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Handbook of Continuum Mechanics. Preface and contents.

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-64256542-7

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 Handbook of Continuum Mechanics

ONLINE LIBRARY
Physics and Astronomy
Springer-Verlag B e r l i n Heidelberg G m b H http://www.springer.de/phys/
 POLYTECHNIQUE

The Ecole Polytechnique, one of France's top academic institutions, has a long-
standing tradition of producing exceptional scientific textbooks for its students.
The original lecture notes, the Cours de VEcole Polytechnique, which were written
by Cauchy and Jordan in the nineteenth century, are considered to be landmarks
in the development of mathematics.
The present series of textbooks is remarkable in that the texts incorporate the
most recent scientific advances in courses designed to provide undergraduate
students with the foundations of a scientific discipline. A n outstanding level of
quality is achieved in each of the scientific fields taught at the Ecole: pure and
applied mathematics, computer sciences, mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology,
and economics. The uniform level of excellence is the result of the unique selection
of academic staff there which includes, in addition to the best researchers in its
own renowned laboratories, a large number of world-famous scientists, appointed
as part-time professors or associate professors, who work in the most advanced
research centers France has in each field.
Another distinctive characteristic of these courses is their overall consistency;
each course makes appropriate use of relevant concepts introduced in the other
textbooks. This is because each student at the Ecole Polytechnique has to acquire
basic knowledge in the various scientific fields taught there, so a substantial link
between departments is necessary. The distribution of these courses used to be
restricted to the students at the Ecole. Some years ago we were very successful in
making these courses available to a larger French-reading audience. We now build
on this success by making these textbooks also available in English.
Jean Salen^on

Handbook of
Continuum
Mechanics
General Concepts
Thermoelasticity
Translated by
Stephen Lyle
With 185 Figures Including 11 Color Plates,
Separate Short Reader
and Multilingual Fold-out Glossary

Springer
Professor Jean Salencon
Ecole Polytechnique
Laboratoire de Mecanique des Solides
91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
E-mail: jean.salencon@polytechnique.org

Translator:
Stephen Lyle
Gite Vert
09240 Alzen, France
E-mail: s.lyle@free.fr

Title of the original French edition:

Mecanique des milieux Continus, Tome I-III. © Editions de l'Ecole polytechnique - aoüt 2000
Cover picture: Stress visualisation using photoelasticity. Stress concentrations around a notch on a test
piece in tension. Photo: J. Salencon

ISBN 978-3-642-62556-5 ISBN 978-3-642-56542-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-56542-7

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Salencon, Jean. [Mecanique des millieux Continus.
English] Handbook of continuum mechanics: general concepts, thermoelasticity/ Jean Salencon; trans-
lated by Stephen Lyle. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 3540414436 (acid-free
paper) 1. Continuum mechanics. I. Title. QA808.2.S2413 2001 53i-dc2i 2001020696

This work is subject to copyright. A l l rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material
is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broad-
casting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of
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Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York i n 2001
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Preface

The scale that concerns the practitioner in mechanics is usually qualified as

macroscopic. Indeed, applications are rarely much below the human scale, and
in order to be relevant models must be constructed on a similar scale, several
orders of magnitude greater than the objects that are normally attributed to
the physicist's sphere of interest. The mechanicist is therefore aware of the
limits of these models, no matter how elegant their mathematical formulation
may be, when the time comes far experimental validation. The mechanicist
has a deep concern for the microscopic phenomena at the heart of what is
being modelled, exposed by the physicist's research, which can today explain
a wide range of material behaviour.
The aim of this book is to present the general ideas behind continuum
mechanics, thermoelasticity and one-dimensional media.
Our approach to constructing mechanical models and modelling forces
is based upon the principle oi virtual work. There are several advantages
to this method. To begin with, it clearly emphasises the key role played
by geometrical modelling, leading to mechanically consistent presentations
in a systematic way. In addition, by requiring rigorous thought and clear
formulation of hypotheses, it identifies the inductive steps and emphasises
the need for validation, despite its axiomatic appearance. Moreover, once
mastered, it will serve as a productive tool in the reader's later research
career. This duality is used in the chapter devoted to variational methods for
the solution of thermoelastic problems. The study of one-dimensional media
illustrates the systematic nature of the principle of virtual work in a case
where a microstructure must be introduced and its orient at ion followed in
order to arrive at a useful model.
Although the virtual work approach provides the structure for this presen-
tation, it is not intended as a dogma. Hence, with regard to the modelling of
forces, it is not suggested that the 'classical' presentations are redundant, as
is done in other textbooks; direct methods far solving thermoelasticity prob-
lems have not been neglected in favour of the variational approach, despite
the current pre-eminence of the latter. And, finally, the unified presentation
achieved via the principle of virtual work in modelling internal forces should
not lead us to forget, from a physical viewpoint, the great variety of under-
lying inter action phenomena.
VI Preface

