Mark Nathan Cohen Paleopathology at The Origins of Agriculture PDF

Academic Press Rapid Manuscript Reproduction
Proceedings of the Conference on Paleopathology

and Socioeconomic Change at the Origins of Agriculture
Sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research and the Hudson Symposium Fund of the
State University of New York College at Plattsburgh
Held April 2 5-May 1, 1982, at the State University of
New York College at Plattsburgh, New York
thology
Edited by
Mark Nathan Cohen

Depafiment of Anthropology
State Ufi~versityof New Y o r ~
College a t Plattsburgb
Plattsburgb, New York
George J. Armelagos
Departwe~tof A~thropology
University of Massachusetts
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

(Hnrcourt Brace Jovnnov~ch,Publrshers)
Orlando San Diego New York London
Toronto Montreal Sydney Tokyo
PRESS,INC.
@ 1984, BY ACADEMIC
COPYRIGHT
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR
TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC
OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY RECORDING, OR ANY
INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT
PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER.
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

Orlando, Florida 32887
United Kingdom Edition published by

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.
24/28 Oval Road, London NWl 7DX
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main e n t r y under t i t l e :
Paleopathology a t t h e o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e .
I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s and index.
1. Paleopathology--Congresses. 2. Agriculture--
Origin--Congresses. I. Cohen, Mark Nathan.
11. Armelagos, George J.
R134e8eP34 1984 616.07'0901 83-17235
ISBN 0-12-179080-0 ( a l k . paper)
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
84858687 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
at the
Origins of Agriculture
1~ mewtory of ' I A. cock bur^ and A. T Sandiso~,
who were pioneers i~ paleopathology,
and Marty Baumhoff, an archaeologist who first proposed
the use of skeletal patkologies (Harris lines)
as a direct test of the relative wterit
of various prehistoric eco~omicstrategies.
Contents
Contributors xv
Preface xix
^1
An Introduction to the Symposium
Mark Nathan Cohen
Text 1
References 8
^2
Indications of Stress from Bone and Teeth
Alan H Goodman, Debra L. Martin, GeorgeJ. Armelagos, and George Clark
Introduction 13
General and Cumulative Stress Indicators 16
Indicators of General and Episodic Stress 22
Indicators of Specific Disease Stress 29
Conclusion: Pattern, Process, and Multiple Indicators of Stress
' References 39
h-1
". 1^
- -4
3
Health as a Crucial Factor in the Changes from Hunting
to Developed Farming i n the Eastern Mediterranean
J. Lawrence Angel
16,., . ,. -
t . :~
Introduction 51
Indicators of Health 52
The Region 52
Sequences of Culture and Health 58
Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Times 58
Neolithic Times 61
Bronze Age 63
vii
...
Vlll CONTENTS
Early Iron Age 64

Health and Culture: Early Bronze Age to
Classical Times 65
Summary of Hunting to Farming Shifts 67
References 69
4
Â
Socioeconomic Change and Patterns of Pathology and Variation in
the Mesolithic and Neolithic of Western Europe: Some Suggestions
Christopher Meiklejohn, Catherine Schentag, Alexandra Venema, and Patrick Key
Introduction 75
Cultural Units and Economic Trends
Data Base and Analysis 79
Conclusion 91
Appendix. Neolithic Materials in the Study 93
References 97
/'
5
Archaeological and Skeletal Evidence for Dietary Change
during the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene i n the Levant
Patricia Smith, Ofer Bar-Yosef, and Andrew Sillen
Introduction 101
Archaeological Evidence for Dietary Change 104
Skeletal Evidence for Change in Diet and Health Status 110
Discussion 127
References 130
' 6
Skeletal Pathology from the Paleolithic through the
Metal Ages in Iran and Iraq
-
Ted A. Rathbun
Introduction 137
Mortuary Practices 138
Demography 139
Growth and Development 143
Nutritional Deficiencies 149
Dental Pathology 149
Chemical Analysis 153
Infection 155
Trauma 155
Osteoarthritis 156
Nonpatterned Pathology 157
Temporal Trends 157
Conclusions and Research Recommendations
References 161
CONTENTS
^ 7
Growth, Nutrition, and Pathology in Changing
Pale~demo~raphic Settings in South Asia
Kenneth A. R. Kennedy
The Archaeological and Skeletal Record 169
Paleodemography 173
Nutrition 181
Conclusions 183
References 185
8
The Effects of Socioeconomic Change in Prehistoric Africa:
Sudanese Nubia as a Case Study
Debra L Martin, GeorgeJ Armehgos, Alan H. Goodman, and Dennis P Van Gerven
Introduction 193
Culture History 194
Population Growth 20 1
Morphological Changes Related to the Development and
Intensification of Agriculture 202
Intensification of Agriculture and Changes in the Pattern of Disease
Mortality 209
Summary 210
References 212
v 9
The Lower Illinois River Region. A Prehistoric Context for
the Study of Ancient Diet and Health
Jane E. Buikstra
Climatic and Environmental Reconstruction 217
Regional Prehistory and the Archaeological Record 219
Subsistence 224
Genetic and Demographic Factors 227
References 230
10
Subsistence and Health in the Lower Illinois Valley- Osteological Evidence
\>
Delia Collins Cook
Skeletal Growth and Development 237
Pathology 256
Paleodemography 260
Discussion 26 1
References 262
,. CONTENTS
11
Health Changes at Dickson Mounds, Illinois (A. D. 950-1300
Alan H. Goodman, John Lallo, George J. Armelagos, and Jerome C. Rose
Introduction and Background 27 1
Indicators of Stress 277
Discussion and Conclusions 297
References 30 1
12
Skeletal Evidence for Prehistoric Subsistence Adaptation in
the Central Ohio River Valley
Claire Mowd Cassidy
Overview of Archaeological Cultures, Food, and Diet 307
Skeletal Pathology 324
Discussion and Speculation: Diet and Adaptation in
the Central Ohio River Valley 334
References 338
13
Prehistoric Health in the Ohio River Valley
Anthony J. Perzigian, Patricia A. Tench, and Donna J. Braun
Introduction: The Archaeological Background 347
Paleopathology and Paleodemography 355
Conclusions 36 1
References 362
14
Health and Disease in Prehistoric Georgia:
T h e Transition to Agriculture
d a r k Spencer Larsen
Introduction 367
Materials 368
Georgia Coastal Paleopathology 368
Discussion 379
Comparisons with Other Studies 385
Conclusions 387
References 388
CONTENTS
15
Paleopathology and the Origins of Maize Agriculture i n
the Lower Mississippi Valley and Caddoan Culture Areas
Jerome C. Rose, Barbara A. Burnett, Michael S. Nassaney, and Mark W Blaeuer
Introduction 393
Archaeology 395
Paleopathology and Agriculture 406
Conclusions 415
References 419
16
Agriculture, Marginal Environments, and Nutritional Stress in
the Prehistoric Southwest
Ann M. Palkovich
Background: The American Southwest 425
Conclusion 436
References 437
17
Central California: Prehistoric Subsistence Changes and Health
David N . Dickel, Peter D. Schuk, and Henry M . McHenry
Introduction 439
Paleopathology 443
Paleodemography 450
References 456
18
Prehistoric Subsistence and Health Status of Coastal Peoples
from the Panamanian Isthmus of Lower Central America
Lynette Norr
Introduction 463
Geographic Setting and Subsistence Resources 464
Broad Cultural Units 466
Prehistoric Subsistence, Settlement, and Population Growth 467
Chemical Analyses of Bone for Dietary Reconstruction 472
Skeletal Remains, Pathologies, and Stress Indicators 474
Discussion 480
Â¥^Summarand Conclusions 484
References 485
xii CONTENTS
19
Prehistoric Human Biology of Ecuador-
Possible Temporal Trends and Cultural Correlations
D. H. Ubelaker
Introduction 49 1
Cultural History 492
Relevant Data from Human Skeletal Biology 495
Discussion 509
References 511
20
P a l e ~ p a t h o l o ~iny Peruvian and Chilean Populations
Marvin J,. Allison
The Evidence of Bones and Teeth 515
The Evidence of Soft Tissue 520
Social Stratification and Health 525
References 527
21
The Challenges and Rewards of Sedentism.
The Preceramic Village of Paloma, Peru
Robert A. Benfer
Introduction 531
Ecological Background 53 1
Excavations 532
Population Continuity 533
Subsistence 533
Paleodemography at Paloma 534
Dental Wear-Results 538
Dental Asymmetry 539
Sexual Dimorphism 539
Stature 54 1
Harris Lines 542
Osteitis and Periostitis 543
Histomorphometrics 543
Trace Element Analysis of Bone 544
Trace Element Analysis of Hair 546
Summary 547
Conclusions: Demography, Diet, and Paleopathology
Appendix 55 1
References 554
CONTENTS
-^
22
Population, Health, and t h e Evolution of Subsistence:
Conclusions from t h e Conference
Anna Curtenius Roosevelt
Introduction 559
Boserup's Population Pressure Theory 559
Population Pressure and the Rise of Agriculture 560
Alternative Theories 56 1
Population Growth and Sedentism 563
Archaeological Economy 564
Subsistence Change 566
Paleopathology and Population Pressure 569
Methodology 570
History of Mortality and Physiological Stress 572
Changes in Activity and Labor Productivity 574
Summary 575
Paleopathology and Anthropology for the Future 578
References 58 1
4 23
Paleopathology at t h e Origins of Agriculture: Editors' Summation
Mark Nathan Cohen and Georgel. Armelagos
Introduction 585
Major Trends in Data on Health 586
The Relative Health of Hunter-Gatherers and Fanners 593
The Population Pressure Model 594
Approaches to Other Problems of Anthropological Interest 597
References 599
Contributors
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin.
Marvin J Allison (515) Institute de Antropologia, Universidad de Tarapacd,

Arica, Chile
J Lawrence Angel (5 1) Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural
History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560
George J Armelagos (13 193, 271 585) Department of Anthropology Univer-
sity of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003
Ofer Bar-Yosef 101 Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, Mt. Scopus
Campus Jerusalem, Israel
Robert A. Benfer (531 , Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri-
Columbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211
Mark W Blaeuer (393), Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas
Fayetteville Arkansas 72701
Donna J ~ r a u n ' (347), Department of Anthropology, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45221
Jane E. Buikstra (215) Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois 60201
Barbara A. Burnett (393) Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas
Claire Monod Cassidy (307), Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences Depart-
ment of Anthropology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
George Clark 13), Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
Mark Nathan Cohen (1, 585), Department of Anthropology, State University of New
York College at Plaftsburgh, Plattsburgh, New York 12901
Della Collins Cook (235), Department of Anthropology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana 47405
Present address: Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsyl-

xvi CONTRIBUTORS
David N Dickel 439), Department of Anthropology, University of California,

Davis Davis California 95616
Alan H. Goodman2 (13 193, 271) Department of Anthropology, University of
Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003
Kenneth A. R. Kennedy 169), Ecology and Systematics Division of Biological
Sciences Department of Anthropology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
14853
Patrick Key (75) The KEY Company, Inc Williston, North Dakota 58802-2690
John Lallo (27 1 , Department of Anthropology, Cleveland State University, Cleve-
land, Ohio 44115
Clark Spencer Larsen (367) Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois Uni-
versity, DeKalb, Illinois 60115
Debra L. Martin 13, 193) School of Natural Science Hampshire College
Amherst Massachusetts 01002
Henry M. McHenry 439) Department of Anthropology, University of California,
Christopher Meiklejohn (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg
Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada
Michael S Nassaney (393) Department of Anthropology, University of Mas-
sachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003
Lynette Norr 463) Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Ur-
bana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
Ann M. Palkovich 425) Anthropology Program, George Mason University, Fair-
fax, Virginia 22030
Anthony J Perzigian (347) Departments of Anthroplogy and Anatomy, University
of Cincinnati Cincinnati Ohio 45221
Ted A. Rathbun 137) Department of Anthropology, University of South Carolina,
Columbia, South Carolina 29208
Anna Curtenius Roosevelt (559) Museum of the American Indian, New York, New
York 10032
Jerome C. Rose (27 1 393), Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas
Catherine Schentag (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg
Peter D. Schulz3 (439) Department of Anthropology University of California,
Andrew Sillen 101), National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D C 20560
'Present address: Department of Orthodontics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmngton,
Connecticut 06032.
'Present address: Resource Protection Division, California Department of Parks and Recreation,
Sacramento, California 95811
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Patricia Smith (101 Department of Anatomy, Hebrew University-Hadassah

School of Dental Medicine Jerusalem, Israel
~ Department of Anthropology University of Cincinnati,
Patricia A. ~ e n c h(347)
Cincinnati, Ohio 45221
D H. Ubelaker 491 Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural
History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560
Dennis P Van Gerven 193) Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado,
Boulder Colorado 80309
Alexandra Venema (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg
Present address: Department of Anthropology Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana 47405

Preface
This volume contains revised papers from a 1982 Wenner-Gren-sponsored sym-

posium utilizing data from human skeletal analysis and paleopathology to measure
the impact on human health of the Neolithic Revolution and antecedent changes in
prehistoric hunter-gatherer food economies. The symposium developed out of our
perception that many widely debated theories about the origins of agriculture had
testable but untested implications concerning human health and nutrition and our
belief that recent advances in techniques of skeletal analysis, and the recent explo-
sive increase in data available in this field, permitted valid tests of many of these
propositions.
We asked specialists to prepare syntheses of archaeological and skeletal data
comparing the health of prehistoric human populations before, during, and after the
Neolithic Revolution in different parts of the world. Because we were interested in
generalizations about processes of cultural evolution and their impact on human
life, rather than merely in local archaeological sequences per se, the conference and
this volume were arranged in a format of 'controlled comparison in which re-
gional sequences are prepared and presented in a manner parallel to one another as
much as posible to facilitate comparative analysis. This format was designed to
facilitate identification of health trends common to the various world regions or to
recognizable subsets of these regions.
This volume is the first such synthesis of paleopathological data from around the
world focusing on changing patterns of health among human populations rather than
the diagnosis of particular pathologies or the interpretation of the history of specific
diseases. It also represents the first attempt to apply these data to the testing of
theories of culture change other than at the local level
In the studies presented, a number of common patterns emerge with sufficient
clarity to provide striking answers to severa1210ng-debatedquestions concerning the
impact of this one major technological revolution on human health. The conclusions
that we have drawn are discussed in our own final chapter while an independent
analysis is offered by Anna Roosevelt. The individual regional chapters that make
up the bulk of the volume, and which cover essentially all regions of the world for
which reasonably good data could be obtained, provide an up-to-date synthesis of
existing data on changes in human health associated with the transition. They also q
xix
C
PREFACE
provide a data set from which other investigators can test their own theories or
evaluate our conclusions independently and state-of-the-art examples of the ap-
plication of recently developed techniques in skeletal analysis and paleopathology
The language of these applications has been standardized insofar as possible to
facilitate easy comprehension and comparison. An introductory chapter by Good-
man et al. provides a nontechnical summation of the techniques utilized and the
pathologies commonly discussed. Chapter bibliographies direct the reader to more
technical descriptions of research techniques as well as more complete presentations
of regional data.
The book is designed primarily as a reference and sourcebook for scholars and
students in the fields of economic and ecological prehistory skeletal analysis, and
paleopathology However, the book addresses issues concerning the impact of prog-
ress and civilization that have been of broad scholarly and popular interest at least
since the writings of Hobbes Rousseau, and Francis Bacon. Moreover, because it is
necessary that the data from skeletal analysis be comprehensible to nonspecialists if
those data are to be used to test theories of culture change, and because it is
necessary for individual archaeological sequences to be comprehended easily by
prehistorians working in different regions we have put a great deal of editorial
effort into making each contribution readily comprehensible by a reader with only a
modest background and with a general interest in the issues discussed. As such, the
book should be of value and interest not only to professionals and students in
immediately related fields but also to a range of laymen, students and professionals
interested in a host of related fields. history and medical history subsistence eco-
nomics, culture change, nutrition, epidemiology the philosophy of science, and the
history of technology
The conference on which the book is based was held at the Valcour Conference
Center of the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh and was spon-
sored jointly by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the
Hudson Symposium Fund of SUNY College at Plattsburgh. We wish to thank Dean
Charles Warren and Acting Dean Houng Liu, Mr Robert Moll, Ms Bette Brohel,
Mrs. Katie Covey and Mrs. Jamesena Moore as well as the faculty and students of
the Department of Anthropology SUNY College at Plattsburgh, for their assistance
in running the conference.
New Haven.
CHAPTER 2
INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH
1
Alan H . Goodman
Department of Anthropology
U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts-Amherst
Debra L. Martin
School o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e
Hampshire C o l l e g e
George J . Armelagos
George Clark
U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts-Amherst
INTRODUCTION: MODELING DISEASE I N PREHISTORIC POPULATION
The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o review c u r r e n t u s e s of s k e l e -
t a l and d e n t a l evidence2 i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g p a t t e r n s of h e a l t h i n
p r e h i s t o r i c human p o p u l a t i o n s . T h i s b r i e f overview may be s u p p l e -
mented by r e f e r e n c e t o a v a r i e t y of r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s . For more
d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e d i a g n o s i s o f d i s e a s e i n p r e h i s t o r i c
p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t volumes by O r t n e r and
P u t s c h a r (1981) and Steinbock (1976). I n f o r m a t i o n on n u t r i t i o n a l
and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s can b e o b t a i n e d from B u i k s t r a and Cook
(1980) , Huss-Ashmore e t a l . (1982) , Wing and Brown (1980) , and
Mielke and G i l b e r t (1984) .
1
Present address: Department o f Orthodontics, Un-iversitg of
Connecticut HeaZth Center, Farminqton, Connecticut 06032.
"See A l l i s o n e t a t . (Chapter 20 t h i s volume) for s o f t t i s s u e
analysis.
PXLEOPITHOLOGI Vr THE ORIGINS Crpnghi C NÂ¥-b\ 4c.iJem.c Prrs-i. Ini.
HF AHQll"1 1 T I Rt- 13 41, r ,-51\ cot 7?n-,duzt1<,n tn
A,-\ fi~mrrened
2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH 15
This overview i s organized around a model of t h e causes and r e -

s u l t s o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n o r s t r e s s ( s e e Figure 2 - 1 ) . This
p e r s p e c t i v e has emerged o u t of a d e s i r e to answer p r o c e s s u a l
questions. The s e v e r i t y , d u r a t i o n , and p e r i o d i c i t y o f a d i s e a s e
may be a s important t o understanding b i o c u l t u r a l process a s t h e
i d e n t i t y of t h e p a r t i c u l a r pathogenic a g e n t . I n theory, i f two
d i f f e r e n t d i s e a s e s a r e equal i n t h e s e v e r i t y and d u r a t i o n o f
p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n t h a t they cause, t h e impact on t h e i n -
d i v i d u a l and t h e population should be equal.
S t r e s s i s a product of t h r e e s e t s of f a c t o r s which a r e
represented schematically i n F i g u r e 2 -1: environmental con-
s t r a i n t s , c u l t u r a l systems, and h o s t r e s i s t a n c e . Environmental
c o n s t r a i n t s include both l i m i t i n g r e s o u r c e s and s t r e s s o r s .
These may vary over time and space. I f uncorrected, t h e s e con-
s t r a i n t s w i l l r e s u l t in increased physiological disruption.
C u l t u r a l systems may a c t t o b u f f e r t h e impact of environmental
constraints. For example, our t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y has
e f f e c t i v e l y buffered cold s t r e s s by t h e i n v e n t i o n and u s e of cen-
t r a l h e a t i n g systems. However, c u l t u r a l systems may a l s o magnify
e x i s t i n g s t r e s s e s o r produce novel ones. For example, while i n -
t e n s i f i c a t i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e systems may allow f o r g r e a t e r popula-
t i o n d e n s i t y , s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n may r e s u l t i n a lower
q u a l i t y o f d i e t f o r each person and amplify i n t e r p e r s o n a l s t r i f e
a s access t o q u a l i t y n u t r i e n t s i s l i m i t e d .
I f s t r e s s i s n o t adequately b u f f e r e d by e x t r a i n d i v i d u a l
means, i t s e f f e c t s may be b u f f e r e d only by i n d i v i d u a l h o s t r e -
s i s t a n c e . Host r e s i s t a n c e v a r i e s by age and sex. Genetic
f a c t o r s a l s o p l a y an important r o l e i n r e s i s t a n c e t o c e r t a i n
d i s e a s e s ; however, t h e s e a r e d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e i n t h e archaeo-
l o g i c a l record.
When h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and environmental c o n s t r a i n t s a r e h e l d
c o n s t a n t , v a r i a t i o n i n s t r e s s l e v e l s may be r e l a t e d t o c u l t u r a l
d i f f e r e n c e s . The primary purpose of t h i s volume i s t o determine
changes i n h e a l t h a s s o c i a t e d with c u l t u r e change where environ-
mental and h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s a r e presumed c o n s t a n t .
Physiological d i s r u p t i o n cannot be d i r e c t l y measured i n
s k e l e t a l remains. However, s t r e s s does l e a v e a s e r i e s of i n d i -
c a t o r s i n bone and t e e t h . A primary g o a l of paleopathology i s
t o 'read' these indicators of stress.
I n t h i s chapter i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s a r e organized under t h r e e
major headings: (1) i n d i c a t o r s of g e n e r a l , cumulative s t r e s s ;
( 2 ) i n d i c a t o r s of g e n e r a l , e p i s o d i c s t r e s s ; and ( 3 ) i n d i c a t o r s of
s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d with s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s . These groupings a r e
somewhat a r b i t r a r y ; it could be argued t h a t t h e r e i s a continuum
o f i n d i c a t o r s from most t o l e a s t g e n e r a l and most t o l e a s t e p i -
s o d i c . Other grouping schemes a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e b u t may not be
a s u s e f u l i n understanding underlying s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e causes
of s t r e s s . General i n d i c a t o r s a r e based on t h e organism's non-
s p e c i f i c response t o noxious s t i m u l i (Selye 1950, 1 9 7 1 ) . Cumula-
t i v e i n d i c a t o r s provide a summation of t h e amount of s t r e s s over
long p e r i o d s o f time while e p i s o d i c i n d i c a t o r s a r e more p r e c i s e
and confined i n t h e time a t which s t r e s s occurred.
16 ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.
General, cumulative i n d i c a t o r s include m o r t a l i t y measures and

growth assessments. Under s t r e s s f u l c o n d i t i o n s t h e growing
organism w i l l e i t h e r slow qrowth o r cease t o grow s i n c e i t s
a v a i l a b l e n u t r i e n t s a r e b e t t e r p u t t o combating t h e s t r e s s
(Acheson 1960). Since s t r e s s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n t h e r e l e a s e of
c a t a b o l i c hormones ( t h o s e which r e l e a s e energy) t h e anabolic
process of growth i s i n h i b i t e d (Cannon 1932; Tanner 1978). There-
f o r e , i n d i c a t o r s of growth may be i n d i c a t i v e of s t r e s s of a
qeneral nature.
P e r i o d i c i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s provide information on t h e age
a t which s t r e s s episodes occurred. Two common examples of
general, periodic indicators are Harris l i n e s (disruptions i n
l i n e a r bone growth) and enamel hypoplasias ( d i s r u p t i o n i n t o o t h
enamel matrix f o r m a t i o n ) .
F i n a l l y , some d i s e a s e s o r d i s e a s e c l a s s e s may l e a v e more
s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t i o n s of s t r e s s on bone and t e e t h . This i s t r u e
f o r trauma and degenerative p a t h o l o g i e s , and f o r some i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e s and n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s .
To summarize t h e model, s t r e s s i s a r e s u l t o f environmental
c o n s t r a i n t s , c u l t u r a l f i l t e r s , and h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s .
While s t r e s s i s n o t d i r e c t l y measurable i n s k e l e t a l remains, it
may be i n f e r r e d from a s e r i e s of i n d i c a t o r s . When h o s t r e s i s t a n c e
and environmental c o n s t r a i n t s a r e h e l d r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t , v a r i a -
t i o n i n s t r e s s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Increas-
i n g l e v e l s of s t r e s s may a l s o a c t a s a cause of changes i n c u l t u r a l
p a t t e r n s . An u l t i m a t e g o a l of paleopathology is t o understand t h e
process by which c u l t u r e s may both cause and respond t o s t r e s s .
GENERAL AND CUMULATIVE STRESS INDICATORS
Mortality
M o r t a l i t y d a t a f o r s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s d e r i v e from a s s e s s -
ment of i n d i v i d u a l ages a t d e a t h ( s e e Ubelaker 1978 f o r an over-
view of methods of s k e l e t a l age d e t e r m i n a t i o n ) . T r a d i t i o n a l
p r e s e n t a t i o n s of m o r t a l i t y d a t a i n v o l v e e i t h e r t h e d i r e c t
e s t i m a t i o n of l i f e expectancy a t b i r t h (based on t h e mean age a t
death) o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of l i f e t a b l e s . In a d d i t i o n t o
e s t i m a t i n g l i f e expectancy a t b i r t h , l i f e t a b l e s provide estima-
t i o n s o f l i f e expectancy, p r o b a b i l i t y o f dying, and s u r v i v o r s h i p
f o r a l l age c l a s s e s ( s e e Swedlund and Armelaqos 1976: Appendix A
f o r method o f computation) .
Two t y p e s of c r i t i c i s m s have been voiced a g a i n s t measurements
of m o r t a l i t y and s p e c i f i c a l l y a g a i n s t t h e use of l i f e t a b l e s i n
paleodemoqraphy. The f i r s t concerns t h e a p p r o p r i a t e method of
p r e s e n t a t i o n and u s e of m o r t a l i t y d a t a from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l popu-
l a t i o n s . Angel (1969) argues t h a t l i f e t a b l e s a r e t o o s o p h i s t i -
cated a t o o l f o r l i m i t e d a v a i l a b l e paleodemographic d a t a . However,

where population s i z e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e and appear t o be
well r e p r e s e n t e d , l i f e t a b l e s may provide a s e r i e s of meaningful
and v a l i d s t a t i s t i c s (Acsadi and Nerneskgri 1970; Moore e t a l .
1975; Swedlund and Armelagos 1 9 6 9 ) .
More fundamental c r i t i c i s m s of l i f e t a b l e s concern t h e v a r i o u s
assumptions which a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e method. The c o n s t r u c t i o n of
t h e s e t a b l e s assumes t h a t a s k e l e t a l sample i s t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of a r e a l population; t h a t no p o p u l a t i o n growth i s o c c u r r i n g ; t h a t
there i s l i t t l e stochastic fluctuation i n t h e population's size;
and t h a t i n d i v i d u a l ages-at-death a r e a c c u r a t e l y determined. Moore
e t a l . (1975) have determined t h a t undernumeration of i n f a n t s , t h e
p r i n c i p a l source of skewing i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l samples, h a s l i t t l e
e f f e c t on m o r t a l i t y e s t i m a t e s except i n t h e youngest a g e c l a s s e s .
S t o c h a s t i c f l u c t u a t i o n may i n t r o d u c e e r r o r s in very small popula-
tions. However, t h i s e r r o r may be e s t i m a t e d . S i m i l a r l y , growth
o r d e c l i n e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e i n t r o d u c e s e r r o r . However, t h e e r r o r
i s small under c o n d i t i o n s c l o s e t o e q u i l i b r i u m . These same a u t h o r s
provide a reminder t h a t m o r t a l i t y s t a t i s t i c s a r e p r o b a b i l i t y s t a t e -
ments and should be regarded a s having ranges of r e l i a b i l i t y
(Moore e t a l . 1 9 7 5 ) . Under normal c o n d i t i o n s t h e estimated e r r o r s
i n paleodemographic d a t a a r e small. F i n a l l y , i t has r e c e n t l y
been proposed t h a t paleodemographic a n a l y s e s a r e s e r i o u s l y flawed
due t o inaccuracy i n age d e t e r m i n a t i o n (Bocquet-Appel and Masset
1982). However, Van Gerven and Armelagos (1983) have argued t h a t
s e r i a l l y aging t h e s k e l e t a l s e r i e s reduces t h i s e r r o r .
P a r t of Van Gerven and Armelagos's argument i n f a v o r of t h e
u s e of l i f e t a b l e s i n c l u d e s an assessment of t h e v a l i d i t y of l i f e
t a b l e data i n s p e c i f i c contexts. L i f e t a b l e a n a l y s i s has f r e -
q u e n t l y l e d t o i n t e r p r e t a b l e and meaningful conclusions i n paleo-
demographic analyses. For example, Green e t a l . (1974) show a
decrease i n l i f e expectancy i n Sudanese Nubians who a r e b u r i e d
without s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s and i n t h o s e who d i e d while t h e i r v i l l a g e
was i n d e c l i n e .
We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e major l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e paleodemographic
method a r e p r a c t i c a l ones. These i n c l u d e t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s
and s i z e of t h e sample and t h e a b i l i t y to provide a c c u r a t e a s s e s s -
ment of developmental age (Lovejoy e t a l . 1977). Age a t d e a t h
s t a n d s a s perhaps t h e most important s i n g l e i n d i c a t o r of s t r e s s .
Age a t d e a t h is of a d d i t i o n a l importance a s o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a -
tors a r e related t o it. I f other s t r e s s indicators a r e associated
with decreased ages a t d e a t h , t h e n t h i s s u p p o r t s t h e i r v a l i d i t y
a s i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s .
Growth Assessment
Growth assessment i s a common t o o l f o r a n a l y s i s of t h e degree

of environmental s t r e s s i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . Assessments
may i n c l u d e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of growth curves based on measured
l e n g t h and width of long bones f o r each age c a t e g o r y o f subadults;

t h e measure o f a t t a i n e d l e n g t h and width from a d u l t long bones;
t h e e s t i m a t i o n of s t a t u r e derived from a d u l t long bone l e n g t h s ;
and t h e determination of sexual dimorphism derived from male-
female d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e l e c t e d anthropometric measures.
These i n d i c a t o r s a r e based on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t
t h e slowing o r c e s s a t i o n of growth i s a l o g i c a l response by an
organism t o increased s t r e s s (Cannon 1932) .
However, a l l growth
comparisons must c o n s i d e r t h e importance of g e n e t i c f a c t o r s a f -
f e c t i n g s i z e and shape. When g e n e t i c v a r i a b l e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d ,
t h e experimental and c l i n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e s t r o n g l y suggests t h a t
delayed o r decreased growth may be r e f l e c t i v e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l
d i s r u p t i o n (Acheson and Fowler 1964; Dickerson and McCance 1961;
Engfeldt and H j e r t q u i s t 1961; Himes 1978; Johnston 1976; McCance
and Widdowson 1962; P l a t t and McCance 1964; Stewart 1975; Tanner
1977, 1 9 7 8 ) .
Subadult Long Bone Length and Width Curves
The a n a l y s i s o f growth i n s u b a d u l t long bones i s based on t h e

f a c t t h a t d e n t a l development i s l e s s a f f e c t e d by s t r e s s f u l condi-
t i o n s than s k e l e t a l growth (Garn e t a l . 1959, 1965; Lewis and
Garn 1960). Provided t h a t a l a r g e population of subadults i s
a v a i l a b l e f o r study with i n t a c t long bones and d e n t a l a g e s , long
bone growth may be p l o t t e d a g a i n s t d e n t a l age.
Such growth curves have been c o n s t r u c t e d by Sundick (1978) and
Ubelaker (1978), among o t h e r s , f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l populations.
The growth curves of p r e h i s t o r i c populations g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r from
modern s t a n d a r d s i n two p r i n c i p a l ways. The f i r s t i s a reduced
r a t e o f growth between t h e ages o f approximately 2 and 5 y e a r s and
t h e second i s a d e l a y i n t h e timing o f t h e adolescent growth s p u r t .
The decrease i n r a t e of growth a t ages 2-5 r e l a t i v e t o modem
s t a n d a r d s (Maresh 1955) may be i n d i c a t i v e of u n d e r n u t r i t i o n o r
o t h e r s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h a t segment of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . For example,
Cook (1976) i n t e r p r e t s such a d i s e a s e i n growth r a t e i n a p r e h i s -
t o r i c population from I l l i n o i s t o be due t o a poor weanling d i e t .
The d e l a y i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t growth s p u r t may be t h e r e s u l t of
chronic u n d e r n u t r i t i o n o r o t h e r chronic s t r e s s e s . Frisancho and
Gam (1970) a t t r i b u t e such a growth d e l a y i n Quechua I n d i a n s l i v -
i n g on t h e Peruvian a l t i p l a n o t o c h r o n i c a l l y low n u t r i e n t a v a i l a -
b i l i t y . The view t h a t t h i s d e l a y i s adaptive i n t h e f a c e of
l i m i t e d c a l o r i e s i s supported by Thomas (1973), who demonstrates
t h a t t h e d e l a y i n growth s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces t h e energy needs
of t h e population.
While comparison o f p r e h i s t o r i c growth curves with modern
standards may be i l l u s t r a t i v e , Buikstra and Cook (1980) warn
a g a i n s t o v e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . P r e h i s t o r i c d a t a a r e not s t r i c t l y
comparable t o modern d a t a ; age e s t i m a t e s f o r p r e h i s t o r i c i n d i -
v i d u a l s a r e based on developmental c r i t e r i a ( t o o t h e r u p t i o n )
whereas modern i n d i v i d u a l s a r e u s u a l l y aged by t h e calendar.
2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH
Moreover, p r e h i s t o r i c d a t a a r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l ( d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d -
u a l s dead i n d i f f e r e n t age c l a s s e s ) r a t h e r than l o n g i t u d i n a l ( t h e
same i n d i v i d u a l s p r o g r e s s i n g from age c l a s s t o age c l a s s ) .
I n l i g h t o f t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , perhaps t h e most v a l i d use of
p r e h i s t o r i c growth curves involves comparisons o f c u r v e s from
g e n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r p o p u l a t i o n s . An example of t h i s approach i s
L a l l o ' s (1973) study o f long bone growth curves from Dickson
Mounds p o p u l a t i o n s ( a l s o s e e Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s
volume) . L a l l o i s a b l e t o demonstrate a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
s e c u l a r decrease i n mean t i b i a l l e n g t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s of ages
5-10 when comparing t h e Dickson Middle Mississippian t o e a r l i e r
Dickson populations.
S i m i l a r l y t o t h e above, long bone width, circumference, and
c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s may be p l o t t e d a g a i n s t d e n t a l age. L a l l o
(1973) has a l s o demonstrated a s e c u l a r decrease i n t i b i a l circum-
f e r e n c e r e l a t i v e t o age which p a r a l l e l s t h e l e n g t h decrease
mentioned above ( a l s o s e e Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume).
Huss-Ashore (1981) i n an a n a l y s i s o f j u v e n i l e s from p r e h i s -
t o r i c Sudanese Nubia has shown t h a t long bone growth i n l e n g t h
may be maintained a t t h e expense of c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s ( a l s o s e e
Garn e t a l . 1964). Thin c o r t i c e s in growing c h i l d r e n a r e a c l e a r
i n d i c a t i o n of s t r e s s , b u t i n a sense may a l s o r e p r e s e n t an
adaptive response. Decreased bone mass i n growing c h i l d r e n per-
m i t s continued growth o f bones i n l e n g t h a s w e l l a s t h e l i b e r a t i o n
of minerals and n u t r i e n t s t o a i d i n t h e maintenance of s o f t t i s s u e
systems i n which n u t r i e n t s a r e most r e q u i r e d . Comparison of long
bone widths and l e n g t h curves may provide a h i e r a r c h y of growth
responses t o s t r e s s (Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . Width i s f i r s t
a f f e c t e d . ~ u i tf s t r e s s i s s e v e r e and long l a s t i n g , then l e n g t h
i n c r e a s e may a l s o slow o r s t o p .
A d u l t Long Bone Length and Width
The measurement o f s i z e and shape of a d u l t long bones is

among t h e most standard o f procedures i n anthropometric and s k e l e -
t a l a n a l y s i s . Many r e s e a r c h e r s have provided d a t a on a d u l t long
bone width and l e n g t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c samples and have derived
s t a t u r e e s t i m a t e s from t h e s e d a t a . (See Ubelaker 1978, f o r
s t a t u r e formulas. ) Comparison a c r o s s p o p u l a t i o n s again i n t r o d u c e s
problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s it i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e de-
g r e e of g e n e t i c involvement i n s i z e and shape d i f f e r e n c e s . Size
and shape d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d u l t s k e l e t o n s may be more e a s i l y r e l a t e d
t o environmental c o n d i t i o n s and p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n i f t h e r e
i s r e l a t i v e g e n e t i c homogeneity i n samples. The r e l a t i v e g e n e t i c
c o n t i n u i t y o f s u c c e s s i v e samples p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n of r e c e n t s e c u l a r i n c r e a s e s i n h e i g h t w i t h i n a country
o r d e f i n e d geographic a r e a (Acheson and Fowler 1964; Craig 1 9 6 3 ) .
These s e c u l a r i n c r e a s e s have m o s t f r e q u e n t l y been i n t e r p r e t e d a s
being due t o a d e c r e a s e i n infant-childhood d i s e a s e and e l i m i n a t i o n
of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s e s (Dobos 1965:77-79; Huber 1967). S i m i l a r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may b e a p p l i e d t o s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s i n p r e h i s t o r y
i f g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y can b e p o s t u l a t e d o r proved. See, f o r
example, Larsen (1982 and Chapter 1 4 t h i s volume) , who d e m o n s t r a t e s
a d e c r e a s e i n a d u l t long-bone l e n g t h i n s u c c e s s i v e p o p u l a t i o n s on
t h e Georgia c o a s t .
While l o n g bone l e n g t h y i e l d s i n f o r m a t i o n on group a d a p t a t i o n ,
a n a l y s i s of l o n g bone t h i c k n e s s , w i d t h , and h i s t o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e
can r e v e a l p a t t e r n s of m e t a b o l i c a c t i v i t y and p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s -
ruption i n adults. Because c o r t i c a l bone i s i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e
o f remodeling by r e s o r p t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n , i n t r o d u c t i o n of any
s t r e s s which s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t s metabolism may a l t e r t h e r a t e of
remodeling ( S t o u t and Simmons 1 9 7 9 ) . When r a t e s o f bone remodeling
a r e i n d i s e q u i l i b r i u m , bone c a n b e l o s t i n s t e a d of m a i n t a i n e d .
C o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n o s t e o p o r o s i s (bone l o s s ) i n c l u d e m e t a b o l i c
d i s t u r b a n c e s , s y s t e m i c d i s e a s e , and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s (Garn 1970;
Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982; M a r t i n and Armelagos 1979; O r t n e r 1 9 7 6 ) .
C r o s s s e c t i o n s o f bone s h a f t s c a n be a n a l y z e d by c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e c o r t i c a l a r e a (bone t h i c k n e s s v e r s u s bone
marrow c a v i t y ) and p l o t t i n g t h i s by a g e and sex (Garn 1 9 7 0 ) . Thin
s e c t i o n s c a n a l s o b e made and viewed under a b r i g h t f i e l d micros-
cope t o r e v e a l i t s m i c r o s t r u c t u r e (Martin e t a l . 1984) . These
measures a s s e s s t h e amount and q u a l i t y of t h e c o r t i c a l bone p r e s e n t
and r e f l e c t t h e n u t r i t i o n a l and h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
Huss-Ashmore and co-workers (1982) have demonstrated t h e u s e f u l n e s s
o f c o r t i c a l bone a n a l y s i s i n t h e assessment of t h e q u a l i t y and
q u a n t i t y o f d i e t . Age-controlled samples from t e m p o r a l l y sequen-
t i a l p o p u l a t i o n s have been used t o e q u a t e bone l o s s and i n c r e a s e
remodeling a c t i v i t y w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s (Martin 1983; R i c h a n
e t a l . , 1979; S t o u t 1979) .
Sexual Dimorphism
Though common, a n a l y s e s of t h e d e g r e e of s e x u a l dimorphism a r e

