft may be flown, or
on
___________________ may carry passengers, mails or goods, or may be used
___________________ for industrial purposes and the certificates, licenses or
documents to be carried by aircraft;
cti
___________________
___________________ (f) The inspection of aircraft for the purpose of enforcing

the provisions of this Act and the rules there under,
___________________
du
and the facilities to be provided for such inspection;
___________________
(g) The licensing of persons employed in the operation,
___________________ manufacture, repair or maintenance of aircraft;(h) the
pro
air-routes by which and, the conditions under which
aircraft may enter or leave[India], or may fly over
India, and the places at which aircraft shall land;
Re
(h) The prohibition of flight by aircraft over any specified
area, either absolutely or at specified times, or subject
to specified conditions and exceptions;
(i) The supply, supervision and control of air-route
for
beacons, aerodrome lights, and lights at or in the

neighbourhood of aerodromes or on or in the
neighbourhood of air- routes;
t
(j) The installation and maintenance of lights on private

No
property in the neighbourhood of aerodromes or on or

in the neighbourhood of air routes, by the owners or
occupiers of such property, the payment by the
Central Government for such installation and
S,
maintenance, and the supervision and control of such

installation and maintenance, including the right of
access to the property for such purposes;
E
(k) The signals to be used for purposes of communication

UP
by or to aircraft and the apparatus to be employed in

signalling;
(l) The prohibition and regulation of the carriage in
aircraft of any specified article or substance;
(c)
le
(m) The measures to be taken and the equipment to be
Notes
carried for the purpose of ensuring the safety of life;
/Sa
___________________
(n) The issue and maintenance of log-books;
___________________
(o) The manner and conditions of the issue or renewal of
___________________
any license or certificate under the Act or the rules,
on
the examinations and tests to be undergone in ___________________
connection therewith, the form, custody, production, ___________________
endorsement, cancellation, suspension or surrender of
cti
___________________
such License or certificate, or of any log-book;
___________________
(p) The fees to be charged in connection with any
du
inspection, examination, test, certificate or license, ___________________
made, issued or renewed under this Act; ___________________
(q) The recognition for the purposes of this act of licenses ___________________
pro
and certificates issued elsewhere than in India
relating to aircraft or to the qualifications of persons
employed in the operation, manufacture, repair or
maintenance of aircraft.
Re
(r) the prohibition of slaughtering and flaying of animals
and of depositing rubbish, filth and other polluted and
obnoxious matter within a radius of ten kilometres
for
from the aerodrome reference point; and

(s) Any matter subsidiary or incidental to the matters
referred to in this sub-section.
t
5A Power to issue directions

No
(1) The Director-General of Civil Aviation or any other officer

specially empowered in this behalf by the Central
Government may, from time to time, by order, issue
directions, consistent within the provisions of this act and
S,
the rules made hereunder, with respect to any of the

matters specified in clauses (b), (c), (e), (f), (g), (h) and(m) of
E
sub-section (2) of section 5, to any person or persons

engaged in aircraft operations or using any aerodrome, in
UP
any case where the Director-General of Civil Aviation or

such other officer is satisfied that in the interests of the
security of India or for securing the safety of aircraft
operations it is necessary so to do.
(c)
le
(2) Every direction issued under sub-section (1) shall be
Notes
complied with, by the person or persons to whom such
/Sa
___________________
direction is issued.
___________________
6. Power of Central Government to make orders in
___________________ emergency
on
___________________ (1) If the Central Government is of opinion that in the interest
___________________ of the public safety or tranquillity the issue of all or any of
the following orders is expedient, [it] may, by Notification
cti
___________________
in the Official Gazette:
___________________
(a) Cancel or suspend, either absolutely or subject to such
___________________
du
conditions as [it] may think fit to specify in the order,
___________________ all or any licenses or certificates issued under this Act;
___________________ (b) Prohibit either absolutely or subject to such conditions
pro
as [it] may think fit to specify in the order, or regulate
in such manner as may be contained in the order, the
flight of all or any aircraft or class of aircraft over the
whole or any portion of [India];
Re
(c) prohibit, either absolutely or conditionally, or regulate
the erection, maintenance or use of any aerodrome,
aircraft factory, flying- school or club, or place where
for
aircraft are manufactured, repaired or kept, or any

class or description thereof; and
(d) direct that any aircraft or class of aircraft, or any
aerodrome, aircraft factory, flying school or club, or
t
place where aircraft are manufactured, repaired or

No
kept, together with any machinery, plant, material or

things used for the operation, manufacture, repair or
maintenance of aircraft shall be delivered, either
forthwith or within a specified time, to such authority
S,
and in such manner as [it] may specify in the order, to

be at the disposal of government for the public service.
E
(e) any order made under sub-section (1) shall have effect
not withstanding anything inconsistent therewith
UP
contained in any rule made under this Act.

(2) Any person who suffers direct injury or loss by reason of
any order made under clause (c) or clause (d) of sub-section
(c)
(1) shall be paid such compensation as may be determined

le
by such authority as the Central Government may appoint
in this behalf. Notes
/Sa
(3) The Central Government may authorize such steps to be ___________________
taken to secure compliance with any order made under ___________________
sub-section (1) as it appear to be necessary.
___________________
on
(4) Whoever knowingly disobeys, or fails to comply with, or
___________________
does any act in contravention of, an order made under sub-
___________________
section (1) shall be punishable with imprisonment for a
cti
term which may extend to three years, or with fine, or with ___________________
both, and the Court by which he is convicted may direct ___________________
that the aircraft or thing (if any) in respect of which the
du
___________________
offence has been committed, or any part of such thing, shall
be forfeited to Government. ___________________
___________________
7. Power of Central Government
investigation of accidents:
to
pro
make
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the

rules for
[Official Gazette], make rules providing for the

Re
investigation of any accident arising out of or in the course
of the navigation:
(a) In or over [India] of any aircraft, or
for
(b) Anywhere of aircraft registered in India.

