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Sea 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ ∪ {0}.
1−(−1)𝑛 𝑛−𝑢𝑛
𝑖 𝑛 = (−1)𝑣𝑛 [(1 − 𝑢𝑛 ) + 𝑢𝑛 𝑖], donde: 𝑢𝑛 = 2
, 𝑣𝑛 = 2
(0)
𝑑𝑛 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑛 sin 𝑥
= (−1)𝑣𝑛 [(1 − 𝑢𝑛 ) cos 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑛 sin 𝑥], = (−1)𝑣𝑛 [𝑢𝑛 cos 𝑥 + (1 − 𝑢𝑛 ) sin 𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
𝑣𝑛 𝑘
𝑛 𝑘
= ∑ ( ) [∑ ( ) (−1)𝑝 (cos 𝑥)𝑛−2𝑝 ]
2𝑘 𝑝
𝑘=0 𝑝=0
𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝑛 𝑝
= ∑ (∑ ( ) ( )) (−1)𝑘 (cos 𝑥)𝑛−2𝑘 (2)
2𝑝 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑝=𝑘
Observación:
𝑛 𝑘 𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑎𝑘 (∑ 𝑏𝑝 𝑐𝑝,𝑘 ) = ∑ (∑ 𝑎𝑝 𝑐𝑘,𝑝 ) 𝑏𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑝=0 𝑘=0 𝑝=𝑘
Luego,
𝑚 𝑚 𝑣𝑚−𝑢𝑛 −𝑣𝑛 𝑣2𝑘+𝑛 𝑥
2𝑘 + 𝑛 𝑝 sin(𝑚 + 1) 2 𝑥
∑ cos 𝑛𝑥 = ∑ [ ∑ (∑ ( ) ( )) (−1)𝑘 ] (cos 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑥 cos 𝑚 (3)
2𝑝 𝑘 sin 2
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0 𝑝=𝑘 2
Observación:
𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚 −𝑛 𝑣𝑚−1 𝑣𝑚−1 −𝑛 𝑚 𝑣𝑚−𝑎𝑛 −𝑣𝑛
∑ (∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑛−2𝑘 𝑐𝑛,𝑘 ) = [∑ ( ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑐2𝑘+2𝑛,𝑘 ) 𝑏2𝑛 ] + [ ∑ ( ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑐2𝑘+(2𝑛+1),𝑘 ) 𝑏2𝑛+1 ] = ∑ ( ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑐2𝑘+𝑛,𝑘 ) 𝑏𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑘=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0
Consideremos de (2):
𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑝
cos 𝑛𝑥 = (cos 𝑥)𝑛 ∑ ( ) + ∑ (∑ ( ) ( )) (−1)𝑘 (cos 𝑥)𝑛−2𝑘
2𝑝 2𝑝 𝑘
𝑝=0 𝑘=1 𝑝=𝑘
Por consiguiente,
𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝑛
1 𝑛 𝑝
(cos 𝑥) = [cos 𝑛𝑥 − ∑ (∑ ( ) ( )) (−1)𝑘 (cos 𝑥)𝑛−2𝑘 ]
2𝑛−1 2𝑝 𝑘
𝑘=1 𝑝=𝑘
Observación:
𝑣𝑛
𝑛
∑ ( ) = 2𝑛−1
2𝑝
𝑝=0
Ahora, usando (3) se obtiene:
𝑞 𝑛𝑥 𝑞 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛
1 sin(𝑞 + 1) 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 𝑝