d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t f o r archaeological populations. In theory,
a d e c r e a s e i n s e x u a l dimorphism s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t i v e o f i n c r e a s e d
s t r e s s s i n c e t h e growing male i s more s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s t h a n
t h e growing female ( s e e S t i n i 1969, 1972, 1 9 7 5 ) . However, a n a l y s i s
of s e x u a l dimorphism i s confounded by p o t e n t i a l g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n
i n t h e d e g r e e of dimorphism among p o p u l a t i o n s and t h e l i k e l i h o o d
t h a t males a r e more p r o t e c t e d from s t r e s s i n many s o c i e t i e s .
Furthermore, i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s t h e same t r a i t s which a r e
used t o d e t e r m i n e sex a r e o f t e n used t o a c c e s s t h e d e g r e e of d i -
morphism, t h u s engendering c i r c u l a r i t y .
The s t a n d a r d method f o r assessment of s e x u a l dimorphism i n -
v o l v e s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of male t o female r a t i o s f o r s t a t u r e o r
f o r v a r i o u s measures o f s k e l e t a l w i d t h and r o b u s t i c i t y . More de-
t a i l e d m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s e s o f s e x u a l dimorphism have been
performed by Van Gerven (1972) based on femoral measures and by
Gustav (1972) b a s e d on p e l v i c measures.
While comparison of t h e degree of sexual dimorphism b o t h among

and w i t h i n p o p u l a t i o n s may prove t o be u s e f u l , a t p r e s e n t t h e
r e s u l t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . For example, Larson (1982,
Chapter 14 t h i s volume) a r g u e s t h a t an Â¥increas i n sexual dimor-
phism i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s . This r e s u l t s from t h e
increased p h y s i c a l work load p l a c e d on females, which d e c r e a s e s
t h e i r growth.
Other Cumulative I n d i c a t o r s of S t r e s s
Other s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s may prove t o be u s e f u l i n providing

data on cumulative l e v e l s of s t r e s s in a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s .
Angel (1978, 1982, and Chapter 3 t h i s volume) argues t h a t s k u l l
base h e i g h t and p e l v i c i n l e t form a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f growth e f f i -
ciency and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Angel may b e c o r r e c t i n t h i s
assessment. However, h i s arguments should be supported by e x p e r i -
mental d a t a which a t p r e s e n t a r e s p a r s e . And, a s w i t h o t h e r growth
assessment, t h e degree of g e n e t i c c o n t r o l must be considered.
Dental crowding should be i n d i c a t i v e of n u t r i t i o n a l o r o t h e r
chronic, s e v e r e s t r e s s s i n c e t e e t h w i l l be l e s s a f f e c t e d by chronic
s t r e s s than a l v e o l a r bone s i z e . Widdowson and McCance (1964) have
demonstrated t h i s e f f e c t i n undernourished p i g l e t s and Trowel1 and
co-workers (1954) have noted i n c r e a s i n g crowding and impacted
molars i n s e v e r e l y malnourished c h i l d r e n . I n c r e a s e d d e n t a l crowd-
ing may b e i n d i c a t i v e of s e v e r e and chronic s t r e s s i n archaeoloqi-
c a l populations. However, we a r e unaware o f t h e use of t h i s
p o t e n t i a l i n d i c a t o r i n any e v a l u a t i o n of h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r y .
Guargliardo (1982) has r e c e n t l y p r e s e n t e d an argument t h a t
t o o t h s i z e v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n a s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n may be i n d i c a t i v e
of environmental s t r e s s . This p r o p o s i t i o n i s based on h i s o b s e r -
v a t i o n t h a t decreased t o o t h s i z e i s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d with a mean
e a r l i e r age a t d e a t h . I n d i v i d u a l s who a r e most s t r e s s e d d i e
e a r l i e r and t h e i r t e e t h f a i l t o grow t o t h e i r g e n e t i c a l l y determined
potential size.
F l u c t u a t i n g o r random asymmetry r e f e r s t o s i z e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a
b i l a t e r a l organism i n which one s i d e i s l a r g e r than t h e o t h e r , b u t
i n which no c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o c c u r s (where, f o r example, some
t e e t h on t h e r i g h t a r e l a r g e r and some s m a l l e r than t h e i r counter-
p a r t s on t h e l e f t ; s e e B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980, and Huss-Ashore e t
a l . 1982 f o r more d e t a i l e d reviews of asymmetry). Asymmetries i n
long bone l e n g t h s and e s p e c i a l l y i n d e n t a l crown measures have been
used by a v a r i e t y of a u t h o r s a s an index of s t r e s s i n both l i v i n g
and p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( c f . B a i l i t e t a l . 1970; DiBennardo and
B a i l i t 1978; Niswander and Chung 1965; P e r z i g i a n 1977; and ~ e r z i g i a n
e t a l . , Chapter 1 3 t h i s volume) . Dental asymmetry i s g e n e r a l l y
g r e a t e r i n p o p u l a t i o n s which a r e under t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s ( B a i l i t
e t a l . 1 9 7 0 ) . However, p o p u l a t i o n s may a l s o vary i n t h e degree t o
which they a r e g e n e t i c a l l y predisposed t o i n c r e a s e d asymmetries
(Niswander and Chung 1 9 6 5 ) . I f asymmetries a r e due t o s t r e s s , then
t h e c r i t i c a l p e r i o d i s l i k e l y t o be i n u t e r o during t h e develop-
ment o f t o o t h buds ( B a i l i t 1975). The p o s t n a t a l environment may
a f f e c t t o o t h s i z e , causing asymmetries, b u t how t h i s e f f e c t i s
produced i s u n c l e a r . A s noted, t h i s c o n d i t i o n f r e q u e n t l y has been
used a s a measure of s t r e s s on a p o p u l a t i o n a l l e v e l . I t s use
l i k e l y w i l l i n c r e a s e a s t h e mechanisms by which asymmetries de-
velop a r e b e t t e r understood.
INDICATORS OF GENERAL AND EPISODIC STRESS
H a r r i s Lines
H a r r i s (1926, 1933) was one o f t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h e r s t o s t u d y

t h e mechanisms and causes o f H a r r i s l i n e s . H a r r i s l i n e s , which
c o n s i s t o f dense t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s v i s i b l e i n l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s
o r radiographs o f longbones, a r e a l s o r e f e r r e d to a s " t r a n s v e r s e
t r a b e c u l a e " ( P l a t t and Stewart 19621, " t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s " (Park and
R i c h t e r 1 9 5 3 ) , "radiographic t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s " ( H a r r i s 1933) , and
" l i n e s and bands of i n c r e a s e d r a d i o p a c i t y " (Gam e t a l . 1968).
While t h e l a t t e r l a b e l i s t h e most a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
phenomena, we w i l l r e f e r t o them a s H a r r i s l i n e s o r t r a n s v e r s e
l i n e s f o r b r e v i t y and i n agreement with t h e p r e v a i l i n g convention
(Figure 2.2) .
The mechanism by which H a r r i s l i n e s a r e formed involve a r e -
duction i n t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e epiphyseal c a r t i l a g e p l a t e w i t h
i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e of t h e immature c a r t i l a g e c e l l s t o c a p i l l a r y
and o s t e o b l a s t i c p e n e t r a t i o n . Subsequently, a t h i n o s t e o b l a s t i c
l a y e r (primary stratum) i s formed and r e p l a c e s t h e more mature
c a r t i l a g e c e l l s below t h e p l a t e . F i n a l l y , h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d
t r a b e c u l a e a r e formed by t h e o s t e o b l a s t s o f t h e primary stratum
(Garn e t dl.-1968; Park 1964; Park and R i c h t e r 1953; Steinbock
1976). Once formed, H a r r i s l i n e s may r e s o r b and disappear. There
is l i t t l e agreement on how, when, and where r e s o r p t i o n o c c u r s .
Hence, r e s o r p t i o n i n t r o d u c e s a p o t e n t i a l source of e r r o r i n t o
a n a l y s e s o f H a r r i s l i n e s a s i n d i c a t o r s of p a s t s t r e s s f u l e x p e r i -
ences ( c f . Garn e t a l . 1968; Park 1964).
There i s l i t t l e consensus about t h e cause o f H a r r i s l i n e s
( s e e Buikstra and Cook 1980; Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982, and Martin
e t a l . i n p r e s s f o r d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e meaning and u s e of H a r r i s
l i n e s i n paleoanthropology) . The mechanisms o f l i n e formation
r e q u i r e a p e r i o d i n which growth i s a r r e s t e d , followed by a p e r i o d
of growth recovery (Acheson 1959; Steinbock 1 9 7 6 ) . This p r o c e s s
may t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n approximately one week (Steinbock 1976) .
Thus H a r r i s l i n e s should be i n d i c a t i v e of s t r e s s e s o f approximate-
l y t h i s d u r a t i o n . However, t h e c l i n i c a l and experimental l i t e r a -
t u r e show o n l y a weak a s s o c i a t i o n between known s t r e s s o r s and
H a r r i s l i n e formation ( s e e Marshall 1 9 6 7 ) . Published c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s between H a r r i s l i n e s and d i s e a s e s
range from - 0 3 t o - 3 0 (Mensforth 1981) .
Despite t h e s e low c o r r e l a t i o n s , H a r r i s l i n e analyses have been
common i n paleopathology s i n c e Wells (1967) h a i l e d t h e method a s
an e x c i t i n g "new approach t o paleopathology." The enthusiasm of
Wells and o t h e r s ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1974; Clarke 1978; Cook 1979;
Goodman and Clark 1981; Gray 1967; McHenry 1968; and Woodall 1968)
i s l i k e l y t o be a f u n c t i o n of t h e e a s e of t h e method and t h e po-
t e n t i a l f o r g a i n i n g c h r o n o l o g i c a l information about e p i s o d i c
stresses. H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s have been used t o measure
gender d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s (Wells 19671, i n t e r p o p u l a t i o n d i f f e r -
ences i n s t r e s s (Goodman and Clark l 9 8 l ) , p e r i o d i c i t y of s t r e s s
(Cook 1979) , and t h e chronology of s t r e s s during development
(Clarke 1 9 7 8 ) . I f H a r r i s l i n e s a r e a v a l i d i n d i c a t o r of s t r e s s ,
then t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o i n d i c a t e a c u t e and e p i s o d i c s t r e s s i n
c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y noted i n d i c a t o r s o f cumulative s t r e s s .
The s t a n d a r d method f o r a n a l y s i s o f H a r r i s l i n e s i n v o l v e s t h e
production o f radiographs of long bones i n a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r
position. Lines may b e r a t e d f o r t h i c k n e s s , degree of o p a c i t y ,
and amount t h a t they t r a v e r s e t h e d i a p h y s i s . However, we a r e un-
aware o f a highly r e p l i c a b l e method f o r s c o r i n g e i t h e r t h e
presence o r absence o r t h e q u a l i t y of a l i n e .
Chronologies of t h e time of development of l i n e s have been
developed based on t h e p o s i t i o n o f l i n e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e mid-shaft
using e s t a b l i s h e d c h r o n o l o g i e s f o r t h e growth i n l e n g t h of long
bones ( s e e Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume). These
chronologies can be a d j u s t e d f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n growth a s a f u n c t i o n
of age, s e x , and body p a r t b u t can n o t account f o r i n d i v i d u a l and
p o p u l a t i o n l e v e l v a r i a t i o n s i n growth. H a r r i s l i n e a n a l y s i s f o r
a d u l t long bones may provide a chronology o f s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e
complete p e r i o d of long bone growth. Analysis o f s u b a d u l t long
bones may y i e l d a chronology up t o t h e age a t death.
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of H a r r i s l i n e d a t a must be undertaken w i t h
c a u t i o n . D i f f e r e n c e s in frequency may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a f u n c t i o n
of v a r i a t i o n i n degree o f e p i s o d i c s t r e s s . However, one must be
aware of t h e low c o r r e l a t i o n s between H a r r i s l i n e s and known
s t r e s s o r s i n t h e c l i n i c a l and experimental l i t e r a t u r e a s w e l l a s
a s e r i e s of i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between H a r r i s l i n e s and o t h e r
s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s (Goodman and Clark
1981; McHenry and Schulz 1 9 7 6 ) . S i m i l a r l y , H a r r i s l i n e chronolo-
g i e s may be u s e f u l i n p o i n t i n g t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s over
t h e growing y e a r s . However, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of chronologies i s
a l s o dependent on o n e ' s f a i t h i n t h e meaning o f l i n e s a s w e l l a s
a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a g e - r e l a t e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and growth
phenomena. F i n a l l y , e v a l u a t i o n of t h e frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s
a c r o s s s t u d i e s i s c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t because d a t a concerning
H a r r i s l i n e s a r e known t o vary by o b s e r v e r , r a d i o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l
and method employed, long bone observed, and age of sample ( M a r t i n
e t a l . 1984). H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p o t e n t i a l l y an e x c e l l e n t source
o f d a t a o b t a i n a b l e i n no o t h e r way, but t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n should
be supported by p a r a l l e l a n a l y s e s of o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s .
2 INDICATIONS O F STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH
FIGURE 2 . 3 Enamel hypoplasia of t h e rnaxiZZavy c e n t r a l and

l a t e r a l i n c i s o r s i n an a d u l t from the- Pueblo period a t Black Mesa,
Arizona.
Enamel Hypoplasias
Enamel hypoplasia (chronologic o r l i n e a r hypoplasia o r

a p l a s i a ) i s a d e f i c i e n c y i n enamel t h i c k n e s s r e s u l t i n g from a c e s -
s a t i o n i n amelogenesis ( S a r n a t and Schour 1941). Enamel h y p -
p l a s i a s a r e v i s i b l e on t o o t h crown s u r f a c e s a s l i n e s , bands, o r
p i t s o f decreased enamel t h i c k n e s s (Goodman e t a l . 1980; s e e
Figure 2 . 3 ) .
The mechanisms by which enamel h y p o p l a s i a s develop i s without
controversy (Kreshover 1960; Osborn 1973; Rose e t a l . i n p r e s s ) .
Enamel m a t r i x i s formed by s e c r e t o r y a m e l o b l a s t s . I f t h e s e amelo-
b l a s t s a r e d i s r u p t e d t o a degree t h a t they l o s e t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l
a b i l i t y , then l e s s m a t r i x w i l l be formed and t h e r e s u l t i n g enamel
w i l l be reduced. Since amelogenesis, t h e p r o c e s s of m a t r i x forma-
t i o n , occurs along a coordinated f r o n t whose shape and timing have
been determined, t h e age of development of hypoplasia may b e de-
duced ( S a r n a t and Schour 1 9 4 1 ) . F i n a l l y , s i n c e enamel, once
formed, i s n o t resorbed o r remodeled during l i f e , i t provides a
permanent and u n a l t e r e d chronologic memory of s t r e s s during i t s
development.
The experimental b a s i s f o r r e l a t i n g hypoplasias t o p e r i o d s o f
s t r e s s i s a s t r o n g one. Hypoplasias have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a
wide v a r i e t y o f d i s e a s e s and n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s ( s e e
Kreshover 1960; Pinborg 1982; Rose 1973; Rose e t a l . 1984).
With l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h known s t r e s s e s a r e
high, w i t h r2 v a l u e s around -5. Unexplained v a r i a t i o n may be
r e l a t e d t o h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and methodological d i f f i c u l t i e s (Rose
e t a l . 1984) .
Hypoplasias have been examined f o r both deciduous and perma-
n e n t d e n t i t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . The frequency o f hy-
p o p l a s i a s i n t h e deciduous d e n t i t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y low, perhaps
r e f l e c t i n g i n t r a u t e r i n e p r o t e c t i o n (Blakey 1981; S c i u l l i 1977).
The advantage of studying deciduous t e e t h is t h a t they provide a
record o f s t r e s s e s during t h e i r unique time of d e v e l o p m e n t ~ t h e
f i r s t year of l i f e and t h e l a s t 5 months o f p r e n a t a l development.
Enamel hypoplasias o f t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c
p o p u l a t i o n s have been s t u d i e d by a v a r i e t y of a u t h o r s i n r e c e n t
years ( s e e B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980; Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1982;
Rose e t a l . 1984) . The usual method of a n a l y s i s involves t h e
recording o f d e f e c t s on a s i n g l e t o o t h , u s u a l l y t h e canine.
Goodman and co-workers (1980) have shown t h a t t h e canine may be a
p a r t i c u l a r l y good choice a s it i s highly s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s
and has a long developmental p e r i o d (Condon 1981; Rose e t a l .
1984).
Hypoplasia a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e s a recording of t h e a v a i l a b l e
enamel s u r f a c e f o r o b s e r v a t i o n and t h e p o s i t i o n o f hypoplasias
on t h e enamel crown. Observation of hypoplasias may be aided by
use of a binocular microscope. While hypoplasias d i f f e r i n width,
depth, and c o n t i n u i t y ( p i t s v e r s u s l i n e s o r bands), such charac-
t e r i s t i c s a r e i n f r e q u e n t l y recorded. There is no standard d e f i -
n i t i o n of t h e minimum requirement f o r s c o r i n g a h y p p l a s i a . The
p o s i t i o n of hypoplasias on t h e enamel crown may be recorded a s
d i s t a n c e from t h e cemento-enamel junction ( i n mm) and/or by
e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e d e f e c t on t h e crown.
An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e s i n g l e t o o t h a n a l y s i s has been provided
by Swsrdstedt (1966), who s t u d i e d a l l a v a i l a b l e permanent t e e t h
except f o r t h e highly v a r i a b l e t h i r d molar. The two main
advantages of t h i s method a r e (1) an a b i l i t y t o check t h a t t h e
underlying s t r e s s i s systemic r a t h e r than l o c a l i n o r i g i n by show-
ing t h a t t h e same episode i s recorded on d i f f e r e n t t e e t h , and ( 2 )
an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e chronology by use of t e e t h developing a t
s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t times. The main disadvantage of t h i s method i s
t h a t it r e q u i r e s more time than t h e s i n g l e t o o t h a n a l y s i s .
Goodman and co-workers (1980) proposed a compromise t o t h e above
with a " b e s t t e e t h " a n a l y s i s which i n c l u d e s t h e use of t h e rnaxil-
l a r y c e n t r a l i n c i s o r and mandibular canine. I n t h e Dickson Mounds
s t u d y , 95% of systemic s t r e s s e s were recorded on one o r both of
these teeth.
Hypoplasia f r e q u e n c i e s have been used i n archaeology t o compare
t h e frequency of s t r e s s by gender (Swzrdstedt 1 9 6 6 ) , by s t a t u s
group (Cook 1981; Goodman e t a l . 1983), and by age c l a s s (Cook
1981; Goodman and Armelagos 1980; SwSrdstedt 1 9 6 6 ) , a s w e l l a s t o
compare p o p u l a t i o n s (Cook 1976; Goodman e t a l . 1980) . The compari-
son o f age groups i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a s a u t h o r s have found
t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h mare hypoplasias d i e a t an e a r l i e r age.
These d a t a a r e evidence t h a t hypoplasias r e c o r d childhood e v e n t s

which a r e Important t o t h e s u r v i v a l of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s .
Hypoplasias have been used t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e chronological
d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s . SwSrdstedt (1966) n o t e s a peak p e r i o d of
s t r e s s around age two t o f o u r i n a Swedish medieval p o p u l a t i o n
while Schulz and McHenry (1975) n o t e a peak a t age f o u r t o f i v e
i n t h e i r C a l i f o r n i a Amerindian sample. Goodman and co-workers
(1980) noted t h a t hypoplasias a r e more o f t e n s e p a r a t e d by a y e a r
than by a h a l f y e a r . T h i s i s given a s evidence of an annual
c y c l e of s t r e s s .
I n summary, enamel hypoplasias a r e a r e l a t i v e l y v a l i d and
r e p l i c a b l e i n d i c a t o r s of infant-childhood s t r e s s . Further experi-
mental work and more agreement on t h e minimum requirement f o r
s c o r i n g d e f e c t s would b e n e f i t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A t p r e s e n t hypo-
p l a s i a s a r e a v a l u a b l e method f o r e v a l u a t i o n of g e n e r a l s t r e s s
occurring a t e a r l y ages.
Enamel Microdefects
Enamel microdef e c t s ( p a t h o l o g i c a l s t r i a e of R e t z i u s , Wilson

bands) a r e observable i n l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s o f t e e t h a s a l i n e
o r band running r e l a t i v e l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o enamel prisms which
e x h i b i t s abnormal shape and prism bending (Rose e t a l . , 1984)
(Figure 2 - 4 ) .
A microdefect i s t h e r e s u l t of a temporary d i s r u p t i o n i n
ameloqenesis. Matrix formation has a n a t u r a l p e r i o d i c i t y and under
normal c o n d i t i o n s w i l l r e s u l t i n a s e r i e s of incremental l i n e s i n
enamel (Yaeger 1980) . However, i f t h e metabolism of t h e a c t i v e ,
s e c r e t o r y ameloblasts i s d i s r u p t e d , then t h e matrix formed may be
a l t e r e d i n t h i c k n e s s , prism d i r e c t i o n , and p r o t e i n c o n t e n t . The
observable r e s u l t o f t h i s d i s r u p t i o n i s a microdefect. Microde-
f e c t s have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a wide v a r i e t y of d i s e a s e and
n u t r i t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n c l i n i c a l (Massler e t a l . 1941;
Watson e t a l . 1964) and experimental s t u d i e s (Rose and P a s l e y
1980). Though l e s s r e s e a r c h has been done on microdefects a s
compared t o hypoplasias, t h e r e s u l t s a r e s i m i l a r . I t i s l i k e l y
t h a t t h e s e two d e f e c t s a r e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of a n a l y s i s of t h e
same d i s r u p t i o n (Condon 1981). Hypoplasias may be a s s o c i a t e d with
t h e s e v e r e s t grade o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n .
Methods f o r a n a l y s i s o f m i c r o d e f e c t s include t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
of u n d e c a l c i f i e d l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s through t o o t h crowns. Re-
corded information i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r hypoplasias ( a v a i l a b l e
enamel and l o c a t i o n o f d e f e c t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e cemento-enamel
j u n c t i o n ) . A v a r i e t y of o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s of microdefects
have been employed (Rose e t a l . 1984) which v a r y mainly i n t h e i r
d e f i n i t i o n of t h e p o i n t a t which a band i s no longer considered t o
be due t o normal p r o c e s s e s . Rose's (1977) advocation of t h e term
Wilson bands provides t h e most r e s t r i c t i n g d e f i n i t i o n of a micro-
d e f e c t . Wilson bands include a r a d i c a l change i n prism d i r e c t i o n
FIGURE 2.4 Witson band from a permanent canine ( 1 6 0 ~ ) . Note

the trough-like appearance of t h e band (Condon, 1 9 8 1 ) .
and abnormal p r i s m s t r u c t u r e . Condon (1981) and Rudney ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,

however, b e l i e v e t h a t a change i n p r i s m d i r e c t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t
t o i n d i c a t e systemic d i s r u p t i o n .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s a v a r i e t y of s t u d i e s have emerged on t h e ap-
p e a r a n c e of m i c r o d e f e c t s i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( C l a r k e 1978;
Condon 1981; Cook 1981; J a b l o n s k i 1981; Rose 1973, 1977, 1979;
Rose e t a l . 1978; Rudney 1 9 8 1 ) . An exemplary s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s
of m i c r o d e f e c t s h a s been p r o v i d e d by Rose (1977) and co-workers
(Rose e t a l . 1 9 7 8 ) . They d e m o n s t r a t e a n i n c r e a s e d frequency o f
Wilson bands i n Dickson Mounds v e r s u s Gibson Mounds p o p u l a t i o n s ,
a peak f r e q u e n c y of d e f e c t s around 2 y e a r s o f a g e , and an i n v e r s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between Wilson bands and age a t d e a t h .
Microdefect a n a l y s i s i s l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e i n popularity i n
paleopathology. With a b i o l o g i c a l l y meaningful and a g r e e d upon
minimum c r i t e r i a f o r s c o r i n g a d e f e c t , m i c r o d e f e c t s p r o v i d e a p a r -
t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r of s t r e s s . I n comparison t o hypo-
p l a s i a s , m i c r o d e f e c t s may r e c o r d more d i s r u p t i o n , i n c l u d i n g l e s s
s e v e r e and l o n g - l a s t i n g o n e s . The major drawbacks of t h i s method
i n c l u d e t h e need t o s a c r i f i c e t e e t h and t h e t i m e and c o s t s i n -
volved i n t h e s t u d y .
Other E p i s o d i c S t r e s s I n d i c a t o r s
Teeth p r o v i d e a s e r i e s o f o t h e r e p i s o d i c s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s
which a r e l e s s f r e q u e n t l y used b u t may p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t informa-
t i o n on s t r e s s . While enamel h y p o p l a s i a s and m i c r o d e f e c t s a r e
due t o d i s r u p t i o n i n enamel m a t r i x f o r m a t i o n , enamel h y p c a l c i f i -
c a t i o n s a r e d e f e c t s which r e s u l t from a d i s r u p t i o n i n m a t u r a t i o n
o f enamel (Yaeger 1 9 8 0 ) . These a r e v i s i b l e a s i n c r e a s e d o p a c i t i e s
i n enamel and a r e o f t e n found i n c o n s o r t w i t h h y p o p l a s t i c d e f e c t s
(Blakey 1 9 8 1 ) . The common o c c u r r e n c e of h y p o p l a s i a s and hypocal-
c i f i c a t i o n s i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e i r b e i n g t h e r e s u l t o f t h e same
metabolic d i s r u p t i o n .
Dentin development i s s i m i l a r t o enamel development. Dental
m a t r i x ( p r e d e n t i n e ) i s f i r s t formed and i s q u i c k l y c a l c i f i e d
(Avery 1 9 8 0 ) . I n c r e m e n t a l l i n e s ( l i n e s o f von Ebner) a r e o b s e r v -
a b l e i n d e n t i n . Contour l i n e s o f Owen a r e a c c e n t u a t i o n s o f t h e
normal i n c r e m e n t a l p a t t e r n and may b e used t o i n d i c a t e m e t a b o l i c
s t r e s s (Avery 1980) . Molnar and Ward (1975) have p r o v i d e d an o v e r -
view o f t h e p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n of d e n t i n m i c r o d e f e c t s i n
anthropology. I n theory, d e n t i n should y i e l d a s e t of i n d i c a t o r s
o f s t r e s s which a r e a s v a l i d a s enamel d e f e c t s . However, d e n t i n
d e f e c t s have been s t u d i e d f a r l e s s f r e q u e n t l y , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e
t h e r e i s no means o f s t u d y i n g them w i t h o u t making h i s t o l o g i c a l t h i n
sections.
INDICATORS OF SPECIFIC DISEASE STRESS
Porotic Hyperostosis
P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ( l e s i o n s o f t h e f r o n t a l , p a r i e t a l , and
o c c i p i t a l bones o f t h e cranium) and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a ( l e s i o n s o n
t h e s u p e r i o r b o r d e r of t h e o r b i t s ) a r e m a n i f e s t a s a widening of
t h e spongy d i p l o e w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g t h i n n i n g of t h e o u t e r dense
c o r t i c a l bone r e s u l t i n g i n t h e appearance of s u r f a c e p o r o s i t y ( s e e
Figure 2.5). I n s e v e r e c a s e s , t h e r e i s t o t a l o b l i t e r a t i o n of t h e
bone s u r f a c e w i t h a l a t t i c e of t r a b e c u l a r overgrowth ( s e e F i g u r e
2.5) . Mensforth and co-workers (1978) have p r e s e n t e d t h e most
thorough d i s c u s s i o n o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n a r c h e o l o g i c a l popu-
l a t i o n s . S t e i n b o c k (1976) p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s u s e f u l i n
t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s which c a u s e t h e l e s i o n
t o be p r e s e n t i n humans.
F i r s t d e s c r i b e d by Welcher i n 1885, t h e c o n d i t i o n h a s been
a t t r i b u t e d t o a number o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t h a l a s s e m i a , h e r e d i t a r y
anemias, s i c k l e - c e l l anemia, and i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia (Moseley
1 9 6 3 ) . The a l t e r a t i o n i n s k e l e t a l t i s s u e from t h e s e anemias i s
caused by t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e d blood c e l l p r o d u c t i o n which t a k e s
p l a c e i n t h e marrow c a v i t i e s o f l o n g bones and t h e d i p l o e o f f l a t
ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.
cin
FIGURE 2.5 Porotio h p e r o s t o s i s (cribra orb-ital'La) of t h e

orbital surface.
bones. Because t h e c r a n i a l bones a r e so t h i n , they a r e o f t e n a f -

f e c t e d . A s t h e d i p l o e expands, t h e o u t e r l a y e r of bone becomes
very t h i n and t h e inner t r a b e c u l a r bone i s exposed. The thickened
and porous bone has a s i e v e - l i k e appearance.
In a landmark study, Henqen (1971) analyzed 459 human c r a n i a
from various time periods and geographic a r e a s and discussed t h e
various p o s s i b l e explanations f o r t h e occurrence of p o r o t i c l e -
sions. After c a s t i n g o u t those explanations which d i d n o t f i t
most c a s e s , he suggested t h a t i r o n deficiency anemias f i t most
examples and t h a t t h e l e s i o n could be t r a c e d t o t h e d i e t a r y h a b i t s .
H e f u r t h e r proposed t h a t iron d e f i c i e n c y a c t e d s y n e r g e t i c a l l y with
i n f e c t i o u s and p a r a s i t i c d i s e a s e s . D i f f e r e n t i a l diagnosis could
be made b y examining t h e l o c a t i o n of the l e s i o n , i t s s e v e r i t y , and
t h e age d i s t r i b u t i o n of a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . Numerous r e s e a r c h e r s
have argued t h a t p o r o t i c h y p e m s t o s i s i s due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s
in most c a s e s i n t h e New World s i n c e o t h e r explanations (malaria,
hemoglobin derived anemias) can n o t b e a p p l i e d t o New World popu-

l a t i o n s (El-Najjar e t a l . 1976; L a l l o e t d l . 1977; Mensforth e t
a l . 1978).
Carlson and co-workers (1974) f u r t h e r e d Hengen's hypothesis by
suggesting t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l , environmental, and
b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s could account f o r t h e i n c i d e n c e of t h e patholo-
gy i n p r e h i s t o r i c Sudanese Nubian p o p u l a t i o n s . T h i s study
emphasized a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e l e s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o age and
found a higher incidence of l e s i o n s among i n f a n t s and females of
child-bearing ages. A t about t h e same time El-Naj j a r and co-
workers (1976) reached s i m i l a r conclusions f o r two p r e h i s t o r i c
Southwestern Amerindian p o p u l a t i o n s . Both t h e s e s t u d i e s s u g g e s t
t h a t p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i s a n o n s p e c i f i c pathology t h a t r e f l e c t s
an anemic c o n d i t i o n . High f r e q u e n c i e s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e , a
d i e t low i n i r o n o r one t h a t i n h i b i t s i r o n a b s o r p t i o n , and c u l t u -
r a l f a c t o r s such a s weanling d i a r r h e a , a l l i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l
for porotic hyperostosis.
S t u d i e s conducted by L a l l o and co-workers (1977) and Mensforth
and co-workers (1978) expanded t h e previous r e s e a r c h by examining
t h e frequency and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e l e s i o n s w i t h i n s p e c i f i c age
categories. Through t h e use of r e f i n e d age c a t e g o r i e s , t h e c l u s -
t e r i n g o f l e s i o n s i n younger c h i l d r e n was shown t o r e f l e c t t h e i n -
creased need f o r i r o n metabolism d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f r a p i d growth
and development. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e evidence of h e a l i n g of t h e
l e s i o n can provide important information on its impact on m o r t a l i -
t y . The evidence from remodeling ( h e a l i n g ) suggests t h a t t h e
i n d i v i d u a l h a s survived t h e i n i t i a l episode. Mensforth and co-
workers (1978) were a b l e t o demonstrate t h a t a l a r g e percentage of
i n d i v i d u a l s did s u r v i v e e a r l y s t r e s s e s , while Huss-Ashmore and
co-workers (1982) demonstrated t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a c t i v e p o r o t i c
h y p e r o s t o s i s show a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y during e a r l y
childhood.
The a s s o c i a t i o n of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s
should a l s o be considered. When both p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s oc-
c u r t o g e t h e r i n an i n d i v i d u a l , t h e i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s a r e u s u a l l y
more severe ( L a l l o e t a l . 1 9 7 7 ) . Through t h e use o f r e f i n e d age
c a t e g o r i e s and d i a g n o s t i c d i s t i n c t i o n s o f healed and unhealed l e -
s i o n s of both p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and i n f e c t i o u s r e a c t i o n s ,
Mensforth and co-workers (1978) were a b l e t o demonstrate t h a t f o r
t h e Libben p o p u l a t i o n , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s were t h e i n i t i a l patho-
l o g i c a l response which made i n d i v i d u a l s more s u s c e p t i b l e t o p0rot.i.c
hyperostosis .
Analyses of p o r o f i c h y p e r o s t o s i s have o f t e n been hindered
by f a i l u r e t o consider t h e p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y of t h e l e s i o n (healed
v e r s u s unhealed) , f a i l u r e t o d e f i n e p r e c i s e and narrow catego-
r i e s , and f a i l u r e t o consider t h e s y n e r g i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between
h o s t r e s i s t a n c e , d i e t , and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s such a s i n f e c t i o u s
disease. However, when a l l f a c t o r s a r e considered, and when t h e
narrowest b i o l o g i c a l l y meaningful age c a t e g o r i e s a r e used, p o r o t i c
h y p e r o s t o s i s i s a v a l u a b l e marker o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i n
s k e l e t a l populations.
FIGURE 2.6 Periosteal reactions involving the long bone

shafts.
I n f e c t i o u s Disease
Most examples o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l
remains a r e n o n s p e c i f i c ; t h a t i s t o s a y t h e l e s i o n s a r e caused by
v a r i o u s k i n d s o f microorganisms, b u t t h e i r e x a c t e t i o l o g y i s un-
known. S p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s such a s treponema (yaws/syph-
i l i s ) , t u b e r c u l o s i s , and l e p r o s y , which can b e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y
diagnosed, a r e much r a r e r ( r e f e r t o B u i k s t r a 1981; O r t n e r and
P u t s c h a r 1981; S t e i n b o c k 1 9 7 6 ) . N o n s p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s
on bone a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s periosteal reactions (when t h e l e s i o n
is c o n f i n e d t o t h e o u t e r p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e o f bone, F i g u r e 2.6)
and o s t e o @ i t i s and o s t e a i s (when t h e r e a c t i o n c o u r s e s through-
o u t t h e bone t i s s u e i n v o l v i n g b o t h t h e marrow and c o r t e x ) . The
l a t t e r r e a c t i o n can be diagnosed o n l y v i a r a d i o g r a p h s ; b u t t h e
l o c a l i z a t i o n of t h e inflammatory p r o c e s s r a r e l y o c c u r s and t h e r e
i s u s u a l l y some d e g r e e o f involvement of a l l t h e a n a t o m i c a l com-
ponents (Steinbock 1976).
Severe o s t e o m y e l i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e caused by t h e s p r e a d o f
t h e microorganisms o f Staphyloeocous and Streptococcus. P e r i o s t e a l
r e a c t i o n s may a l s o b e caused by t h e organisms b u t o t h e r f a c t o r s can
r e s u l t i n a p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n ( G r e e n f i e l d 1975; Kunitz 1 9 7 0 ) .
Depending on t h e v i r u l e n c e of t h e microorganism a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e
of t h e h o s t , t h e i n f e c t i o u s r e a c t i o n may be a n a c u t e and l o c a l i z e d
one, o r c h r o n i c and s y s t e m i c ( a p p e a r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on many
bones).
P e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s r e s u l t from an e l e v a t i o n of t h e f i b r o u s
o u t e r l a y e r of t h e p e r i o s t e u m due t o t h e compressing and s t r e t c h i n g
o f blood v e s s e l s ( J a f f e e 1 9 7 2 ) . S u b p e r i o s t e a l hemorrage o c c u r s
which i n t u r n reduces t h e blood supply t o t h e bone. If the
p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n i s s e v e r e and l o n g t e r m , t h e p e r i o s t e a l
bone t i s s u e w i l l d i e ( n e c r o s i s ) ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e p e r i o s t e u m w i l l r e -
sume normal growth when t h e d i s r u p t i o n i s stopped.
P e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s account f o r a g r e a t majority o f patholoqi-
c a l a l t e r a t i o n s found i n e a r l y human and animal bones ( S t e i n b o c k
1976). I n t h e New and Old World, i n f e c t i o n s may b e found i n e v e r y
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n and g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n ( r e f e r t o J a r c h o
1966; O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r 1981; S t e i n b o c k 1 9 7 6 ) . Recent r e s e a r c h
h a s emphasized t h e s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n which i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e h a s w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l and d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e . O f t e n one
p a t h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t a t e w i l l p r e d i s p o s e an i n d i v i d u a l t o one o r
several other diseases.
Because i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i s s o common i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
specimens, t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i t s meaning w i l l be c l e a r o n l y
when i t i s viewed w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t and w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o a n a l y s i s of s e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s . Thus, an e f -
f e c t i v e a n a l y s i s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s of n o n s p e c i f i c o r i g i n
requires several important considerations.
1. The n a r r o w e s t b i o l o g i c a l l y meaningful a g e c a t e g o r i e s
should be used because broad age c a t e g o r i e s w i l l o b s c u r e t h e r a n g e
of s u s c e p t i b i l i t y .
2. The a n a l y s i s of t h e s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h
d e g r e e s of s e v e r i t y ( l i g h t , moderate, and s e v e r e r e a c t i o n s ) , d e s -
c r i b e t h e i r l o c a t i o n ( s i n g l e bone v e r s u s many bones, d i a p h y s i s
v e r s u s e p i p h y s i s , l o n g bones v e r s u s f l a t b o n e s ) , and n o t e any
e v i d e n c e of h e a l i n g .
3 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e s y n e r g i s t i c r e a c t i o n
between i n f e c t i o n s , poor n u t r i t i o n , and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s .
4. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of l e s i o n s a c r o s s s e x and age c a t e g o r i e s
should b e n o t e d , a s s h o u l d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e age o f o n s e t , p a t -
t e r n i n g , and frequency among c u l t u r a l subgroups.
5. The d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u l d be made between n o n s p e c i f i c
p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s o r o s t e o m y e l i t i s and s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e e n t i -
t i e s such a s t u b e r c u l o s i s and s y p h i l i s .
6 . The l e s i o n s o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s h o u l d be a n a l y z e d i n
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s r a t h e r t h a n being i n t e r -
preted i n i s o l a t i o n .
L a l l o and co-workers (1978) examined t h e frequency o f
i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e f o r 595 b u r i a l s from Dickson Mounds. They
demonstrated t h a t t h e i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s i n c r e a s e d
d r a m a t i c a l l y a s t h e group changed from a h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g
economy t o one based more f u l l y on a g r i c u l t u r e . The e x p l a n a t i o n
o f t h i s i n c r e a s e r e s t e d on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e i n
p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y which i n c r e a s e d t h e number of p o t e n t i a l h o s t s
and f a c i l i t a t e d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d i s e a s e w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n .
F u r t h e r , r e l i a n c e on a maize d i e t reduced n u t r i t i o n a l adequacy.
A s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n between m a l n u t r i t i o n and i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e s r e s u l t e d i n a h i g h e r r a t e of m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y .
I n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e can b e a powerful i n d i c a t o r o f p h y s i o l o g i -
c a l s t r e s s i n a p o p u l a t i o n , b u t i t s meaning i n a b r o a d e r s e n s e can
o n l y come from a n a n a l y s i s c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c u l t u r a l and e c o l o g i c a l
c o n t e x t and employing s e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s .
Trauma
Traumatic l e s i o n s have been c l a s s i f i e d by O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r