With regard to the presentation of the material, we have sought to sim-

plify the reader's task as far as possible. A list of keywords, a short abstract
and a table of the most important new notation precede each chapter, which
then ends with a summary of the main formulas and a set of exercises of
varying degrees of difficulty together with hints, sometimes detailed, for their
solution. The typeset aims to separate two levels of reading through a hier-
archy of letter sizes. The sections in small lettering are intended for a deeper
appreciation and can be left out in a first reading. Finally, in most cases we
have tried to present an example or experimental results before embarking
upon general modelling and theory. The book also includes a short reader as
a separate booklet and a multilingual glossary as a fold-out table.
I would like to thank the teaching staff and former colleagues in the
Department of Mechanics at the Ecole Polytechnique, in particular Michel
Amestoy, Jean-Michel Delbecq and Pierre Suquet for their advice and sug-
gestions concerning the French version of this book; the staff of the printing
and audiovisual unit at the Ecole Polytechnique for their dedication and skill;
and all organisations who have accepted the reproduction of figures.
This book was made possible thanks to the assiduity of Stephen Lyle, who
is responsible for the English translation. It is indeed an English version that
he produced, taking care throughout to preserve the original presentation
even when the appropriate specific terminology proved difficult to find in the
current literat ure. Working with Stephen Lyle was a pleasure all along and
even contributed to the improvement of the French version. I wish to express
my most hearty thanks to hirn.

Palaiseau Jean Salen90n

February 2001
Contents

I. Modelling the Continuum ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Scale, Model, and Validation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Concepts and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 The Main Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Frame of Reference and Coordinate System. . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Configurations of the System ..................... 10
2.4 Material Frame Indifference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
3 Lagrangian Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
3.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
3.2 Continuity Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
3.3 Weakening of Continuity Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
3.4 Physical Interpretation
of the Lagrangian Description: Pathlines ........... 16
3.5 Streaklines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
3.6 Particle Velo city ................................ 17
3.7 Generalised Reference Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
4 Eulerian Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
4.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
4.2 Determining Pathlines .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
4.3 Streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
4.4 Steady Motions ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
4.5 Semi-Steady Motions ............................ 22
4.6 Notation for Velocity ............................ 22
5 Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Exercises ................................................. 28

11. Deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
1 Transport, Transformation, and Deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
2 Convective Transport in a Homogeneous Transformation. . .. 38
2.1 Homogeneous Transformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
2.2 Material Vector and Convective Transport. . . . . . . . .. 39
2.3 Transport and Expansion of a Volume ............. 40
2.4 Transport of an Oriented Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
VIII Contents

3 Deformation in a Homogeneous Transformation. . . . . . . . . . .. 43

3.1 Expansion Tensor ............................... 43
3.2 Using the Expansion Tensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
3.3 Green-Lagrange Strain Tensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
3.4 Polar Factorisation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
4 Deformation of the Continuum: General Case ............. 51
4.1 Basic Principle: The Homogeneous Tangent Map . . .. 51
4.2 Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
4.3 Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
4.4 Displacement ................................... 54
4.5 Polar Factorisation and Rigid Body Transformation.. 55
4.6 Frame Indifference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
5 Infinitesimal Transformations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
5.1 Definition ...................................... 57
5.2 Linearised Strain Tensor ......................... 57
5.3 Gradient of a Tensor Field
on the Current Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
6 Geometrical Compatibility of a Linearised Strain Field ..... 59
6.1 Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
6.2 Compatibility Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
6.3 Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
6.4 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
7 Final Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
7.1 Transformation and Deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
7.2 Lagrangian Parametrisation
Relative to a Generalised Configuration . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
7.3 Practical Investigation of Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Exercises ................................................. 71

