Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Dennis T. Aronson
Aronson Communications, St. Albans, W. Virginia
Leslie J. Briggs
Florida State University
FOREWORD
Perhaps The most widely used of the Gagne-Briggs models is the model for teaching
“intellectual skills”. The three major components of this model are: (1) the selection of
content that represents learning prerequisites for each course objective (a macro strategy):
(2) the sequencing of course content such that prerequisites are always taught before the
skills for which they are prerequisite (also a macro strategy) and (3) the prescription of
nine events of instruction for teaching each objective (a set of micro strategies), including
the prescription of media for teaching each objective (a set of delivery strategies).
C. M. R.
Contributions of Gagne and Briggs to a Prescriptive Model of Instruction
The work of Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs has contributed greatly in answering
three questions:
The purpose of this chapter is to focus on the second question concerning instructional
design.
It is assumed that that most readers of this book are not familiar with the work of
Gagne and Briggs: therefore, this chapter provides an introduction to aspects of their
work that are pertinent to this book. The reader can find more detailed information in the
various books written by the two men (Briggs. 1970. 1972. 1977, Gagne 1970. 1974.
1977: Gagne & Briggs, 1979). In order to understand the work of Gagne and Briggs, it is
necessary for the reader to learn the precise, explicit terminology that they use. To assist
the reader, critical concepts are printed in italics and defined. Sometimes the definition
appears in the text When the definition does not appear in the text, the reader may wish to
refer to the glossary at the end of the chapter where the key terms are defined.
LEARNING-THEORY BACKGROUND
Varieties of Learning
Gagne has classified human learning into five categories or domains: verbal information,
attitudes, intellectual skills, motor skills, and cognitive strategies (see Table 4.1). These
categories are important for instructional theory because each is hypothesized to require
different types of instruction. It is important to grasp the basis upon which Gagne has
made this classification.
For Gagne, learning occurs when an individual acquires a particular capability to do
something. Because learned capability is not in itself observable, it is from the learner's
behavior (which is observable) that one can infer that a particular capability has been
learner Gagne emphasizes that different learned capabilities result in correspondingly
different outcomes. When these outcomes are anticipated and planned for. they are stated
as instructional objectives.
The capability that one acquires when learning verbal information (e.g., a spouse's
birthday) is stating the information. On the other hand, the capability that
one acquires in learning an attitude is choosing to act in one way or another (e.g.,
bringing Rowers home on wife's birthday). When a person has learned a concept
which is one type of intellectual skill, the person has the capability to correctly
identify or classify any previously unencountered example of the concept (e.g.,
properly classifying different kinds of Rowers). When a motor skill has been
acquired, the capability is being able to execute properly and smoothly all the sub-
skills in a correct sequence (e.g.. serving a tennis ball). Finally, a person who has
the capability to originate a novel solution to a problem or who is able to devise a
personal system for remembering information or attending to a task is showing that
he or she has learned a cognitive strategy.
Conditions of Learning
One reason for using a taxonomy to classify learning outcomes into different categories is
that the different categories of outcomes involve entirely different classes of performance
(as summarized in Table 4.1).
So there are two bases for the classification of learning outcomes: (1) the performance
manifested is entirely different for each type of learning: and (2) the conditions required
are different for each type. Some of the essential internal conditions required for the
various types of learning are now presented.
For an attitude to be learned, the learner needs to be able to recall a respected model
exhibiting the attitude (e.g., a famous athlete eating a breakfast cereal). Cognitive strategy
learning is based on prior learning of intellectual skills, and information learning is
facilitated if the learner can recall previous learning that is related to the new (e.g.,
recalling the names of major phyla of animal categories before learning species in each
phylum).
External Conditions. Just as the internal conditions are different for each type of
learning, so are the external conditions. For a concept to be learned, a person must have
opportunities to practice distinguishing correctly between examples and non-examples.
For motor-skill learning, it is important that the learner be able to practice the skill and
receive immediate information on the correctness of the performance.
The preceding discussion presented only some of the essential conditions required for
different varieties of learning to occur. Table 4.2 presents other conditions as well.
•Editor's note: Conditions of learning should not be confused with instructional
conditions as defined in Chapter 1. Internal conditions of learning are in fact
instructional conditions, but external conditions of learning are instructional methods
(see next few sentences in text).