(1981) a s belonging t o f o u r major t y p e s : (1) f r a c t u r e s , ( 2 ) d i s -
l o c a t i o n s and d i s p l a c e m e n t s , ( 3 ) d e f o r m i t y induced a r t i f i c i a l l y ,
and ( 4 ) d i s r u p t i o n i n n e r v e o r blood s u p p l y . These t y p e s of
i n j u r y a r e p r i m a r i l y caused by p h y s i c a l f o r c e o r by c o n t a c t w i t h
b l u n t o r s h a r p o b j e c t s . The c a u s e of trauma can o f t e n be
determined by a n a l y z i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y and d i r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s concerning trauma a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i f t h e a g e ,
sex, and h e a l t h s t a t u s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r e known. I f t h e
t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n o c c u r s w i t h p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n and i n f e c t i o u s
inflammation, a s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n which i n v o l v e s t h e s o f t t i s s u e
a s w e l l a s t h e bone i s i m p l i e d . S t e i n b o c k (1976) h a s s t a t e d t h a t
s i m p l e f r a c t u r e s which do n o t b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e s o f t t i s s u e and
s k i n r a r e l y become i n f e c t e d . The d e g r e e t o which a trauma has
h e a l e d p r o v i d e s a c l u e t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t r a u m a t i c
e v e n t and t h e d e a t h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
S p e c i f i c t y p e s o f trauma o f t e n p r o v i d e a d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e
about s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s . Certain a c t i v i t i e s predispose
i n d i v i d u a l s t o c e r t a i n t y p e s of a c c i d e n t a l trauma. Moreover,
v a r i o u s forms of i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e ( w a r f a r e , s c a l p i n g , muti-
l a t i o n , l a c e r a t i o n s ) and o f s u r g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n ( t r e p h i n a t i o n ,
amputation) may be s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d ( O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r
1981).
F r a c t u r e s a r e t h e most common t r a u m a t i c i n j u r i e s encountered
i n archaeological populations. The r e s p o n s e of bone t o a f r a c t u r e
i s immediate; v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n and new bone f o r m a t i o n begin w i t h i n
a few days a f t e r a break i s made. Calcium s a l t s a r e r e l e a s e d from
dead bone fragments and a l s o from t h e l i v i n g bone and a r e used i n
c a l c i f y i n g t h e c a l l o u s m a t r i x which forms a b i n d i n g and c o n n e c t i n g
s h e a t h around t h e two bone e n d s . Within two weeks, c a l c i f i c a t i o n
i s underway, and t h e i n t e r n a l remodeling and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e
bone c a l l u s b e g i n s . The p r o c e s s can l a s t f o r months o r y e a r s ,
depending on t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e b r e a k (Steinbock 1976) . Even a
p o o r l y a l i g n e d bone w i l l e v e n t u a l l y mend i t s e l f i f i n f e c t i o n does
not s e t i n . The r a t e of t h i s r e p a i r is m o d i f i e d by a g e , t y p e of
f r a c t u r e , d e g r e e of v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n , amount of motion between t h e
broken e n d s , and p r e s e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n (Steinbock 1 9 7 6 ) . I n f e c t i o n
a t t h e s i t e o f t h e bone c a n s e r i o u s l y hamper r e p a i r , and t h e

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e t i m i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e on a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
specimens i s r a r e l y p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f
the healing process.
One o f t h e most thorough a n a l y s e s o f f r a c t u r e s a t t h e popula-
t i o n l e v e l i s p r e s e n t e d by Lovejoy and H e i p l e (1981) f o r t h e
Libben s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n . A q u a n t i t a t i v e approach t o t h e
a n a l y s i s of l o n g bone f r a c t u r e s was shown t o b e v a l u a b l e i n i n -
t e r p r e t i n g various behavioral aspects of t h e population. These
a u t h o r s found t h a t most f r a c t u r e s o c c u r r e d a s a consequence o f
a c c i d e n t ; t h e f r a c t u r e r a t e was h i g h e s t i n t h e 10-25 and 45+ a g e
grou; t h a t c a r e of p a t i e n t s was s k i l l f u l ; and t h a t t h e chance of
f r a c t u r e was l a r g e l y determined by accumulated y e a r s o f r i s k i n
the population.
Degenerative Conditions
O s t e o a r t h r i t i s i s among t h e o l d e s t and most commonly known

d i s e a s e s a f f l i c t i n g humans. However, t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l
d i a g n o s i s i s sometimes c o m p l i c a t e d . Measuring t h e amount o f
a r t h r i t i c involvement w i t h s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s i s p r o b l e m a t i c , b u t
numerous r e s e a r c h e r s have a t t e m p t e d t o a s s e s s i t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
( r e f e r t o Jurmain 1977; O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r 1981) . While many
f a c t o r s may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e breakdown o f s k e l e t a l t i s s u e , such
a s n u t r i t i o n , g e n e t i c s , and even v i r a l i n f e c t i o n s , t h e primary
c a u s e o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s i s r e l a t e d t o biomechanical wear and t e a r
and f u n c t i o n a l s t r e s s . Biomechanical s t r e s s i s most a p p a r e n t a t
t h e a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e s o f l o n g bone j o i n t s and i s r e f e r r e d t o a s
degenerative joint disease. The p a t t e r n i n g of d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t
d i s e a s e h a s been l i n k e d t o b e h a v i o r a l f a c t o r s . I n d i v i d u a l s who
h a b i t u a l l y engage i n a c t i v i t i e s which p u t s t r a i n on t h e j o i n t
systems a r e more l i k e l y e v e n t u a l l y t o show d e g e n e r a t i o n ( r e f e r t o
A e g e r t e r and K i r k p a t r i c k 1 9 6 8 ) .
D e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e i s d e f i n e d by changes i n t h e a r t i -
c u l a r s u r f a c e a r e a s o f j o i n t systems. Following t h e exposure of
subchondral bone, t h e a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e r e g i o n s become p i t t e d ,
w i t h m a r g i n a l l i p p i n g and e r o s i o n ; e v e n t u a l l y e b u r n a t i o n t a k e s
place. E b u r n a t i o n i s t h e formation of a v e r y h a r d c a l l u s on bone
s u r f a c e s which a r e r u b b i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t b e i n g cushioned by
l u b r i c a t i n g f l u i d s . Degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e i s not an inflam-
matory d i s e a s e , b u t d e v e l o p s on t h e b a s i s of a g i n g changes and
breakdown of t h e c a r t i l a g e and l u b r i c a t i n g f l u i d . The c o n d i t i o n
i s s l o w l y p r o g r e s s i v e , b u t i s n o t found t o o c c u r i n a l l o l d e r
a d u l t s i n t h e same form. Thus, t h e c o n d i t i o n p r o b a b l y i s t h e
accumulation of y e a r s of a l t e r a t i o n s of t h e a r t i c u l a r c a r t i l a g e
and breakdown o f t h e j o i n t system. L i f e s t y l e and a c t i v i t y r e p e r -
t o i r e p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n e i t h e r b u f f e r i n g a n i n d i v i d u a l
from a r t h r i t i s o r enhancing t h e chance t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n w i l l
appear .
The a n a l y s i s of d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e s should c o n s i d e r
t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e c o n d i t i o n , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s l i g h t involvement
from severe. There a r e numerous s e t s of c r i t e r i a published t o
a s s i s t t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n d e v i s i n g a graded s c a l e o f s e v e r i t y of
involvement (Aegerter and K i r k p a t r i c k 1968; Jurmain 1977; Martin
e t a l . 1979; Steinbock 1 9 7 6 ) . In a d d i t i o n , d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t
d i s e a s e s a r e r a r e l y confined t o a s i n g l e j o i n t complex. The
weight-bearing j o i n t s such a s t h e h i p s and knees and t h o s e j o i n t s
exposed t o c h r o n i c trauma such a s t h e shoulder and elbow a r e m o s t
f r e q u e n t l y a f f e c t e d (Jurmain 1978; Martin e t a l . 1979) . The
p a t t e r n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , s e v e r i t y , and o n s e t by age c l a s s and sex
i n a d u l t s can be used t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r o l e of c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y
i n t h e e t i o l o g y of d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e -
V e r t e b r a l o s t e o p h y t o s i s i s another form of degeneration which
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by marginal l i p p i n g on t h e v e r t e b r a l b o d i e s , and
has been a s s o c i a t e d with changes i n t h e i n t e r v e r t e b r a l d i s c
(Chapman 1973). Commonly found i n p r e h i s t o r i c and modern popu-
l a t i o n s , t h i s d e g e n e r a t i o n t y p i c a l l y begins a t 30 y e a r s of age
and a f f e c t s almost a l l i n d i v i d u a l s by 60 y e a r s of age (Steinbock
1976) . The marginal l i p p i n g may range from a s l i g h t sharpness t o
complete f u s i o n of t h e v e r t e b r a l b o d i e s . When t h e degree of
o s t e o p h y t o s i s i s a s s e s s e d , each v e r t e b r a should be divided i n t o
f o u r quadrants and each quadrant a s s e s s e d on b o t h t h e s u p e r i o r
and i n f e r i o r margins using a s c a l e which ranges from no l i p p i n g
t o extreme bony r i d g e s and e v e r s i o n a t t h e margins (Chapman 1973) .
The bony r i d g e s , o r o s t e o p h y t e s , can grow t o a g r e a t s i z e .
A s w i t h o t h e r p a t h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n bone, maximum i n f o r -
mation can be o b t a i n e d regarding t h e c u l t u r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a
d i s e a s e i f it i s combined w i t h a n a l y s e s of o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s .
A p r e l i m i n a r y study c o r r e l a t i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e of degenerative j o i n t
d i s e a s e , o s t e o p h y t o s i s , and p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s was undertaken
f o r t h e Dickson Mound population (Martin e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) . I n d i v i d -
u a l s w i t h m u l t i p l e j o i n t involvement showed a s t a t i s t i c a l l y higher
percentage of p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s . Both i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s and
d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e appeared t o be a f u n c t i o n of age, and
t h e more s e v e r e a r t h r i t i c involvements c o n s i s t e n t l y showed more
severe infectious reactions.
Dental P a t h o l o g i e s
Dental p a t h o l o g i e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y found i n p r e h i s t o r i c popula-

tions. Among t h o s e which a r e most common a r e c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l
d i s e a s e , excess o r abnormal a t t r i t i o n , a b s c e s s i n g , e x c e s s i v e c a l -
c u l u s , and premortem l o s s ( s e e Brothwell 1972 f o r s t a n d a r d s c o r i n g
techniques and Ortner and Putchar 1981 f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s ) .
Dental p a t h o l o g i e s a r e o f t e n i n t e r r e l a t e d . For example,
p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e (measured by degree of a l v e o l a r r e s o r p t i o n ) ,
c a r i e s , a t t r i t i o n , and a b s c e s s i n g a l l may cause premature l o s s of
t e e t h . A t t r i t i o n and c a r i e s p a t t e r n s a r e o f t e n i n t e r r e l a t e d
(Turner and Machado 1 9 8 3 ) . Both may be a r e s u l t of d i e t and e a t i n g

habits. However, t h e r a t e of a t t r i t i o n may a f f e c t t h e r a t e of
c a r i e s formation (Armelagos 1 9 6 9 ) .
An i n c r e a s e i n r a t e of c a r i e s through time h a s been c i t e d a s
i n v a r i a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s h i f t t o h i g h carbohydrate and then t o
r e f i n e d carbohydrate d i e t s . Based on t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , some
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have begun t o u s e
c a r i e s r a t e s a s an i n d i c a t o r of carbohydrate consumption where a r -
c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence f o r d i e t i s i n s u f f i c i e n t ( s e e Rose e t a l . ,
Chapter 1 5 t h i s volume). Turner and Machado (1983) have p r e s e n t e d
a s i m i l a r argument f o r a t t r i t i o n p a t t e r n s . These i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ,
however, may i n t r o d u c e c i r c u l a r i t y t o t h e a n a l y s i s . I f c a r i e s o r
a t t r i t i o n a r e used t o h e l p determine d i e t a r y changes, then t h e y
c e r t a i n l y can n o t be used t o a s s e s s t h e impact of t h e change.
F i n a l l y , while d e n t a l p a t h o l o g i e s may be common, it i s uncer-
t a i n a s t o how much t h e y add t o t h e d i s e a s e l o a d of p r e h i s t o r i c
p o p u l a t i o n s . While some c o n d i t i o n s may cause temporary p a i n and
o t h e r s may d e c r e a s e chewing e f f i c i e n c y , it i s l i k e l y t h a t they a r e
g e n e r a l l y of l e s s consequence t o population l e v e l a d a p t a t i o n than
most of t h e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned c o n d i t i o n s .
I s o t o p i c and Trace Element S t u d i e s
New chemical methods have r e c e n t l y been developed and t e s t e d

which o f f e r hope f o r more p r e c i s e i n d i c a t i o n of d i e t a r y c o n t e n t s
than has h i t h e r t o been p o s s i b l e . Trace element a n a l y s i s may pro-
vide t h e most d i r e c t information concerning d i e t of i n d i v i d u a l s
p r i o r t o d e a t h (Schoeninger 1979; Zurer 1983). From o b s e r v a t i o n s
of d i f f e r i n g amounts of t r a c e elements such a s i r o n , calcium,
magnesium, l e a d , z i n c , copper, and s t r o n t i u m , it may be p o s s i b l e
t o deduce t h e presence of d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s ( G i l b e r t 1 9 7 7 ) .
S t a b l e carbon i s o t o p i c a n a l y s i s can provide a n assessment of
t h e p r i n c i p a l d i e t a r y components (Schoeninger e t a l . 1983;
S i l l e n and Kavanaugh 1 9 8 2 ) . These s t u d i e s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o c u r -
r e n t a n a l y s e s of d i e t a r y change by e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e presence of
c e r t a i n c u l t i g e n s such a s maize i n t h e d i e t , s e g r e g a t i n g groups o f
i n d i v i d u a l s with d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t h e s e c u l t i g e n s , and
determining t h e ~ r o ~ o r t i oofn s p e c i f i c c u l t i g e n s , animal p r o t e i n ,
and o t h e r f o o d s t u f f s i n t h e d i e t (Bumsted 1981; Smith e t a l . ,
Chapter 5 t h i s volume; Norr, Chapter 18 t h i s volume). Such
a n a l y s e s , however, a r e j u s t beginning t o make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
paleonutrition research.
CONCLUSIONS : PATTERN, PROCESS,

AND MULTIPLE INDICATORS OF STRESS
The purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r has been t o p r e s e n t a model f o r

t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s and t o provide
an overview of t h e u s e and meaning of a s e r i e s o f commonly used
i n d i c a t o r s . The v a r i o u s i n d i c a t o r s may have p a r t i a l l y overlapping
e t i o l o g i e s ; but t h e y a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l o r e q u a l l y u s e f u l . For
t h e s e reasons, coupled w i t h t h e i n h e r e n t u n c e r t a i n t y o f archaeolo-
g i c a l r e s e a r c h and p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s i s , we advocate t h e
use o f s e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s (and thereby m u l t i p l e confirmations) of
stress.
Multiple s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s may be used t o determine t h e degree
and p a t t e r n of s t r e s s i n p o p u l a t i o n s . Is s t r e s s p r i m a r i l y chronic
o r a c u t e , a f f e c t i n g c h i l d r e n o r a d u l t s , r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s e d mor-
t a l i t y o r u n r e l a t e d t o m o r t a l i t y ? By e v a l u a t i n g t h e p a t t e r n of
s t r e s s w i t h i n p o p u l a t i o n s we may be a b l e t o b e t t e r understand t h e
c o n d i t i o n s which a r e c a u s a t i v e of t h e s t r e s s and e v a l u a t e l i k e l y
responses t o t h e s t r e s s .
The p a t t e r n and s e v e r i t y o f s t r e s s can a l s o l e a d t o i n f e r e n c e s
about t h e c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n s . A s an example, t h e accumulation of
i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s o c c u r r i n g around t h e ages of two t o f o u r has
l e a d Cook (Chapter 10 t h i s volume) t o a n e v a l u a t i o n of weanling
d i e t . Her conclusion i s t h a t t h e weanling d i e t i n h e r maize a g r i -
c u l t u r a l i s t s was inadequate and l e d t o t h e o n s e t of a v a r i e t y of
stresses.
From an examination of a p o p u l a t i o n ' s t o t a l s t r e s s load one
may begin t o make i n f e r e n c e s about long-term consequences f o r cul-
t u r e and behavior. For example, m o r t a l i t y i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y high
i n t h e younger and o l d e r age segments of p r e i n d u s t r i a l p o p u l a t i o n s .
However, t h i s m o r t a l i t y has l i t t l e impact on a p o p u l a t i o n ' s a b i l i t y
t o maintain i t s e l f . I f t h e middle age segment o f a population
shows s i g n s o f i n c r e a s e d morbidity and m o r t a l i t y , however, then
r e p r o d u c t i o n and production may be s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d .
The s k e l e t o n i s an important a r t i f a c t o r s o u r c e of information.
We have t r i e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a c t t h a t bone and t e e t h may pro-
v i d e an important and i n t e r p r e t a b l e r e c o r d of e v e n t s i n i n d i v i d u a l s '
l i v e s and t h e i r responses t o t h e s e e v e n t s .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish t o acknowledge t h e following sources of f i n a n c i a l sup-

p o r t : N I D R Grant No. T-32-DE07047 (A.H.G.), N I H Biomedical Support
Grant No. RR07048-17 (D.L.M. and G . J . A . ) , and N I H Biomedical
Support Grant No. 632-509 ( G . J . A . and G .C.) .
REFERENCES
Acheson, R. M.
1959 The e f f e c t s of s t a r v a t i o n , s e p t i c a e m i a and c h r o n i c i l l n e s s
on t h e growth c a r t i l a g e p l a t e and m e t a p h y s i s o f t h e i m -
mature r a t . Journal of Anatomy 93 :l23-130.
1960 E f f e c t o f n u t r i t i o n a n d d i s e a s e on human growth. I n Human
growth, e d i t e d by J . M. Tanner, pp. 73-92. Pergamon P r e s s ,
New York.
Acheson, R. M., and G . B. Fowler
1964 Sex, socio-economic s t a t u s and s e c u l a r i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e .
B r i t i s h Journal of Preventative Social Medicine 1 8 :2 5-34.
AcsAdi, G . , and J. Nemeskgri
1970 History o f human l i f e span and m o r t a l i t y . Akademei Kiadd,
Budapest.
A e g e r t e r , E., and J. A. K i r k p a t r i c k
1968 O r t h o p e d i c d i s e a s e s (second e d . ) . W. B. S a u n d e r s , P h i l a -
delphia.
A l l i s o n , M., D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a
1974 A r a d i o g r a p h i c approach t o c h i l d h o o d i l l n e s s i n p r e -
Columbian i n h a b i t a n t s o f s o u t h e r n P e r u . American J o u m l
of Physiaal Anthropology 40:409-415.
Angel, L. J.
1969 The b a s i s o f paleodemography. Americm J o u d of Physical
Anthropology 30:427-438.
1978 P e l v i c i n l e t form: A n e g l e c t e d index o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s .
American J o u r m l of Physical Anthropology Abstract 48 :378.
1982 A new measure o f growth e f f i c i e n c y : S k u l l b a s e h e i g h t .
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 58:297-305.
Armelagos, G . J.
1969 D i s e a s e i n a n c i e n t Nubia. Science 163:255-259.
Avery, J.
1980 Dentin. I n Orban's oral histology and embroyology ( n i n t h
e d . ) , e d i t e d by S. N. Bhaskar, p p . 107-179. C. V. Mosby,
S t . Louis.
B a i l i t , H.
1975 D e n t a l v a r i a t i o n among p o p u l a t i o n s . Dental C l i n i c s o f
North America 1 9 (1):125-139.
B a i l i t , H . , P. L. Workman, J. K. Niswander, and C. J. MacClean
1970 D e n t a l asymmetry a s an i n d i c a t o r of g e n e t i c and e n v i r o n -
m e n t a l s t r e s s i n human p o p u l a t i o n s . Hman Biology 42:
626-638.
Blakey, M.
1981 An a n a l y s i s o f h y p o p l a s i a and h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n i n d e c i d u -
o u s d e n t i t i o n from Dickson Mound. I n Biocultural adapts-
t i o n cornprehens'Lve approaches t o ske l e t a l analysis.
U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s Department of Anthropology
Research R e p o r t s No. 20, p p . 24-34.
Bocquet-Appel, J . P . , and C. Masset

1982 F a r e w e l l t o paleodemography. J o u d of Human Evolution
11 :321-333.
B r o t h w e l l , D.
1972 Digging up bones (second e d . ) . T r u s t e e s of t h e B r i t i s h
Museum, London.
B u i k s t r a , J. ( e d i t o r )
1981 Prehistoric tuberculosis i n the Americas. Northwest
U n i v e r s i t y A r c h e o l o g i c a l Program, Evanston, I l l i n o i s .
B u i k s t r a , J . , and D. Cook
1980 Paleopathology: An American a c c o u n t . Annual Review of
Anthropotogy 9:433-470.
Bumsted, M. P.
1981 The p o t e n t i a l o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n b i o a r c h e a l o g i -
c a l anthropology. I n Biocultural adaptation comprehensive
approaches t o s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Massa-
c h u s e t t s , Department o f Anthropology Research Reports No.
20, pp. 108-126.
Cannon, W. B.
1932 The wisdom of t h e body. W. W. Norton, New York.
C a r l s o n , D. S . , G . J. Annelagos, and D . P. Van Gerven
1974 F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e e t i o l o g y of c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i n
p r e h i s t o r i c Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution 3:405-410.
Chapman, F. H.
1973 O s t e o p h y t o s i s i n p r e h i s t o r i c B r a z i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n s .
J o u h of Man 8:93-99.
C l a r k e , S. K.
1978 Markers of m e t a b o l i c i n s u l t : The a s s o c i a t i o n o f r a d i o -
p l a q u e t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s , enamel h y p p l a s i a s and enamel
h i s t o p a t h o l o g i e s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l sample.
Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Colorad, Boulder.
Condon, K. W.
1981 Correspondence of developmental enamel d e f e c t s between t h e
mandibular c a n i n e and f i r s t premolar. Unpublished M.A.
t h e s i s , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Arkansas,
Fayetteville.
Cook, D. C.
1976 P a t h o l o g i c s t a t e s and d i s e a s e p r o c e s s i n I l l i n o i s woodland
populations: An e p i d e m i o l o g i c approach. Unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y
o f Chicago.
1979 S u b s i s t e n c e b a s e d on h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c I l l i n o i s v a l l e y :
Evidence from t h e human s k e l e t o n . Medical Anthropology
4:109-124.
1981 M o r t a l i t y , a g e - s t r u c t u r e , and s t a t u s i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t o n s : A d e n t a l
example from t h e lower I l l i n o i s v a l l e y . i n The archeology
of death, e d i t e d by P . Chapman and K. Randsborg, pp. 133-
144. Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London.
C r a i g , J. 0.
1963 The h e i g h t o f Glasgow boys: S e c u l a r and s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s .
Hwnan Biology 35: 524-539.
DiBennardo, R., and H. B a i l i t
1978 S t r e s s and d e n t a l asymmetry i n a p o p u l a t i o n o f J a p a n e s e
c h i l d r e n . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 48 :
89-94.
Dickerson, J. W . , and R. A. McCance
1 9 6 1 S e v e r e u n d e r n u t r i t i o n i n growing a d u l t a n i m a l s : 8. The
dimensions and c h e m i s t r y o f l o n g bones. B r i t i s h Journal
of Nutrition 15:567-576.
D u b s , R.
1965 Man adaptzng. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven.
E l - N a j j a r , M., D. J. Ryan, C. T u r n e r , and B. Lozoff
1976 The e t i o l o g y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s among t h e h i s t o r i c
and p r e h i s t o r i c Anasazi I n d i a n s o f Southwestern U n i t e d
S t a t e s . American Journal of Physical Anthxopology 44:
477-488.
E n g f e l d t , B., and S. H j e r t q u i s t
1961 Vitamin D d e f i c i e n c y and bone and t o o t h s t r u c t u r e . World
R e v i m of Nutrition and D i e t e t i c s 2:187-208.
F r i s a n c h o , A. R . , and S. Garn
1970 Childhood r e t a r d a t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n r e d u c t i o n of a d u l t body
s i z e due t o l e s s e r a d o l e s c e n t s k e l e t a l d e l a y . American
J o u d o f Physical Anthropology 33:325-336.
Gam, S. M.
1970 The e a r l i e r gain and l a t e r l o s s of c o r t i c a l bone i n n u t r i -
t i o n a l perspective. C. C . Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d .
Garn, S. M., A. B. Lewis, and R. S. Kerewsky
1965 G e n e t i c , n u t r i t i o n a l and m a t u r a t i o n a l c o r r e l a t e s o f d e n t a l
development. Journal of Dental Research 44:228-242.
Garn, S. M . , C. G. Rohman, M. Behar, F. V i t e r i , and M. A. Guzman
1964 Compact bone d e f i c i e n c y i n p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n .
Science 1 4 5 :l444-1445.
Garn, S . M., A. R. Lewis, a n d D. L. Polacheck
1959 V a r i a b i l i t y o f t o o t h f o r m a t i o n . ~ o u r n a lof ~ e n t a Research
l
38: 135-148.
Garn, S. M., F. N. S i l v e r m a n , K. P. Herzog, and C . G . Rohman
1968 L i n e s and bands o f i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y : t h e i r implication
t o growth and development. M e d i d Radiography and
Photography 44: 58-89.
G i l b e r t , R.
1977 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f t r a c e element r e s e a r c h t o problems i n
archeology. I n Biocultural adaptation i n prehistoric
America, e d i t e d by R. B l a k e l y , pp. 85-100. u n i v e r s i t y o f
Georgia P r e s s , Athens.
Goodman, A. H . , G. J. Armelagos, a n d J. C. Rose
1980 Enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a s i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s i n t h r e e p r e -
h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s from I l l i n o i s . Human ~ i o l o g y52 :
515-528.
Goodman, A. H., and G. A. Clark

1981 H a r r i s l i n e s a s i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s i n p r e h i s t o r i c
I l l i n o i s populations. I n Biocultural adaptation compre-
hensive approaches t o s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s , University of
Massachusetts Department of Anthropology Research Reports
No. 20, pp. 35-46.
Goodman, A. H . , N. A. Rothschild, and G . J. Armelagos
1983 S o c i a l s t a t u s and h e a l t h i n t h r e e p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s
from Dickson Mounds, I l l i n o i s . Arrieyiaan Jcurnaz of
Physical Anthropology 60 ( 2 ) :199 ( a b s t r a c t ) .
Gray, P. H.
1967 Radiography of a n c i e n t Egyptian mummies. Mediaal
Radiography 4 3 :34-44.
Green, S., S. Green, and G. J. Armelagos
1974 Settlement and m o r t a l i t y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s i t e (1050 A.D.-
1300 A.D.) o f Meinarti (Sudan). Jonmal of Human Evolu-
t i o n 3: 297-311.
Greenfield, G. B.
1975 Radiology of bone disease (second ed. ) . Lippincott,
Philadelphia.
Guargliardo, M.
1982 Tooth crown s i z e d i f f e r e n c e s between age groups: A pos-
s i b l e new i n d i c a t o r o f s t r e s s i n s k e l e t a l samples.
American J o u r m l of Physical Anthropology 58 ( 4 ):383-390.
Gustav, B.
1972 Sexual dimorphism i n t h e a d u l t boney p e l v i s of a p r e h i s -
t o r i c human p o p u l a t i o n from I l l i n o i s . Unpublished Ph.D.
d i s s e r t a t i o n . Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of
Massachusetts, Amherst.
H a r r i s , H. A.
1926 The growth o f long bones i n c h i l d r e n , w i t h s p e c i a l
r e f e r e n c e t o c e r t a i n bony s t r i a t i o n s o f t h e metaphysis
and t o t h e r o l e of t h e vitamins. Archives of Internal
Medicine 38: 785-806.
1933 Bone growth i n h e a l t h and d i s e a s e : The b i o l o g i c a l
p r i n c i p l e s underlying t h e c l i n i c a l , r a d i o l o g i c a l and
h i s t o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s i s of p e r v e r s i o n s of growth and
d i s e a s e i n t h e s k e l e t o n . Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London.
Hengen, 0. P.
1971 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a : Pathogenesis and probable e t i o l o g y .
Homo 22: 57-75.
Himes, J. H.
1978 Bone growth and development i n p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e malnutri-
t i o n . World Review of Nutrition and D i e t e t i c s 28:143-
187.
Huss-Ashore. R.
1981 Bone growth and remodeling a s a measure o f n u t r i t i o n a l
stress. I n BioeuZtural adaptation comprehensive
approaches t o s k e l e t a l analysis. U n i v e r s i t y of Massa-
c h u s e t t s ~ e ~ a r t m e n t ' oAnthropology
f Research Reports NO.
20, pp. 84-95.
Huss-Ashmore, R . , A. H . Goodman, a n d G. J. Armelagos

1982 N u t r i t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e from p a l e o p a t h o l o g y . Advances i n
ArcheoZogicaZ Method and Theory 5: 395-474.
J a b l o n s k i , K. A.
1981 Enamel c a l c i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s o f t h e Averbuch s i t e
(40DV601, N a s h v i l l e , Tennessee. Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s ,
department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee,
Knoxville.
J a f f e e , H. L.
1972 Metabolis, degenerative and inflOJTimatory disease of bone
and j o i n t s . Lea and F e b i g e r , P h i l a d e l p h i a .
J a r c h o , S. ( e d i t o r )
1966 Human. palaeopathology. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven.
Johnston, F. E.
1976 H e r e d i t a r y and e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f growth in
h e i g h t i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l sample o f c h i l d r e n and young o f
Guatemalan and European a n c e s t r y . American Journd of
Physical Anthropology 44: 469-476.
Jurmain, R. D.
1977 S t r e s s and t h e e t i o l o g y o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s . American
Journal of Physical Anthropology 46: 353-365.
1978 Paleoepidemiology o f d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e . Medical
College of Virginia Quarterly 14:45-56.
K u n i t z , S.
1970 D i s e a s e and d e a t h among t h e Anasazi. El P a h c i o 76:17-
22.
Kreshover, S.
1960 M e t a b o l i c d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t o o t h f o r m a t i o n . Annals o f t h e
New York Academy of Sciences 85:161-167.
L a l l o , J.
1973 The s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y o f t h r e e p r e h i s t o r i c American I n d i a n
p o p u l a t i o n s from Dickson Mounds. Unpublished Ph. D. d i s -
s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f
M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amher s t .
-110, J . , G. J. Armelagos, a n d R. P. Mensforth
1977 The r o l e o f d i e t , d i s e a s e and p h y s i o l o g y i n t h e o r i g i n o f
p o r o t i c hyperostosis. Humar~ Biology 40:471-483.
L a l l o , J . , G. J . Armelagos, and J . C. Rose
1978 Paleoepidemioloqy o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n t h e Dickson
Mounds p o p u l a t i o n . Mediea l College of ~ i r g i n i a~ u a r t elry
14:17-23.
Larsen, C. S.
1982 The a n t h r o p o l o g y o f S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d . 3. p r e h i s t o r i c
human b i o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n . Ant'hropology Papers of the
American Museum of ~ a t u r a lHistory 5 7 ( 3 ) .
Lewis, A. B . , and S. M. Gam
1960 The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t o o t h f o r m a t i o n and o t h e r matu-
r a t i o n a l f a c t o r s . A n g l ~Orthodontics 30:70-77.
Lovejoy, C. O., and K. G. H e i p l e
1981 The a n a l y s i s of f r a c t u r e s i n s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h an
ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AT..
example from t h e Libben S i t e , Ottowa County, Ohio.