III. Kinematics.............................................. 81
1 Introduction ............... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
2 Lagrangian Kinematics of the Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
2.1 Convective Transport and Material Derivative. . . . . .. 87
2.2 Lagrangian Strain Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
3 Eulerian Kinematics of the Continuum ................... 90
3.1 Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
3.2 Material Derivative of a Vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
3.3 Eulerian Strain Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
3.4 Use of the Strain Rate Tensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
3.5 Spin Tensor. Rate of Volume Dilatation. . . . . . . . . . .. 95
3.6 Comparison with Linearised Strain
for Infinitesimal Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
3.7 Geometrical Compatibility of aStrain Rate Field . . .. 99
3.8 Rigid Body Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
 Contents IX

3.9 Weak Formulation of Geometrical Compatibility .... 100

3.10 Infinitesimal Transformations ..................... 101
3.11 Frame Indifference ............................... 101
4 Material Derivatives .................................... 102
4.1 Material Derivatives in the Lagrangian Description .. 102
4.2 Material Derivatives in the Eulerian Description ..... 103
4.3 Material Derivative of a Point Function ............ 104
4.4 Material Derivative of a Volume Integral ........... 105
4.5 Material Derivative of a Circulation ................ 115
4.6 Material Derivative of a Flux ..................... 116
5 Conservation of Mass ................................... 118
5.1 Equation of Continuity ........................... 118
5.2 Integral Form ................................... 120
5.3 Material Derivative of a Mass Integral
in the Eulerian Description ....................... 120
Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 122
Exercises ................................................. 126

IV. The Virtual Work Approach

to the Modelling of Forces ............................... 133
1 The Problem of Modelling Forces ........................ 139
1.1 Modelling Forces in a System of Material Points ..... 139
1.2 The Virtual Work Method ........................ 144
2 Dualisation and Virtual Work
for a System of Material Points .......................... 144
2.1 System Comprising a Single Material Point ......... 144
2.2 System Comprising Several Material Points ......... 145
2.3 Virtual Velo city, Virtual Motion and Virtual Work .. 147
2.4 Statement of the Principle of Virtual Work ......... 149
2.5 Virtual Motions in Relation
to the Modelling of Forces ....................... 149
3 Virtual Work Method for a System of Material Points ...... 150
3.1 Presentation of the Virtual Work Method .......... 150
3.2 Example of an Application ....................... 150
3.3 Remarks on this Application
of the Virtual Work Method ...................... 154
3.4 Geometrical Compatibility of Jij .
Systems of Hinged Rods .......................... 154
4 The Virtual Work Method .............................. 156
4.1 General Presentation of the Method ............... 156
4.2 Summary of the Virtual Work Method ............. 158
4.3 Remarks ....................................... 159
4.4 Change of Frame. Frame Indifference .............. 159
5 Rigid Body Motions. Distributors and Wrenches ........... 160
5.1 Distributors .................................... 160
X Contents

5.2 Wrenehes ....................................... 161

5.3 Restrietion of a Linear Form Defined on aSpace
of Virtual Motions to the Rigid Body Virtual Motions 162
5.4 Wreneh of a Force System ........................ 162
5.5 Fields of Distributors and Wrenehes. Differentiation . 163
6 General Results ....................................... 165
6.1 Defining the System and its Motions ............... 165
6.2 Virtual Work ................................... 166
6.3 Law of Mutual Aetions
and Fundamental Law of Dynamies ................ 166
6.4 Remarks ....................................... 167
7 Momentum Theorem. Kinetic Energy Theorem ............ 168
7.1 Definition of the System and its Motions ........... 168
7.2 Wreneh of the Quantities of Aeeeleration.
Momentum Wreneh .............................. 168
7.3 Conservation of Momentum ....................... 170
7.4 Euler's Theorem ................................ 171
7.5 Kinetie Energy Theorem ......................... 172
7.6 Diseontinuous Real Velo city Field. Shoek Waves ..... 173
8 Looking Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Exereises ................................................. 181