Subcategories of Intellectual Skills
As mentioned previously, Gagne has shown that the essential internal condition
that must he met for learning an intellectual skill is that necessary prerequisites must
have already been learned. One important external condition is stimulating the
learner to recall those essential prior learnings. In order for a person to demonstrate
the use of a higher-order rule (i.e.. by generating a new rule), the person must
have learned various prerequisite rules. Because a rule is a relationship between
two or more concepts, those concepts are prerequisite to learning the rule of which
they are a part. Similarly, defined concepts often have as referents concrete concepts
(e.g., the concept “chair” can be learned as a definition or as an object that
can be physically identified). Before a concept can be learned, one must be able to make
discriminations between critical attributes. For example, the learner must be able to
indicate if a chair and a bench are different from one another before learning those two
concepts. In addition, the most basic forms of learning include associations and chains.
These types of learning are not described at all in this chapter; the reader should refer to
Gagne (1970, 1977). Figure 4.1 illustrates the distinguishing feature of any type of
intellectual skill—the necessity for acquisition of prerequisite skills.
At this point, the reader has been introduced to the system Gagne developed for
classifying the various learning types according to their respective outcomes and the
conditions required for learning to occur. The distinction between internal and external
conditions was also explained, and the essential conditions for the respective types of
learning were presented. The next section discusses some of the ways that this learning-
theory background can be used in selecting objectives and sequencing instruction.
SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
AND SEQUENCING INSTRUCTION
Prerequisites
In the domain of intellectual skills, Gagne has shown that essential prerequisites
and their relationship to one another can be diagrammed in the form of a learning
hierarchy, in which the terminal skill is at the top and below it are all the essential
prerequisites. An example of a simplified learning hierarchy is shown in Fig. 4.2.
In Fig. 4.2, the terminal objective is "demonstrate finding the average of a series of two
to nine two-digit integers." The prerequisites of being able to add, count, and divide are
listed below the terminal objective. The competency, "dividing two- and three-digit
integers by a single-digit integer," has the prerequisites "subtracting two-digit integers"
and "multiplying single-digit integers." Subtraction is itself composed of many sub-skills
that could be further specified (see Gagne & Briggs, 1979).
2. A learning hierarchy shows the intellectual skills that must be learned; it does
not show the order in which those skills may be performed once they have been
learned (e.g., the sequence for learning the prerequisites for being able to do long
division is learning addition, subtraction, and then division; the sequence for performing
those operations when dividing is performing division, then multiplication, then
subtraction.*
Sequencing Instruction
In a fully developed hierarchy, at any given level, there may be two or more
competencies that are prerequisites to a single skill at the next higher level. The sequence
for learning such cluster of prerequisites (and thus the sequence for teaching them) may
not be critical so long as all of the prerequisites are mastered before moving to the skill at
the higher level. For example, prerequisites for learning the rule for writing an
instructional objective using the Gagne and Briggs system (Gagne & Briggs, 1979,
Chapter 7) are the following concepts: situation, learned capability, object, action, and
tools or constraints. The order in which each of these concepts is learned is not critical,
but all have to be learned in order to write an objective embodying the concepts.
Another point is that sometimes prerequisites may be taught at the same time
For example, concepts may be presented as examples and non-examples of one
another (e.g., latitude and longitude, north and south, up and down, subject and
predicate).
Although a learning hierarchy can serve as a guide to what must be learned, this
does not mean that a particular instructional sequence must include instruction for
each competency in the hierarchy. The reason is that some learners may already
have learned a competency and do not, therefore, require instruction before moving on to
a more complicated skill that has not yet been mastered. Thus, learning hierarchies
provide a basis for determining what a learner has already achieved and for diagnosing
what specific competencies have not been mastered—deficiencies that must be overcome
before proceeding to subsequent learning.
Entry Level
Another use of a learning hierarchy is to designate a level at the lower part of the
hierarchy as the entry level for given learners. This means that all the competencies
below that level have to have been mastered before the learner can begin a particular
instructional sequence that teaches the competencies above the entry level. For example,
the learning hierarchy for solving algebraic equations with two unknowns would show.
low in the hierarchy, that the student must have mastered basic math facts and operations.
Such competencies would be considered as entry-level behaviors for instruction in
algebra.
Although the designer may use some professional judgment in determining initially
where the entry level should be. testing must be conducted to verify whether or not the
designated entry level is correct. If it is not, the designer may have to raise or lower the
entry-level requirements.