(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power,
such rules may:
t
(a) Require notice to be given of any accident in such

No
manner and by such person as may be prescribed;

(b) Apply for the purposes for such investigation, either
with or without modification, the provisions of any law
for the time being in force relating to the investigation of
S,
accidents;
(c) Prohibit pending investigation access to or interference
E
with aircraft to which an accident has occurred, and

authorize any person so far as may be necessary for the
UP
purposes of an investigation to have access to examine,

remove, take measures for the preservation of or
otherwise deal with any such aircraft; and authorize or
require the cancellation, suspension, endorsement or,
(c)
surrender of any license or certificate granted or

recognized under this Act when it appears on an
le
investigation that the license ought to be so dealt with,
Notes and provide for the production of any such license for
/Sa
___________________ such purpose.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
on
___________________
1. …………………… means any machine which can derive
___________________ support in the atmosphere from reactions of the air.
cti
___________________
2. …………………….. means any definite or limited ground
___________________ or water area intended to be used, either wholly or in
___________________ part, for the landing or departure of aircraft.
du
___________________
Summary
___________________
pro
Aircraft Rules, 1937 framed under the Act. In this unit, we had
discussed the provisions of the act from 1 to 7.
Re
Lesson End Activity

Study the aviation act of another country and compare it with
for
Indian Act.
Keywords
t
Aerodrome Reference Point: It means a designated point

No
established in the horizontal plane at or near the geometric centre

of that part of the aerodrome reserved for the departure or landing
of aircraft.
Aerodrome: It means any definite or limited ground or water area
S,
intended to be used, either wholly or in part, for the landing or

departure of aircraft, and includes all buildings, sheds, vessels,
E
piers and other structures thereon or appertaining thereto.

Aircraft: It means any machine which can derive support in the
UP
atmosphere from reactions of the air, [other than reactions of the

air against the earth’s surface] and includes balloons, whether
fixed or free, airships, kites, gliders flying machines.
(c)
le
Notes
1. Enumerate the authorities by which any of the powers
/Sa
___________________
conferred by or under this Act are to be exercised.
___________________
2. Explain the power of Central Government to make orders in
emergency. ___________________
on
___________________
3. Throw some light on the power to issue directions
___________________
4. Describe the power of Central Government to make rules.
cti
___________________
5. Discuss the power of Central Government to make rules for
investigation of accidents. ___________________
du
___________________
___________________
Books
pro
Re
& Sons.
Books.
for

t

No
Web Readings
http://dgca.nic.in/rules/act-ind.htm
http://www.theindianlawyer.in/statutesnbareacts/acts/a25.html
S,
http://dgca.nic.in/airact/aircraftact.pdf
E
http://www.gujhealth.gov.in/images/pdf/legis/aircraft-act-1934.pdf
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 24: The Aircraft Act, 1934 - II
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Find___________________
out the applications and
The Aircraft Act, 1934 - II examples of Aircraft Act in
___________________
India.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Power to detain aircraft ___________________
 Powers of Central Government related to the Act ___________________

Various Penalties
du

___________________
 Power of Court to order forfeiture
___________________
 Rules to be made
___________________


Power to apply customs procedure
Saving for acts
Repeals
pro
Re
Introduction
In 1934, when the Aircraft Act was legislated, the major emphasis
was on ‘Aircraft’ and the related issues only as reflected in the
for
preamble, which states “An Act to make better provision for the
control of the manufacture, possession, use, operation, sale, import
and export of aircraft”. Now current emphasis is on safe and
secure, viable, efficient and sustainable air transportation of
t
passengers and goods, which has become a necessity and is part of

No
daily life. Aircraft related regulations, though still very important,

are only a part of modern day civil aviation system. Civil Aviation
in India is growing at a rapid rate and the major concern today is
that of regulating safety, security, efficiency, viability and
S,
sustainability in all aspects of Civil Aviation.

In this unit, we will discuss the remaining rules of Aircraft Act
E
1934 in continuation with the pervious unit.

UP
Aircraft Act 1934 (contd.)

8. Power to detain aircraft:
(1) Any authority authorized in this behalf by the[Central
(c)
Government] may detain any aircraft, if in the opinion of

such authority:
le
(a) Having regard to the nature of an intended flight, the
Notes
flight of such aircraft would involve danger to persons
/Sa
___________________
in the aircraft or to any other persons or property; or
___________________
(b) Such detention is necessary to secure compliance with
___________________ any of the provisions of this Act or the rules applicable
on
___________________ to such aircraft; or such detention is necessary to
prevent a contravention of any rule made under [
___________________
clause (h) or clause (i) of subsection(2) of section 5] [or
cti
___________________ to implement any order made by any Court.]
___________________
___________________ [Official Gazette] make rules regulating all matters
du
___________________ incidental or subsidiary to the exercise of this power.
___________________ 8A. Power of Central Government to make rules for

pro
protecting the public health: The Central Government may,
by notification in the [Official Gazette,] make rules for the
prevention of danger arising to the public health by the
introduction or spread of any infectious or contagious disease
Re
from aircraft arriving at or being at any aerodrome and for the
prevention of the conveyance of infection or contagious by
means of any aircraft leaving an aerodrome and in particular
and without prejudice to the generality of this provision may
for
make, with respect to aircraft and aerodromes or any specified

aerodrome, rules providing for any of the matters for which
rules under sub-clauses to (viii) of clause (p)of sub-section (1)
of section 6 of the Indian Ports Act,1908, may be made with
t
respect to vessels and ports.