V. Modelling Forces in Continuum Mechanics .............. 183

1 Statement of the Problem ............................... 189
2 Sealar Field Model of Internal Forces. Pressure ............ 190
2.1 Virtual Motions.
Virtual Rate of Work by Quantities of Aeeeleration .. 190
2.2 Virtual Rate of Work by External Forces ........... 191
2.3 Virtual Rate of Work by Internal Forces ............ 194
2.4 Equations of Motion ............................. 195
2.5 Relevanee of the Model. Pressure Field ............. 198
2.6 The Fundamental Law of Dynamies ................ 199
2.7 Diseontinuous Virtual Velo city Field ............... 199
3 Modelling Internal Forees by a Tensor Field. Stresses . . . . . . . 202
3.1 Virtual Motions. Virtual Rates ofWork by Quantities
of Aeeeleration and External Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.2 Virtual Rate of Work by Internal Forces ............ 203
3.3 Equations of Motion ............................. 204
3.4 Remarks ....................................... 206
3.5 Cauehy Stress Tensor. Stress Veetor ............... 208
3.6 Modelling Internal Forees Within the Continuum
Using the Stress Vector .......................... 211
3.7 Explicit Forms of the Equations of Motion .......... 214
3.8 Diseontinuous Virtual Velo city Field ............... 215
 Contents XI

3.9 Discontinuities in the Stress Field ................. 218

3.10 Euler's Theorem ................................ 222
3.11 Kinetic Energy Theorem ......................... 223
3.12 Rate of Work by Deformation ..................... 224
3.13 Geometrical Compatibility Revisited.
A Weak Formulation ............................. 225
3.14 Weak Formulation of the Equations of Motion ...... 225
3.15 Frame Indifference of the Cauchy Stress Tensor ..... 226
4 Lagrangian Formulation of Stresses ...................... 226
4.1 Piola-Kirchhoff Stress Tensor ..................... 226
4.2 Piola-Lagrange Stress Tensor. Equations of Motion .. 230
5 Review and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.1 Mechanicist and Physieist ........................ 232
5.2 Summary of Results ............................. 233
5.3 Mieropolar Media ............................... 234
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Exereises ................................................. 240

VI. Local Analysis of Stresses ............................... 249

1 Implementing the Notion of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
2 Some Praetical Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
2.1 Dimensions and Units ............................ 255
2.2 Normal Stress and Shear Stress ................... 256
2.3 Sign Convention. Physieal Interpretation ........... 258
2.4 Cauehy Reciproeal Theorem ...................... 258
2.5 Change of Basis ................................. 259
2.6 Prineipal Axes. Prineipal Stresses ................. 262
2.7 Invariants of the Stress Tensor.
Representation Theorem ......................... 263
2.8 Deviatoric Stress Tensor .......................... 265
3 Mohr Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
3.1 ' Mohr Representation ............................ 266
3.2 Mohr Circles .................................... 267
3.3 Deseription of Prineipal Circles ................... 269
3.4 Practieal Consequenees .......................... 271
3.5 Examples of Stress States ........................ 271
4 Yield Conditions for Isotropie Materials .................. 274
4.1 Presentation .................................... 274
4.2 General Prineiples ............................... 274
4.3 Tresea Yield Criterion ........................... 276
4.4 Von Mises Yield Criterion ........................ 277
5 Material Derivative of the Stress Tensor .................. 278
5.1 Material Derivative .............................. 278
5.2 Intrinsie Derivative (Truesdell Rate) ............... 279
5.3 Corotational Derivative (Jaumann Rate) ........... 280
XII Contents

Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 282

Exereises ................................................. 283

VII. Thermoelasticity ........................................ 295

1 From Experienee to a Constitutive Law ................... 301
2 Experimental Observations .............................. 302
2.1 Generalities ..................................... 302
2.2 Simple Tension Test ............................. 303
2.3 Further Experimental Results ..................... 304
2.4 Remarks ....................................... 305
3 Thermodynamies of Continuous Media ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
3.1 First Law: Energy Equation ...................... 306
3.2 Seeond Law: Fundamental Inequality .............. 311
3.3 Lagrangian Expressions .......................... 313
4 Thermoelastie Constitutive Laws ........................ 315
4.1 Elastieity Hypothesis ............................ 315
4.2 Uneonstrained Thermoelastieity ................... 316
4.3 Thermoelastieity with Internal Constraints ......... 321
4.4 Material Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.5 Isotropie Thermoelastie Material
in the Referenee Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
4.6 Internal Constraints from the Eulerian Standpoint ... 327
5 Uneonstrained Linear Thermoelastieity ................... 328
5.1 Introduction .................................... 328
5.2 Physieal Linearisation ............................ 328
5.3 Isotropie Linear Thermoelastie Material ............ 332
5.4 Infinitesimal Transformation
and Geometrieal Linearisation .................... 334
5.5 Stability of Thermoelastie Materials ............... 340
5.6 Typical Values for Materials in Common Use ....... 343
5.7 Examples of Anisotropie Thermoelastie Materials .... 343
6 Historical Perspeetive .................................. 346
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Exereises .................................................. 351

VIII. Thermoelastic Processes and Equilibrium . .............. 361

1 Quasi-Statie Thermoelastie Proeesses ..................... 367
1.1 The Need for a Constitutive Law .................. 367
1.2 Formulating the Quasi-Static Thermoelastic Problem 369
1.3 Solving the Quasi-Statie Thermoelastie Problem ..... 372
1.4 Some Examples of Boundary Conditions ........... 374
2 Linearising the Quasi-Statie Thermoelastie Proeess ......... 376
2.1 Linearisation Hypotheses ......................... 376
2.2 The Prineiples of Linearisation .................... 377
 Contents XIII

2.3 Usual Equations

for Linearised Thermoelastic Pro ces ses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
3 Linearised Quasi-Static Thermoelastic Processes ........... 381
3.1 Decoupling the Heat Problem ..................... 381
3.2 Thermoelastic Equilibrium ....................... 381
3.3 Uniqueness Theorem ............................. 382
3.4 Natural Initial State and Principle of Superposition .. 382
3.5 Nonzero Initial Self-Equilibrating Stress State ....... 383
3.6 Preloaded Initial State ........................... 383
4 Solution to the Thermoelastic Equilibrium Problem ........ 385
4.1 Statement of the Problem ........................ 385
4.2 Statically Admissible Stress Fields.
Kinematically Admissible Displacement Fields ...... 386
4.3 Thermoelastic Equilibrium
and Associated Isothermal Elastic Equilibrium ...... 389
4.4 Solution Methods ............................... 391
5 Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
5.1 Basic Principle .................................. 392
5.2 Isothermal Equilibrium and Homogeneous
Isotropie Materials. Navier Equation ............... 393
5.3 Strongly Heterogeneous Materials
and Thermal Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
6 Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
6.1 Basic Principle .................................. 396
6.2 Isothermal Equilibrium and Homogeneous
Isotropie Materials. Beltrami-Miehell Equations ..... 398
6.3 Strongly Heterogeneous Materials
and Thermal Shocks ............................. 401
7 Torsion of a Cylindrical Rod ............................ 402
7.1 Statement of the Problem ........................ 402
7.2 Solution: Displacement Method ................... 403
7.3 Remarks ....................................... 407
7.4 Invariances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
7.5 Rod with Circular Cross Section .................. 409
7.6 Solution by the Stress Method .................... 412
7.7 Yield Point of the Rod in Torsion ................. 413
8 Saint Venant Principle ................................. 416
Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 419
Exercises ................................................. 423

IX. Classic Topics in Three-Dimensional Elasticity . .......... 429

1 Introduction .......................................... 435
2 Tension-Compression of a Cylindrical Rod ................ 436
2.1 Statement of the Problem ........................ 436
2.2 Form of the Solution ............................. 437
XIV Contents

