ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1

Week 2
Dr Ashish Agalgaonkar
Phone: 4221 3400 Room: 35-G28

Topics for Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Review of Week 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electricity Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Simple Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Simple Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Power and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Practical AC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Practical Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Practical Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Practical Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Practical Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Steam Turbogenerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Steam Turbogenerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Steam Turbogenerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Coal Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Consumption Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Coal Based Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Coal Based Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Coal Based Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Site Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Site Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
NSW Supply Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Hydro Power Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Hydro Power Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hydro Power Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Hydro Power Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Features of Hydro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Water Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Hydro Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Supply Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Supply Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1
Demand Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Industry Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Customer Obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
AC Power Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
AC Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
AC Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
AC Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
AC Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
AC Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
AC Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Real Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Phase Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Power Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Complex Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Power Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Complex Power Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Summary of AC Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Summary of AC Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2
 Topics for Today
• Electricity Generation

• Electricity Supply Industry

• AC Power Calculations
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 2 / 53

Review of Week 1
• Energy usage

• Energy sources, converters and consumers

• Electrical Transmission

◦ Generation, Transmission and Distribution

◦ The need for different voltage levels

• Smart Grid
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 3 / 53

3
 Electricity Generation
• The principle of electricity generation usually involves a conductor moving relative to a magnetic
field

• For such a scenario, the induced voltage in conductor is given by:

e = Blv

where:

B is value of magnetic flux density

l is length of stator conductor
v is velocity of rotating magnetic field
• Movement of a conductor relative to a magnetic field induces a voltage
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 4 / 53

Simple Generator

• Inside-out generator:
Simple "inside-out" generator
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4
 Simple Generator
• Rotation of handle turns magnet and produces an ac voltage across coil

• Can be measured by means of slip rings and brushes, bringing out voltage to terminals A and B

• Voltage magnitude depends on strength of magnetic field, size and number of turns of coil and
speed of rotation

• Voltage frequency depends on speed of rotation

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 6 / 53

Power and Energy

• If the generator is well designed, it should take little effort to turn the handle

• If a light globe is connected across AB, it will light, absorbing power

• At the same time, it will take more effort to turn the handle

• Hence the generator is an ‘energy converter’ - mechanical energy (from the person who is turning
the handle) is converted into electrical energy in the circuit and this is converted into light and heat
energy in the light globe.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 7 / 53

5
 Practical AC Generator
Key parts of a generator are:
• Means of relative movement (fixed stator and rotating rotor in the form of two concentric cylinders)

• Magnetic field (usually electromagnetic on the rotor)

• Conductors (usually on the stator)

• This is inside-out compared to earlier example

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 8 / 53

Practical Generator

slots containing stator

conductors in which ac
voltage is induced

slots containing rotor

conductors carrying
dc to give rotating
magnetic field

Stator Rotor

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 9 / 53

6
 Practical Generator

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Practical Generator

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7
 Practical Generator

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Steam Turbogenerator
• The
steam turbogenerators are amongst the most commonly used generators for electric power systems.

AC
output
power flow dc
supply

carbon
brushes

coupling slip rings

stator rotor
energy source prime mover generator exciter

• The power input to the generator comes from a prime mover.

• In this case, a steam turbine

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 13 / 53

8
 Steam Turbogenerator

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 14 / 53

Steam Turbogenerator
• Power station also requires coal, furnace and boiler.

• Alternatively, steam can be obtained from;

◦ a nuclear reactor,

◦ solar boiler,

◦ geo-thermal,

◦ natural-gas,

◦ methane.

• Coal-based generation is most common here in Australia.

• Greenhouse is a huge issue.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 15 / 53

9
 Coal Requirements
• How much energy can we obtain from burning coal?

• 1 kg of coal gives us:

◦ 12 MJ of electricity,

◦ 10 MJ of heat and

◦ 1.83 kg of CO2 a .
a
uncertain number

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 16 / 53

Consumption Example
How much coal per day is used by a power station containing four 660 MW units which run
continuously?

