Characteristics of qualitative research

Design Strategies:
 
1. Naturalistic inquiry: Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally;
non-manipulative and non-controlling; openness to whatever emerges (lack of
predetermined constraints on findings).
2.  Emergent design flexibility : Openness to adapting inquiry as
understanding deepens and/or situations to change; the researcher avoids getting
locked into rigid designs that eliminate responsiveness and pursues new paths of
discovery as they emerge.
3. Purposeful sampling: Cases for study (e.g., people, organizations,
communities, cultures, events, critical incidences) are selected because they
are “information rich” and illuminative, that is, they offer useful manifestations
of the phenomenon of interest; sampling, then, is aimed at insight about the
phenomenon, not empirical generalization from a sample to a population.

Data-Collection and Fieldwork Strategies:

4. Qualitative data: Observations that yield detailed, thick description; inquiry

in depth; interviews that capture direct quotations about people’s
personal perspectives and experiences; case studies; careful document review.

5. Personal experience and engagement: The researcher has direct contact with
and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under study;
the researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an important part of the
inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.

6.  Empathic neutrality and mindfulness: An empathic stance in interviewing

seeks vicarious understanding without judgment (neutrality) by showing
openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness; in
observation it means being fully present (mindfulness)

7.  Dynamic systems : Attention to process; assumes change as ongoing

whether focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an
entire culture; therefore, mindful of and attentive to system and situation
dynamics.
Analysis Strategies:

8. Unique case orientation : Assumes that each case is special and unique; the first
level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the
individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the
quality of individual case studies.

9.  Inductive analysis and creative synthesis: Immersion in the details and

specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and
interrelationships; begins by exploring, then confirming, guided by analytical
principles rather than rules, ends with a creative synthesis.

10.  Holistic perspective: The whole phenomenon under study is understood as

a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex
interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to
a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships.

11. Context sensitivity: Places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context;
careful about, even dubious of, the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations
across time and space; emphasizes instead careful comparative case analyses and
extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaptation in new settings.

12. Voice, perspective, and reflexivity: The qualitative analyst owns and

is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice
conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible
and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher’s focus becomes
balance understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its
complexity while being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in
consciousness

Berg, Bruce Lawrence. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. 8th edition. Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2012; Denzin, Norman. K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. Handbook of Qualitative
Research. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000; Marshall, Catherine and Gretchen B.
Rossman. Designing Qualitative Research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995;
Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass, 2009.
Qualitative findings generalizable? Qualitative researchers are not as
concerned about the generalizability or transferability of their findings to other
contexts and people. Qualitative researchers recognize that each setting is
unique and that the perspectives captured are uniquely tied to that setting.
While, most often, generalizability is left to the end-user to determine if the
study is applicable to their setting of interest, the qualitative researchers assists
the reader by providing rich, description, grounding the study in theory, and
using multiple sources of data.

What about the researchers’ opinions, prejudices, and other biases, and
their effect on the data? These are considered part of the richness of
qualitative data. The researcher is the instrument for data collection and through
which information flows. The researcher is trained to guard against values
judgments, to report biases in their memos, to provide findings that are
trustworthy–detailed record keeping, and methods such as member checking,
triangulation of data sources, confirming and disconfirming evidence to check
the validity of the data.

Doesn’t the presence of the researcher change the behavior of the people he
or she is trying to study? Yes, all forms of research have the potential to
change what is being studied. Qualitative researchers are in the field for
prolonged periods of time, interacting with participants in their natural
environments after having gained their trust. Data collection then takes on a
mutual exchange of information between trusted parties.

Will two researchers independently studying the same setting or subject

come up with the same findings? This question really gets to whether the
study is reliable. That is, would the same findings happen in the same way at a
different point and time? Qualitative researchers are not really concerned about
reliability in the traditional quantitative sense. Instead, researchers are interested
in the accuracy and comprehensiveness of their data, so that there is a match
between what occurs in the setting under study and what they record as data.

Can qualitative and quantitative approaches be used together? Yes,

although is best to have training and experience in both methodologies before
choosing to combine them. Again, as in choosing any research design, it
depends on the research problem and the personal experiences of the researcher.
 Is qualitative research really scientific? Yes, qualitative research meets the
standards of scientific research: rigorous and systematic empirical inquiry that is
data based.

 Synergy (interaction of two or more) among respondents, as they build

on each other’s comments and ideas.
 The dynamic nature of the interview or group discussion process, which
engages respondents more actively than is possible in more structured survey.
 The opportunity to probe ("Help me understand why you feel that way")
enabling the researcher to reach beyond initial responses and rationales.
 The opportunity to observe, record and interpret non-verbal
communication (i.e., body language, voice intonation) as part of a respondent’s
feedback, which is valuable during interviews or discussions, and during
analysis.
 The opportunity to engage respondents in "play" such as projective
techniques and exercises, overcoming the self-consciousness that can inhibit
spontaneous reactions and comments.

Qualitative research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior

and the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It
uses in-depth studies of small groups of people to guide and support the
construction of hypotheses. The results of qualitative research are descriptive
rather than predictive.

Qualitative research does not introduce treatments or manipulate variables,

or impose the researcher's operational definitions of variables on the
participants. Rather, it lets the meaning emerge from the participants. It is more
flexible in that it can adjust to the setting. Concepts, data collection tools, and
data collection methods can be adjusted as the research progresses.

    Qualitative research aims to get a better understanding through first hand
experience, truthful reporting, and quotations of actual conversations. It aims to
understand how the participants derive meaning from their surroundings, and
how their meaning influences their behavior.

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.  It is used to gain an

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides
insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential
quantitative research.

Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and
dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using
unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include
focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents
are selected to fulfill a given quota.

In qualitative studies, research methods are set up which suggest the type of
methods of observation which may be used and the type of data which may be
collected. Analysis begins as soon as data begin to be collected. Analysis and
data collection proceed in a cyclical fashion, where preliminary analysis
informs subsequent data collection and so forth.