2.3 Remarks ....................................... 438

2.4 Yield Point of the Rod
in Simple Tension or Compression ................. 440
2.5 Tension-Torsion of a Cylindrical Rod .............. 440
3 Normal Bending of a Cylindrical Rod .................... 442
3.1 Statement of the Problem ........................ 442
3.2 Form of the Solution ............................. 443
3.3 Remarks ....................................... 445
3.4 Yield Point of the Rod in Normal Bending .......... 450
4 Off-Axis Bending of a Cylindrical Rod .................... 451
4.1 Bending Normal to the Gy Axis ................... 451
4.2 Off-Axis Bending. Statement of the Problem ........ 452
4.3 Form of the Solution ............................. 452
4.4 Remarks ....................................... 452
5 Bending of a Cylindrical Rod with Axial Loading .......... 454
5.1 Definition ...................................... 454
5.2 Solution and Remarks ........................... 454
5.3 Saint Venant Problem ............................ 455
6 Elastic Equilibrium of a Hollow Sphere Under Pressure ..... 456
6.1 Statement of the Problem ........................ 456
6.2 Form of the Solution ............................. 456
6.3 Remarks ....................................... 457
6.4 Yield Point of a Hollow Sphere Under Pressure ...... 460
7 Elastic Equilibrium of a Cylindrical Tube Under Pressure ... 461
7.1 Statement of the Problem ........................ 461
7.2 Form of the Solution ............................. 462
7.3 Remarks ....................................... 464
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Exercises ................................................. 467

X. Variational Methods in Linearised Thermoelasticity ..... 483

1 Direct Methods and Variational Methods ................. 489
1.1 Introduction .................................... 489
1.2 Direct Methods of Solution ....................... 491
1.3 Presentation of Variational Methods ............... 492
1.4 The Virtual Work Theorem ....................... 493
1.5 Notions of Convexity ............................ 494
1.6 Expressing the Linearised Thermoelastic
Constitutive Law ................................ 496
2 Minimum of the Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
2.1 Convexity of <C (Sf,i ,~f) .......................... 499
2.2 Minimum Principle for Displacements .............. 499
2.3 Explicit Expressions ............................. 502
2.4 Uniqueness of the Solution ....................... 502
2.5 Thermoelastic Material with Internal Constraints .... 503
 Contents XV

3 Minimum of the Complementary Energy .................. 504

3.1 Convexity of § (F, STi ,Tid ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
3.2 Minimum Principle for Stresses ................... 505
3.3 Explicit Expressions ............................. 507
3.4 Uniqueness of the Solution ....................... 508
3.5 Combining Minimum Principles
for Displacements and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
3.6 Thermoelastic Material with Internal Constraints .... 510
3.7 Prestressed and Preloaded Initial Reference State .... 511
4 Variational Methods ................................... 512
4.1 Converses to the Minimum Principles .............. 512
4.2 Variational Methods ............................. 514
5 Natural Initial State. Isothermal Equilibrium .............. 519
5.1 Expressions for the Elastic Energy ................. 519
5.2 Clapeyron Equation ............................. 520
5.3 Example: Apparent Modulus
of a Heterogeneous Cylinder ...................... 522
5.4 The Maxwell-Betti Reciprocity Theorem ........... 525
6 Self-Equilibrating Stress Fields.
Minimum Potential Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
6.1 Self-Equilibrating Stress Fields for the Problem ..... 526
6.2 Minimum Complementary Energy
and Minimum Potential Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
6.3 Remarks ....................................... 530
7 Parametrie Problems ................................... 531
7.1 Aim of the Study ................................ 531
7.2 Statically Admissible and Kinematically Admissible
Fields for the Parametrie Problem ................. 532
7.3 Self-Equilibrating Stress Fields
for the Parametrie Problem ....................... 535
7.4 Examples of Parametrie Problems ................. 536
8 Energy Theorems for Parametrie Thermoelastic Equilibrium 541
8.1 Castigliano's Theorem ........................... 541
8.2 Minimum Potential Theorem ..................... 545
8.3 Isothermal Equilibrium from the Natural Initial State
in Linear Elasticity .............................. 549
9 Conclusion ............................................ 550
Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 551
Exercises ................................................. 555