No
8B. Emergency powers for protecting the public health

(1) If the Central Government is satisfied that India or any art
thereof is visited by or threatened with an outbreak of any
S,
dangerous epidemic disease, and that the ordinary

provisions of the law for the time being in force are
insufficient for the prevention of danger arising to the
E
public health through the introduction or spread of the

UP
disease by the agency of aircraft, the Central Government

may take such measures as it deems necessary to prevent
such danger.
(2) In any such case the Central Government may, without
(c)
prejudice to the powers conferred by section 8A, by

notification in the Official Gazette, make, such temporary
le
rules with respect to aircraft and persons travelling or
things carried therein and aerodromes as it deems Notes
/Sa
necessary in the circumstances. ___________________
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in section 14, the ___________________
power to make rules under subsection (2) shall not be
___________________
on
subject to the condition of the rules being made after
previous publication, but such rules shall not remain in ___________________
force for more than three months from the date of ___________________
cti
notification: Provided that the Central Government may by ___________________
special order continue them in force for a further period or
___________________
periods of not more than three months in all.
du
___________________
8C. Power of Central Government to make rules for securing
safe custody and re-delivery of unclaimed property: ___________________
___________________
pro
The Central Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, make rules which may provide for securing the safe
custody and re-delivery of ay property which, while not in
proper custody, is found on any aerodrome or in any aircraft on
Re
any aerodrome and any such rules may, in particular, provide
for –
(a) the payment of charges in respect of any such property
before it is re-delivered to the person entitled thereto; and
for
(b) the disposal of any such property in cases where the same is
not re- delivered to the person entitled thereto before the
expiration of such period as may be specified therein.
t
9. Wreck and Salvage

No
(1) [The provisions of Part XIII of the Merchant Shipping Act,

1958] relating to Wreck and Salvage shall apply to aircraft
on or over the sea or tidal waters as they apply to ships, and
the owner of an aircraft shall be entitled to a reasonable
S,
reward for salvage services rendered by the aircraft in like

manner as the owner of a ship.
E

[Official Gazette], make such modifications of the said
UP
provisions in their application to aircraft as appear

necessary or expedient
(c)
le
9A. Power of Central Government to prohibit or regulate
Notes
construction of buildings, planting of trees etc.:
/Sa
___________________
(1) If the Central Government is of opinion that it is necessary
___________________
or expedient so to do for the safety of aircraft operations, it
___________________ may, by notification in the Official Gazette:
on
___________________ (i) Direct that no building or structure shall be constructed
___________________ or erected, or no tree shall be planted on any land
within such radius, not exceeding twenty kilometres
cti
___________________
from the aerodrome reference point, as may be specified
___________________
in the notification and where there is any building,
___________________ structure or tree on such land, also direct the owner or
du
___________________ the person having control of such building, structure or
tree to demolish such building or structure or, as the
___________________
pro
case may be, to cut such tree within such period as may
be specified in the notification;
(ii) direct that no building or structure higher than such
height as may be specified in the notification shall be
Re
constructed or erected, or no tree, which is likely to
grow or ordinarily grows higher than such height as
may be specified in the notification, shall be planted,
on any land within such radius, not exceeding twenty
for
kilometres from the aerodrome reference point, as

maybe specified in the notification and where the
height of any building or structure or tree on such land
is higher than the specified height, also direct the
t
owner or the person having control of such building,

No
structure or tree to reduce the height thereof so as not

to exceed the specified height, within such period as
may be specified in the notification.
(2) In specifying the radius under clause (i) or clause (ii) of sub
S,
- section (1) and in specifying the height of any building,

structure or tree under the said clause (ii), the Central
E
Government shall have regard to:

UP
(a) the nature of the aircraft operated or intended to be

operated in the aerodrome; and
(b) The international standards and recommended
practices governing the operations of aircraft.
(c)
le
(3) Where any notification has been issued under subsection (1)
Notes
directing the owner or the person having control of any
/Sa
building, structure or tree to demolish such building or ___________________
structure or to cut such tree or to reduce the height of any ___________________
building, structure or tree, a copy of the notification
___________________
on
containing such direction shall be served on the owner or
the person having the control of the building, structure or ___________________
tree, as the case may be: owner or person; or ___________________
cti
(a) if it cannot be so delivered or tendered, by delivering ___________________
or tendering it to any officer of such owner or person or ___________________
any adult male member of the family of such owner or
du
___________________
person or by affixing a copy thereof on the outer door
or on some conspicuous part of the premise in which ___________________
such owner or person is known to have last resided or ___________________

pro
carried on business or personally worked for gain; or
failing service by these means;
(b) by post.
Re
(4) Every person shall be bound to comply with any direction
contained in any notification issued under sub - section (1).
9B. Payment of compensation: (1) If in consequence of any
for
direction contained in any notification issued under sub-

Section (1) of section 9A, any person sustains any loss or
damage; such person shall be paid compensation the amount of
which shall be determined in the manner and in accordance
with the principles hereinafter set out, that is to say:
t
No
(a) Where the amount of compensation can be fixed by

agreement, it shall be paid in accordance with such
agreement;
(b) Where no such agreement can be reached, the Central
S,
Government shall appoint as arbitrator a person who is or

has been qualified for appointment as a Judge of a High
E
Court;
(c) the Central Government may, in any particular case,
UP
nominate a person having expert knowledge as to the

nature of the loss or damage suffered by the person to be
compensated and where such nomination is made, the
(c)
person to be compensated may also nominate an assessor

for the same purpose;
le
(d) at the commencement of the proceedings before the
Notes
arbitrator, the Central Government and the person to be
/Sa
___________________
compensated shall state what, in their respective opinion,
___________________ is a fair amount of compensation;
___________________ (e) the arbitrator shall, after hearing the dispute, make an
on
___________________ award determining the amount of compensation which
appears to him to be just and specify the person or persons
___________________
to whom such compensation shall be paid and in making
cti
___________________ the award he shall have regard to the circumstances of
___________________ each case and:
___________________ (i) The damage sustained by the person to be
du
___________________ compensated in his earnings;
___________________ (ii) if in consequence of any direction contained in any

pro
notification issued under sub- section (1) of section 9A
the market value of the land immediately after the
issue of such notification is diminished, the
diminution in such market value;
Re
(iii) Where any building or structure has been demolished
or any tree has been cut or the height of any building,
structure or tree has been reduced in pursuance of
for
any direction, the damage sustained by the person to

be compensated in consequence of such demolition,
cutting or reduction and the expenses incurred by
such person for such demolition, cutting or reduction;
t
(iv) If the person to be compensated is compelled to