∑ (cos 𝑚𝑥)𝑛 = [ 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑞 − ∑ ∑(−1)𝑘 (∑ ( ) ( )) (cos 𝑚𝑥)𝑛−2𝑘 ]
2𝑛−1 sin 2 2𝑝 𝑘
𝑚=0 2 𝑚=0 𝑘=1 𝑝=𝑘
𝑛𝑥 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛 𝑞
1 sin(𝑞 + 1) 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 𝑝
= { 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑞 − ∑(−1)𝑘 (∑ ( ) ( )) [ ∑ (cos 𝑚𝑥)𝑛−2𝑘 ]} (∗)
2𝑛−1 sin 2 2𝑝 𝑘
2 𝑘=1 𝑝=𝑘 𝑚=0
Observación:
𝑞 𝑛 𝑛 𝑞
∑ (∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑚,𝑘 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 ( ∑ 𝑏𝑚,𝑘 )
𝑚=0 𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑚=0
𝑣𝑛−1 𝑣𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑣𝑛−1 − 𝑘
= (cos 𝑥) ∑( ) [ ∑ (−1)𝑝 ( ) (sin 𝑥)2𝑝+1 ]
2𝑘 + 1 𝑣𝑛−1 − 𝑝
𝑘=0 𝑝=𝑘
𝑣𝑛−1 𝑘
𝑢𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑣𝑛−1 − 𝑝
= (cos 𝑥) ∑ (∑ ( )( )) (−1)𝑘 (sin 𝑥)2𝑘+1 (4)
2𝑝 + 1 𝑣𝑛−1 − 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑝=0
Observación:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑘
∑ 𝑎𝑘 (∑ 𝑏𝑝 𝑐𝑝,𝑘 ) = ∑ (∑ 𝑎𝑝 𝑐𝑘,𝑝 ) 𝑏𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑝=𝑘 𝑘=0 𝑝=0
Luego,
𝑚 𝑣𝑚−1 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥
𝑘 𝑣𝑘−1 − 𝑝 sin(𝑚 + 1) 2 𝑥
∑ sin 𝑛𝑥 = ∑ (−1)𝑛 (sin 𝑥) 2𝑛+1
{ ∑ (cos 𝑥) 𝑢𝑛−1
[∑ ( )( )]} = 𝑥 sin 𝑚
2𝑝 + 1 𝑣𝑘−1 − 𝑛 sin 2
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=2𝑛+1 𝑝=0 2
Observación:
𝑚 𝑣𝑛−1 𝑣𝑚−1 𝑚
∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑐𝑛,𝑘 ) = ∑ ( ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑐𝑘,𝑛 ) 𝑏𝑛 ∧ 𝑎0 = 0
𝑛=0 𝑘=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=2𝑛+1
Consideremos de (4):
𝑛 𝑘
2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑝
sin(2𝑛 + 1)𝑥 = ∑ (∑ ( )( )) (−1)𝑘 (sin 𝑥)2𝑘+1 (5)
2𝑝 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑝=0
𝜋
Si 𝑥 = 2𝑛+1, se obtiene:
𝑛 𝑘
2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑝 𝜋 2𝑘
∑ (∑ ( )( )) (−1)𝑘 (sin ) =0
2𝑝 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑘 2𝑛 + 1
𝑘=0 𝑝=0
𝜋 4 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Si 𝑛 = 2, se obtiene la expresión 16 (sin 5 ) − 20 (sin 5 ) + 5 = 0. Puesto que sin 6 < sin 5 < sin 4 , entonces
𝜋 1 5−√5
sin 5 = 2 √ 2
.