XI. Statics of One-Dimensional Media ....................... 569

1 The Problem of One-Dimensional Modelling ............... 577
2 Statics of Wires ....................................... 579
2.1 Geometrical Model. Real Motions ................. 579
2.2 Vector Space of Virtual Motions ................... 580
XVI Contents

2.3 Virtual Rate of Work by External Forces ........... 580

2.4 Virtual Rate of Work by Internal Forces ............ 582
2.5 Equilibrium Equations ........................... 583
2.6 Consistency of the Model. Physical Interpretation ... 584
2.7 Discontinuities in the Internal Force Field ......... . 586
2.8 Integrating the Equilibrium Equations ............. 587
2.9 Discontinuities in the Virtual Velo city Field ........ 588
2.10 Relevance of the Model .......................... 589
3 Statics of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
3.1 Guiding Ideas ................................... 592
3.2 Geometrical Model. Real Motions ................. 593
3.3 Vector Space of Virtual Motions ................... 594
3.4 Virtual Rate of Work by External Forces ........... 594
3.5 Virtual Rate of Work by Internal Forces ............ 596
3.6 Equilibrium Equations ........................... 598
3.7 Consistency of the Model. Physical Interpretation ... 600
3.8 Discontinuities in the Internal Force Field .......... 601
3.9 Integrating the Equilibrium Equations ............. 602
3.10 Discontinuities in the Virtual Motion .............. 603
3.11 Relevance of the Model .......................... 604
3.12 Comparing One-Dimensional
and Three-Dimensional Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
3.13 The Navier-Bernoulli Condition ................... 610
4 Structures Composed of One-Dimensional Members ........ 613
4.1 Introduction .................................... 613
4.2 Endpoint and Support Boundary Conditions .. , ..... 614
4.3 Boundary Conditions at Assembly Joints ........... 618
4.4 Connections and Supports ........................ 621
4.5 Static Analysis of Structures ...................... 621
4.6 Kinematic Analysis of Structures .................. 623
4.7 Plane Structures Loaded In-Plane ................. 625
Summary of Main Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Exercises ................................................. 631

XII. Thermoelastic Structural Analysis . ...................... 645

1 Introduction .......................................... 651
2 Thermoelastic Behaviour of the One-Dimensional Medium .. 652
2.1 Formulating a Constitutive Law ................... 652
2.2 Infinitesimal Transformation.
Displacement and Strain Distributors .............. 653
2.3 Virtual Work Theorem ........................... 655
2.4 Guiding Ideas ................................... 655
2.5 Isothermal Elastic Behaviour of a Straight Beam
Element from the Natural Initial State ............. 656
 Contents XVII

2.6 Thermoelastic Behaviour of a Straight Beam Element

in a Prestressed Initial State ...................... 663
2.7 Thermoelastic Behaviour
of the One-Dimensional Medium
in Structural Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
2.8 Extensions ..................................... 667
3 Linearised Thermoelastic Equilibrium
of One-Dimensional Structures .......................... 667
3.1 Small Perturbation Hypothesis .................... 667
3.2 Statically Determinate Problems .................. 668
3.3 Statically Indeterminate Problems ................. 668
3.4 Main Formulas .................................. 669
3.5 Plane StruCtures Loaded In-Plane ................. 670
3.6 Straight Beams Loaded In-Plane .................. 672
4 Example Applications .................................. 674
4.1 Statically Determinate Problems .................. 674
4.2 Statically Indeterminate Problems ................. 676
5 Conclusion ............................................ 678
Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 680
Exercises ................................................. 682