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 17 / 53

10
 Coal Based Generation

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Coal Based Generation

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11
 Coal Based Generation

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 20 / 53

Site Selection
Need availability of:
• fuel,

• cooling water (or can use cooling towers),

• land,

• transmission corridor,

• suitable distance from cities.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 21 / 53

12
 Site Selection

500 kV
330 kV Armidale
Wellington
1
2 Newcastle
3 1 Liddell & Bayswater PS
4 Sydney
5 2 Eraring, Vales Pt & Munmorah PS
Wollongong
6 3 Wallerawang & Mt Piper PS
Cooma
4 Kemps CK & Sydney W Substations
5 Kangaroo Valley & Bendeela PS
6 Snowy Mountains Scheme

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 22 / 53

NSW Supply Map

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 23 / 53

13
 Hydro Power Stations
The basic components of a hydro power station are:
intake
tower
dam

head turbine hall

generator

hydro
turbine
penstock valve

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 24 / 53

Hydro Power Stations

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 25 / 53

14
 Hydro Power Stations

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 26 / 53

Hydro Power Stations

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15
 Features of Hydro
• Potential Energy of water → kinetic energy → turbine → generator.

• Speed is usually a lot less than 3,000 rpm.

• Free ‘fuel’ but large capital cost.

• No pollution but loss of amenity.

• Capable of quick start-up and fast changes.

• Can be designed to run backwards and pump water back uphill (pump storage).

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 28 / 53

Water Requirements
• Power output, P , is given by:
P = ηρQgh

Where:

η : efficiency, about 90%

ρ: water density, 1000 kg/m3
Q: water flow rate, m3 /s
g : gravity, 9.8 m/s2
h: head, m
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 29 / 53

16
 Hydro Example
A 330 MW hydro unit runs at full power with a head of 100 m. Determine the drop in the reservoir level after 24 hours if it
has a surface area of 10 km2 and there is no inlet water flow.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 30 / 53

Supply Industry
The industry is divided up into the following:
• Generating companies (steam, hydro, etc.)

• Transmission companies (from power station to major areas at 275-500 kV)

• Distribution companies (from major areas to customer at 400 V-132 kV)

• Retailers who sell electric energy from generators

• Customers who can chose their retailers

Transmission and distribution companies own the wires that carry the energy from generator to
customer.
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 31 / 53

17
 Supply Industry
The supply of electricity is complicated by:
• electric energy cannot be stored on a large scale in any convenient way

• when generators are interconnected, it is not possible for any customer to identify their source of
electric energy
There has to be an instantaneous balance between power generated and used, or excess power will
accelerate or decelerate parts of the system away from 50 Hz.
• The overall coordination between supply and demand is the responsibility of AEMO (Australian
Energy Market Operator)

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 32 / 53

The Pool
• The Queensland, NSW, Snowy, Victorian, SA, Tasmanian systems are all interconnected via their
transmission systems

• The Generators offer to supply power at $X/MW with a new price every 1/2 hour

• Retailers decide whom will supply their energy needs over each 1/2 hour

• The Generators adjust their generators to deliver power

• The electric energy system can be considered to be a ‘pool’ with various Generators supplying
power and retailers taking the power. It is impossible to identify the exact flow of the power.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 33 / 53

18
 The Pool

Gen 3
Gen 4
Gen 2
Gen 1 Gen 5

Power pool

Retailer 4

Retailer 1
Retailer 2 Retailer 3
Large
Customer 1 Customer 3 Customer

Customer 2

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 34 / 53

Demand Monitoring

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19
 Industry Regulators
• The state regulators set Quality of Supply standards and ensure that distributors are meeting them.

• Quality of Supply has two components:

◦ Reliability: electric power being available. Poor reliability occurs when there are many faults and
it takes a long time to restore supply afterwards.

◦ Power quality (PQ): voltage waveform being close to nominal, i.e. 50 Hz, 230 Vrms , sinusoidal
for single phase, LV customers. Poor PQ occurs when digital clocks blink, lights flicker and
computers trip out.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 36 / 53

Customer Obligations
Many PQ problems are caused by customers. For example;
• computers draw non-sinusoidal current and cause harmonic distortion,

• air-conditioners draw a large current on start-up and cause light flicker.

Customers are obliged to use equipment that meets distributor requirements.
• limits on the type of current which equipment can draw.
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 37 / 53

20
 AC Power Calculations
This section will cover the following topics:
1. AC powers P , Q and S .

2. Power factor and power factor correction.

3. Ratings and efficiency.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 38 / 53

AC Powers
• Suppose v , i are sinusoidal with maximum (peak) values Vm , Im respectively;

v = Vm sin(ωt)

i = Im sin(ωt − θ)

• Their rms values are: √

V = Vm / 2
√
I = Im / 2

• The phase angle of the current is given by θ and can be any value between −90◦ and +90◦ .
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 39 / 53

21
 AC Powers
• Instantaneous Power, p = vi, and has both an average and a double frequency component:

p = V I[cos(θ) − cos(2ωt − θ)]

p = V I cos(θ) − V I cos(2ωt − θ)

• The first term is time invariant since V , I and θ are all time independent.