No
change his residence or Place of business, the

reasonable expenses, if any, that may have to be
incurred by him incidental to such change;
(f) where there is any dispute as to the person or persons who
S,
are entitled to the compensation, the arbitrator shall

decide such dispute and if the arbitrator finds that more
E
persons than one are entitled to compensation, he shall

apportion the amount thereof amongst such persons;
UP
(g) Nothing in the Arbitration Act, 1940 shall apply to

arbitrations under this section.
(3) Every award made by the arbitrator under clause (e) of
(c)
sub- section (1) shall also state the amount of costs

le
incurred in the proceedings before it and by what persons
and in what proportions they are to be paid. Notes
/Sa
9C. Appeals from awards in respect of compensation: Any ___________________
person aggrieved by an award of the arbitrator made under ___________________
section 9B may, within thirty days from the date of such
___________________
on
award, prefer an appeal to the High Court within whose
jurisdiction the aerodrome is situated: ___________________
___________________
Provided that the High Court may entertain the appeal after
cti
the expiry of the said period of thirty days if it is satisfied that ___________________
the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from filing the ___________________
appeal in time.
du
___________________
9D. Arbitrator to have certain powers of civil Courts: The
___________________
arbitrator appointed under section 9B, while holding
___________________
pro
arbitration proceedings under this Act, shall have all the
powers of a civil court while trying a suit under the Code of
Civil Procedure, 1908 in respect of the following matters,
namely:
Re
(a) Summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person
and examining him on oath;
(b) Requiring the discovery and production of any document;
for
(c) Reception of evidence on affidavits;

(d) Requisitioning any public record from any court or office;
(e) Issuing commissions for examination of witnesses.
t
10. Penalty for act in contravention of rule made under this

No
Act
(1) If any person contravenes any provision of any rule made

under clause (l) of subsection(2) of section 5 prohibiting or
regulating the carriage in aircraft of arms, explosives or
S,
other dangerous goods, or when required under the rules

made under that clause to give information in relation to
E
any such goods gives information which is false and which

he either knows or believes to be false or does not believe to
UP
be true he, and if he is not the owner, the owner also

(unless the owner proves that the offence was committed
without his knowledge, consent or connivance) shall be
punishable with imprisonment which may extend to two
(c)
years and shall also be liable to fine.

le
(1A) if any person contravenes any provision of any rule
Notes
made under clause (qq) of sub-section (2) of section 5
/Sa
___________________
prohibiting the slaughter and flaying of animals and of
___________________ depositing rubbish, filth and other polluted and obnoxious
___________________ matter within a radius of ten kilometres from the
on
aerodrome reference point, he shall be punishable with
___________________
imprisonment which may extend to one year, or with fine
___________________ which may extend to two thousand rupees, or with both.
cti
___________________ (1B) notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of
___________________ Criminal Procedure, 1973, an offence referred to in sub-
___________________
section (1A) shall be cognizable.
du
___________________ (2) In making any other rule under section 5 or in making any
rule under section 7, section 8, section 8A or section 8B, the
___________________
pro
Central Government may direct that a breach of it shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a period which may
extend to three months, or with fine which may extend to
one thousand rupees, or with both.
Re
11. Penalty for flying so as to cause danger: Whoever wilfully
flies any aircraft in such a manner as to cause danger to any
person or to any property on land or water or in the air shall
be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend
for
to six months, or with fine which may extend to one thousand

rupees, or with both.
11A. Penalty for failure to comply with directions issued
under section 5A: If any person wilfully fails to comply with
t
No
any direction issued under section 5A, he shall be punishable

with imprisonment for a term which may extended to six
months or with fine which may extend to one thousand
rupees, or with both.
S,
11B. Penalty for failure to comply with directions issued

under section 9A
E
(1) If any person wilfully fails to comply with any direction

contained in any notification issued under section 9A, he
UP
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which

may extend to six months or with fine which may extend to
one thousand rupees, or with both.
(c)
(2) Without prejudice to the provisions of subsection (1), if any

person fails to demolish any building or structure or cut
le
any tree or fails to reduce the height of any building,
structure or tree in pursuance of any direction contained in Notes
/Sa
any notification issued under sub-section (1)of section 9A ___________________
within the period specified in the notification, then, subject
___________________
to such rules as the Central Government may make in this
behalf, it shall be competent for any officer authorized by ___________________
on
the Central Government in this behalf to demolish such ___________________
building or structure or cut such tree or reduce the height
___________________
of such building, structure or tree.
cti
___________________
12. Penalty for abetment of offences and attempted offences:
___________________
Whoever abets the commission of any offence under this Act or
du
the rules, or attempts to commit such offence, and in such ___________________
attempt does any act towards the commission of the offence, ___________________
shall be liable to the punishment provided for the offence.
___________________
pro
13. Power of Court to order forfeiture: Where any person is
convicted of an offence punishable under sub-section (1) of
section 10 or under any rule made under clause (i) of
subsection (2) of section 5] the Court by which he is convicted
Re
may direct that the aircraft or article or substance, as the case
may be, in respect of which the offence has been committed,
shall be forfeited to Government.
for
14. Rules to be made after publication: Any power to make

rules conferred by this Act is subject to the condition of the
rules being made after previous publication:
Provided that the Central Government may, in the public
t
interest, by order in writing dispense with the condition of

No
previous publication in any case.