Appendices
I. Elements of Tensor Calculus . ............................ 693
1 Tensors on a Vector Space .............................. 699
1.1 Definition ...................................... 699
1.2 First Rank Tensors .............................. 700
1.3 Second Rank Tensors ............................ 700
2 Tensor Product of Tensors .............................. 701
2.1 Definition ...................................... 701
2.2 Examples ...................................... 701
2.3 Product Tensors ................................. 702
3 Tensor Components .................................... 703
3.1 Definition ...................................... 703
3.2 Change of Basis ................................. 704
3.3 Mixed Second Rank Tensors ...................... 705
3.4 Twice Contravariant
or Twice Covariant Second Rank Tensors. . . . . . . . . . . 707
3.5 Components of a Tensor Product .................. 708
4 Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
4.1 Definition of the Contraction of a Tensor ........... 708
4.2 Contracted Multiplication ........................ 709
4.3 Doubly Contracted Product of Two Tensors ........ 711
4.4 Total Contraction of a Tensor Product ............. 713
4.5 Defining Tensors by Duality ...................... 713
4.6 Invariants of a Mixed Second Rank Tensor .......... 714
XVIII Contents

5 Tensors on a Euelidean Veetor Spaee ..................... 714

5.1 Definition of a Euelidean Spaee ................... 714
5.2 Applieation: Deformation in a Linear Mapping ...... 715
5.3 Isomorphism Between E and E* .................. 715
5.4 Covariant Form of Veetors in E ................... 717
5.5 First Rank Euelidean Tensors
and the Contracted Product ...................... 718
5.6 Seeond Rank Euelidean Tensors of Simple
Product Form and their Contracted Products ....... 719
5.7 Seeond Rank Euelidean Tensors ................... 721
5.8 Rank n Euelidean Tensors ........................ 726
5.9 Choice of Orthonormal Basis in E ................. 726
5.10 Prineipal Axes and Prineipal Values
of a Real Symmetrie Seeond Rank Euelidean Tensor . 727
6 Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
6.1 Definition ...................................... 729
6.2 Derivative and Gradient of a Tensor Field .......... 729
6.3 Divergenee of a Tensor Field ...................... 731
6.4 Curvilinear Coordinates .......................... 732
Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 737

11. Differential Operators: Basic Formulas .................. 741

1 Orthonormal Cartesian Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
1.1 Coordinates .................................... 743
1.2 Veetor Field .................................... 743
1.3 Sealar Function ................................. 744
1.4 Seeond Rank Tensor Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
2 General Cartesian Coordinates .......................... 744
2.1 Coordinates .................................... 744
2.2 Veetor Field .................................... 745
2.3 Sealar Function ................................. 745
2.4 Seeond Rank Tensor Field ........................ 745
3 Cylindrieal Coordinates ................................ 746
3.1 Parametrisation ................................. 746
3.2 Veetor Field .................................... 746
3.3 Sealar Function ................................. 747
3.4 Symmetrie Seeond Rank Tensor Field .............. 747
4 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
4.1 Parametrisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
4.2 Veetor Field .................................... 748
4.3 Sealar Function ................................. 749
4.4 Symmetrie Seeond Rank Tensor Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
 Contents XIX

IH. Elements of Plane Elasticity ............................. 751

1 Plane Problems ........................................ 757
2 Plane Strain Thermoelastie Equilibrium .................. 757
2.1 Plane Linearised Strain Tensor .................... 757
2.2 Plane Strain Displaeement Field ................... 758
2.3 Plane Strain Thermoelastie Equilibrium
in a Homogeneous and Isotropie Material ........... 758
2.4 Solution by the Displaeement Method .............. 760
2.5 Solution by the Stress Method .................... 764
2.6 Remarks on the Plane Strain
Two-Dimensional Problem ........................ 767
2.7 Two-Dimensional Beltrami-Miehell Equation ....... 767
2.8 Body Forees Deriving from a Potential.
Airy Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
2.9 Cylindrieal Tube Under Pressure .................. 770
3 Plane Stress Thermoelastie Equilibrium .................. 771
3.1 Plane Stress Tensor .............................. 771
3.2 Plane Stress Field ............................... 771
3.3 Plane Stress Thermoelastie Equilibrium
in a Homogeneous and Isotropie Material. . . . . . . . . . . 771
3.4 Solution ........................................ 773
3.5 Cylindrieal Tube Under Press ure .................. 778
Summary of Main Formulas ................................. 780

Bibliography . ................................................. 783

Subject Index . ............................................... 789

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