For learning a motor skill, it is sometimes advised to teach first the rule that governs
the sequence that is followed in performing part skills that make up the total skill. Then
these part skills are often best taught separately before they are practiced together. A
coach may instruct a beginner in how to shot put by having the person learn such part
skills as how and where to stand, how to step, how to grip the shot, where to hold it in
relationship to the head, and how to follow through after putting the shot. When each of
the part skills has been mastered, the person can practice them together in order to learn
the timing and rhythm necessary for the smooth execution of the total skill.
For learning verbal information, the essential prerequisite is that the person have
a way for relating previously learned information to the new. The sequence for learning
verbal information is not critical, though. One may present historical facts in a
chronological order or present them organized around such topics as transportation,
government, and economics. The important point is that the learner be able to integrate
the facts into a framework that has meaning for him or her. It does not matter whether
that framework is a time line or a topic outline.
Table 4.4 summarizes the relationships among the five domains of objectives and
their respective essential and supporting prerequisites that can serve as guides to the
designer for making some decisions for sequencing instruction. The reader is advised to
consult Gagne and Briggs (1979. Chapter 8) for a complete discussion of instructional
sequencing.
INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS
Definition
What are instructional events? These are classes of events that occur in a learning
situation. Each event functions to provide the external conditions of learning
described previously. Therefore, one designs instruction in part by ensuring that
the events used in instruction are planned to satisfy the necessary conditions of
learning. Table 4.5 lists the events in the order in which they usually occur.
Brief descriptions of each instructional event, including examples of appropriate
prescriptions for applying each event, are given next.
Gaining Attention. An initial task in any instruction is to gain the learner's attention so
that other instructional events can function properly. For example, in designing
instructional motion pictures on inherently dull subjects. May (1965) suggested that two
versions of the films might be produced. The first version would be designed to gain the
viewer's attention, using many embellishments and rapidly changing stimuli, whereas the
second version would have few special effects and would develop at a slower rate to
enable the viewer to process and learn the information presented.
Informing the Learner of the Objective. The purpose of communicating the objective
to the learner is to enable the person to answer the question: "How will I know when I
have learned?" (Gagne& Briggs, 1979). Too often students are given an imprecise
description of the content to the covered; for example, consider a biology teacher who
introduces a unit on genetics by saying. "One thing you will learn about is homozygous
and heterozygous genotypes." Such a statement does not communicate what the learning
outcome will be. Will the students be able to state definitions of the concepts
heterozygous and homozygous genotypes, or will the learners be able to classify
genotypes as homozygous or heterozygous and name the kind of resulting phenotype?
Suggestions have just been given for enhancing retention and transfer for intellectual
skills and information. Table 4.6 lists recommendations that Gagne and Briggs (1979)
give for this instructional event in other domains of learning. Table 4.6 also describes
ways to provide all of the instructional events in each domain of learning.
Now that each instructional event has been described, the next section looks at some
of the events according to the amount of variation there is in the function they perform.
Differential Effects
Some events function in essentially the same way regardless of the type of learning.
Examples of such events include "gaining attention", "informing the learner of the
objective", "eliciting performance," and "providing feedback." For these events, though,
the details of application depend on the characteristics of the learners. First-year medical
students would probably not have to have motivating evenly built into instruction,
whereas first-grade children learning to read would most likely need some external
motivation. Also, the way that objectives are communicated may vary considerably
depending on the task and the age of the learners. But the function of providing an
expectation would be served in any case.
Other events function entirely differently depending on the type of learning. The two
events for which this differential effect is most important and crucial are the events
"stimulating recall of prerequisite learnings" and "providing learning guidance." It is with
these events that the designer pays special attention to the particular conditions of
learning in order to determine instructional prescriptions.
Similarly, the function of learning guidance will be different for each type of learning
because the external conditions are different. Thus. the instructional prescription is often
determined by the kind of learning guidance that is required. For example, an objective in
a history course may involve learning about the events leading to World War II. The
designer might plan for the information to be presented in an expository mode through
well-organized lectures and readings. Consider, though, another objective in the same
course involving the interpretation, from an economic perspective, of the events leading
up to World War [I. This later objective, a problem-solving task. might be best taught
through use of simulation exercises to enable the students to learn the relationship
between economic and political events.
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
Briggs (1970) defined instructional media broadly as all means by which stimuli are
presented to provide the events of instruction. In this sense, media include the full range
of audiovisual materials, print, and the voices of the teacher and learners.