14A. Laying of rules before Parliament: Every rule made under
this Act shall be laid as soon as may be after it is made before
each House of Parliament while it is in session [for a total
S,
period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or

in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of
E
the session immediately following the session or the successive

sessions aforesaid both Houses agree in making any
UP
modification in the rule, or both Houses agree that the rule

should not be made, the rule shall thereafter have effect only
in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so
(c)
however, that any such modification or annulment shall be

without prejudice to the validity or anything previously done
under that rule.
le
15. Use of patented invention on aircraft not registered in
Notes
India: The provisions of section 42 of the Indian Patents and
/Sa
___________________
Designs Act, 1911, shall apply to the use of an invention on
___________________ any aircraft not registered in [India] in like manner as they
___________________ apply to the use of an invention in a foreign vessel.
on
___________________ 16. Power to apply customs procedure: [Repealed by the
Customs Act, 1962(52 of 1962), S.160 (1) and Sch. (1-2-1963).]
___________________
17. Bar of certain suits: No suit shall be brought in any Civil
cti
___________________
Court in respect of trespass or in respect of nuisance by reason
___________________
only of the flight of aircraft over any property at a height
___________________ above the ground which having regard to wind, weather and
du
___________________ all the circumstances of the case is reasonable, or by reason
only of the ordinary incidents of such flight.
___________________
pro
18. Saving for acts done in good faith under the Act: No suit,
prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against any
person for anything in good faith done or intended to be done
under this Act.
Re
19. Saving of application of Act
(1) Nothing in this Act or in any order or rule made hereunder
a [other than a rule made under section 8A or under section
for
8B] shall apply to or in respect of any aircraft belonging to

or exclusively employed in b [the naval, military or air
forces of the Union], or to any person in such forces
employed in connection with such aircraft.
t
(2) Nothing in this Act or in any order or rule made there

No
under shall apply to or in respect of any lighthouse to which

the Indian Lighthouse Act, 1927, applies or prejudice or
affect any right or power exercisable by any authority under
that Act.
S,
20. Repeals: Repealed by the Repealing Act, 1938 (I of1938), S.2

and Schedule.
E
UP
(c)
le
Check Your Progress
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
___________________
1. If any person wilfully fails to comply with any direction
___________________
issued under section ………………, he shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may ___________________
on
extended to six months or with fine which may extend to ___________________
one thousand rupees, or with both..
___________________
cti
2. Any person aggrieved by an award of the arbitrator ___________________
made under section 9B may, within ……………… days
___________________
from the date of such award, prefer an appeal to the
du
High Court within whose jurisdiction the aerodrome is ___________________
situated. ___________________
___________________
Summary pro
Re
Aircraft Rules, 1937 framed under the Act. In this unit, we had
discussed the provisions of the act from 8 to 20.
Lesson End Activity

for
Review the Indian Contract Act, 1938 and provide your views.
Keywords
t
No
Abetment: The act of abetting or inciting another to commit a

crime.
Arbitrator: A person chosen to settle the issue between parties
engaged in a dispute.
S,
Contravention: An act which violates the law, a treaty or an

agreement which the party has made.
E
Forfeiture: The act of forfeiting or paying a penalty

UP
Repeals: To revoke or rescind, especially by an official or formal

act.

(c)
1. Explain the power to detain aircraft.

le
2. List the emergency powers for protecting the public health
Notes
/Sa
___________________
3. Discuss the power of Central Government to make rules for
securing safe custody and re-delivery of unclaimed property.
___________________
4. Examine the power of Central Government to prohibit or
___________________
regulate construction of buildings, planting of trees etc.
on
___________________
5. Explain the penalty for act in contravention of rule made under
___________________
this Act.
cti
___________________
6. Describe penalty for abetment of offences and attempted
___________________ offences.
___________________
du
___________________ Further Readings
___________________
Books
pro
Re
& Sons.
Books.
for

t

No
Web Readings
http://dgca.nic.in/rules/act-ind.htm
http://www.theindianlawyer.in/statutesnbareacts/acts/a25.html
S,
http://dgca.nic.in/airact/aircraftact.pdf
E
http://www.gujhealth.gov.in/images/pdf/legis/aircraft-act-1934.pdf
UP
(c)
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Case Study: Kangan Batman TAFE
___________________
Background
du
___________________
Kangan Batman TAFE has had a long association with delivering
aircraft maintenance related training for both civil and defence ___________________
force personnel. The industry is highly regulated and aircraft
___________________
pro
engineers are required to continually upgrade their skills
according to regulatory and new technology requirements. The
recognition of current skills and alignment to licensing is
challenging to both regulators and employers. Because of the
complexities between regulatory bodies and the Australian
competency-based training system, employers often struggle with
Re
the RPL concept. The Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)
requires providers to develop as part of their Maintenance
Training Organisation Exposition an RPL Rules and Assessment
process. See RPL Process (CASA) tool. This process forms part of
the overall registration process for training providers in the
for
aviation sector.
Cohort Profile
Virgin Tech is a Maintenance Repair and Overhaul facility that
has maintenance bases in Brisbane and Melbourne Airports and
t
provides maintenance services to Virgin Blue’s fleet of Boeing

No
B737-700/800 and Embraer 190 aircraft. In late 2008 Kangan

Batman TAFE was asked to conduct RPL's Australia wide and a
develop a skills matrix to identify current qualifications and gaps
required to gain a Category A1.1 under CASA Civil Aviation
Order
(CAO) 100.69, (These outcomes would also require alignment to
S,
MEA07 Certificate II in Aeroskills – Line Maintenance). This

need was brought about by changes to CASA’s regulatory
requirements and the need to align Australia’s licence outcomes
E
with the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The Virgin

Tech engineers covered all three trade streams (Mechanical,
UP
Avionics and Structures).