American Journal o f P h y s i c a l Anthropology 55:529-541.
Lovejoy, C. O . , R. S. Meindl, T. R . Prysbeck, T. S. B a r t o n ,
K. G . H e i p l e , and D. K o t t i n g
1977 Paleodemography o f t h e Libben s i t e , Ottawa County, Ohio.
Science 198:291-293.
Maresh, M.
1955 L i n e a r growth o f l o n g bones o f e x t r e m i t i e s from i n f a n c y
through a d o l e s c e n c e . American J o u d o f Diseases o f
Childhood 89: 725-742.
M a r s h a l l , W. A.
1967 Problems i n r e l a t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e of t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n
t h e r a d i u s t o t h e occurrence o f d i s e a s e . I n The s k e l e t a l
b i o l o g y o f e a r l i e r human p o p u l a t i o n s , e d i t e d by D. R .
B r o t h w e l l , pp. 245-261. Pergamon P r e s s , Oxford.
M a r t i n , D. L.
1983 P a l e o p h y s i o l o q i c a l a s p e c t s of bone remodeling i n t h e
M e r o i t i c , X-Group and C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n s from Sudanes
Nubia. Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f
Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst.
M a r t i n , D. L., and G. J . Armelaqos
1979 Morphometrics of compact bone: An example from Sudanes
.
~ u b i a American Journal o f P h y s i c a l Anthropology 51 :
571-578.
M a r t i n , D . L., G. J. Armelagos, and J. R . King
1979 D e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e o f t h e Long bones i n Dickson
Mounds. Henry Ford Hospital Medical Journal 27 :60-63.
M a r t i n , D. L., A. H. Goodman, and G. J. Armelagos
1984 S k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s a s i n d i c a t o r s o f q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y
of d i e t . i n The a n a l y s i s o f p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t , e d i t e d by
J . Mielke and R. G i l b e r t , i n p r e s s . Academic P r e s s ,
New York.
M a s s l e r , M . , I. Schour, and H . G . Poncher
1 9 4 1 Developmental p a t t e r n of t h e c h i l d a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e
c a l c i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n o f t h e t e e t h . American Journal o f
Diseases o f Childhood 62:33-67.
McCance, R. A . , and E. M. Widdowson
1962 N u t r i t i o n and growth. Proceedings o f t h e Ro@ S o c i e t y
o f BrLtai-n 156: 326-337.
McHenry, H.
1968 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n long bones of p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a
I n d i a n s . American Journal o f P h y s i c a l Anthropology 29 :
1-17.
McHenry, H . , and P . Schulz
1976 The a s s o c i a t i o n between H a r r i s l i n e and enamel h y p o p l a s i a s
i n p r e h i s t o r i c California Indians. American Journal o f
Physical Anthropology 4 4 : 507-512.
Mensforth, R. P .
1981 Growth v e l o c i t y and c h o n d r o b l a s t i c s t a b i l i t y a s major
f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e p a t h o g e n e s i s and e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f growth a r r e s t l i n e s . Ameriean Journal o f

~ h y s i c a lAnthropology A b s t r a c t 54 :Z53.
Mensforth, R. P . , C. 0 . Lovejoy, J. W. L a l l o , and G . J. Armelagos
1978 The r o l e o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s , d i e t and i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e i n t h e e t i o l o g y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and
p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n .
Medical AnthropoZogy 2 ( 1 ) :1-59.
Mielke, J., and R. G i l b e r t ( e d i t o r s )
1984 The a n a l y s i s o f p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s . Academic P r e s s , New
York, i n p r e s s .
Molnar, S., and S. Ward
1975 M i n e r a l metabolism a n d m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s i n p r i m a t e
t e e t h . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 43:
3-17.
Moore, J . , A. Swedlund, and G . J. Armelagos
1975 The u s e o f l i f e t a b l e s i n paleodemography. American
Antiquity Memoirs No. 30 :57-70.
Moseley, J. E .
1963 The p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c r i d d l e of "symmetrical o s t e o p o r o s i s . "
American J o u d of Roentgenology 95 :135-142.
Niswander, J . D . , and C. S. Chuny
1965 The e f f e c t s o f i n b r e e d i n g on t o o t h s i z e i n J a p a n e s e
c h i l d r e n . American Journal of Human Genetics 17:390-398.
O r t n e r , D. J.
1976 Microscopic and m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y o f human compact bone:
An a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . Yearbook of Physical
Anthropology 20: 35-44.
O r t n e r , D. J . , and W. G. P u t s c h a r
1 9 8 1 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n human s k e l e -
t a l remains. Smithsonian Contributions t o Anthropology,
No. 28.
Osborn, J. W.
1973 V a r i a t i o n s i n s t r u c t u r e and development of enamel. Oral
Science Revieu 3:3-83.
P a r k , E . A.
1964 The i m p r i n t i n g o f n u t r i t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s on t h e growing
bone. Pediatrics (Supplement) 33 :815-862.
Park, E . , and S. R i c h t e r
1953 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n bone: t h e mechanics o f t h e i r develop-
ment. B u l l e t i n o f The Johns Hopkbzs Hospital 93:234-248.
P e r z i q i a n , A.
1977 F l u c t u a t i n g d e n t a l asymmetry: V a r i a t i o n among s k e l e t a l
populations. American J o u r n d of physical Anthrapology
47 ( 1 ) :81-88.
P i n b o r q , J. J.
1982 A e t i o l o g y of developmental enamel d e f e c t s n o t r e l a t e d t o
f l u o r o s i s . International Dental Journal 32 ( 2 ) : l 2 3 - l 3 4 .
P l a t t , B. S . , and R. A. McCance
1964 S e v e r e u n d e r n u t r i t i o n i n qrowinq and a d u l t a n i m a l s .
B r i t i s h Journal of Nutrition 18:393-408.
P l a t t , B. S., and R. J. C. Stewart

1962 Transverse t r a b e c u l a e and o s t e o p o r o s i s in bones i n experi-
mental p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e d e f i c i e n c y . B r i t i s h Journal of
Nutrition 16:483-495.
Richman, G. A., D. J. O r t n e r , and F. P. S c h u l t e r - E l l i s
1979 D i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t r a c o r t i c a l bone remodeling i n t h r e e
a b o r i g i n a l American populations: Possible dietary factors.
Calcified Tissue Research 2 8 : 209-214.
Rose, J. C.
1973 Analysis of d e n t a l micro-defects o f p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s
from I l l i n o i s . Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department
of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts, Amherst.
1977 Defective enamel h i s t o l o g y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t e e t h from I l l i -
n o i s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46:439-
446.
1979 Morphological v a r i a t i o n s of enamel prisms within abnormal
s t r i a o f Retzius. Human Biology 51 : l 3 9 - l 5 l .
Rose, J. C . , G. J. Armelaqos, and J. L a l l o
1978 H i s t o l o g i c a l enamel i n d i c a t o r s o f childhood s t r e s s i n p r e -
h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l samples. American Journal o f Physical
Anthropology 49: 511-516.
Rose, J. C . , K. W. Condon, and A. H. Goodman
1984 D i e t and d e n t i t i o n : developmental d i s t u r b a n c e s . In The
analysis of prehistoric d i e t s , e d i t e d by J. Mielke and
R. G i l b e r t , i n p r e s s . Academic P r e s s , New York.
Rose, J. C.', and J. N. Pasley
1980 S t r e s s and d e n t a l development: An experimental paleo-
p a t h o l o g i c a l model. American J o m l o f Physical Anthro-
pology 52:272 ( a b s t r a c t ) .
Rudney, J.
1981 The paleoepidemiology o f e a r l y childhood s t r e s s i n two
a n c i e n t Nubian populations. Unpublished Ph. D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Department o f Anthropology University o f Colorado.
S a r n a t , B. G., and I . Schour
1941 Enamel hypoplasia (chronological enamel a p l a s i a ) i n r e l a -
t i o n t o systemic d i s e a s e : A chronologic, morphological and
e t i o l o g i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Journal of the American Dental
Association 28: 1989-2000.
Schoeninger, M. J.
1979 Diet and d i s e a s e s t a t e s i n Calcatzingo: Some e m p i r i c a l and
t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of strontium a n a l y s i s . American Journal
of Physical Anthropology 51 :295-310.
Schoeninger, M. J . , M. J. DiNiro, and H . Tauber
1983 S t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e r a t i o s of bone collagen r e f l e c t s
marine and t e r r e s t r i a l components of p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t .
Science 220:1381-1383.
Schulz, P. D., and H. McHenry
1975 The d i s t r i b u t i o n of enamel hypoplasia i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i -
f o r n i a Indians. Journal of Dental Research 5 4 ( 4 ) : 9 1 3 .
S e l y e , H.
1950 S t r e s s :The physioloqy and pathology o f exposure t o
systemic s t r e s s . A c t a , I n c . , Montreal.
1971 Hormones and r e s i s t a n c e , p a r t 1. S p r i n g e r , New York.
Shore, L. R.
1935 p o l y s p o n d y l i t i s m a r g i n a l i s o s t e o p h y t i c a . B r i t i s h Jouvna.2
of Surgery 22:850-863.
S c i u l l i , P. W.
1977 A d e s c r i p t i v e and c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e d e c i d u o u s den-
t i t i o n o f p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio V a l l e y Amerindians. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology 47:71-80.
S i l l e n , A . , and S. Kavanagh
1982 S t r o n t i u m a n d p a l e o d i e t e r y r e s e a r c h : A review. Yearbook
S t e i n b o c k , R. T.
1976 Pa leopat'ho logical diagnosis and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . C. C .
Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s .
S t e w a r t , R. J. C.
1975 Bone p a t h o l o g y i n e x p e r i m e n t a l m a l n u t r i t i o n . World Review
of Nutrition and D i e t e t i c s 21 :1-74 .
S t i n i , W.
1969 ~ u t r i t i o n a ls t r e s s and growth: Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n adap-
t i v e r e s p o n s e . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology
31 :417-426.
1972 Reduced s e x u a l dimorphism i n upper arm muscle circum-
ferences associated with protein-calories d e f i c i e n t d i e t
i n South American p o p u l a t i o n s . American Journal of
1975 Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s o f p o p u l a t i o n s under n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s .
I n Biosocial i n t e r a c t i o n s i n population adaptation, e d i t e d
by E . S. Watt, F. E. J o h n s t o n , and G. W. L a s k e r , pp. 19-39.
Mouton, The Hague.
S t o u t , S. D.
1979 Histomorphometric a n a l y s i s o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l bone. Unpub-
l i s h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington.
S t o u t , S., and D. J. Simmons
1979 Use o f h i s t o l o g y i n a n c i e n t bone r e s e a r c h . Yearbook of
Physical Anthropology 22 :228-249.
Sundick, R. I.
1978 Human s k e l e t a l growth and a g e d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Homo 29:
228-249.
Swardstedt , T.
1966 Odontological aspects of a Medieval population i n t h e
province of Jamtland/Mid-Sweden. Tiden-Barnangen
T r y c k e r i e n , Stockholm.
Swedlund, A, C . , and G . J. Armelagos
1969 Une r e c h e r c h e e n ~ a l e o d e m o g r a p h i e : La Nubie Soudanaise.
Annales Economies S o c i e t i e s C i v i l i s a t i o n s S e r . 4 24:1281-
1298.
1976 Demographic anthropology. W. C. Brown, Dubuque,

Iowa.
Tanner, J . M.
1977 Human growth and c o n s t i t u t i o n . I n Human 'biology,
(second e d . ) , e d i t e d by G. H. H a r r i s o n , J. S. Weiner,
J. M. T a n n e r , and N. A. B a n n i c o t , p p . 301-385. Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New York.
1978 F e t u s i n t o man. Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Thomas, R . B-
1973 Human a d a p t a t i o n t o a h i g h Andean energy flow system.
Pennsylvania S t a t e University Occasional Papers i n
Anthropology No. 6.
T r o w e l l , H. C., J. N . Davies, and R. F. Dean
1954 Kwashiorkor . Arnold, London.
T u r n e r , C. , and L. M. Machado
1983 A new d e n t a l wear p a t t e r n and e v i d e n c e f o r h i g h carbohy-
d r a t e consumption i n a B r a z i l i a n A r c h a i c s k e l e t a l popula-
t i o n . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 61 (1):
12 5-1 30.
Ubelaker, D. H.
1978 Human s k e l e t a l remains: Excavation, analysis and i n t e r -
pretation. A l d i n e , Chicago.
Van Gerven, D.
1972 Sexual dimorphism i n t h e a d u l t human femur. Unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y
o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst.
Van Gerven, D. P., and G . J. Armelagos
1983 " F a r e w e l l t o p a l e o d e m g r a p h y ? " Rumors o f i t s d e a t h have
been g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d . Journal o f Human Evolution 1 2 :
353-360.
Watson, A . , M - M a s s l e r , and M. P e r l s t e i n
1964 ~ 0 0 t hr i n g a n a l y s i s i n c e r e b r a l p a l s y . American Journal,
of Dentistrg 107:370-384.
w e l c h e r , H.
1885 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . fVo?
Archive Anthropologie 17: 1-18.
W e l l s , C.
1964 Bones, bodies and disease. P r a e g e r , New York.
1967 A new a p p r o a c h t o p a l e o p a t h o l o q y : Harris l i n e s . In
Disease i n a n t i q u i t y , e d i t e d b y D. R. Brothwell and
S. T. Sandison, pp. 390-404. Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d ,
~llinois.
widdowson, E. M . , and R . A. McCance
1964 E f f e c t s o f n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e on growth. British
~ e n t a lJonrnaZ 117:326-330.
Wing, E . S . , and A. B. Brown
1980 P a l e o n u t r i t k : Method and theory i n preh-istoric foodways.
~ c a d e m i cP r e s s , New York.
woodall, J -
1968 Growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n l o n g bones o f t h e Cases Grandes
population. Plains Anthropologist 1 3 :152-16 0.
Yaeqer, J - A .
1980 Enamel. I n Orban 's oral histology and embryology ( n i n t h
e d . ) , e d i t e d by S. N . B h a s k a r , pp. 46-106. Mosby,
S t . Louis.
Zurer, P. S .
1983 Archeological c h e m i s t r y . Chemieal Engineering News 61:
26-44.
CHAPTER 3
HEALTH A S A CRUCIAL FACTOR I N THE CHANGES FROM HUNTING

TO DEVELOPED FARMING I N THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
J . Lauvence Ange 2
Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y
N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y
Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n
INTRODUCTION
To be h e a l t h y is t o r a c e d e a t h s u c c e s s f u l l y .
I n terms of e n e r g y f o r i n d i v i d u a l s and p o p u l a t i o n s t o s u r v i v e
and m u l t i p l y , h e a l t h h a s two a s p e c t s : p h y s i c a l g r o w t h , and s u f -
f i c i e n t l o n g e v i t y f o r b i r t h of c h i l d r e n and f o r s u r v i v a l o f
p a r e n t s t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e y , i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r s , can
b r i n g up t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o be v i t a l p e o p l e . The e x p a n s i o n o f t h e
human p o p u l a t i o n r e f l e c t s our s u c c e s s i n t h i s r a c e . he p r e h i s -
t o r i c p a t t e r n o f human d e a t h s shows o n l y a 20-30% l o s s a t and
r i g h t a f t e r birth, compared t o t h e 60-80% l o s s among t h e o f f s p r i n g
of w i l d c r e a t u r e s (Angel 1971; c f . Lack 1 9 6 7 ) . The human p a t t e r n
a l s o shows a few i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g past t h e end of r e p r o d u c t i v e
l i f e . The l e n g t h e n i n g o f l i f e was a m a j o r human e v o l u t i o n a r y
a d a p t i v e change ( s e e Angel 1975; Mann 1975) promoting f e r t i l i t y
and p o p u l a t i o n growth.
Y e t t h e c a u s a l n e t w o r k s between e n v i r o n m e n t and c u l t u r e o n
t h e one h a n d , a n d h e a l t h , g r o w t h , r e p r o d u c t i o n , and l o n g e v i t y on
t h e o t h e r a r e n o t s i m p l e ones. There i s e x p e c t a b l e feedback
between g r o w t h in p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y a n d b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d
b i o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s . Moreover, e v e n b i o l o g i . c a l s u c c e s s i n v o l v e ~
some C o s t s . A h e a l t h y p o p u l a t i o n c a n a n d d o e s c a r r y a l a r g e load
of d i s e a s e . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o e s t a b l i s h how much p o o r h e a l t h a
s o c i e t y c a n e n d u r e w i t h o u t c o l l a p s e , and i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o i d e n -
tify t h o s e a s p e c t s of poor h e a l t h t h a t a c t u a l l y impede s u c c e s s f u l
by the p o p u l a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , ~ u c h m a n (1978) shows
t h a t in f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Europe, t h e complex p a t t e r n of w a r s ,
32 J . LAWRENCE ANGEL
f m i n e s , and disease e x e r t e d ~ a l t h u s i a nc o n t r o l s on p o p u l a t i o n .
Did t h e s e f a c t o r s p l a y a s i m i l a r role d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n from
hunting t o farming?
INDICATORS OF HEALTH
For o v e r a l l h e a l t h , t h e s i m p l e s t i n d i c a t o r i s a d u l t longevity.
I n a d d i t i o n , g r o w t h a n d n u t r i t i o n c a n be measured by (1) t h e d e -
gree o f a r c h i n g o r vertical growth ( s u p p o r t i n g w e i g h t a g a i n s t
g r a v i t y ) o f t h e p e l v i c i n l e t (Angel 1 9 7 8 a ) and t h e b a s e o f t h e
s k u l l (Angel 1 9 8 2 ; Anqel and Oiney 1 9 8 1 ) ; ( 2 ) s t a t u r e as e s t i m a t e d
f r o m t h e l e n g t h s o f l o n g b o n e s ; ( 3 ) t h e r o u n d n e s s of s h a f t s o f
l o n q bones as a r e f l e c t i o n o f bone m i n e r a l a v a i l a b l e (Adams 1969;
Angel 1 9 7 1 ; Buxton 1 9 3 8 ) ; and ( 4 ) t r a c e e l e m e n t s i n bone d e r i v e d
from minerals i n food ( c f . d i s c u s s i o n by Goodman e t al., C h a p t e r 2 ,
t h i s v o l u m e ) . Moreover, a d e q u a t e p r o t e i n i n c h i l d h o o d , p l u s adc-
quate i n t a k e o f v i t a m i n s ( v i t a m i n D a n d A p r e c u r s o r s (DeLuca 1 9 8 0 ) ,
and v i t a m i n C ) w i l l e n s u r e p r o p e r f o r m a t i o n o f t o o t h enamel a s
w e l l as b o n e . A d u l t d e n t a l l e s i o n s i n p a r t r e f l e c t i n a d e q u a t e
p r o t e i n a n d v i t a m i n i n t a k e i n c h i l d h o o d (Sognnaes 1 9 5 6 ) . Growth
a r r e s t l i n e s on b o o t h enamel ( l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a s ) a n d i n
l o n q bones r e f l e c t g r o w t h s t r e s s from m a l n u t r i t i o n o r from
d i s e a s e ( c f . d i s c u s s i o n by Goodman e t a l . , C h a p t e r 2 , t h i s v o l u m e ) .
I n a d d i t i o n , p a t t e r n s of occurrence uf s p e c i f i c s t r e s s i n d i c a -
t o r s s u c h a s p o r o t i c hyperostosis o r t h e l e s i o n s of bony t u b e r c u -
l o s i s c a n p r o v i d e a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e o v e r a l l h e a l t h a n d s u c c e s s
o f t h e g r o u p . P r o d u c t i o n o f c h i l d r e n c a n be e s t i m a t e d by compar-
i n g t h e number of b i r t h s , d e r i v e d from f e m a l e p e l v i c birth s c a r s
(Angel l972), w i t h t h e number o f j u v e n i l e d e a t h s (Angel l 9 7 5 ) ,
a l l o w i n g e s t i m a t e s of p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e (Angel 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 2 ) . he
s u c c e s s f u l a d m i x t u r e of p o p u l a t i o n s t h r o u g h m i g r a t i o n and i n t e r -
b r e e d i n g c a n b e measured t h r o u g h c h a n g e s i n H o w e l l s ' s i g m a r a t i o
(Angel 1 9 7 5 ) . This c h a p t e r w i l l p r o v i d e a c o m p a r a t i v e a s s e s s m e n t
o f .such i n d i c a t o r s f o r p o p u l a t i o n s f r o m t h e ~ a l e o l i t h i ct h r o u g h
t h e e a r l y I r o n Age i n the r e q i o n of t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n .
THE REGION
The Eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s d e f i n e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h i s
c h a p t e r a s i n c l u d i n g G r e e c e and w e s t e r n T u r k e y . P r o b l e m s o f
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s a m p l i n g , however, p r e v e n t t h e making of m e a n i n g f u l
c o m p a r i s o n s e n t i r e l y from w i t h i n t h i s r e g i o n . T h e r e f o r e , f o r
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c a n d M e s o l i t h i c h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ( c a . 1 5 , 0 0 0 - 7 0 0 0
B.C.) t h e f o c u s i s b r o a d e n e d t o i n c l u d e t h e B a l k a n s ( V l a s a c a n d
L e p e n s k i V i r a t I r o n G a t e o n t h e ~ a n u b e ) ,t h e U k r a i n e ( K o s t e n k i
Â¥ FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
and D n i e p e r bend sites V a s i l i e v k a and V o ~ ~ s c h k o y ,o )and N o r t h

I s r a e l ( T a f o r a l t , A f a l o u , t h e N i l e s i t e s of J e b e l
Wadi H a l f a i n N u b i a , and t h e N a t u f i a n s ) . These s i t e s
d a t a a v a i l a b l e from s a m p l e s i n t h e main s t u d y a r e a
h e C a s p i a n , Kara ' I n i n T u r k e y , and F r a n c h t h i i n
The r e g i o n h a s n o t always e x p e r i e n c e d g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y be-

i o d s . The e a r l y f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s of t h e S e v e n t h and
l e n n i a B . C . a t q a t a l HuyUk, Nea Nikomedeia, F r a n c h t h i
Lerna , f o r example, i n c l u d e m i g r a n t d e s c e n d a n t s of
c a k i n g Africans and o f Balkan r i v e r i n e p o p u l a t i o n s
3b) . But t h e r e g i o n a l f o c u s mi-nimizes t h e e f f e c t s of
n q e i n "Later p e r i o d s .
Ecology
The E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n r a i n l e s s summer is l o n g a n d hot,

above 2 6 C. Hence v e g e t a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f d r o u q h t - r e s i s t a n t
maritime p i n e s , j u n i p e r and e v e r g r e e n o a k s , o l i v e s , p i s t a c h i o ,
and maquis (Angel 1 9 7 1 ; Shay a n d Shay 1 9 7 8 ) . C o n i f e r o u s f o r e s t s
and meadows w i t h w i l d c e r e a l s o c c u r i n t h e m o u n t a i n s . S o i l s vary
from p o d z o l s a n d t h e a c i d r e d e a r t h s of t h e k a r s t b a s i n s t o a r i d
s t e p p e , f l y s c h , marls, and e s p e c i a l l y v o l c a n i c s o i l s r i c h i n
t r a c e e l e m e n t s a n d e x c e l l e n t for c u l t i v a t e d o l i v e s a n d g r a p e
vines. I n a d d i t i o n , c a l c a r e o u s and s t o n y s i l t s p r o v i d e good s o i l s
f o r c a t t l e - and horse-meadows and f o r wheat and b a r l e y (Maul1
1 9 2 2 ) . These s i l t s w e r e c r i t i c a l f o r n u t r i t i o n b e c a u s e , for
g e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s (Angel 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 ) , mountains a n d s e a d i m i n i s h
t h e c u l t i v a b l e a r e a (even w i t h t e r r a c i n g ) t o o n l y 20-25% of t h e
l a n d s , and lack o f c l i m a t i c c o n t r a s t s l i m i t s c h e m i c a l r e n e w a l .
T h e s t o n y , l i m e - r i c h s o i l t h e r e f o r e demanded (1) shallow c u l t i v a -
t i o n w i t h t h e s c r a t c h plow o r a r d and ( 2 ) f r e q u e n t manuring,
plowing i n of legumes, f a l l o w i n g , a n d b u r n i n g - o v e r . I t cannot
s t a n d o v e r u s e ( s e e Angel 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 ; B u t z e r 1 9 7 0 , 1971 .
Changes i n s e a l e v e l , which h e l p e d t o d e p o s i t t h e s e s i l t s by
a f f e c t i n g r i v e r f l o w , a l s o were c r i t i c a l i n a f f e c t i n g t h e d i s e a s e
environment of early p o p u l a t i o n s . C o a s t a l and r i v e r i n e ( a s w e l l
a s i n l a n d b a s i n ) m a r s h e s a l l o w e d a n o p h e l i n e mosquitos (/I. sachUrovi
and A . superpietue) t o move i n a t t h e end o f t h e Pleistocene and
spread malarias, i n c l u d i n g t h e new ( a n d r e l a t i v e l y l e t h a l ) m u t a n t
Pzas~diLili?f ~ i k i p ~(Angel ~ ? ~ 1 9 6 6 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 8 b ) . But t h e l a t t e r
a l s o were d e p e n d e n t o n t e m p e r a t u r e and o n t h e d e n s i t y of human
Populations f o r t h e i r success.
TABLE 3 . la Chrowlogical Change i n Health Indicators (Growth, Bone Minerals, Variability, lêngt% of Life, F e r t i l i t y , Population
Density! Related t o Ecology, Culture, and Diet, Upper Paleolithic t o Bronze W s Perioda
Early Late Ear% M,ddZe Bronze
Paleolithic iVeso l i t h i o n e o l i t h i c f l e o l i t h i c Bronze People Kings
P e r i o d 30,000 9000 7000 5 000 3000 2000 14.50
Skull base height four.-bos.) fim)

-
18.7
\ IS
Pelvic i n l e t depth index ( a p / t r ) d ) 76.6
1V 10
Stature (Trotter-CZeser- fm. ), male (Wi) 169.6
II' 39
Stature (Trotter-Gleser f m . female, (cm} 155.5
v 31
Femur plu t i i m s r i o shaft ~oundnessindex 72.9
, 70
Teeth lesions oer mouth, curies, abscess, loss 3.5
!'/ lo5
Enamel g m u t h a r r e s t s , continuous scale 1.2
A' 90
szte-corrected ratio
Stro~~tiim/caZ<r1~um (high?)"
Porntic hyper03 tos-ie, continuous scale 1.5

N 165
VariabiZftg, sigma r a t i o ( % I 321
K
Adult length o f l i f e , vole, (years) 33.6
V 106
Ad211- length of l i f e , female, (years) :?9.8
N 157
Births ( p e l v i c scam)/adult female 4.5
lll 25
Survivors t o age IK/adi<lt female 2.2
Population d e w i t u estimate f p e r s o n s / k m 2 ) 1.5
Rivers cutting M a r s h y Less m a r s h y
C l i m a t e -So C colder Warming Warmer Warmest Cooler Warmer
than today than t o d m +2.5 'C S drier Dry
and Pre-Boreal drier Wetter S u b - b o r e a l
to Boreal Aitlantic
Se a - relative to FZnctuat i n g Rise Average Reversal laser again
l e v e l today -100 m -60t0-10t0+2 + 2 t 0 0 0 t 0 + 2 + 1 m
TABLE 3 . Jb CTWK>nobgica
2 Change i n Health Indicators (Growth, Bone Minerals, Variability, L e q t h o f Life, F e r t i l i t y , Population
Density) Related t o Emlog, Culture, and Diet, Late Bronze Age t o Imperial Roman Periods
- --.. - - -
Late Early Imperial
Bronze Iron Classic ReZlenist-ic Reman
P e r i o d 1450 1150 650 300 B.C. 120 A.D. 600
S k u l l base height four. -bas.

A'
(rrsn) is.&
32
-
19.3
98
Pelvic i n l e t depth index f a p / t r )
N
80.6
18
-
83.5
23
Stature (Trotter-Gleser fm. ), male fan) 166.7 i 70.5
N 42 52
^tuture (Trotter-Gleser fm.) female, (an) 156.1 356.2
ti 53 30
Femur platymeric shaft roundness index 77.1 77.5
A' 98 33
Teeth lesions per mouth, caries, abscess, l o s s 6.8 4.1
N 106 i3 7
Enamel growth arrests, continuous s c d e 1.4
N 83
Strontium/calcium site-corrected r a t i o .801
N 31
Zinc i n bone fug/g 143.5
N 31
P o m t i c hyperostosis, continuous scale 1.1-
,v 114
Variabzlity, s i p r a t i o f % ) Ill
4V
Adult length of l i f e , vale, (years)
N
Adult length of l i f e , female, (years)
II
Births ( p e l v i c scars)/adult f e d e
ti
Survivor8 t o age IS/adult female
Population d e w i t y estimate (persons/km2)
M a r s h y
C l i m a t e Warn Coo ling Average Uetter
Droughts .V a r i 'c i.m e f/ctyfifWQ
and vs .
Rainy
Se a - r e l a t i v e to 52423 - A t l a n t i c
l e v e l t o d a y Fa 2l ire
0 t o -2m +I -2m -lm +I
TABU' 3 . 1 ~ Chronological Cname it Health M i c a t o r s (Growth, Bow Minerals, Variability, Length o f L i f e , Pertilitu,
Population Density) Related t o &oloau. Culture, and D i e t , Medieval Greece 1,o Modem (U.S . White) period;
Skull base height fair.-bas. !m) 19.0 20.4 20.9

N 175
Pelvic i n l e t depth index ( a p / t r ) f % ) 92.1
/,' 1 1 3
Stature (Trotter-Cleser fm. ), male (an) 174.2
N 92
Stature (Trotter-Gleser fin. ) female, (can) 163.4
N 68
Femur p k t y m e r i c shaft soundness index 87.6
N 169
Teeth lesions per mouth, caries, abscess, loss 15.7
A' 170
E n d grouth arrests, c o n t i ~ u o u sscale 1.6-
iv 11 1
Strontim/culczim site-corrected r a t i o
s
Zinc i n bone (pg/g) 147.I
// 40
P o w t i c kyperostosis, continwue scale I.$+
n lan
Variability, signs r a t i o (%) 136
A'
Adult length of l i f e , male, (years) 37.7 46.2 71.0
ti 65 100 census
Adult length of l i f e , female, (years) 31.1 37.3 78.6
N 28 32
B i r t h (pelvic scars)/adult female f4.a 2.8 2.4
N est.
Supvivors to
age ?S/adult f e m U 1.4: .& ? 2.2
Population density estimate 1~erso~is/km2) 20 ca. 200 20-60
Flaczwting silt: s o i l reaoue9

then cooling Coot then ucming
C l i m a t e
and Drier
S e a - relative to L i t t I e Ice Age

l e v e l t c d q Fa2 ling Modern Level
0 to -1 0 0
3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
~ o o t n o t e sto Table 3 . 1
I use standard United S t a t e s methods of determining age a t

death fop a11 skeletons t h a t I study--exmination of the pubic
h y s i s odd, also Steuart and MeKevn, G i l b e r t ) , scapula (Graves)
vertebra 2 column, and other joint exostoses (Steuart); more
c a & i ~ endocvaniai ~ ~ % J sku22 sutures (Todd and L p n ) , tooth evup-
tion, and r e l a t i v e wearJ. I use and publish the centers of my
yanciOs--i.e., 22-36 = 29. In t h e skeleton we see physiological
a p , uhi.le o w aim i s t o determine chvonologieaZ sge. See Angel-
1971 and Steuart 1979 for references on aging and sex differences.
For data on bone chemistry see S m e n (1981) and Bise2 (1980).
For data on U p p e r (Late) PaleoZithic d i e s o f Kostenki (Ukraine),
A ~ ~ Z O U ,T a f d t (North A f r i c a ) , J e b d Sakaba (Nubia), Hotu (Iran),,
and Kara ' I n (Turkey) see Debets (1955~1,Fevembaoh fl962), Anderson
(1968), Angel (1952) and unpublished. For data on MesoZi,thze
( ~ p i p a Z e o l i t h i c ' )s i t e s o f Vlasac and Lepenski Vir (Iron Gates),,
Vasitievka and Voloschkyo (Ukraine), Frmehthi Cave (Greece),
~hukbah, NahaZ Oven, Maltaha, Erg-e 2-Ahmar, and other Natuf i a n
s i t e s ( I s r a e l ) , Zmi Chemi Shanidar ( I r a q ) , and Wadi HaZfa (Nubia)
see Nemeskeri and Szatmary (1978) ( i n Garasinin), Nemeskeri i n
S r ~ ~ o v i .(7
6 9721, Kondukturuva ( 1 9 5 7), and Debets ( 19 5 5 b ) , Angel
(1969}, Keith (19^1), and Feysmbafih (1961, 19771, ~erembach(1970).
and Greene and AmeZagos (1972).
^ ~ a t ao f Bisel 11980).
Â¡Dat of SitZen (1981).
J. LAWRENCE ANGEL
SEQUENCES OF CULTURE AND HEALTH
T a b l e 3 . 1 shows two d i f f e r i n g breakdowns o f h e a l t h w i t h sub-

s e q u e n t a d v a n c e s . F i r s t , t h e r e was a f a i r l y s h a r p d e c l i n e i n
growth and n u t r i t i o n during t h e confusions and experiments of t h e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from h u n t i n g t o f a r m i n g (Cohen 19771, w i t h i t s
many i n v e n t i o n s and i n c r e a s i n g t r a d e ( J a c o b s 1969) and d i s e a s e
(Cockburn 1967) between a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 and 5000 B.C. Partial
r e c o v e r i e s and a d v a n c e s i n h e a l t h o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e Bronze Age
r i s e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ; t h e n r e a l advance ( e .g . , a 7-11-year i n -
c r e a s e i n l o n g e v i t y ) o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e r i s e o f Hellenic-Roman
c u l t u r e . Second, t h e r e was an i n c r e a s e i n d i s e a s e and c r o w d i n g
d u r i n g t h e d e c l i n e a n d r e l i g i o u s metamorphosis of t h e Roman Empire,
e v e n t u a l l y l e a d i n g t o an i r r e g u l a r breakdown o f g e n e r a l , b u t n o t
n u t r i t i o n a l , h e a l t h u n d e r a complex d i s e a s e l o a d , from a b o u t
A . D . 1300 t o 1700 ( A c k e r k n e c h t 1 9 6 5 ) . The n e a r d o u b l i n g of l i f e
e x p e c t a n c y and improved n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h ( e x c e p t d e n t a l ) o f t h e
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Western w o r l d d o e s r e f l e c t b o t h s c i e n t i f i c and
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n p u t . But o t h e r w i s e , t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e d o e s
n o t n e a t l y c o r r e l a t e w i t h good h e a l t h , a s Cohen (1977) h a s p o i n t e d
o u t . The e x t e n t t o which t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s
m o d i f y e a c h o t h e r ' s e f f e c t s on demographic ( i . e . , h e a l t h ) c h a n g e s
remains t o be worked o u t .
UPPER PALEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC TIMES
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t e r s i n t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n w e r e a
s p a r s e p o p u l a t i o n . They a v o i d e d t h e c o l d and p a r t l y g l a c i a t e d
m o u n t a i n s , 3-5' C below t o d a y 's t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d p r o b a b l y had
c o a s t a l camps t h a t a r e now m o s t l y u n d e r w a t e r . More s h e l t e r e d
p l a c e s l i k e F r a n c h t h i Cave ( J a c o b s e n 1969) were also f o r t e m p o r a r y
o c c u p a t i o n . T h e h u n t e r s l i v e d i n c o l d , t e m p e r a t e open woodland
and c o u l d g a t h e r many r o o t p l a n t s , n u t s ( p i s t a c h i o , almond, h a z e l ) ,
f r u i t s ( a p p l e ) , h e r b s , a n d m o l l u s k s . They h u n t e d and a t e a v a r i e t y
o f medium t o l a r g e game ( B u t z e r 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 1 ; J a c o b s e n 1 9 6 9 ;
S t e p h a n o s 1 8 8 4 ) . I n E g y p t , and possibly e l s e w h e r e , t h e y were u s i n g
w i l d g r a i n (Reed 1977a,b) and p e r h a p s were s t a r t i n g t o d o m e s t i c a t e
b a r l e y (Wendorf et al. 1 9 7 9 ) . They had n e i t h e r t h e g r e a t h e r d s o f
w i l d u n g u l a t e s nor t h e i n t e n s e w i n t e r c o l d o f t h e North African o r
E u r a s i a n s t e p p e s o r t u n d r a . P o p u l a t i o n was d e n s e r i n t h e Upper
P a l e o l i t h i c t h a n i n M o u s t e r i a n times (Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . H u n t i n g w a s
e q u a l l y s k i l l e d , w i t h a l o n g t o o l l i s t based o n t h e l o n g f l i n t
b l a d e (rarely t h e s h a r p e r o b s i d i a n ) a n d i n c l u d i n g m o r t a r s a n d
p e s t l e s (Reed 1 9 7 7 ~,1b ) . T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f l e i s u r e f o r a r t a n d
religion.
F o u r i n n o v a t i o n s mark t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o M e s o l i t h i c h u n t i n g
c u l t u r e : development of composite t o o l s f o r h a r p o o n s a n d a r r o w s
3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 59
and s i c k l e s ; t h e bow t o propel arrows ( p a r t l y replacing a t l a t l and

s p e a r o r harpoon) ; t h e domesticated dog a s p e t and/or hunting as-
s i s t a n t ; and harvesting of s t a n d s o f wild g r a i n s f o r food.
With f i r s t t h e Allerod and t h e n t h e pre-Boreal c l i m a t i c warm-
i n g ~i n t h e n i n t h t o e i g h t h m i l l e n n i a B . C . , a t t h e s t a r t of post-
g l a c i a l times, t h e r e was a g r e a t spread of woodland, a 100 m r i s e
i n s e a l e v e l e v e n t u a l l y above t h e p r e s e n t norm, a change i n fauna
(more d e e r and p i g ) , and a change i n d i s e a s e . T h i s involved es-
p e c i a l l y a northward spread o f m a l a r i a s i n t o unadapted populations.
These f o r c e s tended t o r e s t r i c t migration and t o promote l o c a l
s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e edge of sandy h e a t h s , l a k e s , r i v e r s , marshes,
and t h e s e a .
Obsidian demonstrates d i s t a n t t r a d e . Mesolithic m i c r o l i t h s
f o r new composite t o o l s ( i n c l u d i n g s i c k l e blades with s i l i c a
p o l i s h ) a r e o f t e n of o b s i d i a n derived from t h e Aegean i s l a n d of
Melos, t h e Hasan Mountains e a s t o f T a t a l HUyUk on t h e Konya p l a i n ,
and Armenia. Use of o b s i d i a n helped t o maintain t h e t r a d e , which
l a t e r on spread t h e i d e a s and techniques of farming from t h e i r
v a r i o u s c e n t e r s of invention (Jacobs 1969). Trade with Melos en-
couraged development of s a i l b o a t s i n the Aegean, which i n t u r n
f a c i l i t a t e d t h e catching of b i g s e a f i s h a s a t ~ r a n c h t h iCave be-
f o r e t h e end of t h e e i g h t h millennium B . C . (Jacobsen 1969).
Health and Culture
I n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c times n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h was e x c e l l e n t .