Aproximación de 𝝅
Sea 𝑘 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}. Para un polígono regular de 𝑛 lados inscrito en una circunferencia se tiene:
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
3∙2 3 ∙ 2𝑘−1 √2 − 𝑎𝑘 4∙2 4 ∙ 2𝑘−1 √2 − 𝑏𝑘 5∙2 5 ∙ 2𝑘−1 √2 − 𝑐𝑘
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
∞ 𝜋 ∞ 𝜋 ∞ 𝜋
Donde:
√5−1
−1, 𝑘 = 0 0, 𝑘 = 0 , 𝑘=0
𝑎𝑘 = { 𝑏𝑘 = { 𝑐𝑘 = { 2
√2 + 𝑎𝑘−1 , 𝑘 > 0 √2 + 𝑏𝑘−1 , 𝑘 > 0 √2 + 𝑐𝑘−1 , 𝑘 > 0
Observación:
𝑚 𝑛 𝑚 𝑚
∑ (∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑛,𝑘 ) = ∑ (∑ 𝑏𝑘,𝑛 ) 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑘=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=𝑛
Consideremos de (5):
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑘
2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑝
sin(2𝑛 + 1)𝑥 = (−1)𝑛 (sin 𝑥) 2𝑛+1
∑( ) + ∑ (∑ ( )( )) (−1)𝑘 (sin 𝑥)2𝑘+1
2𝑝 + 1 2𝑝 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑝=0 𝑘=0 𝑝=0
Por consiguiente,
𝑛−1 𝑘
2𝑛+1
(−1)𝑛 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑝
(sin 𝑥) = 2𝑛 [sin(2𝑛 + 1)𝑥 − ∑ (∑ ( )( )) (−1)𝑘 (sin 𝑥)2𝑘+1 ]
2 2𝑝 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑝=0
Observación:
𝑛
2𝑛 + 1
∑( ) = 22𝑛
2𝑝 + 1
𝑝=0
𝑞 (2𝑛+1)𝑥 𝑞 𝑛−1 𝑘
2𝑛+1
(−1)𝑛 sin(𝑞 + 1) 2 (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑝
∑ (sin 𝑚𝑥) = 2𝑛 { (2𝑛+1)𝑥
sin 𝑞 − ∑ [∑ (∑ ( )( )) (−1)𝑘 (sin 𝑚𝑥)2𝑘+1 ]}
2 sin 2 2𝑝 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑚=0 2 𝑚=0 𝑘=0 𝑝=0
(2𝑛+1)𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑘 𝑞
(−1)𝑛 sin(𝑞 + 1) 2 (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑝
= 2𝑛 { (2𝑛+1)𝑥
sin 𝑞 − ∑(−1)𝑘 (∑ ( )( )) [ ∑ (sin 𝑚𝑥)2𝑘+1 ]} (∗∗)
2 sin 2 2𝑝 + 1 𝑛 − 𝑘
2 𝑘=0 𝑝=0 𝑚=0
Observación:
𝑞 𝑛 𝑛 𝑞
∑ (∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑚,𝑘 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 ( ∑ 𝑏𝑚,𝑘 ) ∧ 𝑏0,𝑘 = 0
𝑚=0 𝑘=0 𝑘=0 𝑚=0
𝑆 = ∑(𝑘 + 1)𝑝 𝑥 𝑘
𝑘=0
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑛−1 𝑛−2
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
= ∑(𝑘 + 1) 𝑥 − (∑ 𝑘 𝑝 𝑥 𝑘 + 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝑛 )
𝑝 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=1
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
= (∑(𝑘 + 1) 𝑥 − ∑ 𝑘 𝑝 𝑥 𝑘 ) − 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝑛
𝑝 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑛−1
= (∑(𝑘 + 1)𝑝 − 𝑘 𝑝 ) 𝑥 𝑘 − 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝑛
𝑘=0
𝑛−1 𝑝−1
𝑝
= ∑ (∑ ( ) 𝑘 𝑗 ) 𝑥 𝑘 − 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝑛
𝑗
𝑘=0 𝑗=0
𝑝−1 𝑛−1
𝑝
(1 − 𝑥)𝑆 = ∑ ( ) (∑ 𝑘 𝑗 𝑥 𝑘 ) − 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝑛
𝑗
𝑗=0 𝑘=0
Observación:
𝑛 𝑝 𝑝 𝑛
Por consiguiente,
𝑝−1 𝑛−1
1 𝑝
𝑆= [∑ ( ) (∑ 𝑘 𝑗 𝑥 𝑘 ) − 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝑛 ]
1−𝑥 𝑗
𝑗=0 𝑘=0
En donde:
𝑛−1
1 − 𝑥𝑛
∑ 𝑥𝑘 =
1−𝑥
𝑘=0