Stakeholders
The stakeholders were Virgin Tech, Virgin Blue, Civil Aviation
Safety Authority and the AQTF.
(c)
Contd…
le
Description of Service
Notes The RPL project was developed into a simple four-step process
/Sa
___________________
including a specific request by the employer for the engineers to
be extensively briefed on how the RPL process worked, including
___________________ the types and quality of evidence to be submitted. The four steps
were evidence gathering, assessment, feedback and gap training.
___________________ There was a time allocation for the first three steps and the gap
on
training was priority listed, with a completion date of June 30,
___________________
2009.
___________________ Evidence Gathering Approaches
cti
___________________ KBT developed a candidate self-assessment kit that addressed all
of the competencies by asking specific questions on the types of
___________________ activities conducted at the Virgin Tech workplace.
___________________ The kit was designed to be simple to use. However it was clear the
du
onus was on the candidate to source all of the necessary evidence
___________________ to support the individual competencies.
___________________ Resources
pro
The information was presented electronically to the employer and
candidate. It included:
 The RPL process
 Self-assessment
Re
 Desktop audit report
 Candidate feedback
 Gap training required.
for
Creative Strategies
Virgin Tech nominated a mentor for the engineers who could
communicate clearly with individuals and act as a first point of
contact should clarification of the assessment gathering process
be required. The mentor was required to go through the KBT RPL
t
process and hold a Certificate IV in Workplace Training and

No
Assessment qualification in advance of the first group of

engineers to be assessed.
Challenges and Issues
Some of the challenges to be addressed were the fact some of the
engineers were slow to recognise it was a business requirement
S,
for engineers to have the latest qualification. Others felt it was an

additional burden to go through the process of assessing their
trade qualifications because they all had extensive experience
E
working on aircraft and in some cases engineers had over 20

years’ experience. We also recognised that many of them had not
been in a formal training environment for many years and
UP
perhaps some may have felt intimidated.

Within the Aviation sector flexibility in approaches to conducting
RPLs is not possible. This is a very highly regulated area with
specific rules and processes, approved by CASA that must be
(c)
adhered to. The project found it important to be sensitive to the

needs of the individuals and businesses while maintaining a very
Contd…
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
consistent and structured approach in the application of the RPL
process. Notes
/Sa
Success Factors
___________________
The RPL assessment process and the tools developed were an
important step in the success of the project however what was ___________________
more important were the relationships we established with
___________________
individuals through the assigned mentor to ensure there were no
on
major roadblocks along the journey. We have also been able to ___________________
translate our learnings to other aviation and defence related RPL
projects. In 2008 there was a significant increase in RPL activity ___________________
and we have now embarked on an Institute wide process of
cti
sharing RPL assessment tools to ensure we have a uniformed ___________________
process across KBT. ___________________
Benefits
du
___________________
The major benefits of this project for Virgin Tech:
___________________
 Candidates received a qualification that is internationally
recognised. ___________________
 pro
Virgin Tech could freely tender for maintenance contracts on
aircraft outside of the Virgin group that require CAO100.66 and
EASA certified outcomes.
 Candidates were introduced to a training style that was learner
Re
centred and contained some exposure to online training, which
many of them had not previously encountered before.
Key Contacts
for
Key Learnings
Key learnings from this project are to ensure the assessors are
t
familiar with the employers’ environment and workplace culture.

No
This was a critical factor when selecting assessors and instructors

and we made sure we were aware of any sensitivities and/or
industrial relations issues prior to establishing a rapport with the
candidates. We also made sure there was a balance of expertise
from both the military and civil aircraft maintenance industries
S,
and that staff could easily show the transferability of skills

between the two sectors of the industry.
Conclusion
E
This project is an excellent example of collaboration between a

national organisation such as Virgin Tech and the challenges
UP
faced when working with two aviation regulatory systems (CASA

& EASA). The relationships established with the key stakeholders
were the catalyst in gaining successful outcomes for all parties
and KBT was able to increase its knowledge of workplace RPL
projects that will assist all future civil and defence based projects.
(c)
This project demonstrated the importance of consistency in the
Contd…
le
use and application of an approved process and tool to ensure
Notes compliance within the regulatory framework.
/Sa
___________________ Questions:
___________________ 1. Analyse the case and interpret it.

___________________
on
___________________
Source: http://www.rplprioritysectors.com/docs/kangan_batman/aviation/Kangan%20
___________________ Batman%20Aviation%20Case%20Study.pdf
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Glossary
le
Glossary Notes
/Sa
___________________
AAI: Airport Authority of India is entrusted with the responsibility of ___________________
creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation
___________________
infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country.
on
___________________
Abetment: The act of abetting or inciting another to commit a crime.
___________________
ACI: Airport Council International (ACI) pursues airports interests in
cti
discussions with international organizations. ___________________
AERA: The Airports Economic Regulatory Authority (AERA) is a ___________________

statutory body constituted under the Airports Economic Regulatory
du
___________________
Authority of India Act, 2008 (27 of 2008) notified vide Gazette
Notification dated 5th December 2008. ___________________
Aerial Firefighting: It is a method to combat wildfires that often uses ___________________

helicopters. pro
Aerial Steam Carriage: It is a powered device that was based on
Cayley’s doctrines.
Re
Aerodrome Reference Point: It means a designated point established in
the horizontal plane at or near the geometric centre of that part of the
aerodrome reserved for the departure or landing of aircraft.
Aerodrome: A defined area of land or water which is intended to be used

for
for the arrival, departure and movements of aircraft. It may be provided

with facilities for shelter and repair of aircraft and for processing of
passengers, baggage, mail and cargo. Unlike airport it may not
necessarily be used for all scheduled air flights. Sometimes the term
t
aerodrome is used in place of airport.