The evidence c o n s i s t s of extremely t a l l s t a t u r e from p l e n t i f u l
c a l o r i e s and p r o t e i n (and some microevolutionary s e l e c t i o n ? ) ;
maximum s k u l l base h e i g h t from p l e n t i f u l p r o t e i n , vitamin Dl and
s u n l i g h t i n e a r l y childhood; and very good t e e t h and l a r g e p e l v i c
depth from adequate p r o t e i n and vitamins i n l a t e r childhood and
adolescence. With upper femur s h a f t index (A-P/transverse t h i c k -
n e s s ) a t 78, t h e long bone s h a f t s were well rounded, c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e e x t r a l a t e r a l s t r e s s e s on t h e h i p area caused by hunting and
moving from summer t o winter camp o v e r rough t r a i l s .
Adult l o n g e v i t y , a t 35 y e a r s f o r males and 30 years for f e -
males, i m p l i e s f a i r t o good g e n e r a l h e a l t h . Because of t h e extra
s t r e s s e s of pregnancy and dangers of c h i l d b i r t h (combined w i t h
s h i f t i n g camp, c a r r y i n g burdens, and presumably doing much of t h e
food c o l l e c t i n g and cooking) , females died younger.
There i s no c l e a r evidence f o r any endemic d i s e a s e . Modern
hunting populations a t a comparable l e v e l have no r e a l l y s e r i o u s
endemic o r epidemic d i s e a s e s a ad in 1938; Yesner 1980) , t h e l a t t e r
because populations a r e t o o small and s c a t t e r e d . The best explana-
t i o n f o r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l i f e span is t h e combination of S t r e s s e s
of nomadism, c l i m a t e , and w a r f a r e . The l a t t e r is especially c l e a r
i n t h e J e b e l Sahaba population, where p r o j e c t i l e wounds a f f e c t i n g
60 J . LAWRENCE ANGEL
bone are v e r y common (Wendorf 1968) and " a l m o s t h a l f t h e p o p u l a -

t i o n p r o b a b l y d i e d v i o l e n t l y [p. 9931 . 'I
I
S i m i l a r v i o l e n c e and f i g h t i n g o c c u r r e d i n M e s o l i t h i c t i m e s .
For evidence, t h e r e a r e t h e archery b a t t l e scenes i n Spanish
c a v e s ( M a r i n g e r and Bandi 1953; 133) a n d t h e two a l m o s t c i r c u l a r I
d e p r e s s e d s k u l l f r a c t u r e s made a t o r a r o u n d t h e moment o f d e a t h ,
o n t h e l e f t f r o n t a l of 1 Fr from F r a n c h t h i Cave (Angel 1 9 6 9 ) , a
t
man a p p a r e n t l y k i l l e d i n h i s m i d d l e t w e n t i e s . V i o l e n c e i s a ,
social disease.
S i n c e h u n t i n g on a r e a s o n a b l e s c a l e c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h t h e
M e s o l i t h i c (and i n t o t h e Farming T r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) , i t is n o t s u r - I
p r i s i n g t h a t m e a t a n d f i s h p r o t e i n and v i t a m i n D p r e c u r s o r s were
enough t o keep g r o w t h e f f i c i e n t i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d ( e v i d e n t i n
good s k u l l b a s e h e i g h t and d e n t a l h e a l t h ) and good i n l a t e c h i l d - {
hood ( e v i d e n t i n deep p e l v i s and i n t e r m e d i a t e l o n g bone round-
I
n e s s ) . A t V l a s a c and o t h e r I r o n G a t e s i t e s o n t h e Danube
1
(Nemeskeri and S z a t m a r y 1 9 7 8 ; S r e j o v i 6 1 9 7 2 ; Z i v a n o v i e 1975) a n d
D n i e p e r r i v e r s i t e s ( D e b e t s 1955b; Konduktorova 1957) d e e r a n d p
r i v e r f i s h m a i n t a i n e d this Upper P a l e o l i t h i c g r o w t h l e v e l .
S i l l e n ' s (1981) s i t e - c o r r e c t e d s t r o n t i u m / c a l c i u m ( S r / C a ) r a t i o o f
. 7 4 a t Hayonim Cdve i s i n t e r m e d i a t e ; N a t u f i a n s a t e a b a l a n c e o f
p l a n t s and meat. N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s u d d e n d r o p i n s t a t u r e o c c u r s i n
t h e M e s o l i t h i c a t some s i t e s : F r a n c h t h i , 1 5 7 cm (2 m a l e s ) and
!
1 3 8 cm ( 2 f e m a l e s ) ; N a t u f i a n s , 164 cm ( 1 0 ) and 155 cm ( 6 )

(Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ; K e i t h 1 9 3 1 ) ; Zawi Chemi S h a n i d a r , 1964 cm ( 5 ) and
1 5 4 cm (1) (Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , s i g n s o f s e a s o n a l %
g r o w t h a r r e s t s o c c u r a t F r a n c h t h i Cave, s p e c i f i c a l l y .
L i k e l y c a u s e s o f d e c r e a s e d s t a t u r e a r e new endemic d i s e a s e s
c a u s i n g a n e m i a s ( m a l a r i a , hookworm) o r l o c a l d e c l i n e i n c a l o r i e s .
Some s u b s t i t u t i o n of f i s h a n d s e a f o o d f o r meat ( c f . Cohen 1 9 7 7 )
t e n d e d t o lower c a l o r i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , three o f s i x s k e l e t o n s
from F r a n c h t h i c a v e h a v e p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s (marrow-space
t h i c k e n i n g a n d p o r o s i t y ) i n d i c a t i n g anemia (Angel 1969) . P r o b a b l y
t h i s is h e t e r o z y q o u s t h a l a s s e m i a s e l e c t e d b y endemic f a l c i p a r u m
m a l a r i a a f t e r t h a t p l a s m o d i u m ' s o r i g i n by m u t a t i o n a t l e a s t three
o r f o u r m i l l e n n i a e a r l i e r . T h e o c c u r r e n c e of i n f a n t s w i t h e x t r e m e
anemia (i .e . , homozygotes k i l l e d by t h a l a s s e m i a ) i s c r i t i c a l e v i -
d e n c e f o r t h i s d i a g n o s i s , o f c o u r s e . T h e r e i s some p o r o s i t y a t
V l a s a c on t h e Danube. Greone a n d Armelaqos (1972) n o t e no s e v e r e
a n e m i a a t Wadi Walfa i n N u b i a . F a r t h e r n o r t h , a t I r o n G a t e and
D n i e p e r r i v e r s i t e s , endemic m a l a r i a s a r e u n l i k e l y even a t t h e
thermal maximum. I t i s s t r i k i n g t h a t t h e Western ~ e s o l i t h i cr e -
d u c t i o n i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h , s e e n zn s h o r t e n i n g of a d u l t l o n g e v i t y ,
d i d n o t o c c u r i n our a r e a . p o p u l a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y d i d not i n c r e a s e
i n d e n s i t y s t r i k i n g l y ( c f . Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . The i n c r e a s e d s e t t l i n g
down of M e s o l i t h i c bands promoted h e d l t h a n d l o n q e v i t y , e s p e c i a l l y
of females, by reducing m i g r a t i o n stress. But settling c l o s e to
t
w a t e r o r marsh facilitated t h e malarias a n d o t h e r d i s e a s e s .
NEOLITHIC TIMES
Many d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e a c t u a l s t a r t of
a g r i c u l t u r e (Cohen 1 9 7 7 ; F l a n n e r y 1 9 6 5 ; Reed 1 9 7 7 a , b ) i n w e s t e r n
A s i a and o t h e r c e n t e r s a f t e r t h e end o f t h e most r e c e n t g l a c i a l
r e t r e a t . I t is a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a r too i r r e g u l a r , d e e p l y r o o t e d ,
and g r a d u a l t o be c a l l e d a r e v o l u t i o n .
T h e r e i s n o s i g n of a u n i f i e d c e n t e r f o r t h e s t a r t o f e a r l y
f a r m i n g . I n t h e h i g h l a n d s of w e s t e r n A s i a , a n c e s t r a l wheat
(Tritzem aegitopoides) and two-row b a r l e y s p r e a d a s f a r e a s t a s
T u r k e s t a n and w e s t t o I s r a e l a n d T h r a c e (Helbaek 1 9 6 0 ) ; p e o p l e be-
gan t o p l a n t a s w e l l a s t o g a t h e r t h e s e b e f o r e 7000 B . C . BY
9000 B.C. w i l d sheep of s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s a n d w i l d g o a t s were
b e i n g d o m e s t i c a t e d ( B u t z e r 1971; Reed 1 9 7 7 a , b ) . C a t t l e a n d p i g s
came soon a f t e r , e a c h a t d i f f e r e n t s i t e s from K h u z i s t a n t o Turkey
t o G r e e c e . The p l a n t a n d a n i m a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n a n d a l l t h e t e c h n o -
l o g i c a l i n v e n t i o n s of s i c k l e , h o e , t h r e s h i n g equipment ( h o t s t o n e s
f o r p a r c h i n g , f l a i l , l a t e r t h e doqen) , g r i n d s t o n e s , effective
w a t e r p r o o f h o u s e s and p i t g r a n a r i e s , s t o r a g e c o n t a i n e r s ( s k i n ,
b a s k e t r y , s t o n e , and l a t e r p o t t e r y ) , a n d p r o d u c t i o n of c o p p e r
t o o l s o c c u r r e d a t v e r y different places and times w i t h i n the
matrix of e a r l y farming a n d s e t t l e m e n t .
The t r a d i n g a n d the r a p i d s p r e a d of i d e a s and o f p r o d u c t s (ob-
s i d i a n a n d o t h e r worked s t o n e , o r n a m e n t s , p o t t e r y , b i turnen, f o o d s ,
l a t e r wool) was f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e r i s e i n s e a l e v e l above t o d a y ' s
and t h e 7O C ( B o r e a l and A t l a n t i c ) c l i m a t i c warming d u r i n g t h e en-
t i r e M e s o l i t h i c t o Late N e o l i t h i c s e q u e n c e . S i t e s d i s p l a y i n -
c r e a s i n g permanence r e l a t e d t o improved food s t o r a g e . I n c r e a s i n g
p o p u l a t i o n s t r a i n e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f any o n e s i t e (Reed 1 9 7 7 a , b ) ,
r e s u l t i n g i n f u r t h e r c o l o n i z a t i o n . The r i s e i n s e a l e v e l (Rapp e t
a l . 1978) and t h e spread o f f o r e s t s enhanced crowding i n e x i s t i n g
s e t t l e m e n t s . But t h e a c t u a l f o r c e f o r change t o f a r m i n g had t o be
p s y c h o l o g i c a 1 : o v e r - r e s p o n s e to t h e c h a l l e n g e of r a i s i n g families
at a time when l i v i n g i n s e t t l e m e n t s r e s t r i c t e d h u n t i n g a n d
g a t h e r i n g b u t a l s o a l l o w e d women enough s e c u r i t y i n p r e g n a n c y to
b e a r and r a i s e more c h i l d r e n (see T a b l e 3 . 1 ) .
By t h e s i x t h m i l l e n n i u m B.C., E a r l y N e o l i t h i c c u l t u r e was
r i c h e r than anything e a r l i e r (Mellaart 1967), e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e
s i t e s t h a t g i v e u s s k e l e t o n s . F r e s c o e s and s c u l p t u r e d i s p l a y e d
b o t h n a t u r a l i s t i c a n d s y m b o l i c c e r e m o n i a l a r t . ~ e c h n o l o g ya l s o
went w e l l beyong t h e Upper ~ a l e o l i t h i ci n s h a p i n g s t o n e and bone
t o o l s , i n p o l - i s h i n g o b s i d i a n m i r r o r s , and i n t h e s t a r t o f m e t a l -
lurgy. Wood - f r a m e d h o u s e s were d e v e l o p e d , o f t e n adobe wal l e d , and
towns w e r e w a l l e d f o r d e f e n s e .
P o p u l a t i o n s w e r e 1.0 t o 50 times a s d e n s e a s i n t h e ~ a l e o l i t h i c -
A t F a t a l Hliyiik, odd (1976) e s t i m a t e s a d e n s i t y of a b o u t 75 Per-
sons/krn2 f o r t h e town and i t s s u p p o r t i n g area. A f a i r o v e r a l l e s -
t i e f o r t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s , t h e r e f o r e , 2-5 persons/km2
taking i n t o a c c o u n t t h e density o f sites (Angel 1 9 7 2 ) - N e w cereal
crops s u p p o r t e d t h i s expansion. Todd (1976) f u r t h e r estimates that
62 J. LAWRENCE ANGEL
i f half t h e surrounding a r e a (78.5 tan2 ) a t Catal Htiyiik were i n

g r a i n and h a l f fallow o r i n legumes f o r support of h e r d s , t h e r e
would be food enough f o r 5000-75000 people, a t 300 kg of grain/per-
son annually. Grain could be s t o r e d . For meat, such a population
would consume 3 head of c a t t l e d a i l y o r almost 1100 annually
(Angel 1971). This would b e d i f f i c u l t t o a t t a i n even with Todd's
optimum e s t i m a t e of herds of 3750 plus hunting. I b e l i e v e (Angel
1971) t h a t t h e meat eaten would have been only 10-20% of t h e
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c optimum.
We do n o t know when properly baked bread f i r s t appeared. If
c e r e a l s were consumed i n t h e f o r m of improperly baked, unleavened
bread, mam , bulgur, o r p o r r i d g e , t h e y would c o n t a i n p h y t a t e ;
t h i s can bind i r o n and z i n c and i n t e r f e r e with g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l
absorption of p r o t e i n and calcium ( B i s e l 1980; Reinhold 1972).
C r u c i f e r s , n u t s , and f r u i t s should have provided enough f a t s and
vitamins B and C . I n l a t e winter t h e r e may have been minimal
s h o r t a g e s o f vitamins A and D.
The main d i s e a s e s t r e s s e s were t h o s e of crowded s e t t l e m e n t :
hookworm, d y s e n t e r i e s i n c l u d i n g amebiasis, t h e m a l a r i a s caused by
t h e f r e q u e n t l o c a t i o n of s i t e s n e a r marshes o r streams c l e a r of
woodland (Angel 1978b) , and perhaps o c c a s i o n a l p e r s o n a l i t y c l a s h
o r depression.
Health and Culture: Early Farming

I
With t h e beginning o f fanning, some s t a b i l i z i n g of g e n e r a l I
h e a l t h occurred, with a t l e a s t maintenance o f female l o n g e v i t y ,

I
near t h e hunting period norm. This promoted a s l i g h t e x c e s s of 1
s u r v i v a l s o v e r deaths i n j u v e n i l e s and a consequent f a i r l y r a p i d
population increase (Table 3 . 1 ) . There are two obvious r e a s o n s . i
F i r s t , t h e a b s o l u t e end of nomadism meant l e s s s t r e s s d u r i n g preg-
nancy and a l s o , f o r t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n , a more c e r t a i n food !
supply (from s t o r e d g r a i n ) during w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g . Second,
p o s t n a t a l adjustment and g e n e t i c a d a p t a t i o n of each population t o
endemic i n f e c t i o n s occurred, e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e m a l a r i a s , through
t h e balanced polymorphic i n c r e a s e of g e n e t i c a l l y determined abnor-
mal hemoglobins, allowing antibody formation with j u s t enough i r o n
and z i n c i n t h e d i e t . I
The l a r g e l y c e r e a l d i e t supplied enough c a l o r i e s f o r main-
tenance of s t a t u r e a t a subadequate level--none of t h e s l i g h t Upper
P a l e o l i t h i c t o Mesolithic s t a t u r e l o s s was r e g a i n e d . (only i n o u r
upper c l a s s e s have we y e t returned t o t h e Upper ~ a l e o l i t h i cl e v e l . )
Owing t o poor d i e t throughout childhod, t h e dimensions o f t h e s k u l l
b a s e , p e l v i c i n l e t , and long bone s h a f t s , a s well a s g e n e r a l d e n t a l
h e a l t h , were depressed below any reasonable h e a l t h norm. This
growth depression came (1) from insufficient p r o t e i n ( e s p e c i a l l y
e s s e n t i a l amino acids from red meat) and ( 2 ) from r e s t r i c t i o n of
blood calcium o r of vitamin D p r e c u r s o r s . Schoeninqer (1981)
f i n d s s i t e - c o r r e c t e d strontium l e v e l s a b o u t the s a m e a t rani an
p r e p o t t e r y ~ e o l i t h i csites a s a t ~ a t u f i a nsites (except where
3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 63
s e a f o o d c o m p l i c a t e s t h e p i c t u r e ) . We have no d a t a on i n d i c a t o r s
i n bone o f p r o t e i n and z i n c a b s o r b t i o n i n o u r a r e a u n t i l t h e
e a r l y f o u r t h millennium B.C. C h a l c o l i t h i c a t Kalinkaya ( B i s e l
1980) i n A n a t o l i a n e a r BoghazkGy, where a very high s i t e - c o r r e c t e d
s t r o n t i u m l e v e l i n d i c a t e s a d i e t poor i n animal p r o t e i n .
The N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n a s a whole 1s low i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h
and a t t h e low p o i n t o f n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h , with s i g n s of t h e mus-
c u l a r e f f o r t and f a t i g u e n e c e s s a r y i n fanning. Yet energy r e -
mained f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a 1 achievement, p a r t l y d e r i v e d f ram
t h e f a i r l y h i g h l e v e l of v a r i a b i l i t y ( a preamble t o g e n e t i c mix-
t u r e ) seen i n Table 3 . 1 . The b a l a n c e w i t h s o c i e t y was a wavering
p o s i t i v e feedback.
BRONZE AGE
From e a r l i e s t N e o l i t h i c t o C l a s s i c a l t i m e s , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y
i n c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y from a b o u t 2 t o j u s t under 40 persons/km^.
Hence s o i l s , f o r e s t s , and m i n e r a l s were under i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e
of use. Technological advance s e n n a t i m e s slowed and sometimes ac-
c e l e r a t e d t h i s e c o l o g i c a l s t r e s s . By t h e E a r l y Bronze Age i n t h e
t h i r d millennium B.C., s a i l i n g and oared s h i p s f o r t r a d e , e x p l o r a -
t i o n , a n d w a r f a r e were made p o s s i b l e i n p a r t by b e t t e r axes and
a d z e s . I n c r e a s i n g l y t h e s e t o o l s and weapons were made of t h e new
bronze. Over t h e two m i l l e n n i a from 3500 t o 1500 B.C. bronze was
developed through a l l o y i n g copper w i t h a r s e n i c and l a t e r w i t h t i n .
E x t e n s i v e e x p l o r a t i o n f o r t i n (Wertime 1 9 7 8 ) , i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r
i t s hardening e f f e c t o n copper, l e d i n time t o v a s t l y expanded
zones and l i n e s of t r a d e , by s e a and by l a n d , and brought s i l v e r
and g o l d into t h e h e a r t o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . Bronze c u t t i n g weapons,
and l a t e r armor, made w a r f a r e an i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e emerging c i t y -
states .
The new food base c o n s i s t e d o f improved g r a i n s , i n c l u d i n g em-
mer and e a r l y bread-wheat, f a v a beans, f i g and o t h e r f r u i t t r e e s ,
domesticated g r a p e s , and t h e o l i v e (Chadwick 1976; Hopf 1962; mPP
e t a l . 1 9 7 8 ) . These were c u l t i v a t e d with i r r i g a t i o n , f e r t i l i z i n g ,
and u s e o f t h e new E a r l y Bronze Age a r d drawn by oxen. The now
d i m i n i s h i n g meat supply was much more domestic than w i l d and was
a minor p a r t o f d i e t ( G e j v a l l 1969; Shay and Shay 1 9 7 8 ) . Bees
were d o m e s t i c a t e d t o produce honey.
I n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e t h i r d millennium B.C., v a r i o u s
groups o f Indo-European s p e a k e r s ( w i t h ox-drawn wheeled wagons)
i n t r u d e d i n t o t h e Near E a s t and South Europe, ~ r o d u c i n gs t i m u l a t i n g
m i x t u r e s of p e o p l e s and of g e n e s . There was a n accompanying
g r a d u a l s h i f t t o p a t r i a r c h a l systems. By L a t e Bronze t i m e s , o v e r
a h a l f millennium l a t e r , " c i t i e s " i n H i t t i t e , Minoan, and Mycenean
zones expanded i n t o almost f e u d a l c i t y - s t a t e s (cf. chadwick 1 9 7 6 ) -
Horse-and-chariot warfare demanded huge s t o n e defense w a l l s .
Elaborate m e t a l l u r g y and t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n , once centered in
64 J LAWRENCE ANGEL
Mesopotamia and Egypt, expanded and flourished . A t Kultepe i n

Anatolia, Assyrian merchants had e s t a b l i s h e d systems of t r a d e i n
t i n , c l o t h , e t c . , with c r e d i t and w r i t t e n t a b l e t s (cuneiform).
Record-tablets i n Linear B s c r i p t show t h e self-consciousness of
a t r u e developing c i v i l i z a t i o n and t h e need t o record resources
a s population pressures, d i s p u t e s , and wars developed a l l over t h e
Mycenean -dominated Aegean world.
Improvement again i n mixed farming i s implied i n d e t a i l i n t h e
t a b l e t s (Chadwick 1976; Ventris and Chadwick 1956) and i s f a i r l y
c l e a r l y r e c a l l e d i n Homer ( s e e Seymour 1908) . A s sea l e v e l
lowered, t h e Mycencans undertook some massive marsh- and lake-
drainage p r o j e c t s ; f o r example, of t h e Copaic basin. These and
the d r i e r climate kept malaria down. But t h e population was dense
enough f o r childhood epidemics t o begin. According t o arrest
l i n e s on t e e t h (Table 3 . I ) , epidemics probably s t a r t e d a f t e r
2000 B . C . , i n the Middle Bronze Age. Diet grew more varied a s
more sea f i s h and probably ducks were added, but i n t h e Late
Bronze Age it s t i l l included unleavened cakes o r pita (Seymour
1908) r a t h e r than leavened bread. Some "slaves, " s p e c i f i c a l l y
weavers, got a d a i l y r a t i o n of wheat and f i g s . They had t o col-
l e c t t h e i r own greens, but t h e t a b l e t s do not mention t h e i r having
meat. Diet f o r the r u l e r s i s not s p e c i f i e d on t h e t a b l e t s
(Chadwick 1976) . ~ i v i n gconditions did not r e a l l y improve much
f o r t h e farmers.
EARLY IRON AGE
The Homeric e p i c s belong t o t h e succeeding, r a t h e r brief "Dark

Age" epitomized i n migrations from overpopulation, l o c a l depopula-
t i o n s , droughts, p i r a c y , and l o c a l autonomy i n t h e i n t e r v a l o f
o r a l h i s t o r y between t h e s y l l a b i c w r i t i n g of t h e Linear B t a b l e t s
and the invention of t h e Greek alphabet from West Semitic (Gelb
1963) . As usual i n a time of quick change, there were several i n -
ventions. The chief of these was t h e smelting and forging of
i r o n , and t h e carburization of iron t o give s t e e l . Iron brought
about t h e e f f i c i e n t m e t a l l i z i n g of t h e t o o l s of a q r i c u l t u r e , once
stone o r bronze, such a s t h e t i p of t h e wood plow, and the sickle--
though f l i n t o r obsidian backed blades continue down t o t h e
present i n t h e doGen o r threshing-sled. Iron freed the more ex-
pensive bronze f o r more s p e c i a l uses than t o o l s o r weapons and
spread widely a m e t a l l i c economy. B u t u s e of iron also brought a
c r i s i s i n wood-based energy throughout t h e Mediterranean.
HEALTH AND CULTURE:

EARLY BRONZE AGE TO CLASSICAL TIMES
From the b a s i c low p o i n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h

( T a b l e 3 . 1 ) c o n t i n u e d i n a s t r a i g h t and o n l y s l i g h t l y f l u c t u a t i n g
e q u i l i b r i u m f o r a l m o s t f i v e m i l l e n n i a u n t i l the immense t o t a l
h e a l t h advance o f C l a s s i c a l t i m e s . S k u l l b a s e h e i g h t was a b o u t
15% a n d p e l v i c d e p t h and s t a t u r e a b o u t 7% below t h e U p p e r P a l e o -
l i t h i c norm, a n d d e n t a l d i s e a s e t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s more s e v e r e .
We have s i t e - c o r r e c t e d s t r o n t i u m v a l u e s a t medium t o h i g h l e v e l s
i n d i c a t i n g l e s s t h a n a d e q u a t e r e d m e a t , b u t z i n c v a l u e s a b o u t the
same a s modern, s u g q e s t i n q some z i n c s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n meat. In
t h e L a t e Bronze Age p a r t i c u l a r l y , a human t o sheep-goat Sr/Ca
r a t i o of a b o u t 1 . 0 0 shows t h a t p e o p l e were g e t t i n g more s t r o n t i u m
t h a n was p o s s i b l e o n l y from p l a n t s . The o b v i o u s s o u r c e i s s e a
f i s h , since a f i s h d i e t t e n d s t o r a i s e b o t h zinc and s t r o n t i u m .
B o t h l e v e l s go down i n t h e E a r l y I r o n Age, s u g g e s t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e
o f f i s h i n q by p i r a c y , r n i q r a t i o n s , o r custom c h a n g e - I t i s p u z z l i n g
t h a t s k u l l base h e i g h t , p e l v i c i n l e t d e p t h , a n d s t a t u r e a l l remain
below normal, e s p e c i a l l y since stress from m a l a r i a had vanished
(Table 3.1) . P a r t o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h e continued a b s o r p t i o n
o f p h y t a t e from u n l e a v e n e d a n d c o a r s e b r e a d (maza) s t i l l i n use
t h r o u g h t h e E a r l y I r o n Age (Seymour 1 9 0 8 ; T a n n a h i l l 1 9 7 3 ) ~ a s w e l l
a s somewhat l o w c a l o r i c l e v e l s , p a r t l y from p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e
(McDonald a n d Simpson 1 9 6 1 ) .
Regional Variation: Lycia Versus Greece
The p e o p l e a t E a r l y Bronze Age K a r a t a s , i n a n c i e n t L y c i a i n

s o u t h w e s t Ana t o l i a , show b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h t h a n t h e i r con-
t e m p o r a r i e s i n G r e e c e ( m a i n l y from Hagios Kosmas i n A t t i c a , C o r i n t h ,
a n d H a g i o s S t e p h a n o s i n s o u t h e a s t P e l o p o n n e s u s ) . The K a r a t a s
s a m p l e h a s a h i g h e r s k u l l base ( 2 1 nun [N = 1 7 2 1 versus 1 9 mm
[N = 1 2 1 1 , a p p a r e n t l y a d e e p e r p e l v i s ( i n l e t i n d e x o f 85% [N = 271 ) ,
a n d g r e a t e r s t a t u r e ( 1 5 3 . 1 versus 1 4 8 . 8 cm [N = 51 f o r f e m a l e s ,
1 6 6 . 5 v e r s u s 1 6 2 . 2 cm [ N = 51 f o r m a l e s ) . I n d e n t a l h e a l t h ( 5
l e s i o n s / m o u t h [N = 1751 ) and i n l o n g e v i t y (29.5 y e a r s [N = 1911 f o r
f e m a l e s a n d 33.7 [ N = 1591 f o r m a l e s ) t h e K a r a t a 3 p e o p l e fit t h e
g e n e r a l Bronze Age norm. T h e i r a d u l t p l u s c h i l d i n c i d e n c e o f
t i c h y p c r o s t o s i s i s a l i t t l e l o w e r t h a n t h e 20% a t Middle Bronze
Age L e r n a (Angel 1971), a n d t h e o c c u r r e n c e a t K a r a t a p of e x t r e m e l y
anemic c h i l d r e n i m p l i e s t h a t . t h e r e were t h a l a s s e m i a homozygotes-
F a l c i p a r u m m a l a r i a m u s t have had some s e l e c t i v e m i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r Y
e f f e c t a s i t h a d a t Lerna l a t e r .
T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s s u g g e s t good n u t r i t i o n a t K a r a t a s , e s p e c i a l -
l y i n c h i l d h o o d . T h e s i t e - c o r r e c t e d Sr/Ca r a t i o a t . 6 0 ( N = 3 2 2 )
i s l o w enough t o i n d i c a t e p l e n t i f u l meat p r o t e i n . The K a r a t a s b o n e
z i n c l e v e l of 1 4 8 pq/g m a t c h e s t h e modern U n i t e d States l e v e l o f
1 4 7 (Bisel 1980, p e r s o n a l communication, 1982). ~ a r a t as ~o i l z i n c
is l o w . There i s a p u z z l i n g d i f f e r e n c e between the sexes i n Z i n c
66 J LAWRENCE ANGEL
l e v e l ; it i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r i n females b y o v e r 2 0 ug/g ( f e m a l e
1 3 7 . 0 [fl = 1731, male 1 6 1 . 0 [N = 1491 ) . I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e
very h i g h . The p r e s e n c e of i m m i g r a n t s may e x p l a i n i n p a r t some
h i q h v a l u e s i n m a l e s . F e m a l e s d y i n g young, in c h i l d b i r t h on t h e
e v i d e n c e of 0-2 b i r t h s / p e l v i s (N = 1 2 ) , h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w
z i n c v a l u e s a t 122 pg/g compared w i t h 1 9 1 . 4 i n f e m a l e s h a v i n g
6-10 b i r t h s ( N = 1 2 ) .
S t a t u r e does n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h Sr/Ca o r z i n c . Only in s k u l l
b a s e h e i g h t is an e f f e c t s e e n . T w e n t y - t h r e e p e o p l e w i t h low s k u l l
b a s e s h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r Sr/Ca r a t i o s than 60 p e o p l e w i t h
a v e r a g e a n d hiqh bases (-71versus -60). T h e i r zinc l e v e l s a r e
l o w e r , t o o , but n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
Class Variation : Mycenean R o y a l t y
D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r part of t h e M i d d l e Bronze Age i n G r e e c e , t h e

" r o y a l t y " a t Mycenae (Table 3.1) differ so g r e a t l y from t h e g e n e -
r a l p o p u l a t i o n t h a t we e x c l u d e them f r o m t h e o v e r a l l s t a t i s t i c s .
I n l o n g e v i t y t h e y f i t t h e Bronze Age norm. They show the same
s t r i k i n g diversity o f morphology (and i m p l i e d o r i g i n s ) as the
g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e n i n t h e p r o c e s s o f absorbing Indo-European
and o t h e r new s e t t l e ' r s , including s o m e from ~ f r i c a . However, the
4 % increase i n s t a t a r e and i n p e l v i c d e p t h and the 30% i n c r e a s e i n
s k u l l base h e i g h t i n the r o y a l t y , t h e i r t h i c k e r and more rounded
l o n g bones, and the f i v e - f o l d improvement i n t h e i r d e n t a l h e a l t h
all show n u t r i t i o n a l improvement t h a t must i n v o l v e more meat
protein t h a n t h e a v e r a g e citizen got. The o n l y non-bone i n d i -
c a t o r of this h i g h p r o t e i n d i e t is t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f g a l l s t o n e s
i n o n e man ( A n g e l 1973a: p l a t e 249) . From Homer comes t h e
h i s t o r i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t rulers w e r e b e t t e r f e d and a t e more
meat.
Regional Variation: Athenians v e r s u s N i c h o r i a n s
I n t h e L a t e Bronze A g e there i s a p u z z l i n g r e g i o n a l c o n t r a s t
i n h e a l t h between A t h e n i a n s and southwest P c l o p o n n e s e N i c h o r i a n s
(Angel e t a l . 1980a; B i s e l 1981.). A t A t h e n s the s i t e - c o r r e c t e d
Sr/Ca r a t i o is 1 . 2 1 (N = 59) a s compared t o - 5 5 (N = 2 6 ) a t
Nichoria; B i s e i infers from this t h a t much more m e a t , arid no sea
fish, w e r e e a t e n i n t h e s o u t h w e s t Pel.oponnese. Sloan and Duncan
( 1 9 7 8 ) find a l m o s t no f i s h bones a t N i c h o r i a . I t i s e c o l o g i c a l l y
l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t l e s s meat was e a t e n a t A t h e n s , and t h e S r / C a
r a t i o h i g h e r t h a n 1 . 0 0 t h e r e p r o v e s c o n s u m p t i o n o f s e a fish.
Mycenaean Greeks were s t i l l e a t i n g u n l e a v e n e d bread w i t h some
phytate. The ~ t h e n i a nbone z i n c a t 157 - 2 vq/q (N = 59) , t h e r e f o r e ,
is below t h e v a l u e e x p e c t e d i n a p o p u l a t i o n w i t h high f i s h diet.
N i c h o r i a n s , whose diet was v i r t u a l l y f i s h l e s s , h a v e a l o w z i n c
v a l u e at 120 vg/g. I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p h y t a t e and fiber
of coarsely ground f l o u r and o a t m e a l o r porridge bound and prevented
absorption of zinc, as well as i r o n (not d i r e c t l y measured).
3 FROM HUNTING 1 0 FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
Overall Health
With a d e c r e a s e i n m a l a r i a s p r e c e d i n g t h e l a t e Bronze Age de-

c l i n e i n p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , g e n e r a l h e a l t h improved enough f o r
a 2-year i n c r e a s e i n a d u l t l o n g e v i t y (more f o r m a l e s ) , and conse-
quent i n c r e a s e i n b i r t h s and p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s l a s t e d u n t i l t h e
s l i g h t h e a l t h d e c l i n e of t h e Early I r o n Age. Important i s t h e
s u c c e s s f u l a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s groups of Indo-European-
speaking i n t r u d e r s whose p r e s e n c e and beginning m i x t u r e r a i s e d
i n c r e d i b l y t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e Middle Bronze Age p o p u l a t i o n .
The approximately 500-year time o f m i x t u r e , with consequent reduc-
t i o n o f v a r i a b i l i t y by 20% o r more by t h e Late Bronze Age, was a
most c r e a t i v e t i m e c u l t u r a l l y . The E a r l y I r o n Age r e p r e s e n t e d a
b r i e f i n t e r r u p t i o n and t h e n s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h i s c r e a t i v i t y .
SUMMARY OF HUNTING TO FARMING SHIFTS
I n ecology t h e r e was a marked sequence of changes, f i r s t c l i -

m a t i c and t h e n man made. P l e i s t o c e n e c o l d mountain f o r e s t , s t e p p e
p l a t e a u , o r l o n g f o r e s h o r e w i t h maquis v e g e t a t i o n and few
marshes gave way t o more deciduous f o r e s t and crowded s h o r e s , de-
v e l o p i n g w i t h a p o s t g l a c i a l temperature r j s e of 4 o r 5 C and a
r i s e i n s e a l e v e l t o a point h i g h e r than t o d a y ' s . Then, a f t e r
n e c e s s a r y u s e o f marshy r i v e r bank a r e a s f o r e a r l y farming, a
g r a d u a l expansion o f farmland o c c u r r e d t o 20% of t o t a l land a r e a ,
a s f o r e s t s were g r a d u a l l y used i n houses, for boats, and f o r
m e t a l l u r g y . Because o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e from about 1500 B . C .
onward, t h e r e developed t h e s t r o n g c h a l l e n g e of o v e r u s e of soils.
I n h e a l t h and d i s e a s e t h e changes were p a r a d o x i c a l , with gene-
ral h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h moving i n g e n e r a l l y o p p o s i t e d i -
r e c t i o n s . The a p p a r e n t s t a b i l i t y i n female l o n g e v i t y during f i r s t
M e s o l i t h i c and t h e n e a r l y farming f i x e d s e t t l e m e n t s allowed popula-
t i o n i n c r e a s e , probably s t a r t i n g b e f o r e farming began and h e l p i n g
t o c r e a t e a need f o r i t . Because of t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y ,
nomadism became impossible e x c e p t f o r s p e c i f i c groups of t r a d e r s ,
t i n k e r s , mountain h u n t e r s , s h e p h e r d s , e t c .
Nutrition became p r o g r e s s i v e l y , n o t suddenly, p o o r e r w i t h e a r l y
farming. T h i s a p p l i e d e s p e c i a l l y t o p r o t e i n f r o m r e d meat needed
f o r a d e q u a t e childhood growth a g a i n s t g r a v i t y i n s k u l l , p e l v i s , and
l o n g bones ( s t a t u r e ) . An i n c r e a s e i n d i s e a s e was also i n v o l v e d -
Although i n t e r g r o u p f i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d from t h e Upper p a l m -
l i t h i c through t h e Bronze ~ g and e increased a s c i v i l i z a t i o n "ad-
vanced," t h e r e was a l s o a g r e a t d e a l of s u c c e s s f u l and c r e a t i v e
p o p u l a t i o n m i x t u r e . The p o s i t i o n of women a p p a r e n t l y d e c l i n e d b u t
s o c i a l h e a l t h was adequate u n t i l s l a v e r y developed.
D i s e a s e e f f e c t s were minor in t h e Upper ~ a l e o l i t h i ce x c e p t f o r
trauma. I n p o s t g l a c i a l l y h o t a r e a s , p o r o t i c h y p c r o s t o s i s (anemia)
i n c r e a s e d i n M e s o l i t h i c and reached high f r e 9 e n c i . e ~i n ~ e o l i t h i c
t o Middle Bronze t i m e s - Apparently t h i s r e s u l t e d mainly from
t h a l a s s e m i a s , s i n c e c h i l d r e n show it i n long bones as w e l l a5 t h e i r
s k u l l s . But p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i.n a d u l t s had o t h e r c a u s e s t o o ,
p r o b a b l y from i r o n d e f i c i e n c y from l~ookwonn amebirasis o r p h y t a t e
e f f e c t o f a n y o f t h e m a l a r i a s . The t h a l a s s e m i a s n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y
f a l c i p a r u m m a l a r i a . T h i s d i s e a s e may be o n e d i r e c t c a u s e o f s h o r t
stature.
The o t h e r p r e s s u r e l i m i t i n g s t a t u r e and p r o b a b l y a l s o f e r t i l i t y
i n e a r l y and d e v e l o p i n g farmi11q t i m e s was d e f i c i e n c y of p r o t e i n a n d
of i r o n a n d z i n c from i n g e s t i o n of t o o much p h y t i c a c i d i n t h e
d i e t . I n a d d i t i o n new d i s e a s e s i n c l u d i n q e p i d e m i c s emerged a s
p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d r i n d i c a t e d b y a n i n c r e a s e o f enamel a r r e s t
l i n e s i n Middle Bronze Age s a m p l e s . The e a r l i e s t v e r t e b r a l t u b e r -
c u l o s i s r i r i a 1 5 - y e a r - o l d g i r l a t A r g o s f d a t e s a t a b o u t 900 B - C .
i n t h e E a r l y I r o n Age. Cancer m e t a s t a s e s o c c u r i n o n e L a t e Bronze
Age example.
The most s t r i k i n g f i n d i n g i s l o c a l s i t e v a r i a b i l i t y a t a l l
p e r i o d s . The s i t e v a r i a b i l i t y means (1) t h a t we h a v e t o p o o l popu-
l a t i o n s t o g e t a broad p i c t u r e a n d l a r g e enough s a m p l e s r a n d
( 2 1 t h a t t h e c a u s a l network o f disease-health-culture-environmen t
must b e u n t a n g l e d a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l . Broad c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e s u s -
pect without references t o s i n g l e sites -
We c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t f a n n e r s were less h e a l t h y t h a n h u n t e r s r
a t l e a s t u n t i l C l a s s i c a l t o Roman times. We c a n n o t s t a t e e x a c t l y
how much less h e a 1 t . h ~t h e y w e r e r howeverI o r exactly how o r why.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
S u p p o r t o f f i e l d work came from f e l l o w s h i p s o r g r a n t s from