Instructional Events and Media
Moreover, Briggs recommended that media be selected after the requirements for
providing the instructional events for a given instructional sequence had been
determined. Using the events of instruction as a guide for selecting media often
results in more than one medium being used, due to the different functions and
stimuli requirements for each event.
5. Electronic devices in the manikins monitor the rate of hand thrusts on the
chest. (Providing feedback)
In addition to considering each instructional event in selecting and using media, the
designer must also be concerned with such learner characteristics as age, experience, and
capability for learning from various media.
As one guide for matching media prescriptions with learner and task variables. Briggs
(1970) suggested using Dale's Cone of Experience. Dale (1969) organized the full range
of media in a cone in which the most concrete medium (direct, purposeful experience) is
at the lowest level on the scale incorporated in the cone and the most abstract (verbal
symbols) are at the highest level. Briggs (Gagne & Briggs, 1979) offers the following
design heuristic: "Go as low on the scale as you need in order to insure learning for your
group, but go as high as you can for the most efficient learning" (p. 181).
Of course, there are many other considerations for selecting and using media, such as
cost, practicality, availability, and time for development. All of these factors are
described fully in other books, and detailed procedures to follow for selecting media are
given (Briggs, 1970, 1972, 1977; Briggs & Wager, 1981; Gagne & Briggs, 1979).
CONCLUSION
This chapter has discussed aspects of the work of Gagne and Briggs that may be
considered as a prescriptive model of instruction. The salient points can be summarized
as follows:
1. Different sets of conditions are required for various types of learning to occur.
Instructional objectives can be classified according to the type of learning involved.
4. The events of instruction provide the external conditions of learning that are required
to activate the support the internal processes of learning.
5. Instructional prescriptions are made to ensure that each instructional event functions
to achieve the desired learning outcomes.
6. A variety of instructional media can be used as the means for applying the respective
instructional events.
Briggs has integrated the concepts discussed in this chapter and several others not
mentioned here (Briggs, 1970. 1972; Briggs & Wager, 1981) and has presented them in
the form of a complete procedure for the design of prescriptive instruction. Often referred
to as instructional systems design, the procedure is appropriate whether instruction is
presented by conventional teaching methods or by self-instructional modules. The
procedure is applicable for course development, for units within a course, or for
individual lessons.
GLOSSARY
Note: Terms are listed in the order discussed in the text. For more complete definitions,
the reader should consult Briggs (1977).
Varieties of Learning
Varieties of learning are the several different and distinctive types of outcomes that
result when various capabilities have been attained. There are five classes of learning
outcomes: intellectual skills, attitudes, information, cognitive strategies, and
motor skills. There are subcategories of intellectual skills.
Learned Capability
Learning Outcome
The conditions of learning are those internal states and external events that together are
required for learning to occur. Different types of learning require different sets of
conditions.
Internal Conditions
Internal conditions are those states within the learner that are involved in learning.
Examples of internal conditions are motivational slates and mechanisms involved in
processing, storing, and retrieving information.
External Conditions
External conditions are those events outside the learner that activate and support the
internal processes of learning. The appropriate provision of the external events is the
framework for planning instruction.
Essential Prerequisite
An essential prerequisite is one that must be mastered before subsequent learning can
occur This kind of prerequisite is also incorporated into the new learning. For example,
learning of concrete concepts requires discriminating the essential features of examples
of objects belonging to a class, called concepts.
Supporting Prerequisite
Learning-Task Analysis
Learning Hierarchy
Instructional events provide the external conditions that are necessary for learning to
occur. Some events function in the same way regardless of the type of learning whereas
other events function differently depending on the type of learning.
Differential Effect
Differential effect refers to the way that some instructional events function differently
depending on the type of learning involved. The instructional events “stimulating recall
of prerequisites" and "providing learning guidance" function most differently depending
on the type of learning.
Instructional Media
Instructional media are all the materials and means for presenting stimuli required for
providing the events of instruction for given learning tasks and learners. For example,
spoken words may be presented by recordings or live by the teacher's or student's voice.
Written words and symbols may be presented by a variety of projected or electronic
means or by print. Similarly, still or motion pictorial stimuli may be presented by a
variety of means.
Instructional systems design is the total set of procedures that are followed in planning,
developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction. The procedures are derived from
knowledge of human learning relevant for instruction and from the results of empirical
data obtained during tryouts of preplanned instruction.