No
Aerodrome: It is a defined area on land or water (including buildings,

installations, and equipment) that is intended to be used either wholly or
in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome: It means any definite or limited ground or water area

S,
intended to be used, either wholly or in part, for the landing or departure

of aircraft, and includes all buildings, sheds, vessels, piers and other
structures thereon or appertaining thereto.
E
Air Ship: A power driven lighter than air aircraft.

UP
Aircraft: It means any machine which can derive support in the

atmosphere from reactions of the air, [other than reactions of the air
against the earth’s surface] and includes balloons, whether fixed or free,
airships, kites, gliders flying machines.
(c)
le
Airfield: It commonly refers to small aerodromes (often without paved
Notes
runways) or facilities for handling air-transport aircraft or their
/Sa
___________________ passengers and cargo
___________________ Airline: It is a business entity which is engaged in the transportation of
___________________
passenger and goods by air.
on
___________________
Airport: It is used particularly to denote areas where air-transport
passengers are carried, especially where movement occurs on a
___________________ considerable scale and always where full-time customs facilities are
cti
___________________ available.
___________________ Airside: Airport services related to the aircraft are frequently referred to
as airside.
___________________
du
Arbitrator: A person chosen to settle the issue between parties engaged
___________________
in a dispute.
___________________
pro
ATC: The full form of ATC is Air Traffic Control. This is generally a
vertical, tall and round building very near to the runway so as to give it
the clear picture of the runway. All aircraft have to take persimmons
from ATC to land or to take off.
Re
Aviation: It is defined as the design, manufacture, use, or operation of
aircraft - in which the term aircraft refers to any vehicle capable of flight.
Back up Office: It is the office of the airlines which is a control room

also for the handling of the flight.
for
CAA: Civil Aeronautics Administration: reorganized into the Federal

t
Aviation Administration.
No
CAB: The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) is the agency of the government
mandated to regulate the economic aspect of air transportation, and shall
have the general supervision, control and jurisdiction over air carriers,
general sales agents, cargo sales agents, and air freight forwarders as
well as their property, property rights, equipment, facilities, and
S,
franchise.
Canard: It is a wing configuration of fixed-wing aircraft in which the

E
forward horizontal surface is smaller than the rearward one, the former
sometimes being known as the "canard" or foreplane, while the latter is
UP
the main wing.
Cock Pit Crew: The persons who actually fly the aircraft are known as
Cock pit crew.
(c)
Contravention: An act which violates the law, a treaty or an agreement

which the party has made.
Glossary
le
Counter: It means check in counter, facilitation counter; ticketing
counter, excess baggage charge counter etc. are those counter which are Notes
/Sa
visible to the passenger and visitor. ___________________
Directorate General of Civil Aviation: The Directorate General of ___________________

Civil Aviation is the regulatory body in the field of Civil Aviation
___________________
primarily dealing with safety issues.
on
___________________
Drag: Every physical body that is propelled through the air will
experience resistance to the air flow. This resistance is called drag. ___________________
cti
EASA: The European Aviation Safety Agency is the centrepiece of the ___________________
European Union’s strategy for aviation safety.
___________________
Elevator: The movable part of the tail whose only purpose is to ensure
du
___________________
longitudinal control and contributes to the longitudinal stability.
___________________
Empennage: The empennage (also called tail) is the rear part of the
___________________
aircraft.
pro
Engineering Department: It is responsible for the availability of the
aircraft which is fit to operate by meeting all the safety and security
requirement.
Re
FAA: Federal Aviation Administration: the division of the Department of
Transportation that inspects and rates civilian aircraft and pilots,
enforces the rules of air safety, and installs and maintains air-navigation
and traffic-control facilities.
for
Flaps: Flaps increase the wing surface or curve generating more lift with
the same speed.
Forfeiture: The act of forfeiting or paying a penalty

t
Fuselage: The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which contains
No
seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane.
Glider (Sailplane): It is a type of glider aircraft used in the sport of

gliding.
Hang Glider: It is a foot-launched aircraft with framed wings, usually

S,
used for recreation.
Heavier-than-air Flight: It is made possible by a careful balance of four

E
physical forces: lift, drag, weight, and thrust.

Helicopter: It is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or more
UP
horizontal rotors, each rotor consisting of two or more rotor blades.
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization promotes understanding

and security through cooperative aviation regulation.
(c)
Imperial Airways: It was the early British commercial long range air
transport company, operating from 1924 to 1939 and serving parts of
le
Europe but principally the Empire routes to South Africa, India and the
Notes Far East, including Malaya and Hong Kong.
/Sa
___________________ JAA LO: It maintained the relationship between EASA and non EASA
___________________
JAA Member States.
___________________
JAA: The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) was an associated body of the
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) representing the civil
on
___________________ aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who had
___________________ agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common safety
regulatory standards and procedures.
cti
___________________
KLM: Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V. (Royal Aviation
___________________
Company), known by its initials KLM, is the flag carrier airline of the
___________________ Netherlands.
du
___________________ Land side: The land side to the terminal building is open to the public.
___________________ Lift: In order for an aircraft to rise into the air, a force must be created
pro
that equals or exceeds the force of gravity. This force is called lift.
Lighter-than-air Craft: These, such as the hot air balloon, work on a

buoyancy principle
Re
Main Office: The main office of the airlines is not in the departure or
arrival area but a little away from the operational area.
Marketing Department: It is responsible for providing the data for the

demand and supply and the future markets trend and forecast.
for
MEDEVAC: The use of helicopters as an air ambulance is often referred

to as MEDEVAC.
Metrological Department: There is a need to have a weather forecast

from an independent body which also constituted by a state to prove its
t
authority and this department is known as ‘metrological department’ and

No
in short it is known as “MET”.
Military Glider: It is used to transport combat troops and equipment to

a combat zone.
Monoplane: A form of an aeroplane whose main supporting surface is a

S,
single wing extending equally on each side of the body.
Monoplane: A form of an aeroplane whose main supporting surface is a

E
single wing extending equally on each side of the body.