1-Iarvard U n i v e r s i t y , t h e U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a f t h e S r n i t h s o n i a n
I n s t i t u t i o n , Bryn Mawr C o l l e g e e x p e d i t i o n , the American S c h o o l o f
C l a s s i c a l S t u d i e s a t A t h e n s , J e f f e r s o n Xeciical C o l l e g e t h e
N a t i o n a l I n s t i t . u t e s o f H e a l t h ( A - 2 2 4 ) I t h e American P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c i e t y r a n d t h e Guggeriheim and Wenner-Gren f o u n d a t i o n s .
I am most g r a t e f u l t o t h e a b o v e i n s t i t u t i o n s r t o t h e many i n -
d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h themI t o Greek and T u r k i s h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
s e r v i c e s , and t o many a r c l ~ a e o l o g i s t sf o r p r o v i d i n g d a t e d s k e l e t o n s ;
a l s o t o S a r a B i s e l r G l o r i a Yedynsk1 and A . S i l l e n f o r unpub1.ished
d a t a u s e d ; S a r a B i s e l r J e n n i f e r 0 . K c l l e y r Alan Mann, Theodore A .
Wertimer a n d Andrew S i l l e n f o r c r i t i c a l r e a d i n g o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t ;
Peggy Angel f o r i n v a l u a b l e f i e l d a s s i s t a n c e ; and K a t h a r i n e H o l l a n d
f o r p a i n s t a k i n g t y p i n g and r e t y p i n g o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t .
3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDlTERRANEAN
REFERENCES
Ackerknechtl E . H.
1965 History imd geography o f the most impoptant diseases.
Hafrler1 New York.
Adamsl P.
.I969 The c f L e c t of e x p e r i m e n t a l ~ n a l r i u t r i t i o no n t h e development
of l o n g bones - BibZzotheea ' ' N ~ ~ t r i t ei ot d i e t a t t 1 3 : 69-73
Anderson, J - E .
1968 Late P a l e o l i t h i c s k e l e t a l remains f r o m N&ia- 1n fie
pret~istoryof &bia (Vol . 11) e d i t e d by F . Wendorf pp.
966-1040. S o u t h e r n Metllodist U n i v e r s i t y f D a l l a s .
Angel, J. L.
1952 The human s k e l e t a l remains from Hotul I r a n . Proceedings
of the American PhiZosophicaZ Society 96 (3) :2 58-2 69.
1966 P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , anemias, m a l a r i a s and marshes i n t h e
p r e h i s t o r i c E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Science 153 :760-763.
1969 Human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from F r a n c h t h i Cave. He,~periu38 :
343-381.
1971 The people of Lerna. Am. School of C l a s s i c a l Studies a t
Athens a n d Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n l Washingtoni D.C.
1972 ~ l o l o g l c a lrelations of E q y p t i a n and Eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n
p p u l a t i o n s d u r i n g P r e - d y n a s t i c and Dynastic times.
J . fluman EvoZutim 1 :307-313.
1973a Human skeletons from g r a v e c i r c l e s a t Mycenae. Appendix i r i
The grave e?:reze B of k&eeme ( i n G r e e k ) , by G . E - Mylonas,
pp. 379-397. A r c h e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y i n Athens? Athens.
1973 E a r l y Neolithic p e o p l e of Nea Nikonedeia, I n Die ~ n f ~ n g e
des NeoZithikms u r n Orient b i s P?ord~uropa,e d i t e d by
E . Schwidetzky, pp. 103-112. B o k ~ l a u K61n.
~
19 75 P a l e o e c o l o g y , p a l e o d e m g r a p h y a n d health. I n ~opuZa6zon,
ecoZogy and social ~vo?.ution e d i t e d b y S. p o l g a r 1 pp. 167-
190. Moutonr The Hague.
1978a P e l v i c i n l e t f o m : A n e g l e c t e d index OE n u t r i t i o n a l
status- Amerzean Juumaz of Phgsieaz ~ n t b o p o z o g g 4 8 :
378 ( A b s t r , ).
1978b P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e .Eastern M e d i t e r x a ~ ~ e a n .
Medical CoLZege of V i ~ g < n i aQuarte~Zy14(1):10-16.
1 9 8 2 A new measure o f growth e f f i c i e n c y : S k u l l base h e i g h t .
Ame~i.cmJournaZ of PhysieaZ AnthropoZogy 581297-305.
Angel, J - I,. , and L. M - 01-ney
1981 S k u l l b a s e h e i g h t and p e l v i c i n l e t d e p t h from p r e h i s t o r i c
t o moderr1 times - Arner+ean JournaZ o,f ~ h y s i c a l~ n t h ~ o p o z o -
gy 54:197.
Angell J . L . , S . ise el, and S . D i e t z
1980a D e t xnykenske m e r ~ ~ l e s k - e S u e r t z y k of iUatzmaZ T ? ' M s ~ ~ ~ s
A r b e j d s m a r k , pp. 1-13.
B i s e l r S - 1,. C.
1980 A p i Z o t s t u d y in aspects of ~zmmnutrztzoz zn the ancient
Eas 15 Me& t e r ~ a n e a ,n u z t h partieu Zap a t t e i t z o n
J . LAWRENCE ANGEL
minerals i n several. p o p Zations from d i f f e ~ e n ttimg

periods. Ph-D. t h e s i s ! U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a ,
Minneapolis.
1981 N u t r i t i o n i n L a t e Bronze Age G r e e c e , a s i n d i c a t e d by bone
m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s . American. JoumaZ PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy
54:201 (Abstr.).
B u t z e r , K. W.
1 9 7 0 P h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n E a s t e r n Europe! Western A s i a and
Egypt b e f o r e t h e p e r i o d o f a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d u r b a n s e t t l e -
ment. I n Cmbri&e Ancient f f i s t o ~ Iy ( 3 r d e d .) r e d i t e d b y
I. E . S. Edwards! C. J . Gadd, and N . G . L . H m o n d , pp. 35-
69. Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge.
1 9 7 1 Environment and archeoZogtj: An introduction t o PLeistucene
geopaphy fsecund ed. 1 . A l d i n e , Chicago.
Buxton, L. H. D .
1938 P l a t y m e r i a and P l a y t y c n e m i a . J o m a Z o r Anatorriz.j 7 3 : 31-36-
Chadwick, J .
1976 The Mycenaecm mrZd. Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s Cambridge.
Cockburn, A .
1 9 6 7 1nfeetiou.s diseases: Their evolution and e m d i e a t i o n .
Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d .
Cohen, M. N.
1 9 7 7 The food e ~ i s i sin p r e h i s b o q i . Oue~popuZat~on und the
origins of ~ ~ P ~ C U Z ~ U Y Y Q a. l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ! New Haven-
D e b e t s ! G . F.
1 9 5 5 a P a l e o a n t h r o p l o g i c a l f i n d i n K o s t e n k i . Suvetskaga E t m -
grafiga 1 : 4 3 - 5 3 .
1955b S k e l e t o n s i n t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c ( M e s o l i t h i c ) cemetery a t
~ o l o s c h k o y o . Suvetskaya Ebnografiya 3: 6 2 - 7 3 .
DeLuca! H. F.
1980 The c o n t r o l o f c a l c i u m a n d p h o s p h o r u s m e t a b o l i s m by t h e
Vitamin D e r i d o c r i n e s y s t e m . Annals o f the Neu Y ~ r kAcade-
mg of Sciences 3 5 5 : l - 1 7 .
Ferembach, D.
1 9 6 1 S q u e l e t t e s du Natouf i e d~'Israel 6 t u d e a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e .
LrAnthropoZog<e 65:46-66.
1962 Liz N&eropoZe EpipaZdo Zithique de Taforalt (Maroc OhentaZ) .
Cell t r e N a t i o n a l d e l a R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t j f i q u e R a b a t .
1 9 7 0 E t u d e A n t h r o p o l o g i q u e d e s o s s e m e n t s humai.ns Proto-Neo-
1 - i t h i q u e s d e Z a w i Chemi S h a n i d a r ( I r a k ) . SZUWPN o . 1 - 2
pp. 21-65.
1977 L e s N a t o u f i e n s d e P a l e s t i n e . Eretz-.TsrueZ 11T:241-252.
Flannery, K. V.
1965 T h e e c o l o g y o f e a r l y f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n Mesopotamia.
S e z ~ n c e1 4 7 : 1247-1256-
G e j v a l l , N.-G.
1969 Lerna 2 . The f a u n a , American School o f Cl.assi.cal s t u d i e s
at. Athens! P r i n c e t o n l N e w J e r s e y -
G e l b ! I. J.
1963 A s t z d g of w ~ i k $ n g ( r e v i s e d ed .) . U r > i v e r s ity of Chicago
Press Chicago -
3 FROM HUNTIKG 1'0 FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
G r e e n e r D . L., and G. A m e l a g o s
1972 Department of
he Wadi H a l f a M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n .
~ n t h o p o l o g y ,h $ u e ~ s i t gof Massaehusetts, Amherst Research
Report N O . 11.
Helbaek, H.
1960 The p a l e o e t h n o b o t a n y of t h e Near E a s t and E u r o p e . Univer-
sib9 of Chicago Studies in OrimtaZ CiviZization NO. 31,
pp. 99-118.
Hopf, M -
Jahbueh d m R8misch-
1 9 6 2 N u t z p f l m z e n von L e r n a i s c h e n G o l f .
Germaxischen Z e n t r a ~ s e u m sMainz 9 :1-19.
Jacobs, J.
1969 The economy o f & t i e s . mndom Housel New York.
J a c o b s e n ! T. W .
1 9 6 9 E x c a v a t i o n s a t P o r t o C h e l i and v i c i n i t y I p r e l i m i n a r y
r e p o r t I1 : T h e Franchthi Cave, 1967-1968- flesperia 38 (3) :
34 3-381.
J a d i n , J.
1 9 3 8 Apergu sur 116tat s a n i t a i r e d e s pygmies de l 1 I t u r i .
Anth~opologze (Prague) 16 :6 9 - 8 3 .
Keith, Arthur
1931 New discoveries relating t o the antiquit3 o f man.
Wi11ia111s& N o r g a t e , mndon.
K o n d ~ k t o r o v aT.~ C.
1957 P a l e o a n t h r o p o l o g y m a t e r i a l s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c Cemetery
V a s i l i e v k a I . Sovetskaja Ant~opologzk 2 : 189-210.
Lack, D. L.
1967 The natural reguZation of animal numbers. Oxford Univer-
sity P r e s s l London a n d New York.
Mann, A . E.
1 9 7 5 Paleodemographic aspects o f t h e South A f r i c a n ~ u s t r a l o -
p i t h e c i n e s . University of Penns~ZvmiaPublicatims i n
Anthropology, NO. 1.
M a r i n g e r r J . / a n d H.-G. Bandi
1 9 5 3 A r t i n the Ice Age. P r a e g e r , New York-
M a u l l , 0.
.
1922 Griechisches ~ i t t e h e e r g e b i e t H i r t , ~ r e s l a -u
McDonaldI W. A . , and R . H. Simpson
1961 P r e h i s t o r i c h a b i t a t i o n i n Southwestern Peloponnese-
American Journal of ArchaeoZogy 65 :22l-26O.
M e l l a a r t , LJ.
1967 Fatal Htiyflk. A hleolithic tam in ~rn-bolza. M C G ~ ~ W - H ~ ~ ~
N e w York.
Nemeskeri, J . , and L. Szatmary
1 9 7 8 A n t h r o p o l o c ~ ys e c t i o n . I n V l a s a c : A ~ e s o l i t h i cs e t t l e m e n t
i n t h e I r o n G a t e s (Vol. 11) edited by M i l u t i n ~ a r a s a n i n -
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts ~ono~raph<es
Vol-
DXIIl Dept. o f H i s t o r i c a l S c i e n c e s 5:67-284.
Rapp, G . , S . E . Aschenbrenner! and S - C. K r a f t
1978 The Holocene e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y o f t h e ~ i c h o r i ar e g i o n -
I n Excavations a t f l i e b r i a i n SW Greece 1, S i t e , ~ ~ V ~ P O X S
.I.LAWRENCE A W E L
md t e ~ h i p e ~
e d,i t e d b y G . Rapp and S . E , Aschenbz-enner,
pp. 13-25. U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota P r e s s , M i n n e a p o l i s .
Reedl C - A .
1 9 7 7 a A model for t h e o r i g i n o f a q r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Near E a s t .
Origins of a g ~ i c u z t u r e ,e d i t e d by C- A . Reed, p p . 543-567.
Mouton, The Haque.
Reed, C . A . ( e d i t o r )
1977b h z g i n s of u ~ P ~ ; c u ~ ~Muu tPo n~ . The Hague.
Reinhold, J . G.
1972 P h y t a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f l e a v e n e d and u n l e a v e n e d I r a n i a n
b r e a d s . Ecology of Food and Nutrition 1 : 187-192 -
S c h o e n i n g c r l M. J.
1 9 8 1 T h e a g r i c u l t u r a l ' r e v o l u t i o ~I :~ Its effect o n human d i e t
i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t . American JoumaZ of PhysieaZ Anthro-
pozogy *54:2 75 (Abstr. ) .
Seymour, T . D.
1 9 0 8 Life? i n t h e Homepie Age- Macmillanl New York.
S h a y l J. a n d C. T. Shay
1 9 7 8 Modern v e g e t a t i o n and f o s s i l p l a ~ tr e r n a i ~ ~ s .I n Excuva-
tions a t Nichoria i n Si4 Greece I,,e d i t e d b y G - Rapp m d
S . E. A s ~ h e n b r e n n e rpp. ~ 41-59. U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota
P r e s s , M i n r ~ e a p o l i s-
S i l l e n l A . B.
1981 S t r o n t i u m a n d d i e t a t Hayonim Cave. Ameriem Journal of
Physical Anth~op02ogt.j S 6 : 131-137.
S l o a n l R . E . ; and M. A. Duncan
1 9 7 8 Z o o a r c h a e o l o g y o f N i c h o r i a . In Exemations a t Nichoria i n
SW Gr~eeeeI , e d i t e d by G - Rapp and S . E . A s c h e n b r e n n e r ,
pp. 60-77. U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a P r e s s M i n n e a p l i s .
Sognrlaes, R . F .
1956 H i s t o l o g i c evidence o f developmental l e s i o n s i n t e e t h
o r i g i n a t i n g from p a l e 0 1 i t h i c , p r e h i s t o r i c , and a n c i e n t
m a n . Amez~ieanJoumaZ of Pathology 32 :547-577.
srejoviE1 D.
1972 Neu d i s e o v e ~ i e sa t Lepenski V i r . ( T r a n s l . L - F. ~ d w a r d s )
S t e i n and Dayl New York.
Stephanos, C.
1884 Gr6ce. Geographic ~ k d i c a l e . I n L?ietionnuire Eneyelo-
pgdique des Sciences Id&dieaZes ( V o l . X) , e d i t e d by
A. Dechambre, S e c t . I V . P . Assel.in, P a r i s -
S t e w a r t l T . D.
1979 K'ssentia 2s of forensic anthropoZogy - c . C Thomas
Springfield I l l i n o i s .
T a r l r ~ a h i l l R~.
1 9 7 3 Food i n historg. E y r e Methuen, London.
Toddl 1. A .
1976 Guta2 fI~gl2kin ,uerspeefive. Cununingsl Men10 P a r k l c a l i -
fornia.
, W.
T ~ l c h m t ~ nB.
1978 A distant rni~ror: The caZamities of the 14th centurg.
Knopf, New Y o r k .
ven t r i s , M . , and J . Chadwick

1956 Documents in Mycenaean Greek. Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y , Press,
Cambridge .
Wendorf, F .
1968 S i t e 1 1 7 : A Nubian f i n a l P a l e o l i t h i c g r a v e y a r d n e a r J e b e l
Sahaba, Sudan. The Prehistory of Nubia (Vol. 11) , e d i t e d
by J?. Wendorf. Southern Methodist University Contributions
h.A n t h ~ o p u z u g y No. 2 , pp. 954-985.
Wendorf, F r e d , R . S c h i l d , N. E l H a d i d i , A . E . Close,
M. K o b i e s i e w i c z , H . Wicckowska, B . I s s a w i , and H. Haas
1 9 7 9 The use of b a r l e y i n t h e Egyptian Late P a l e o l i t h i c .
S c i e n c e 205:1341-1347.
Wertime, T. A .
1 9 7 8 The search f o r ancient t i n : The geographic and historic
b o u n d a r i e s . I n The search for ancient f i n , e d i t e d by
A. D . F r a n k l i n , J . S . O l i n , and J. A . Wertime, pp. 1-6.
S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , Washington, D . C .
Y e s n e r , D . R.
1980 N u t r i t i o n a n d cultural e v o l u t i o n , patterns i n p r e s h i t o r y .
I n N u t r i t i o n a l anthropology, pp. 85-115. Redgrave,
PI e a s a n t v i l l e , Now York.
ZivanoviC , S .
1.975 A note o n the a n t h r o p l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
Padina population. Zeitschrift fVir MorphoZwi~und
A n t h ~ o p l o g i e66 : 161-175.
CHAPTER 4
SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE AND PATTERNS OF PATHOWGY AND

VARIATION I N TIiE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE:
S W SUGGESTIONS
Department o f Anthropology
U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg
The K E Y Company, I n c .
W i l l i s t o n , N o r t h Dakota
INTRODUCTION
A t o t a l s y n t h e s i s o f p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l t r e n d s i n Europe from
t h e end of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p e d N e o l i t h i c
i s beyond t h e s c o p e o f a s i n g l e p a p e r . I n d e e d , t h e p u b l i s h e d
d a t a d o n o t p e r m i t t h e comprehensive c o l l e c t i o n o f such m a t e r i a l .
As s e e n below, it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e d a t a
y i e l d s a s many q u e s t i o n s a s a n s w e r s .
T h i s s y n t h e s i s s t a r t e d w i t h m a t e r i a l from t h e b l e s o l i t h i c
period i n western Eumpc, defined here a s Scandinavia (except
F i n l a n d ) , t h e Benelux n a t i o n s , t h e U n i t e d Kingciom, I r e l a n d ,
F r a n c e , S w i t z e r l a n d , I t a l y , S p a i n , and P o r t u g a l . C o n s t r a i n t s o f
t i m e p r e v e n t e d s y n t h e s i s o f t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c m a t e r i a l s .
The c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e b l e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e
a l s o m u l d h a v e been more p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i ~ ,
w h e r e t o t a l sample s i z e i s s m a l l e r by a n o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e .
A s u r v e y was a l s o made o f p u b l i s h e d a n a l y s e s o f N e o l i t h i c
r e m a i n s w i t h c m p l ~ a s i s011 r e c e n t w r k w i t h l a r g e r s a m p l e s i n a n
a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n r c l i a b l c f r e q u e n c y d a t a . Time c o n s t r a i n t s
l i m i t e d r e g i o n a l c o v e r a g e p r i m a r i l y t o t h e Benelux and F r a n c e .
The M e s o l i t h i c data b a s e used h e r e h a s b e e n s u b j e c t t o
r i g 0 r 0 ~e v~ a l u a t i o n o f p r o v c n i e n c c by Newel1 e t a l . (1979; s e e
a l s o B o u v i l l c e t a l . 1 9 8 4 ; Constandse-Westermann and Newel1 1 9 8 4 ;
Constandse-Westermann e t a l . 1 9 8 4 ; L a r s s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . One
hundred and e i g h t y - s i x s i t e s w i t h s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l r e f e r r e d t o
76 Ci4RISTOPHER MEIKLEJOtIN fl AL.
a s M e s o l i t h i c were e v a l u a t e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s f o r s t r a t i g r a p h i c
and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o v e n i e n c e and a b s o l u t e d a t i n g . From t h i s
b a s e , 76 s i t e s had s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l o f a s s u r e d I+.?solithic a g e .
One new s i t e h a s n o w been added t o t h e s a m p l e , Skateholm i n
s o u t h e r n Sweden (Larsson 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 1 , 1982) . T h r e e s i t e s p r e v i -
o u s l y r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e s t a t u s h a v e been
d e m o n s t r a t e d t o c o n t a i n F l e s o l i t h i c m a t e r i a l : V i s t e (Norway),
f i o h l e s t e i n (West Germany) , and Uzzo ( I t a l y ) . T h u s , t h e s a m p l e
f o r t h i s r e p o r t is based on 8 0 s i t e s . Flowever, t h e m a j o r i t y o f
s i t e s consist of materials t h a t e i t h e r a r e single b u r i a l s o r a r e
h i g h l y f r a g m e n t a r y ( s e e L a r s s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . Only 7 s i t e s have
sample s i z e s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 (Moita do S e b a s t i t i o , C&eyo d a
Arruda, and C a b e ~ oda A m r e i r a i n P o r t u g a l , l i 6 e d i c and T e v i c c i n
F r a n c e , Vedbaek-Bj6gebakken i n Denmark, and Skateholm i n swedenl) -
S i m i l a r c o n t r o l o f t h e N e o l i t h i c sample i s n o t y e t p o s s i b l e .
No r i g o r o u s s t u d y of p r o v e n i e n c e f o r t h i s p e r i o d h a s been a t -
tempted. F o r t h i s s t u d y , m a t e r i a l from 51 sites h a s been
s y n t h e s i z e d ( s e e Appendix l ) , o f which 2 3 have sample s i z e s of
o v e r 1 0 and 6 h a v e sample s i z e s o f o v e r SO.
CULTURAL UNITS AND ECONOMIC TREKDS
The c u l t u r a l b a s e f o r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n must b e g i n w i t h t h e
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c . T h i s p e r i o d i n w e s t e r n Europe i s among t h e
b e s t known i n t h e Old World ( s e e r e c e n t s y n t h e s e s by Campbell
1977; de Lumley 1976; L a v i l l e e t a l . 1 9 8 0 ) .
I n b r i e f , t h e Upper P a l e o l i t l ~ i co f w e s t e r n Europe i s u s u a l l y
d i v i d e d i n t o e a r l i e r and l a t e r c u l t u r a l g r o u p s , s u c c e e d i n g t h e
Middle P a l e o l i t h i c Moustcrian complex. The e a r l y Upper
P a l e o l i t h i c b e g i n s w i t h d a t e s o f c i r c a 3 3 , 0 0 0 B.C. ( t h i s and a l l
o t h e r 1 4 ~ - b a s e d d a t e s i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e u n c a l i b r a t e d ) . The
most p a r s i m o n i o u s model h a s s e q u e n t i a l l y r e p l a c i v e C h a t e l p e r r o n i a n ,
Aurignacian, and Perigordian i n d u s t r i a l complexes, w i t h boundaries
a t c i r c a 32,000 and 26,000 B.C., e n d i n g & o u t 1 8 , 0 0 0 B . C .
Evidence s b w s a broad-based h u n t i n g omnomy a s s c e n by t h e
p r e s e n c e o f a number o f l a r g e h e r d mammals i n t h e f a u n a l r e c o r d
( S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . E n v i r o n m c f ~ t a lr e c o n s t r u c t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t , t h o u g h
t u n d r a and s c r u b t u n d r a dominated r e g i o n s n e a r t h e g l a c i a l i c e
f r o n t , s h e l t e r e d l o c a l i t i e s a s Ear n o r t h a s t h e P e r i g o r d r e g i o n
h a r b r e d temperate t r e e s p e c i e s .
Between 1 9 , 0 0 0 and 1 7 , 0 0 0 B.C. t h e t e r m i n a l P e r i y o r d i a n was
r e p l a c e d by t11e S o l u t r e a n i ~ ~ d u s t r ywhich , was i n t u r n r e p l a c e d by
t h e Magdalenian, spanning t h e p e r i c d from t h e l a t e g l a c i a l maximum
' o f n e t (RRD), Sun Teodoro ( I t a Z y ) , and &em Candide (IeaZy)

are conszdered t o be Upper PaZeoZzthzc z n age, as are a22 AzzZiun
muter-iaZs.
4 THE MESOLlTtliC AND NEOLITIHIC OF WESTERN EUROI'E
to t h e end o f t h e t e r m i n a l Younger Dryas o s c i l l a t i o n , c i r c a

8300 B . C .
The Magdalenian p r o v i d e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n b a s e f o r t h e s u c c e e d -
i n g M e s o l i t h i c p e r i o d . C u l t u r a l and f a u n a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s a
s p e c i a l i z e d h u n t i n g economy, w i t h heavy e x p l o i t a t i o n o f key game
r e s o u r c e s . Although l o c a l v a r i a t i o n o c c u r s , r e l a t e d t o l o c a l
e c o l o g y , most f a u n a l a s s e m b l a g e s a r e dominated by r e i n d e e r
( S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . Evidence f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n of secondary r e s o u r c e s
is l i m i t e d (Meiklejohn 1 9 7 8 ) , a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n
t h a t i n p e r i g l a c i a l environments, low s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y is a
c o r r e l a t e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n s t a b i l i t y ( S l o b o d k i n and S a n d e r s
1968).
C u r r e n t e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s n e i t h e r models o f l ~ i g l ?p o p u l a t i o n
s i z e and d e n s i t y n o r l o n g - t e r m s e d e n t a r y a g g r e g a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c (Burch 1972; M e i k l e j o h n 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ; S p i e s s
1979) . The e v i d e n c e f i t s w i t h Wobst ' s (1976) e s t i m a t e o f 0 . 0 5
persons/km2 a s a n u p p e r l i m i t . Higher f i q u r e s r e q u i r e evidence
f o r semipermanent s e t t l e m e n t , t h a t , w h i l e s u g g e s t e d o n t h e b a s i s
o f d a t a from r e i n d e e r , c a n be shown t o be b a s e d on i m p r e c i s e
methodology ( B i n f o r d 1973; S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . E v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s a
model a n a l o g o u s t o t h e p a t t e r n o f m d e r n a r c t i c and s u b a r c t i c
hunters, with seasonal s i t e occupation, considerable mobility,
and l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y ( b l e i k l e j o h n 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ; S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) .
A c o ~ ~ s e q u e nq tu e s t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e s h a p e o f t h e Upper
Paleolithic growth c u r v e . A c a l c u l a t e d s t e a d y - s t a t e growth r a t e
f o r t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c would be i n t h e o r d e r o f O.Ol%/annum
(compare w i t h a modern r a t e o f 2 .O%/annum) (Meikle john 1978) .
Within t h e l i f e span of a n i n d i v i d u a l , t h i s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
d i f f e r e n t from a z e r o g r o w t h r a t e . D o u b l i n g t i m e a p p r o a c h e s
2 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . A s a w t o o t h model may, however, b e t t e r f i t t h e
f a c t s . I f t h i s i s c o r r e c t , t h e n e ~ ~ v i r o n m e n t ai ln s t a b i l i t y ,
channeled through r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y , i s h e a v i l y implicated
(Burch 1 9 7 2 ) . Mechanisms f o r a s t e a d y - s t a t e mechanism a r e f a r
harder t o p i n p i n t . I t d o e s seem c l e a r , however, t h a t o v e r a l l
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c g r o w t h r a t e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y below t h o s e o f
t h e Mesolithic (see below).
The M e s o l i t h i c , a s d c f i n e d h e r e , b e g i n s a t t h e Younyer Dryas-
P r e b o r e a l b o u n d a r y , c i r c a 8300 B.C., a l s o t h e n o r m a l l y d e f i n e d
Pleistocene-tfolocene boundary. North o f t h e Mediterranean, t h i s
marks t h e d e b u t o f c l i m a L i c c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a1111ual t e m p e r a t u r e s
n e a r t h e modern mean, a c c o m p a t ~ i e dby a f o r e s t s u c c e s s i o n b e g i n n i n g
w i t h p i n e - b i r c h dominance and l e a d i n g t o w a r d s a c l i m a x oak f o r e s t .
Even i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n t h e r e a r e major- e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s ,
though n o t so d r a s t i c ( ~ e w e l le t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) .
M e s o l i t h i c i n d u s t r i e s a r e dominated b y m i c r o l i t h i c a s s e m b l a g e s
( f o r r e c e n t s y n t h e s e s s e e d e Lumley 1976; Gramsch 1 9 8 1 ; Kozlowski
1973; b l e l l a r s 1978; Rozoy 1 9 7 8 ) . T y p o l o g i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
a r e a s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , though t h e s e d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mark
m a j o r p o p u l a t i o n b o u n d a r i e s (Newel1 and Anderson 1 9 8 2 ; Newel1 e t
a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . The M e s o l i t h i c l a s t s from t h e P r e b o r e a l u n t i l t h e a p -
p e a r a n c e o f f a r m i n g and h e r d i n g c o m m u n i t i e s .
78 CliKIS~Ol'HEK MElKLEJOt~NETAL.
Whereas l a t e P a l e o l i t h i c economies a r e b a s e d o n low s p e c i e s

d i v e r s i t y w i t h marginal d i e t a r y a l t e r n a t i v e s , c l e a r evidence
e x i s t s f o r g r e a t e r Mesolithic resource breadth & dependability.
Though l a r g e u n g u l a t e s a r e s t i l l a major r e s o u r c e , t h e r e i s a
s h i f t t o m r e s o l i t a r y forms and u s e o f a b r o a d e r r a n g e p e r s i t e
(rimer o f m a m a 1 s p e c i e s p e r s i t e : = 7 . 0 , SD = 3 . 9 2 , N = 1 3 9 ;
d a t a from R. R. Newell, p e r s o n a l c o m u n i c a t i o n , 1 9 8 1 ) . IIeavy u s e
of f i s h and s h e l l f i s h i s a p p a r e n t (Newell a n d Anderson 1 9 8 2 1 , and
t h e r e is e v i d e n c e f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f p l a n t f o o d r e s o u r c e s .
Food r e s o u r c e s were a l s o more e v e n l y s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n n u a l
c y c l e . The r e s u l t is a p o p u l a t i o n l e s s s u b j e c t t o e t w m m i c b a s e
d i s r u p t i o n . The e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s a b r o a d l y a d a p t e d p p u l a t i o n ,
showing dynamic r e s p n s e s t o t h e b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t h e
Holocene e n v i r o n m e n t .
The M e s o l i t h i c economy s e e s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f semipermanent
s e t t l e m e n t s , i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y o f more e v e n l y s p a c e d s i t e s ,
s t a b i l i t y o f r e g i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n ( s e e a l s o M e i k l e j o h n 19781, and
evidence f o r increased r e g i o n a l c u l t u r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o v e r time
(Newel1 e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . N e t g r o w t h i s a p p a r e n t i n a number o f
r e g i o n s . C l o s e s t c o n t r o l h a s been a c h i e v e d f o r s i t e s i n t h e N o r t h
German P l a i n (Newell 1 9 7 3 ) . B e f o r e c i r c a 5700 B.C. t h e r e i s a n
i n c r e a s e i n s i t e number, d i f f e r e n t s i t e s i z e s r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t
s t r u c t u r a l p o s e s , b u t a l l r e m a i n i n g below a n a r e a o f c i r c a
1000 m 2 . Between 5700 and 3500 B.C., s i t e s i z e s i n c r e a s e by up
t o f o u r f o l d and t l ~ e r oi s evidence Fnr 1.onger p e r i o d s o f s i t e oc-
c u p a t i o n . . The t o t a l d a t a set s u q q e s t s a s t e a d y - s t a t e growth r a t e
o f c i r c a O.l%/annum, a n o r d e r o f magnitude g r e a t e r t h a n s u g g e s t e d
f o r t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e r a t e s u g g e s t e d
f o r Middle Easter11 N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( C a r n e i r o and I l i l s e
1 9 6 6 ) . Applying t h e d e r i v e d r a t e s y i e l d s a d e n s i t y f o r t h e
t e r m i n a l M e s o l i t h i c o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 person/km2, a f i g u r e c l o s e
t o t h a t o f p r i m i t i v e fanning p o p u l a t i o n s (Carneiro and IIilse
1 9 6 6 ) . C a l c u l a t e d 9rowth r a t e s a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h modern h u n t e r -
g a t h e r e r s o c i e t i e s w i t h e x t e n d e d b i r t h - s p a c i n g mechanisms. E a r l y
N e o l i t h i c f a r m i n g communities a r e t h u s f o u n d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
s o c i e t i e s a l r e a d y e x h i b i t i n g comparable growth r a t e s and d e n s i t i e s .
Fanning communities a p p e a r f i r s t i n t h e s o u t h e r n and s o u t h -
e a s t e r n p o r t i o n s o f t h e r e g i o n under d i s c u s s i o n , i n t h e M e d i t e r -
ranean and Danube-Rhine b a s i n s b e g i n n i n g a b o u t 6200 B.C. ( G u i l a n e
1 9 7 9 ) . From h e r e t h e y s p r e a d n o r t h and w e s t , a p p e a r i n g a t d a t e s
r a n g i n g from 5700 B.C. i n t h e s o u t h e a s t to 4400 B.C. i n t h e
s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , 3500 B.C. i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f
t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and England, 3700 B.C. i n I r e l a n d , 4000 B.C. i n
B r i t t a n y , and 3500 B.C. i n c e n t r a l P o r t u g a l ( s e e Amnerman a n d
C a v a l l i - S f o r z a 1973; G u i l a n e 1979; M i l i s a u s k a s 1 9 7 8 ) . The dynamics
o f t h e s p r e a d o f farming a r e complex a n d c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e e v i -
d e n c e d o e s n o t always c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e modcls o f i n t r u s i v e
a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s from d i f f u s i o n and/or t h e r e g i o n a l a d a p t a t i o n o f
l o c a l i n d i g e n e s ( ~ e w t h w a i t e1 9 8 1 ) .
4 T H E hfESOLITl3IC AND NEOLITIIIC 01: WLSTERN EUROPE
DATA BASE AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
Data h a v e been r e c o r d e d f o r p a t h o l o g y and t r a u m a i n b o t h d e n t a l

and s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s , a s h a s m a t e r i a l r e l e v a n t t o t r e n d s i n
s k e l e t a l dimorphism and s t a t u r e . A m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c
s e r i e s h a s h e n examined by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r .
F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d , e x c e p t f o r m a t e r i a l fZmI t h e e a r l y
N e o l i t h i c S w i f t e r b a n t s i t e s (Constandse-Westemann and
M e i k l e j o h n 1 9 7 9 ; M e i k l e j o h n and Constandse-Westermann 19781, a l l
d a t a a r e from t h e a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e . Tile d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i t e s
by country i s given i n Table 4.1.
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e N a t u r e o f t h e Data Base
I n c o l l e c t i n g d a t a f o r t h i s r e p o r t i t became c l e a r t h a t t h e r e
were g a p s i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v e r y
n a t u r e o f many of t h e s e r i e s r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r r e p r e -
s e n t a t i v e n a t u r e . T h e s e p o i n t s must b e examined i f t h e c o l l e c t e d
d a t a a r e t o b e p l a c e d i n c o n t e x t . I n many c a s e s i t i s d i f f i c u l t
t o d e t e r m i n e from t h e l i t e r a t u r e w h e t h e r p a t h o l o g y h a s been s o u g h t
i n a given sample. 111 l>repari.ng k h e b l e s r ~ l i t h i cp r o v e n i e n c e
c a t a l o g (Newell e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) , we were f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t n o
s t u d y Of p a t l ~ o l o g yhad o c c u r r e d when n o s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t was
made. A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e n , it i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h i s i s a b i a s i n g
f a c t o r . I t i s e q u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r whether f u r t h e r
p a t h o l o g y e x i s t s on some s a m p l e s f o r which p a t b l o g y i s r e p r t e d .
F o r example, we s u s p e c t some u n d e r r e p o r t i n g o r n o n r e p r t i n g o f
whole c l a s s e s o f p a t b l o g y a n d / o r trauma. Thus we do n o t c l a i m
u n i v e r s a l c o v e r a g e of p a t h o l o g y f o r t h e s e r i e s u n d e r m n s i d e r a -
tion.
The a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o t h e r e p r t h g o f p a t h o l o g y a d t r a u m a
must a l s o be broaclled. The f o c u s o f this s t u d y i s on denwgraphy
and a n t h r o p o l o g y , w i t h p o p u l a t i o n a s t h e e s s e n t i a l u n i t o f s t u d y .
T h i s is a c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e between a n t h r o p l o g i c d and c l i n i c a l
medical approaches t o d i s e a s e process. iiowever, much o f t h e d a t a
r e p r t e d here a r e c l e a r l y presented w i t h i n t h e c l h i c a l paradigm.
Pathology is well described but i s n o t placed i n t o t h e context of
t h e s a m p l e . I t i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r c a s e s
o f p a t h o l o g y i n a p a r t i c u l a r s e r i e s a r e o r a r e n o t from a s i n g l e
i n d i v i d u a l , and i t may n o t be p s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f r e q u e n c y
of a pathology.
F i n a l l y , i t must b e a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e sample i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h c p o p u l a t i o n from which i t i s drawn. We d o n o t have s u f -
f i c i e n t c o n t r o l o f tb.e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e t o test t h e problem
a d e q u a t e l y . However, o n e o f u s e h a s t e s t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r
b i a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c s ~ m p l e( S c h e n t a g 1 9 8 2 ) . M u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n
a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d on t h e sample u s i n g s e v e r a l i n d e p e n d e n t
80 CHRISTOPHER MEIKLUOHN ET AL.
TABLE 4 . 1 . Dzstributzon of S i t e s by Country
Sites
Countqj MesoUthio Neolithic
Nomy
Sweden
Denmark
Federal Republ zc of Germany
German Democmtzc Republzc
Great Brztazn
The Netherlands
Luxembourg
Be lgiwn
Switzerland
France
Italy
Spain
Portugal
variables. Primary r e s u l t s a r e a s follows. The more complete a