• The second term is a time varying sinusoid with a frequency equal to twice the frequency of the
supply voltage and shifted by angle θ .

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 40 / 53

AC Powers
• For a purely resistive load, the angle θ is zero.

• Hence, the instantaneous power is given by:

p = V I[1 − cos(2ωt)]
500

400 ← p(t)

300

200
↓ i(t)

100

−100

−200

−300 ← v(t)

−400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 41 / 53

22
 AC Powers
• For a purely inductive load, the angle θ is 90◦ .

• Hence, the instantaneous power is given by:

p = −V I sin(2ωt)
400

300 ← v(t)

200 ← p(t)

100 ← i(t)

−100

−200

−300

−400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 42 / 53

AC Powers
• For a purely capacitive load, the angle θ is −90◦ .

• Hence, the instantaneous power is given by:

p = V I sin(2ωt)
400

300 ← v(t)

200 ← p(t)

100

−100

↑ i(t)
−200

−300

−400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 43 / 53

23
 AC Powers
• For the resistive load, note that the instantaneous power is always positive.

• Note that for both the purely capacitive and purely inductive loads, the average value of the
instantaneous power is zero.

• For the general case of a load with any phase shift:

p = V I cos(θ) − V I cos(2ωt − θ)

• The average value of the instantaneous power is non-zero.

• The capacitive and inductive loads exchange energy with the source, but none is stored.
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 44 / 53

Real Power
• The power that produces energy is the average value of the instantaneous power.

• This power, P , is time invariant. Z 2π

1
P = p dωt
2π 0

P = V I cos(θ)

• P is called active power, or real power.

• The units are Watts (W); watts, kilowatts, megawatts etc.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 45 / 53

24
 Reactive Power
• Reactive power is the power that is exchanged between the source and the capacitive or inductive
elements of the circuit.

• Reactive power, Q has the units of volt-ampere reactive, or VAr, and is given by the expression:

Q = V I sin θ

• Q is time invariant.

• It can also be shown that for a resistive/inductive load combination, QL = I 2 XL .

• It can also be shown that for a resistive/capacitive load combination, QC = I 2 XC .

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 46 / 53

Phase Relationships
• Current can be resolved into in-phase and out-of-phase components.
in phase Iin
components. Thus V‘q
T

I ‘I
Iout

• If the equation for average power is applied, then only the in-phase component contributes to the
power P
P = V Iin

• Also,
Q = V Iout
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 47 / 53

25
 Power Example
A 230 V load draws a current of 42.4 A that lags the voltage by 32◦ . Calculate (i) the magnitude of the in-phase and
out-of-phase currents, (ii) the load P and Q.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 48 / 53

Complex Power
• Defined as:
S = P + jQ = V I cos θ + jV I sin θ = V I 6 θ
where θ is the angle by which V leads I.

• Its units are volt-amperes or VA.

• Now consider VI∗ .

◦ Its magnitude is V I .

◦ Its argument will be 6 V − 6 I which is precisely θ.

◦ Hence:
S = P + jQ = VI∗
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 49 / 53

26
 Power Triangle
• The magnitude of S is V I and is called apparent power, also measured in VA. i.e.;

S =VI

S
Q
T

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 50 / 53

Complex Power Example

∗
Determine S for the previous exercise from (i) its fundamental definition, (ii) using the VI equation.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 51 / 53

27
 Summary of AC Phasors
• The diagram shows the relationships for an inductive load.

• In the V − I diagram, the voltage is the reference and the current lags the voltage by θ.

• In the impedance triangle, the resistance is the reference and the inductive reactance leads the
resistance by 90◦ .

• For the power triangle, real power is the reference and reactive power leads by 90◦ .

V
θ S
Z
XL QL

I θ θ
R P

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 52 / 53

Summary of AC Phasors
• The diagram shows the relationships for a capacitive load.

• In the V − I diagram, the voltage is the reference and the current leads the voltage by θ.

• In the impedance triangle, the resistance is the reference and the capacitive reactance lags the
resistance by 90◦ .

• For the power triangle, real power is the reference and reactive power lags by 90◦ .
R P
θ θ
I
XC QC
Z S
θ V

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 2 – 53 / 53

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