UP
Motor Glider: It is a glider with a power plant.
Operation Department: It is responsible to provide trained manpower

to fly the aircraft for the various destinations.
Ornithopters: Apparatus with flapping wings.

(c)
Glossary
le
Pan American World Airway: Commonly known as Pan Am, it was the
principal and largest international air carrier in the United States from Notes
/Sa
1927 until its collapse on December 4, 1991. ___________________
Pao Phu Tau: It was a 4th century Chinese book containing some ideas ___________________
related to rotary wing aircraft (Bamboo-copters).
___________________
on
Para Glider: It is a foot-launched aircraft with unframed wings, usually
___________________
used for recreation.
___________________
PATCO: Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, a historical
cti
trade union broken by Ronald Reagan ___________________
Piston Engines: Piston engines are common four-stroke cycle engines. ___________________
du
Propeller: A propeller is a device which transmits power by converting it ___________________
into thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an airplane, ship, or
___________________
submarine though a fluid such as water or air, by rotating two or more
___________________
screw through a solid. pro
twisted blades about a central shaft, in a manner analogous to rotating a
Pusher Biplanes: Two-winged airplanes with the engine and propeller

behind the wing.
Re
Repeals: To revoke or rescind, especially by an official or formal act.
Rocket Glider: It is a rocket propelled aircraft that routinely lands as a

glider.
for
Slat: A slat is a thin airfoil deployed form the leading edge of the wing.
Spoilers: They are moving surfaces which are placed vertically across the
airfoil.
STOL: It means short take-off and landing.

t
Subsonic Aircraft: Aircraft which travels at speed less than the speed of
No
sound.
Supersonic Aircraft: Aircraft which travels at speed greater than the

speed of sound.
S,
Tractor Biplanes: Two-winged airplanes with the engine and propeller

in front of the wing.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV): It is commonly known as a drone, is

E
an aircraft without a human pilot on board.

UP
VTOL: Aircraft that can take off and land vertically.
Walk along Glider: It is a model glider with updraft generated by a

person walking behind.
(c)
Wings: The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and
are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight.
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)

BDSA101D - Introduction To Aviation Industry PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

BDSA101D - Introduction To Aviation Industry PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

(c) UNIT 20: Case Study

SLM Development Team

Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Course Code: BDSA-101D

Course Name: Introduction to Aviation Industry

Version: July 2013

© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

Unit 1 History of Aviation................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 3

Unit 11 Theory of Flight ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 107

Unit 12 Introduction to Aircraft Components ................................ ................................ ....... 115

Unit 16 Airport................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 163

Unit 17 Airport Users - I................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 171

Unit 20 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 201

Unit 22 Important Aviation Regulatory Authorities of India ................................ ............... 235

Unit 23 The Aircraft Act 1934 - I................................ ................................ ........................... 249

Unit 25 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 271

___________________  1918 - 1939 (The “Golden Age”)

___________________  1939 - 1945: World War II

UNIT 5: CASE STUDY

vehicles through the air.

The Prehistory of Powered Flight

helicopters, and their designs may have influenced Leonardo da

significant inventions leading to flight which, with its inclined

Leonardo discovered and analysed several of the basic principles of

than it was. His writings included hundreds of sketches that

moved an object in a forward direction had to be greater than the

of aviation—stressing careful analysis of problems and thorough

Both unpowered gliders and planes that were powered by engines

Inventors added engines to their gliders or balloons to provide ___________________

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks: ___________________

1. ……………………….. records also speak of human ___________________

The First Engine

Henson designed and patented the Aerial Steam Carriage, a

powered device that was based on Cayley’s doctrines. It was never

engine. Two decades later, Flix Du Temple built a steam-powered

monoplane that managed to rise a few feet off the ground—the

inches off the ground. These aircraft displayed various types of

two thousand glider flights, some which covered distances of over a

of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries.

He was the first aviation historian and lent his considerable

of Lake Michigan near Chicago, Illinois. Chanute served as a

United States. Samuel Pierpont Langley, astronomer and

powered fixed-wing aircraft that carried a passenger, ___________________

Aviation is defined as the design, manufacture, use, or operation of

than-air craft including airplanes, autogiros, gliders, helicopters,

the strangest machines to fly long before the Wright brothers'

Lesson End Activity

With the help of internet, collect pictures of early aircraft and

LIT Verlag Münster.

21st Century, Physica Verlag Heidelberg.

20th Century ___________________

 Advancement in and around 19th century ___________________

and Icarus. Daedalus was imprisoned on the island of Crete by

eventually aircraft and types of flying machines were invented.

powerful, from steam to piston, jet and rocket engines.

stronger and lighter. Initially aircraft were made of canvas

replaced wood. All aluminium monocoque construction became

___________________ Before the 20th Century

List of Early Flying Machines and First Flying Machine

meters, possibly inspired by the description in the story of

Roughly 2 centuries later, in the 15th century renaissance that

Figure 2.2: Leonardo da Vinci’s Ornithopters Wings