specimen, t h e g r e a t e r i t s chance of being reported as p a t h o l o g i c a l .
S t a t e of preservation was found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t when polynomial
regression was performed. Thus completeness of t h e skeleton has
a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o reporting of pathology, whereas t h e e f -
f e c t of preservation is c u r v i l i n e a r . The l a t t e r finding suggests
t h a t while reporting of pathology i s g r e a t e r f o r a r e l a t i v e l y
complete specimen, there appear t o be systematic occurrences of
reported pathology i n r e l a t i v e l y fragmentary m a t e r i a l s . Results
r e l a t e d t o age of t h e specimen, l o c a t i o n , context, and d a t e of
publication were l e s s c l e a r . It can be concluded, however, t h a t
s i g n i f i c a n t biasing e f f e c t s a r e involved i n the reporting of both
frequency and d i s t r i b u t i o n of pathology i n t h e Mesolithic sample.
W e would a l s o point out t h a t c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of data
considered elsewhere in t h i s volume have not been reported f o r
European s e r i e s of the time frame under consideration, including
Harris l i n e s and t r a c e element a n a l y s i s f o r such bone c o n s t i t u e n t s
a s strontium. In Mesolithic samples, measurement of t h e l a t t e r i s
complicated by the ubiquitous presence of marine resources
(T. D . P r i c e , personal communication, 1982) .
4 THE MESOL1THIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE
C r a n i a l Pathology
T h e r e a r c o n l y t h r e e c l a s s e s o f c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y from t h e
M e s o l i t h i c sample. None a p p e a r t o b e o f major i m p o r t a n c e , a n d n o
m e a n i n g f u l f r e q u e n c y d a t a can be g e n e r a t e d . Only o n e c a s e o f
a r t h r i t i s is r e p o r t e d ; s l i g h t a r t h r i t i s o f t h e mandibular condyles
(Melby, Denmark). The i n d i v i d u a l a l s o h a s p o s t c r a n i a l a r t h r i t i s .
C r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n i s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n a s i n g l e c a s e (Mannlefelsen,
France), an o c c i p i t a l depression apparently not t h e r e s u l t o f a
fracture .
F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , c r a n i a l a r t h r i t i s a p p e a r s t o b e o f t h e same
o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . However, t h e f r e q u e n c y
o f c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be h i g h e r , though a p p a r e n t l y o f
a b r o a d r a n g e o f e t i o l o g i e s , making q u a n t i f i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t t o
i n t e r p r e t . Four F r e n c h s i t e s (Fontenay-le-Marmion, L ' Homme-Mort,
L a r i s Goguet, and Vigneau) r e p o r t a r t h r i t i s . T h e s e a r e p a r t i t i o n e d
i n t o temperomandibular a r t h r i t i s ( f i v e c a s e s i n two s i t e s
[if = c a . 1 2 6 1 , g l e n o i d c a v i t y a r t h r i t i s ( o n e c a s e ) , and o c c i p i t a l
c o n d y l e a r t h r i t i s ( t h r e e c a s e s i n o n e s i t e [A' = 1 7 1 ) . No s i t e
r e p o r t s more t h a n o n e t y p e o f a r t h r i t i s . S i n c e N r e p r e s e n t s t h e
number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e s a m p l e s , n o t t h e number o f c a s e s w i t h
t h e a r e a i n t a c t f o r i n s p e c t i o n , frequency d a t a cannot be c a l c u l a t e d .
We c a n n o t comment a t t h i s t i m e o n w h e t h e r a r t h r i t i s is c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h t h e age o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e samples.
Evidence f o r g c n e r a l i z c d c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g i n f e c -
t i o n , suggests considerably higher l e v e l s i n the Neolithic than
i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . However, t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e p o r t i n g hampers
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Data i n t h i s c a t e g o r y were r e c o r d e d from 1 7 s i t e s
l i s t e d w i t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s : tumef a c t i o n ( o n e c a s e ) ,
o s t e o p h y t o s e s ( o n e ) , b e n i g n osteoma ( o n e ) , o s t e o m y e l i t i s ( o n e ) ,
bony e x o s t o s e s ( t h r e e ) , e r o d e d bone s u r f a c e s a n d / o r t h i n n i n g -
r a r e f a c t i o n ( s i x ) , c i r c u l a r l e s i o n s ( t w o ) , hematoma ( t w o ) ,
m a n d i b u l a r c y s t ( o n e ) , and g e n e r a l bony d e p r e s s i o n s ( t h r e e ) .
These c a t e g o r i e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . M a t e r i a l s
o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t e t i o l o g y a p p e a r t o be p r e s e n t . T h i s i s , however,
a c a t e g o r y t h a t a p p e a r s t o b e more f r e q u e n t i n l a t e r s a m p l e s . I t
can b e t e n t a t i v e l y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f g e n e r a l i z e d
i n f e c t i o n can be e x p e c t e d i n more s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f g r e a t e r
d e n s i t y , which have g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r a c t i n g a s r e s e r v o i r s o f
infection.
The f i n a l c a t e g o r y o f c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y n o t e d i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c ,
o s t e o p o r o s i s , i s r e p o r t e d i n o n l y 2 c a s e s o f 46 s i t e s with c r a n i a l
p a t h o l o g y s t u d i e d (Cuzoul d e Gramat, F r a n c e , a n d F a l k e n s t e i n h o h l e ,
BRD). Such a l o w f r e q u e n c y s u g g e s t s t h a t d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n c y i s
r a r e . The same c o n c l u s i o n a l s o e x t e n d s to t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,w i t h o n l y
one r e p o r t e d c a s e ( H a s t i & r c s , N = c a . S O ) . T h i s t r a i t shows no
clear trend.
Similarl.y, c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i s n o t a major f a c t o r i n e i t h e r
p e r i o d . T h e r e a r e n o r e p o r t e d c a s e s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c , and o n l y
f o u r c a s e s from o n e s i t e i n t h e N e o l i t h i c ( L a r i s Goguet, N = 6 0 ) .
Hengen (1971) a l s o makes n o m e n t i o n o f e a r l y c a s e s . C r i b r a
82 CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET AL
o r b i t a l i a , l i k e osteoporosis, provides no evidence f o r a s h i f t i n

g e n e r a l h e a l t h s t a t u s between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c .
Major d i e t a r y s t r a i n , t h e s u g g e s t e d e t i o l o g y f o r t h o s e t r a i t s i n
o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s , c a n n o t be s u p p o r t e d f o r e i t h e r p e r i o d .
PostcraniaJ. P a t h o l o g y
P o s t c r a n i a l pathology i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c p e r i o d s u g g e s t s t h e
primacy o f bony changes r e s u l t i n g from heavy u s e and c o n c o m i t a n t
d e g e n e r a t i o n , p r i m a r i l y n o t e d a s o s t e o c h o n d r o s i s and a r t h r i t i s .
Possibly r e l a t e d a r e cases o f scoliosis-kyphosis.
T h e r e a r e o n l y two o t h e r r e p o r t e d p a t h o l o g i e s , o n e o n l y r e -
p o r t e d from a s i n g l e s i t e . P e r i o s t o t i c h y p e r t r o p h y i s r e p o r t e d
from T e v i e c 5 and w i t h a n u t r i t i o n a l e t i o l o g y . T h e r e i s no
e q u i v a l e n t from t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e . More g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t e d i s
t h e c a t e g o r y o f i n f e c t i o n . These i n c l u d e r e p o r t s o f u l n a r
o s t e i t i s (Trou V i o l e t A ) , i n f l a m m a t o r y r e a c t i o n s o f t h e l o w e r
l i m b s (Cuzoul d e Gramat a n d B o n i f a c i o ) , and a bone a b s c e s s o f t h e
r i g h t u l n a (HBedic S ) , a l l from F r a n c e , p l u s a d r a i n i n g s o r e i n
t h e humerus (AgerBd I , Sweden). P o s t c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n is a l s o
p r e s e n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e , b u t i n low amounts. T h e r e i s a
p o s s i b l e i n f e c t i o n i n a d e l t o i d t u b e r o s i t y ( S w i f t e r b a n t S2),
g e n e r a l i z e d s w e l l i n g and p e r i o s t o t i c r e a c t i o n o n a t i b i a
(Foiitenay-lo-Mannion) , and bone r a r e f a c t i o n o f a s c a p u l a ( A b r i
Pendimoun). Bony e x o s t o s e s a r e r e p o r t e d from Barnes-Chaudes,
G r o t t e d e Route and L a r i s Goguet. A t G r o t t e de Route t h i s may
b e secondary t o trauma. T h e r e a r e a l s o g e n e r a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n s
o f "pronounced e x c a v a t i o n " o f a f i b u l a ( G r o t t e d e R o u t e ) , and o f
bony d e p r e s s i o n s and e x p o s u r e o f spongy t i s s u e ( L a r i s Goguet)
t h a t may f i t h e r e . I t can b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t p o s t c r a n i a l i n f e c -
t i o n was a problem i n both t i m e p e r i o d s . No c l e a r t r e n d s a r e
v i s i b l e in t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a .
A r t h r i t i s and r e l a t e d f e a t u r e s are r e p o r t e d from 1 3 o f 4 6
M e s o l i t h i c sites w i t h r e p o r t e d p a t h o l o g y s t u d i e s ( 2 8 . 3 0 ) . I n 3
s i t e s w i t h m u l t i p l e i n d i v i d u a l s , f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e 13% i n 2 c a s e s
(Bjrfqebakken, Denmark--3 o f 23, Teviec--3 o f 23) and 21% i n t h e
t h i r d (Hoedic--3 o f 1 4 ) . The s p i n a l column a n d p e l v i c r e g i o n show
h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c i e s (11 o f 2 1 i n d i v i d u a l s = 5 2 % ) , b r o k e n down i n t o :
c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a e ( 4 ) , t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a e ( 2 1 , lumbar v e r t e b r a e
( 3 1 , sacrum a n d p e l v i s ( 3 ) , n o n s p e c i f i c ( 4 ) . To t h e s e f i g u r e s c a n
b e added o s t e o c h o n d r o s i s o f t h e t h o r a c i c and lumbar v e r t e b r a e
from B o n i f a c i o , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t i n
T e v i e c 3 and 6, and lumbar d e v i a t i o n i n Loschbour, Luxembourg.
I n t h e l i m b s , 9 of 21 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 4 3 % ) showed a r t h r i t i s o f
t h e s h o u l d e r g i r d l e and/or u p p e r l i m b and 6 o f 2 1 ( 2 9 % ) showed
a r t h r i t i s o f t h e lower l i m b , p r i m a r i l y t h e f o o t . T h e s e f i g u r e s
s u g g e s t t h a t s t r e s s i s g r e a t e r i n t h e v e r t e b r a l column and u p p e r
l i m b t h a n i n t h e lower l i m b d u r i n g t h e M e s o l i t h i c .
When t h e N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s i s examined, t h e r e i s a n immediate
i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s i s l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n in t h e
4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE 83
M e s o l i t h i c . Only t h r e e sites r e p o r t d e g e n e r a t i v e c h a n g e s . Hypero-

s t o s i s i s r e p o r t e d from 1 ' A b r i pendimoun ( N = 1) ( a t l a s and lumbar
r e g i o n ) . Fontenay-le-Marmion (N = 6 6 ) h a s r e p o r t e d o s t e o p h y t e s ,
enlargement o f a r t i c u l a r f a c e t s , c a r t i l a g e d e s t r u c t i o n , p a t t e r n s
o f f u s i o n , and g e n e r a l a l t e r a t i o n . L a r i s Goguet (/I = c a . 6 0 ) h a s
r e p o r t e d a r t h r o s e s and g e n e r a l d e f o r m a t i o n , and t h e o n l y r e p o r t i n g
Of f r e q u c n c i e s w i t h 36-40% o f t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a e a f f e c t e d
(N = 73-81), 31% o f l u m b a r v e r t e b r a e I - I V (N = 70) and 711 o f
lumbar v e r t e b r a V ( N = 3 4 ) . However, though f e w e r N e o l i t h i c s i t e s
have r e p o r t e d e v i d e n c e o f v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s , s i t e s s u c h a s L a r i s
Goguet have h i g h e r w i t h i n - s e r i e s f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n t h o s e s e e n i n
t h e M e s o l i t h i c . Whether t h i s r e p r e s e n t s i n c o n s i s t e n t r e p o r t i n g
f o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s p a t t e r n s between
s i t e s , o r b o t h , i s u n c l e a r . The d a t a from Fontenay-le-Mannion d o ,
however, p o i n t t o i n t e r s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s .
E i g h t s i t e s h a v e r e p o r t e d a r t h r i t i s o f t h e l i m b s or g i r d l e s .
A t S w i f t e r b a n t S2, a r t h r i t i s was q u i t e l i m i t e d , r e s t r i c t e d t o two
c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s i n t h e f o o t and one c a s e i n t h e s a c r o i l i a c
joint. T h i s sample c l e a r l y was n o t p r o n e to a r t h r i t i c c h a n g e s .
The 7 o t h e r s i t e s ( a l l F r e n c h ) have 21 c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s o f t h e
u p p e r l i m b and g i r d l e ( 3 6 t o t a l c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s ) , 1 5 c a s e s o f
a r t h r i t i s of t h e l o w e r l i m b and g i r d l e , and 2 c a s e s of a r t h r i t i s
of t h e r i b s . Within-site frequencies cannot be calculated. Of
t h e 36 i n d i v i d u a l s r e p o r t e d w i t h a r t h r i t i s , 58% showed a r t h r i t i s
o f t h e u p p e r limbs, 4 2 0 showed a r t h r i t i s oE t h e lower limbs.
These f i g u r e s a r e n o t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e noted f o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c .
F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o l i n k p o s t c r a n i a l and
vertebral cases of a r t h r i t i s .
The a b o v e f i g u r e s p r o v i d e a p r i m f a c i e c a s e f o r s l i g h t l y
h i g h e r o v e r a l l i n c i d e n c e s o f a r t h r i t i s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c a s com-
p a r e d t o t h e N e o l i t h i c . T h i s c a n be d e r i v e d b o t h from s l i g h t l y
h i g h e r involvement r a t e s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h r e p o r t e d
a r t h r i t i s , and ( s i n c e t h e t o t a l number o f c a s e s f o r t h e ~ e o l i t h i c
i s l o w e r t h a n would be e x p e c t e d ) from e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e
s i z e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
a r t h r i t i s d a t a s u p p o r t a model o f h e a v i e r b i o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s i n
the Mesolithic than i n t h e Neolithic.
F i n a l l y , two s u g g e s t e d c a s e s from t h e N e o l i t h i c a r e o f t y p e s
n o t recorded i n t h e Mesolithic. A possible case o f P a g e t ' s
d i s e a s e i s n o t e d a t Fontenay-le-Marmion, a n d a c a s e o f advanced
o s t e o m y e l i t i s a t L a r i s G o g u e t . The l a t t e r may r e f l e c t p o p u l a t i o n
s i z e i n r e l a t i o n t o d i s e a s e r e s e r v o i r s , a s noted i n t h e section on
c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y . S i x c a s e s o f h i p s u b l u x a t i o n and o n e c a s e o f
k n e e s u b l u x a t i o n a t F o n t e n a y - l e - ~ a n n i o n may be f u r t h e r m a r k e r s f o r
d i f f e r e n t b i o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s p a t t e r n s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e
Neolithic.
84 CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET AL.
TABLE 4.2. Reporting of Caries - i n MesoZithzc Samples

- - - -- - - - -
Number o f
Number Number Number o f individuals
Site o f t e e t h of c a r i e s individuals w i t h caries
Bac kas kog

Stora Bjers
Stora Mosse
Berpnsdal
N g e bakken
Brovst
KorsfSr Nor
Me Zby
Mullerup
Nivaagaard
Sfiager
Svaerdborg 1921
Swaerdborg 1943
Tybri.nd v i g
Vedbaek
ViZZingbaek @st
Durrenbeq
FalkensteinhDhle
Cnoc Coig
Cough's Cave
Loschbour
Birsmat t e n
Bonifacio
Cutoz
Cuzoul de Gramat
HQedic
Mannlefelsen
Ras t e 2
Teviec
Trou V i o l e t
Vatte d i Zambana
Co l m b r e s
t4o'Lta do Sebastiiio
Dental Pathology
D e n t a l p a t h o l o g y h a s been a p p r o a c h e d more s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t h a n
any o t h e r p a t h o l o g y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . However, even h e r e t h e r e a r e
d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s of r e p o r t i n g .
TABLE 4 . 3 . Reporting o f Caries i n Neolithic Smples
h b e r of Number o f caries Number of Number with caries
Site teeth (%) individua 2s (%)
Be lgzum
Hastiares
strspy
France
Bves-Chaudes
Bec des Deux Eaux
Dolmen de l a Roche
Do h e n de l a Roche
Dolmen des Bretons
Eteauvil l e Wand. )
Eteauvilie (Max.
~ o n t e n al~e - ~ a m i o r f t
L ' H m e Mort
Laris Cog e t
Mate Z h s g
, Rouffignac
Terrevazne 11
Vigneau
Portugal
Bugelheira en Ahoncia
CarvaM
ca. 198'
'^Â¥Totat e e t h are reported as are numbers of individuals with caries. Numbers of -individuals with
t e e t h are not reported.
b ~ c t u a lcounts are not presented, although percentages are.
CTotaZ where mmbers are reported.
d ~ i g u r ei n cases where r m data are presented. When percentage figures only are averaged, the
figure i s 6 . 3 % .
4 THE MESOLITHIC A N D NEOLITHIC OK WESTERN EUROPE 85
The b e s t r e p o r t e d d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y i s c a r i e s . M e s o l i t h i c d a t a
a r e r e p o r t e d f o r 33 sites ( T a b l e 4 . 2 ) , 7 ( 2 1 . 2 % ) w i t h r e p o r t e d
c a r i e s . I n t e r m s o f numbers o f i n d i v i d u a l s , 11 o f 74 i n d i v i d u a l s
( 1 4 . 9 % ) have c a r i e s ( n o t i n c l u d i n g Moita do S e b a s t i S o , f o r which
n o f i g u r e s by i n d i v i d u a l a r e a v a i l a b l e ) . When i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h
a r e c o n s i d e r e d , 33 o f 1780 permanent t e e t h a r e c a r i o u s ( 1 . 9 % ) .
NO c a r i e s were r e p o r t e d i n M e s o l i t h i c d e c i d u o u s t e e t h . Of 3 3 r e -
p o r t e d c a r i o u s t e e t h , 22 c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d by p o s i t i o n . No c a r i o u s
i n v o l v e m e n t is s e e n i n e i t h e r t h e i n c i s o r s o r t h e c a n i n e s , a n d
t h e r e i s o n l y o n e c a s e o f p r e m o l a r c a r i e s . The f r e q u e n c i e s o f
c a r i e s o f t h e m o l a r s i n c r e a s e a s o n e p r o c e e d s from M l t o M 3 . W e
do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s any s i g n i f i c a n c e t o f r e q u e n c y d i f -
f e r e n c e s between u p p e r and l o w e r d e n t i t i o n s . An o p e n a r e a f o r i n -
v e s t i g a t i o n l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r c e n t a g e o f t e e t h
c a r i o u s and p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i o u s t e e t h . Some i n -
d i v i d u a l s have more c a r i e s t h a n e x p e c t e d from f r e q u e n c y d a t a a l o n e .
Of 11 i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i e s , 1 h a s 5 c a r i e s ( B i r s m a t t e n ) , 2 h a v e
3 c a r i e s e a c h (Hocdic 1 , T e v i e c 11, and 4 h a v e 2 c a r i e s e a c h
(HSedic 7 , 9; T e v i e c 4 , 1 3 ) . I t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t c a r i e s i s
e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h t h e s a m p l e . S i m i l a r l y , Befgebakken shows
c l e a r u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . Using t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e s from
T a b l e 4 . 2 (removing Wgebakken from c o n s i d e r a t i o n ) , we would e x p e c t
1 8 . 3 1 o f any sample t o show c a r i o u s t e e t h . F o r Wgebakken t h i s
would b e 2 . 5 (N = 1 4 ) . I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , we would e x p e c t 2 . 3 %
of teeth to be carious. F o r Bfigebakken this would be 8.2 t e e t h
(N = 357) .
From the N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s some c o m p a r i s o n s c a n be made ( T a b l e
4 . 3 ) . S i x t e e n s i t e s h a v e r e p o r t c d c a r i e s . No s i t e s a r e r e p o r t e d
a s showing no c a r i e s , a c o n d i t i o n n o t e d i n 2 6 o f 3 3 ( 7 8 . 8 % ) Meso-
l i t h i c s i t e s . While t h e l a t t e r f i g u r e s i n p a r t r e f l e c t s m a l l i n -
d i v i d u a l s a m p l e s , t h i s c l e a r l y i s n o t t h e o n l y f a c t o r . T h e r e is
n o s y s t e m a t i c r e p o r t i n g o f f i g u r e s f o r numbers o f N e o l i t h i c i n -
d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i e s . S i x t y - n i n e o f 1654 i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h a r e
: c a r i o u s ( 4 . 2 % ) , o v e r t w i c e t h e M e s o l i t h i c number. The d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e two s a m p l e s i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t (x2 = 1 5 . 9 8 w i t h
1 df, p < . 0 0 5 ) . C a r i e s o f d e c i d u o u s t e e t h i s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n
o n e sample (Rouf f i g n a c ) . C a r i e s l o c a t i o n is n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
r e p o r t e d . I t d o e s a p p e a r , however, t h a t p r e m o l a r and m o l a r c a r i e s
p r e d o m i n a t e , r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l c a s e s a t S t r e p y , Baumes-Chaudes,
Dolmen d e s B r e t o n s , a n d 1 ' H o m e - M o r t . A t ~ontenay-le-Marmion in-
1 volvement o f M l i s r e p o r t e d a s m o s t f r e q u e n t , w h i l e a t ~ a t ~ l l e s
premolars and molars a r e primarily a f f e c t e d .
D e n t a l wear may b e a major f a c t o r i n c a r i e s d e v e l o p m e n t .
Heavy wear impedes c a r i e s development by s c o u r i n g t h e s u r f a c e o f
\- m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , t h e r e b y impeding t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e
(Â¥,
pathologic process. AS a c l e a r example, s a m p l e s from W g e b a k k e n ,
w i t h no r e p o r t c d c a r i e s , show c o n s i d e r a b l e d e n t a l wear. Similarly,
wear i s r e p o r t e d a s heavy i n s e v e r a l N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s . F u l l
a n o f f f r e n c e s i n c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y must a w a i t a s t u d y o f
P. t h e c o v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s . D e s p i t e t h i s , d e n t a l
4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WLS 1bRN EUROPE
i
c a r i e s r a t e s s u g g e s t marked d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e
M e s o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d s .
O t h e r M e s o l i t h i c d e n t a l v a r i a b l e s a r e s u g g e s t i v e o f heavy
s t r e s s . There is c o n s i d e r a b l e a l v e o l a r degeneration, r e p o r t e d a s
a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s i n g , p e r i a p i c a l i n f e c t i o n , g e n e r a l a l v e o l a r bone
l o s s , and anternortern l o s s o f t e e t h . Though t h e s e a r e n o t s y s -
t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d , t h e y a r e p r e s e n t i n h i g h amounts where
s t u d i e d . A l v e o l a r b o n e l o s s , bone i n f e c t i o n , and p e r i a p i c a l
abscessing a r e noted i n various combinations i n e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l s
e a c h from Hoedic and T e v i e c i n t h e b e s t i n d i v i d u a l s t u d y o f t h i s
r e g i o n . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s i s the l o s s o f 1 4 e l e m e n t s i n 4
i n d i v i d u a l s from T e v i e c . I n t h e N e o l i t h i c sample antemortem t o o t h
l o s s i s n o t e d in n i n e c a s e s , a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t f r e q u e n c y d a t a .
Dental abscesses a r e noted i n four s i t e s , p e r i a p i c a l i n f e c t i o n s
i n f o u r c a s e s . R e l a t e d a r e r e p o r t s from s e v e r a l s i t e s o f a l v e o l a r
r e s o r p t i o n o r a t r o p h y , and r e f e r e n c e t o " p y o r r h e a , " " p e r i o d o n t i -
t i s , " and " g i n g i v i t i s . " One b a s i c anomaly o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s a
s t r e s s m a r k e r , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , i s e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e p o r t e d . It
i s n o t e d o n l y a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e o f Melby and i n i n d i v i d u a l I
o f t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e S22 a t S w i f t e r b a n t . I t i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r
t h i s r e p r e s e n t s e f f e c t i v e absence o f t h i s marker i n e a r l i e r
European s a m p l e s o r s y s t e m a t i c n o n r e p o r t i n g .
Trauma may r e f l e c t b o t h s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f a p o p u l a t i o n a n d
demographic s t r e s s . For t h e M e s o l i t h i c t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are
p r e s e n t e d by Constandse-Westennann and Newell ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Of i n t e r e s t
was t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e t h e r c l e a r c a s e s o f t r a u m a r e f l e c t i n g
c o n f l i c t a s opposed t o a c c i d e n t would i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y d u r i n g
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c . The l o g i c b e h i n d t h i s s u g g e s t i o n
- l i e s i n t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t l a t e r M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s showed
i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y and c o m p l e x i t y . I t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t
w i t h i n s u c h a continuum, a g g r e s s i o n i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h
d e n s i t y . F o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c , trauma was a p p o r t i o n e d d i f f e r e n t l y
, between male and f e m a l e s a m p l e s , s u g g e s t i v e o f d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s
o f l a b o r . Trauma a l s o i n c r e a s e d i n o l d e r i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h n o
!. r e p o r t e d t r a u m a i n i n d i v i d u a l s l e s s t h a n 1 5 y e a r s o f a g e (N = 9)
'f, and w i t h a l l i n d i v i d u a l s o v e r 5 5 y e a r s o f a g e showing trauma
(N = 3 ) . F i n a l l y , i n c i d e n c e o f t r a u m a was t e s t e d a g a i n s t c h r o n o -
l o g i c a l age o f t h e s p e c i m e n s . The r e s u l t s w e r e n o n s i g n i f i c a n t .
A p a r t from f i v e c l e a r c a s e s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e i n v o l v i n g
embedded p r o j e c t i l e s ( a l l m a l e ) , Constandse-Westemann and Newel1
"wel hypoplasia i s reported by B r o t h 2 2 (1963) i n a corn-

bined European and North African MesoZzthic series ( t o t a l N = 4 2 ) .
8,' However, without further partitioning o f the series i n t o i t s cmpo-
nent parts, the European frequencies cannot be computed.
I
c o n c l u d e t h a t r e p o r t e d trauma i n M e s o l i t h i c s a m p l e s p r i m a r i l y
r e p r e s e n t s a c c i d e n t a l i n j u r y r a t h e r t h a n group c o n f l i c t .
Trauma a p p e a r s t o b e l e s s f r e q u e n t in t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e .
Cases a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e (seven s i t e s , t h r e e w i t h i n d i v i d u a l
c a s e s ) . Only two i n v o l v e embedded p r o j e c t i l e s (Cai'res, T e r r e v a i n e
11). I t may t e n t a t i v e l y b e a r g u e d t h a t a r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l
a c c i d e n t a l trauma r e f l e c t s a more s e d e n t a r y e x i s t e n c e . T h e r e i s
a l s o no evidence f o r i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t .
Dimorphism
Dimorphism from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c h a s

been d i s c u s s e d most s p e c i f i c a l l y by F r a y e r (1978, 1980, 1 9 8 1 ) .
Using d e n t a l , c r a n i a l , and body s i z e d a t a h e a r g u e s f o r a d e c r e a s e
i n dimorphism f o r t h i s p e r i o d . He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e
r e l a t e s t o progressive q r a c i l i z a t i o n in t h e male sample, r e l a t e d
to a d e c r e a s e i n r o b u s t i c i t y r e q u i r e d f o r M e s o l i t h i c a s o p p o s e d t o
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t i n g a c t i v i t y , and t o i n c r e a s e d s h a r i n g o f
economic c h o r e s a s one p r o c e e d s t o w a r d s t h e N e o l i t h i c ( F r a y e r
1 9 8 0 ) . He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s a s e l e c t i o n f o r r e d u c e d m e t a b o l i c de-
mands ( F r a y e r 1 9 8 1 ) . Though F r a y e r (1981) r e j e c t s a n u t r i t i o n a l
model f o r t h e change, i t m u s t remain a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e model.
D e n t a l d i m e n s i o n s from o u r M e s o l i t h i c s a m p l e , which d i f f e r s
from F r a y e r ' s sample, show t h e same d e c r e a s e i n dimorphism sug-
g e s t e d by P r a y e r (1978) ( B l a c h f o r d 1 9 8 2 ) . R e s u l t s f o r i n d i v i d u a l
t e e t h d o , however, d i f f e r s l i g h t l y . F u l l r e s u l t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d
e l s e w h e r e . We have n o t y e t a n a l y z e d o u r c r a n i o m e t r i c sample f o r
c o n g r u i t y w i t h P r a y e r ' s r e s u l t s . When we compare o u r s t a t u r e
d a t a w i t h t h o s e o f F r a y e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) , we f i n d t h e same o v e r a l l t r e n d s
b u t t h e s c a l e i s r e d u c e d . When dimorphism i s c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y
from s t a t u r e , t h e t r e n d is l e s s c l e a r t h a n i n d i c a t e d by F r a y e r . He
i n d i c a t e s a change from 1 1 . 3 % i n t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o 7 .l% in
t h e M e s o l i t h i c ( T a b l e 4 . 4 ) , a d e c r e a s e o f 37.2%. Our d a t a i n d i c a t e
a change from o n l y 8 . 7 t o 7 . 8 % , a d e c r e a s e o f o n l y 1 0 . 3 % . F u r t h e r -
more, i n o u r r e s u l t s t h e r e i s a s u c c e e d i n g i n c r e a s e t o a dimorphism
o f 8 . 6 1 i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , back t o t h e l a t e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c
figures .
Stature
Analysis o f s t a t u r e r e s t s on a s t r o n g e r base than does a n a l y s i s

o f dimorphism. A c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a b a s e on s t a t u r e , however, i s
d e r i v e d from s e v e r a l m e t h o d o l o g i e s o f v a r y i n g a c c u r a c y and compara-
bility.
Ail i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s o f s t a t u r a l t r e n d s (Key 1980) s u g g e s t e d a
model o f s t a t u r e d e c l i n e from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e
M e s o l i t h i c , followed by s t a t u r e i n c r e a s e from t h e N e o l i t h i c onward.
Somewhat s i m i l a r r e s u l t s a r e s u g g e s t e d by F r a y e r (1980) i n t a b u l a r
f o r m a t w i t h s m a l l sample s i z e s .
4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE
TABLE 4 . 4 . Stature Estimations
Prayer Current authors

-
X N
-X N
Early Upper Paleolithic
Male 174.2 10
Female 161.3 ii
Late Upper Pateolz thi-c
Male 174.4 10 170.419
Fema l e 156.7 4 156.7 10
Mesolithic
Male 164.8 26 167.7 46
Female 153.9 IS 155.6 36
Neoli-thzc
Male 167.3 102
Female 154.1 88
Resulting DVnorp71zsm
Early Upper Paleolithic 8.0%
Late Upper Pa'ieolithic 11.3% 8.7%
Meso Zithic 7.1% 7.8%
Neo Zithic 8.6%
We h a v e expanded t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Key i n o r d e r t o h a v e
f i r m e r f i g u r e s . Whereas Key used raw l i m b l e n g t h s i n h i s a n a l y s i s ,
we have u s e d s t a t u r e e s t i m a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e method o f T r o t t e r
and G l e s e r ( 1 9 5 2 ) . T h i s p e r m i t s u s t o compare a l l i n d i v i d u a l s f o r
whom a n y l o n g bone l e n g t h s a r e r e p o r t e d a n d t o compare i n d i v i d u a l s
with r e p o r t e d l o n g bone l e n g t h s t o i n d i v i d u a l s f o r whom o n l y
Trotter-Gleser s t a t u r e s a r e reported in t h e l i t e r a t u r e . (We
r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o s a m p l e s f o r which e i t h e r raw l i m b l e n g t h s
o r Trotter-Gleser estimates a r e reported. )
I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r v a r i a b i l i t y i n r e l a t i v e l o n g bone
l e n g t h s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , we a v e r a g e d t h e v a r i o u s s t a t u r e e s t i m a -
t i o n s i n t h o s e c a s e s where we had s e v e r a l b o n e s or bone combina-
t i o n s . We t h e n used r e g r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s t a t u r e s a g a i n s t
e s t i m a t e d a b s o l u t e a g e s f o r e a c h s i t e , u s i n g l i n e a r and q u a d r a t i c
a p p r o a c h e s . F o r 1i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n o u r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was
s t a t u r e ; o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was a g e . F o r q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n
o u r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was s t a t u r e ; o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ,
d a t e and d a t e 2 ( T a b l e 4 . 5 ) .
The r e s u l t s a t t h i s s t a g e a r e c l e a r e r f o r t h e l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n
than f o r t h e quadratic r e g r e s s i o n : t h e r e l a t i o n appears t o be
l i n e a r . The o v e r a l l l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e
p = .05 l e v e l f o r combined male-female, m a l e , and f e m a l e s a m p l e s ,
i n d i c a t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e s t a t u r e from t h e
TABLE 4 . 5 . S t a t u r a I Changea
Linear Quadratic
C u l t u r a l period Sex ti \ Stature regression regression
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c - M-F 301 161.93 p > .0012~ p > .0049~

Mesolithic- M 167 167.76 p > .0471b p > . I 3 5 2
Neolithic F 134 154.69 p > . 0 0 9 6 ~ p > .0347Â
UpperPaleoZithic- M 65 168.49 p > .I331 p > .3190
Mesolithic F 46 155.80 p>.1131 p>.2591
MesoZÂ¥i,tkic M-F 272 161.54 p > .0500b p > .I296

Neolithic! M 148 167.41 p > .9271 p > .9629
F 124 154.42 p > . 0 3 7 7 ~ p > .I136
Upper PaleoZzthzc M 19 170.43 p > .9l45 p > .8148
F 10 156.73 p > .018@ p > .0058~
Meso lit h i c M 4 6 167.68 p > .8263 p > .a736

F 56 165.55 p>.2102 p>.3897
Neolithic M 102 167.29 p>.6391 p>.0636~

F 88 154.11 p > .3167 p > .5701
" ~ u et o space l i m i t a t i o n s we have p r e s e n t e d o n l y tests of
s z g n i f i c a n c e . Full r e g r e s s i o n t a b l e s uill b e p u b l i s h e d w i t h our
expanded a n a l y s i s .
bsignifzcant.
Â¡Th q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t b u t the
q u a d r a t i c term f i . e . , [date] ) i s n o t .
d ~ h equadratic: t e r n i s s i g n i f i c a n t ( i . e . , [ d a t e ] , p > . 0 2 1 8 ) .
Upper P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e Neolithic. The trend appears t o be

more strongly manifest i n the female sample than in t h e male
sample. However, none of t h e subsarnples show a s i g n i f i c a n t de-
crease from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e Mesolithic. There is a
s i g n i f i c a n t decrease from the Mesolithic t o t h e Neolithic i n t h e
o v e r a l l and female samples. The female subsample i s defining the
trend. Within individual time periods t h e only s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t
i s t h e decrease i n female s t a t u r e during t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c .
For t h e Neolithic we suspect a manifest c u r v i l i n e a r p a t t e r n ,
a trend toward decreasing s t a t u r e from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o
the Neolithic b e i n g replaced by increasing s t a t u r e within t h e
Neolithic. This can be t e s t e d only by adding t o our sample f o r
Neolithic and post-Neolithic time periods. A t t h i s point we con-
clude t h a t there i s s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t u r e d e c l i n e from the Upper
P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e Neolithic, with p o s s i b l e reversal from
t h a t point onwards, i n agreement with ~ r a ~ (1980) e r and Key (1980).
4 THE MESOLITHIC A N D NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE
TABLE 4.6. Analysts o f Variance for the Region E f f e c t - -

Inland-Coastal Dichotomy
AN OVA^ f o r
Sex Reg ion N regzon e f f e c t Mean
Male-Female Coastal-inland 11 1 p > .I167 163.23
Coastal 81 162.55
Inland 27 165.36
Ma le Coastal-inland 65 p > .3549 168.48

Coastal 48 168.11
I?$and 17 169.55
Female Coastal-inland 46 p > .0603 155.81

Coastal 36 155.13
In land 10 158.24
aAIVOVA, anaZysis of variance.
A t t h i s t i m e , we c a n n o t i d e n t i f y t h e p o i n t a t which t h e change i n
d i r e c t i o n of t h e trend occurs.
We a l s o examined o u r M e s o l i t h i c sample KUL a c o a s t a l - i n l a n d
dichotomy, b a s e d o n s u g g e s t i o n s made t h a t t h e r e m i g h t b e s t a t u r a l
s t u n t i n g i n s a m p l e s w i t h h i g h u s a g e o f m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s due t o
t r a c e e l e m e n t i m b a l a n c e ( T a b l e 4 . 6 ) . Though t h e r e s u l t s were n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t , a l l i n l a n d s a m p l e s were t a l l e r f o r a g e t h a n c o a s t a l
s a m p l e s i n a l l g r o u p s . F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d i n which
percentage of marine r e s o u r c e s i s included a s a v a r i a b l e .
CONCLUSION
T h i s survey attempts t o provide a base f o r f u r t h e r examination

o f t r e n d s i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g y i n w e s t e r n and w e s t - c e n t r a l Europe
. d u r i n g t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c . The d a t a b a s e f o r t h e
M e s o l i t h i c i s f u l l y i n c l u s i v e , t h e problem o f sample p r o v e n i e n c e
. being t h e s u b j e c t of i n t e n s i v e study. For t h e N e o l i t h i c t h e
- sample b a s e i s , a t b e s t , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , d e r i v e d from a p u b l i s h e d
sample e m p h a s i z i n g r e c e n t work and l a r g e r sample s i z e s .
I n g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h e number o f o b v i o u s t r e n d s from t h e Meso-
l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c i s low. F o r most c h a r a c t e r s t h e r e a r e no
c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two b r o a d g r o u p s . I n a d d i t i o n ,
where t h e r e a r e p o t e n t i a l t r e n d s , t h e r e may be s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e
interpretations.
CHRISTOPHER MEIKLUOHN Â£ AL.
F o r c r a n i a l and p o s t c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y much t h a t is r e p o r t e d
is i d i o s y n c r a t i c , o f low f r e q u e n c y , and w i t h o u t c l e a r i n t e r p r e t i v e
mode f o r t h e s i t e and/or p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n . I n most c a s e s the
n a t u r e of t h e d a t a does n o t permit r e c o g n i t i o n o f t r e n d s over
time. With r e f e r e n c e t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and c o n c o m i t a n t e v i -
d e n c e o f s t r e s s , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f b o t h c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o -
t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s is v e r y low i n b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l -
t u r a l samples. Differences i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n s probably r e f l e c t
d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e economic b a s e r a t h e r t h a n i n d i c a t e s t r e s s o r s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e change.
S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t e d i n c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y between
t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c , n o t a new f i n d i n g i n i t s e l f .
T h i s i s , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , c o r r e l a t e d w i t h b o t h d e n t a l wear and
c o n d i t i o n of t h e a l v e o l a r p r o c e s s e s . However, o u r d a t a b a s e o n
t h e l a t t e r two a r e a s is i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n . I n a l l t h r e e c a s e s we may b e l o o k i n g a t e i t h e r i t e m s -
r e s u l t i n g from economic change o r i t e m s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e c a u s e
o f t h e change. Tauber (1981) i n d i c a t e s a m a j o r d i e t a r y s h i f t a t
t h e M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c boundary u s i n g 13c c o n t e n t .
I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , t h e d a t a on g r o u p trauma a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t
t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i r e c t l y between trauma r e l a t e d t o economic a c t i v i t y
and trauma r e s u l t i n g from v i o l e n c e i n a p o p u l a t i o n s u b j e c t t o den-
s i t y s t r e s s . Though w e m i g h t p r e d i c t i n c r e a s e d v i o l e n c e from den-
s i t y d a t a , we a r e u n a b l e t o c o n f i r m i t .
Our most s u q g e s t i v e e v i d e n c e r e l a t e s t o s t a t u r a l c h a n q e .
S t a t u r e d e c r e a s e s from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e Meso-
l i t h i c . I n c r e a s e i s s u g g e s t e d o n c e t h e N e o l i t h i c i s underway.
One mode o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would v i e w t h e d e c l i n e a s r e l a t e d t o
i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s , a l l e v i a t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f o o d p r o d u c i n g .
However, t h i s view i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e e v i d e n c e of d i f f e r e n t
t r e n d s i n m a l e s and f e m a l e s . Thus we h a v e models b a s e d e i t h e r o n
dietary s t r e s s o r , per Prayer, on a l t e r a t i o n s i n a c t i v i t y pattern.
The l i m i t s o f o u r d a t a sample n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e r e s u l t s
reported h e r e do appear t o confirm p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d p a t t e r n s o f
s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y f o r t h e r e g i o n (Dastugue 1979; Dastugue and d e
Lumley 1 9 7 6 a , b ) and t o c o n f i r m t h e r e s u l t s of more s p e c i a l i z e d
s t u d i e s such a s t h o s e o f t e e t h by B r a b a n t (1965, 1 9 6 8 , 1969) .
Thus we f e e l t h a t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e
r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e c u r r e n t work i n Europe displayed i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e . We c a u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e u s e o f t h e s e d a t a e i t h e r t o
s u p p o r t o r t o deny p a r t i c u l a r models o f c a u s e and e f f e c t o f t h e
socioeconomic c h a n g e s from t h e l a t e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e
N e o l i t h i c . Though we a r e c o n f i d e n t o f o u r c o v e r a g e o f t h e Meso-
l i t h i c , sample s i z e i s a l i m i t a t i o n a t p r e s e n t . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c
it i s c l e a r t h a t s a m p l e s e x i s t t h a t c a n p r o v i d e c r i t i c a l e v i d e n c e
f o r t h e q u e s t i o n s a s k e d in t h i s volume. However, few a r e p u b l i s h e d
i n a manner p e r m i t t i n g a n s w e r s t o demographic, a s opposed t o c l i n i -
c a l , questions.
4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE 93
APPENDIX . Neolzthzc Materials i n t h e Study
Number o f
Country/Site zndivzduals References
Netherlands
Mo Lenaarsgraa f Knzp (1974)
Swif terbant ,521 Meikle john and Cons tandse -
Westermann (1978);
Constandse-Uestermann and
Meiklejohn (1979)
Swifterbant 522 Meiklejohn and Cons tandse-
Weetemann (1978);
Constandse- Westermartn and
Meiklejohn (1979)
Meiklejohn and Constandse-
Westermann (1978);
Coiwtandse- Westermann and
Meiklejohn (1979)
Meiklejohn and Constandse-
W e e t e m n n (1978);
Constandse-Westemam and
MezkZejdIin (1979)
Meiklejohn and Constandse -
Westennann ( 1 9 7 8 ) ;
Constandse- Westermann and
Me-iklejohn (1979)
Bezgznm
Avennes Janssens (1960); Verdin
( 1959)
HastzSre Rzquet ( 1963a)
Obourg e t Str6py Riquet (1963b)
Porte-A't-ve Rzquet (1963b)
Sp-iennes Riquet (1963b)
France
Abri Pendimoun de Lumley (1962)
ArgenieuzZ k r r o q u e and R-iquet (1966)
Barbonne-Fayo l h r r o q u e and Rzquet (1966)
Baumes-Cfiaudeo T o u r e r n e (1062)
Bea-des-Dew-Eaw Rzquet and Cordier (1957)
Caxires Charles (1959)
Conf tans-Sawte-Honorine Larroque and Riquet (1966)
Dolmen de l a Roche Rzquet and Coradier (1958)
Dolmen des Bretons Fust6 (1952)
Dolmen de V i l l a i n e Rzquet ( 1 9 7 2 ~ )
Z 'E l a n g - l a - V a e h r r c q u e and Riquet (1966)
Eteauvz l l e N o d e t a l . (1965)
Feignem Larroque and Riquet (1966);
Patte (1976)
94 CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ETAL.
Appendix (continued)
Number of
Country/Site individua 2s References
France continued
Fontenay- le-Mamzon Dastugue e t a l . (1973);
Tome and Dastugue (1976);
Brabant and Lecacheux
(1973)
Grotte de l a Route A d and Rzquet (1956)
L ' H o r n-Mort Toureitte (1962)
Lapis Coguet Patte (1971)
Harly- le-Roz Larroque and Riquet (1966)
Mateltea Brabant e t a t . (1961)
Meudm Larroque and Riquet (1966)
Nogent-les -Vierges Larroque and Riquet (1966)
Pas-Estret Ampouknge (19531
Rouf f ignac Sahly e t a l . (1962)
Rouvignoux Charles (1970)
Tanco'LgnS Patte (1953)
Terrevaine ( 2 s i t e s ) Charles (1952)
VaurSal L m o q u e and Rzquet (1966)
Vernou Riquet and Cordier (1953)
VicheZ-ManZeuzZ Larroque and Rzquat (1966)
Vigneau Riquet and Cordier (1958)
Portugal
Buga lhezra en Almonda Riquet (1972b)
Carvalhal de Aljubarrota Riquet (1972b)
Casa de Mourn Riquet (1972b)
Casal Pardo Riquet (1972b)
Cascazs (Pogo Velho) Riquet (1972b)
Fontainhas Rzquet (1972b)
Logares Rzquet (1972b)
Monte Pedrogo Vwioso Riquet (1972b)
Zarnbujal RLquet (1972b)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ampoulanqe, A .
1953 S6pulture n 6 o l i t h i q u e dans un gisement du p a l 6 o l i t h i q u e
s u p 6 r i e u r . Bulletin de l a Socri6t6 PrShistori-que Franoaise
SO: 613-624.
Arnal, J . , and R . Riquet
1956 La Grotte de l a Route, Saint-Martin-de-Londres ( 1 'Herault) .
Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 PrShistorique Frangaise 53:64-79.
Brabant, H . , and B . Lecacheux
1973 Etude de l a denture d e s r e s t e s hmnaines d'Sqe N e o l i t h i q u e
trouv6s dans l e tumulus de l a Hoquette & Fontenay-le-
Mannion (Normandie) . Bulletin du Groupement Internationaz
pour la Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e en S t m a t o l o g i e 1 6 ~ 1 3 1 - 1 6 2 .
4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC Of-'
WESTERN EUROPE
Appendix (Continued)
B r a b a n t , H . , A. S a h l y , a n d M. Bouyssou
1 9 6 1 Etude d e s d e n t s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d e l a s t a t i o n a r c h 6 o l o g i q u e
d e s M a t e l l e s ( d 6 p a r t e m e n t d e 1' t l e r a u l t , F r a n c e ) .
Bulletin du Groupement International pour l a Recherche
Scientifzque en Stmatologze 4:382-448.
Charles, R. P.
1952 Les S 6 p u l t u r e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d e T e r r e v a i n e p r & s d e l a
C i o t a t (B. du Rh. ) . Cahzers Ligures 1 :29-61.
1959 O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e s r e s t e s humaines du Dclmen d e s C a d r e s ,
commune de L a i s s a c (Aveyron) . Bulletin de la S o d t 6
Pr6historzque Fran~azse56:118-120.
1970 Les S u j e t s n e o l i t h i q u e s d e l a g r o t t e I du Ravin d e
Rouvignoux. Cahzere Ligures 19:119-148.
Constandse-Westennann, T. S . , and C . M e i k l e j o h n
1979 The human r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t . Hezininm 19:237-266.
Dastuque, J . , S. T o r r e , and L. Buchet
1 9 7 3 N e o l i t h i q u e s d e Basse-Normandie. Le deuxifeme tumulus d e
Fontenay-le-Karrnion (etude anthropologique) .
LrAnthropologze 77:579-619.
d e Lumley, M. A .
1962 ~ g s i o n so s s e u s e s d e l'honunc d e C a s t e l l a r ( A . M . ) .
Bulletin du Musde drAnthmpologie PpShzstorique de Monaco
9 : 191-205.
F u s t 6 , M.
1952 Les o s s e m e n t s humaines du dolmen d e s B r e t o n s , Marne.
Bulletins e t Mmoires de l a Socz6t6 d 'Anthropologze de
Paris Ser. 1 0 3:118-155.
J a n s s e n s , P.
1 9 6 0 Le s q u e l e t t e N 6 o l i t h i q u e d l A v e n n e s : S a p e r f o r a t i o n
s t e r n a l e . Bulletin de la SoCl6t6 Royale Beige d1Anthfo-
p020ffi.e e t de Prbhistoire 71 :43-46.
Knip, A . S.
1974 L a t e N e o l i t h i c s k e l e t o n f i n d s from M o l e n a a r s q r a a f (Z. H . ) .
A d e c t a Praehistor'iaa Leidensia 7 : 379-396.
L a r r o q u e , J . M. , and R . R i q u e t
1966 Documents a n t h r o p o l o q i q u e s i n S d i t s s u r l a c i v i l i z a t i o n d e
l a S e i n e - O i s e - ~ a r n e . Bulletins e t MSmotves de la Soci6t6
d 'Anthropologie de Paris Ser 11 9 : 29-43.
M e i k l c j o h n , C . , and T. S . Constandse-Wcstcnnann
1978 The human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t , E a r l i e r
N e o l i t h i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . I . Palaeohzstoria
20:39-89.
Nouel, A., M . Dauvois, G . B a i l l o u d , R . R i q u e t , T. P o u l a i n - J o s i e n ,
N . P l a n c h a i s , and P . lioremans
1 9 6 5 L ' o s s u a i r e n e o l i t h i q u c d l E t e a u v i l l e , Commune d e Lutz-en-
Dunois ( E u r e - e t - ~ o i r ). Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 Prehzstorique
Fraryaise 62: 576-648.
CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET ML.
Appendix (Continued)
P a t t e , E.
1953 S e p u l t u r e n 6 o l i t h i q u e d e Tancoign6 ( M a i n e - e t - L o i r e ) .
M i a 11:273-282.
1 9 7 1 L e s r e s t e s humaines d e l a g r o t t e S 6 p u l c r a l e du L a r i s
Goquet 3 Feigneux ( O i s e ) . Bulletins e t M6moires de 'la
Societe d 'Anthropologie de Paris Ser 12 7: 381-452.
1976 0s p a t h o l o g i q u e o u anormaux d e l a g r o t t e d e F e i g n e u x
( O i s e ) . L'Ant'hropoZogie 80: 655-668.
Riquet, R.
1963a L e s N 6 o l i t h i q u e s d l H a s t i & r e . m e t i n de l a SoczetS
Royale Beige dlAnthropoZogie e t de Prehistoire 73: 57-116.
1963b Q u e l q u e s c r S n e s N b l i t h i q u e s B e l g e s . m e t i n de 'La
SociSte Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de Prehistoire
73 : 117-137.
1972a Le s i t e a r c h 6 o l o g i q u e d u Dolmen d e V i l l a i n e 3 S u b l a i n e s
( I n d r e - e t - L a i r e ) . Gallia Prehistoire 1 5 :93-110.
1972b A n t h r o p o l o g i e d e q u e l q u e s N e o l i t h i q u e s P o r t u g a i s . Homo
23:154-187.
R i q u e t , R. , a n d G . C o r d i e r
1 9 5 3 Une S e p u l t u r e N 6 o l i t h i q u e & Vernou ( I n d r e - e t - L o i r e ) .
Bulletin de la Soci6t6 PrShistorique Franpise 50:518-527.
1957 L ' o s s u a i r e N 6 o l i t h i q u e d u Bec-des-Deux-Eaux, Commune d e
Ports ( I n d r c - e t - L o i r c ) . L'AnthropoZogie 61:2B-44.
1 9 5 8 L ' o s s u a i r e d u Vigneau e t l e Dolmen d e l a Roche, commune
d e Manthelan ( I n d r e - e t - L o i r e ) . L 'Anthropologze 6 2 :1-29.
S a h l y , A . , H . B r a b a n t , a n d M. Bouyssou
1962 O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e s d e n t s e t les m a x i l l a i r e s d u
M s o l i t h i q u e e t d e 1'Age du f e r , trouv6s dans l a g r o t t e
d e R o u f f i q n a c , d 6 p a r t e m e n t d e l a Dordogne, F r a n c e .
Bulletin du Groupement International pour l a Recherche
Sczentzfique en Stomatologie 5:252-285.
T o r r e , S . , and J . Dastuque
1976 N b l i t h i q u e s d e Basse-Normandie. Le deuxifeme t u m u l u s d e
Fontenay-le-Mannion ( P a t h o l o q i e ) . L rAnthcopologze 8 0 :
625-653.
T o u r e i l l e , M.
1962 L e s s q u e l e t t e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e . s d e s Baumes-Chaudes e t d e
1 ' Homrne-Mort . L 'Anthropologie 66: 44-68.
V e r d i n , G.
1959 Le n 6 o l i t h i q u e d e l a V a l l 6 e d e l a M6haigne (Hesbaye
Li&goise). E t u d e Morphologique e t a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e d e s
o s s e m e n t s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d'Avennes. m e t i n de 'id
SociSte Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de Prehistoire
70: 46-54.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The a u t h o r s acknowledge t h e numerous c o l l e a g u e s who h a v e

graciously permitted collection of Mesolithic data within t h e i r
c o n t r o l . Funds f o r v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a -
r a t i o n have been r e c e i v e d by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r from t h e Canada
C o u n c i l , S o c i a l S c i e n c e and H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f
Canada, and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg.
The s e n i o r a u t h o r t h a n k s D r . T. S . Constandse-Westermann,
U n i v e r s i t y o f U t r e c h t , and D r . Raymond R . N e w e l l , U n i v e r s i t y o f
Groningcn, f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e
M e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e and i n a n a l y s i s o f i t s p r o v e n i e n c e . The
M e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e used i s t h e r e s u l t o f c o o p e r a t i v e work
between 1976 and 1981.
REFERENCES
Anunennan, A . L . , and L. L. C a v a l l i - S f o r z a
1 9 7 3 A p o p u l a t i o n model f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f e a r l y f a r m i n g i n
Europe. I n The explanation o f culture change: Models i n
prehistory, e d i t e d b y C . Renfrew, p p . 343-357. Duckworth,
London.
B i n f o r d , L. R .
1973 Interassemblage v a r i a b i l i t y - - t h e Nousterian and t h e
" f u n c t i o n a l " a r g u m e n t . I n The explanation of c u b e
change: ttodels in prehi-etory, e d i t e d b y C . Renfrew, p p .
227-254. Duckworth, London.
Blachford , L.
1982 D e n t a l t r e n d s i n P a l a e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c E u r o p e .
U n p u b l i s h e d ins. o n f i l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg.
B o u v i l l e , C . , T. S . Constandse-Westennann, a n d R. R . Newell
1 9 8 3 L ~ sr e s t e s humains M i s s o l i t h i q u e s d e 1 ' A b r i C o r n i l l e ,
I s t r e s (B. d e R.). Bulletzns e t MSrnoires de l a SoczSt6
d'Anthropologze de Paris S e r . 1 3 , v o l . 1 0 , p p . 89-110.
. 8
B r a b a n t , ti.
I 1965 Observations s u r l ' e v o l u t i o n d e l a denture temporaire
J huniaine e n ~ u r o p eo c c i d c n t a l e . Bulletin du Groupement
de l a RScherche S c i e n t i f i q u e en Stamatobgie
I?~tep~zatÂ¥Lona
!' 8:235-302.
1968 Bulletin de l a
La d e n t u r e humaine 5 1 ' 6 p o q u e N e o l i t h i q u e .
Soci6t6 Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de PrShzstoire 7 9 :
105-141.
1969 Observations s u r l e s d e n t s d e s populations megalithiques
d 'Europe o c c i d e n t a l e .
BuZZe tin du Groupement International
L de l a Recherche Scientzfzque en Stcmatologze 22 :429-460.
98 CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN Â£ AL.
Brothwell, D . R.
1963 The macroscopic d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f some e a r l i e r human
p o p u l a t i o n s . I n Dental anthropology, e d i t e d by
D . R . B r o t h w e l l , p p . 271-288. Macrnillan, New York.
Burch, E . S . , J r .
1972 The c a r i b o u / w i l d r e i n d e e r a s a human r e s o u r c e .
American Antiquity 37:339-368.
Campbell, J . B . , J r .
1977 The Upper Palaeozzthic o f Britain: A 6 b d y o f man and
nature zn the l a t e zce age. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s
( C l a r e n d o n ) , London and New York .
C a r n e i r o , R . L . , and D . F. H i l s e
1966 On d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o b a b l e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h
d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c . American Anthropologist 68:177-181.
Constandse-Westennann, T . S . , a n d C. M e i k l e j o h n
1979 The human r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t . Helinium 19:237-266.
Constandse-Westermann, T . S . , a n d R. R . Newell
1984 M e s o l i t h i c trauma: Demographical and c h r o n o l o g i c a l
t r e n d s i n Western E u r o p e . Proceedings of the 4th European
PaZaeopathoZogy Conference, Middelburg/Antwerpen , 1 9 8 2 , i n
press.
Constandse-Westermann, T . S . , C . M e i k l e j o h n , a n d R . R. Newel1
1984 A r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c s k e l e t o n from
R a s l - e l , Commune d e P e i l l o n , Alpes - M a r i t i m e s , F r a n c e .
BuZletin du Musee dlAnthropoZogie PrShistopique du Monaco
26: 75-89.
Dastugue, J .
1979 P a t h o l o q i e d e s M 6 s o l i t h i q u e s d e F r a n c e . LIAnthropologze
83:602-625.
Dastugue, J . , and M . A . d e Lumley
19766 Les m a l a d i e s d e s h o m e s p r 6 1 1 i s t o r i q u e s du P a l 6 o l i t h i q u e
e t du M 6 s o l i t h i q u e . I n La prShistoire f r a n e s e (Vol. I ) ,
e d i t e d by 13. d e Lumley, p p . 612-622. Centre Nationale
Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s .
1976b Les m a l a d i e s d e s h o m e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s . I n La pr6histoire
franyaise (Vol. 11) , e d i t e d by J . G u i l a n e , p p . 153-164.
C e n t r e N a t i o n a l e Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s .
d e Lumley, H . ( e d i t o r )
1976 La prbhi-stoire franfazae (Vol. I ) . C e n t r e N a t i o n a l s
Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s .
F r a y e r , D. W.
1978 The e v o l u t i o n o f t h e d e n t i t i o n i n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and
M e s o l i t h i c Europe. University of Kansas P u b Z i c a t h i n
Anthropology No. 1 0 .
1960 S e x u a l dimorphism and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i n t h e Late
P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene o f Europe. ~ o u r n a lof Human
Evolution 9:399-415.
1 9 8 1 Body s i z e , weapon u s e a n d n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n i n t h e
European Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c . ~ m e r i c a n
Anthropologist 83:57-73.
Gramsch , B. ( e d i t o r )
1981 Mesolithikum i n Europa . Ver'SffentZichungen dm Museums
fUr Ur-und Fruhgeschichte Potsdam NO. 14-15.
Guilane, J .
1979 The e a r l i e s t N e o l i t h i c in t h e West M e d i t e r r a n e a n : A new
a p p r a i s a l . Antiquity 53 : 22-30.
Henqen, 0. P .
1 9 7 1 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a : P a t h o g e n e s i s and p r o b a b l e e t i o l o g y .
Homo 2 2 ~ 5 7 - 7 6 .
Key, P .
1980 E v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s i n f e m o r a l s e x u a l dimorphism from t h e
M e s o l i t h i c t o t h e l a t e Middle Ages i n E u r o p e . American
Journal o f Physical Anthropology 52:244.
Kozlowski, S . K . ( e d i t o r )
1973 The Mesolithic i n Europe. Warsaw U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw.
L a r s s o n , L.
1980 S t e n a l d e r s j a g a r n a s b o p l a t s o c h g r a v a r v i d Skateholm.
Limhamniana 1980:13-39.
1981 En 7 , 0 0 0 - Â ¤ r i S y d k u s t b o p l a t s . N y t t om 9-lt ~ r 8 n
Skateholm. L~hcOTff~iana 1981 :17-46.
1982 S k a t e h o l m s p r o j e k t e t . Nys g r a v a r och e t t n y t t q r a v f a l t
~ r s n~ ~ q a r s t e n 8 l d e r n Limhamnima
. 1962 :11-41.
L a r s s o n , L . , C. M e i k l e j o h n , and R. R . Newel1
1 9 8 1 Human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from t h e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e o f
AgerBd I : 1IC , S c a n i a , S o u t h e r n Sweden. t'ornvtinnen 76 :
161-168.
L a v i l l e , H . , J . P . Rigaud, a n d J . S a c k e t t
1 9 8 0 Rock shelters of t h e Perigord. Academic P r e s s , New York.
Lewthwaite, J.
1 9 8 1 Ambiguous f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s : A s u r v e y o f r e c e n t work on
t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c o f t h e West M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Journal of
t-lediterranean Archaeology and Anthropology 1:292-307.
Meiklejohn, C.
1977 G e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d demo s t r u c t u r e : C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Athapaskan/Algonkian continuum.
i n Problems i n t h e prehistory of the North American Sub-
a r c t i c : The Athapaskan question, e d i t e d b y J. H e h e r ,
F. J . Kense, and J . Van Dyke, p p . 106-110. U n i v e r s i t y of
Calgary, Calgary.
1 9 7 8 E c o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and g r o w t h i n L a t e
G l a c i a l a n d E a r l y P o s t g l a c i a l N o r t h w e s t e r n Europe. I n
The Early PostgZacial settlement of Northern Europe,
e d i t e d by P. M e l l a r s , p p . 6 5 - 7 9 . Duckworth, London.
M e i k l e j o h n , C . , a n d T . S. Constandse-Westennann
1 9 7 8 The human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from S w i f t o r b a n t , E a r l i e r
N e o l i t h i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . I . I n v e n t o r y and
demography. Pa h e o h i s t o r i a 20 : 39-89.
M e l l a r s , P. ( e d i t o r )
1978 The Early Postglaazal settlement of Northern Europe.
Duckworth, London.
100 CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ETAL.
Milisauskas , S .
1978 European prehistory. Academic P r e s s , New York.
Newell, R . R.
1973 The p o s t g l a c i a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n
o f t h e Northwest European p l a i n . I n The Mesolithic i n
Europe, e d i t e d by S . K. Kozlowski, p p . 399-440. Warsaw
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw.
.
Newell, R. R. , and S H . Anderson
1982 The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f M e s o l i t h i c bone t o o l s . Unpublished
M.S. o n f i l e , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningen, Groningen,
t h e Netherlands.
Newell, R . R . , T. S. Constandse-Westemann, a n d C. M e i k l c j o h n
1979 The s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s o f M e s o l i t h i c man i n Western Europe:
An e v a l u a t i v e c a t a l o g u e . Journal of Human EvoZution 8 :
1-228.
Newell, R. R . , A . L . van G i j n , D. Kielman, a n d W. van d e r Sanden
1982 An e n q u i r y i n t o t h e e t h n i c r e s o l u t i o n o f M e s o l i t h i c
r e g i o n a l groups: A s t u d y o f t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e ornaments
i n s p a c e and t i m e . Unpublished M.S. on f i l e , S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningcn, Groningen, t h e N e t h e r l a n d s .
Rozoy, 3. G .
1978 Les derniera chaeseure: L'EpipaZkolzthiq~een France e t
en Belgique. S o c i 6 t 6 Arch6ologique Chanipenolse,
Charleville-Mezisrcs.
S c h e n t a g , C.
1982 The b i a s i n h e r e n t i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f p a t h o l o g y o n
s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s : A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . Unpublished
M.S. o n f i l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg.
S l o b o d k i n , L. B . , and H . L. S a n d e r s
1968 On t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e d i c t a b i l i t y t o
s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y . Brookhaven Symposia i n Biology 2 2 :
62-95.
S p i e s s , A.
1979 Reindeer and caribou hunters: A n archaeological study.
Academic P r e s s , New York.
Tauber, H.
1981 1 3 e~v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y h a b i t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c man i n
Denmark. Nature (Landon) 292: 332-333.
T r o t t e r , M . , and G . C . G l e s e r
1952 E s t i m a t i o n o f s t a t u r e from l o n g b o n e s o f American w h i t e s
and Negroes. American J o u d of Physical Anthropology
1 0 : 463-514.
Wobst, H. M.
1976 L o c a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n P a l e o l i t h i c s o c i e t y . Journal
of Human Evolution 5:49-58.
CHAPTER 5
ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR DIETARY CHANGE

DURING THE LATE PLEISTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE I N THE LEVANT
P a t r i c i a 3mith
Department o f Anatomy
Hebrew University-Hadassah School o f D e n t a l Medicine
Ofer Bar-Yosef
I n s t i t u t e of Archaeology
Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , M t . Scopus Canpus
Srnithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n
INTRODUCTION
I n t h e Levant t h e p e r i o d between t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and

N e o l i t h i c , d a t i n g from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 , 0 0 0 B.C., i s g e n e r a l l y
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " ~ p i p a l e o l i t h i c . " ~s e v e r a l overviews of t h e
E p i p a l e o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c sequence i n t h e Levant h a v e been
p u b l i s h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s (Bar-Yosef 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 S l a , b , 1978; Cauvin
1978; Redman 1 9 7 8 ) . These r e v i e w s n e c e s s a r i l y have emphasized a
q e o q r a p h i c a l approach t o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ~ u e s t i o n s , s i n c e t h e
r e g i o n encompassed by t h e term "Levant" i s s o e c o l o g i c a l l y d i -
v e r s e ( F i g . 5 . 1 ) . F o r example, i n t h i s s m a l l a r e a of t h e
E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , one can d e f i n e a t l e a s t t h r e e t o p o g r a p h i c
b e l t s ( t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , t h e e a s t e r n mountains and c e n t r a l
h i g h l a n d s , a n d t h e r i f t v a l l e y ) as w e l l a s three major v e g e t a -
he term "Mesolithic" -uas abandoned .?or t k e Near East 1 5

years ago; most archaeologists p r e f e r t o Zir-it i t s use t o north-
western Europe during t h e e a r l y HoZocene (Koslouski 1 9 7 3 ) .
PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.
FIGURE 5 . 1 . Map of Southern Levant indicating rnay'or geogra-

phic subdiuisioiis.
5 THE LATE PLElSTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT
ALILEE C A R M E L THE B E Q A A
BASED and 3""

HIGHLANDS
IE COASTAL P L A I N JORDAN VALLEY
GEOMETRIC K E B A R A N
LATE L E V A N T I N E AURIGNACIAN
and
LATE BLADElBLADELET INDUSTRlE'i
FIGURE 5.2. ArchaeoZogicaZ sequence ir. rridor geoyaphioal

regions o f t h e southern Levant ( t a k e n fro- Bar-Ycsef 2 9 8 0 ) .
t i o n a l r e g i o n s (the M e d i t e r r a n e a n F o r e s t b e l t , Irano-Turanian
s t e p p e , and Saharo-Sindian d e s e r t ) .
R e g i o n a l s t u d i e s of s m a l l a r e a s w i t h i n the Levant nevertheless
have been s u c c e s s f u l , and a s 14c dates have become available, t h e
Ill4 PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.
s e q u e n c e f o r each subzone h a s been compared t o t h a t o f i t s n e i g h -

b o r s ( s e e Bar-Yosef 1 9 8 1 a , b f o r a p p e n d i c e s o f 1 4 d~a t e s ) . T h i s
regional approach has enabled u s t o b u i l d archaeological sequences
( F i g u r e 5 . 2 ) and t o f o r m u l a t e h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g s e a s o n a l
e x p l o i t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , long-range d i f f u s i o n s , p a t t e r n s o f ex-
change, e t c .
I n t h i s c h a p t e r , we w i l l summarize t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and
s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t and d i e t a r y change o v e r t h e c o u r s e of
t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c arid N e o l i t h i c i n t h e r e g i o n . I t s h o u l d be
r e c o g n i z e d a t t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are of u n e q u a l
q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . F o r example, t h e p a l e o b o t a n i c a l f i n d s a r e
s c a r c e and sometimes o f d o u b t f u l n a t u r e , w h i l e t h e f a u n a l c o l l e c -
t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y abundant b u t i n many c a s e s have been s t u d i e d
o n l y p a r t i a l l y ( i . e . , mammals a l o n e ) . Even t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
remains p e r s e ( s t r u c t u r a l r e l i c t s , s t o n e t o o l s , e t c . ) have n o t
a l w a y s been a d e q u a t e l y p u b l i s h e d .
F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e l a s t decade h a s s e e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e
i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e
number o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y i s on t h e i n -
c r e a s e . Also, t h e d a t a a r e complementary i n n a t u r e , b e i n g
d e r i v e d from d i s p a r a t e s o u r c e s . F o r example, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e amount o f meat v e r s u s v e g e t a b l e f o o d s
by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a r c h a e o l o q i c a l s e q u e n c e a l o n e . However, t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d does p r o v i d e a good i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e
s p e c i f i c f o o d s l i k e l y t o have been u t i l i z e d . The s k e l e t a l e v i -
dence complements t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n by p r o v i d i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e
evidence f o r c l a s s e s of foods e x p l o i t e d (e.q., strontium a n a l y s e s )
and n u t r i t i o n ( e . g . , d e n t a l , p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a ) . An i n t e r -
d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h s h o u l d t h e n p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y complete
p i c t u r e of s o c i a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , and d i e t a r y change. We o f f e r
t h i s c h a p t e r a s an i n t e r i m r e p o r t i n t h i s ongoing c o o p e r a t i v e e f -
fort.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR DIETARY CHANGE
D i r e c t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y change can b e de-

r i v e d from t h r e e s o u r c e s : (1) s h i f t s i n t h e v e g e t a l d i e t a s ex-
h i b i t e d i n t h e p l a n t and s e e d remains: ( 2 ) s h i f t s i n t h e f a u n a l
s p e c t r a a s compiled from bone c o l l e c t i o n s of h u n t e d and/or
d o m e s t i c a t e d a n i m a l s ; and ( 3 ) changes i n t o o l s u s e d f o r f o o d c o l -
l e c t i o n , s t o r a g e , p r e p a r a t i o n , e t c . P o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y can a l s o
be a d d r e s s e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e number and s i z e of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
sites. The a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on each o f t h e s e p o i n t s f o r t h e
Levant i s o u t l i n e d below.
5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT 105
S i t e S i z e a s an E x p r e s s i o n f o r P o p u l a t i o n I n c r e a s e / D e c r e a s e
S i t e s i z e d u r i n g t h e Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran ( c i r c a

17.000-10.500 B.C. ranged from 2 5 t o 400 m 2 (and i s s i m i l a r t o
t h a t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d ) . I t s h i f t e d i n t o
l a r g e r u n i t s (up t o 3000 m2 a s a c a u t i o u s e s t i m a t e ) i n t h e
N a t u f i a n (10,500-8500 B.C.) w i t h e v i d e n c e f o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e -
mains (rounded s t r u c t u r e s , t e r r a c e w a l l s , e t c . ) . A considerable
i n c r e a s e t o o k p l a c e i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A p e r i o d , when
t h e l a r q e s t s i t e s were 2-4 h a . i n a r e a ( N e t i v Hagdud, G i l g a l I ,
J e r i c h o ) . The maximal s i z e m a i n t a i n e d i t s e l f d u r i n g t h e "Pre-
P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B" p e r i o d ( u n t i l 6000 B . C . ) b u t dropped l a t e r
i n t h e southern Levant. I n t h e n o r t h e r n Levant ( n o r t h e r n S y r i a
and s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a ) , t h e s i z e i n c r e a s e t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e
s e v e n t h millennium B.C. (up t o 12 h a . ) m a i n t a i n e d i t s s t e a d y
growth.
P o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e s d e r i v e d from s i t e s i z e were r e c e n t l y
g i v e n d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n (Hassan 1 9 8 1 ) . However, i n view of t h e
f r a g m e n t a r y d a t a , we p r e f e r even more c a u t i o u s e s t i m a t e s . They
a r e a s follows: ( 1 ) Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran: 5-15 p e r -
i o n s / s i t e l o r p e r h a p s one t o t h r e e n u c l e a r f a m i l i e s ) ; ( 2 ) an
i n c r e a s e t o 30-50 p e r s o n s / s i t e d u r i n g t h e N a t u f i a n ; and ( 3 ) an-
o t h e r i n c r e a s e ( c a . 8500-8000 B . C . ) t o 300-2000 p e r s o n s / s i t e
(Bar-Yosef 1981a; Hassan 1 9 8 1 ) .
Functional Aspects of t h e L i t h i c I n d u s t r i e s
The main t e c h n o l o g i c a l chanqes o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t i m e were

i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of b l a n k s . While t h e e a r l i e r complexes were
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b l a d e l e t m a n u f a c t u r e ( f o r s h a p i n g m i c r o l i t h s ) , a
small i n c r e a s e i n blades i s noted i n t h e Natufian and a higher
one i n t h e Khiamian (when m i c r o l i t h i c t o o l s d e c r e a s e d t o a b o u t
25% o f t h e t o t a l a s s e m b l a g e ) . Around 8000 B . C . b l a d e p r o d u c t i o n
i s dominant ( a l o n q w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f numerous a x e s - a d z e s ,
flake tools, etc.). B l a d e s were shaped i n t o arrowheads, s i c k l e
b l a d e s , saw b l a d e s , e t c . S i c k l e b l a d e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d by t h e
c l e a r l u s t e r on one o r two edges and t h e y became a c o n s t a n t com-
ponent of e a c h assemblage (up t o 7% of t h e t o t a l " t o o l s " ) from
.
t h e N a t u f i a n onwards ( u n t i l t h e I r o n Age, i . e , 600 B . C . ) . Ex-
p e r i m e n t a l work a s w e l l as microwear a n a l y s i s h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
the c o n t e n t i o n of Garrod and N e u v i l l e was p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t and
t h e s p e c i f i c sheen r e s u l t e d from c u t t i n g c e r e a l s (Anderson 1 9 8 0 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , o n e may s t i l l i n f e r from t h e s e d a t a t h a t t h e i n t e n s i v e
u s e o f c e r e a l s a s a s t a p l e food was commenced by t h e N a t u f i a n s
even though t h e r e a r e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h i s r e s o u r c e was
utilized earlier.
Grinding s t o n e s occur archacoloqically a t l e a s t since t h e
e a r l y m i l l e n n i a of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c i n t h e L e v a n t . Pounding
s t o n e s a r e known a l r e a d y from Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran s i t e s
(Figure 5.2). T h e i r p u r p o s e i s u n c l e a r ; t h e y c o u l d have been u s e d
106 PATRICIA SMITH CT AL.
f o r p r o c e s s i n g a c o r n s and w i l d c e r e a l g r a i n s ( p r o b a b l y a f t e r
r o a s t i n g ) , a s w e l l a s f o r pounding o c h r e . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f
pounding c e r e a l s seems t o f i t t h e model t h a t i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e
c a r e m o r t a r s and p e s t l e s a s p r e a d a p t a t i o n p r e c e d i n g t h e N a t u f i a n .
I n d e e d , t h e N a t u f i a n b a s e camps p r o v i d e l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n s o f
pounding t o o l s and s i c k l e b l a d e s a s mentioned e a r l i e r i n t h i s
s e c t i o n ( s e e Bar-Yosef i 9 8 1 a ) .
A d i s c e r n i b l e s h i f t occurred with t h e Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
when t h e number of cup h o l e s a n d g r i n d i n g t o o l s ( q u e r n s and hand-
stones) increased considerably. T h i s phenomenon c o r r e l a t e s w e l l
w i t h t h e c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r d o m e s t i c a t e d wheat and b a r l e y (Cauvin
1978; Hopf 1 9 6 9 ) . From c i r c a 7500 B.C. t h e g r i n d i n g s t o n e s be-
came a l m o s t t h e s o l e t y p e o f p r o c e s s i n g d e v i c e and t h i s was main-
t a i n e d through t h e following millennia i n t h e Levant. The d i f f u s i o n
of g r i n d i n g s t o n e s i n t o t h e d e s e r t i c r e g i o n t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e
s e v e n t h millennium o r s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r (by a few c e n t u r i e s ) . I f
t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s c o r r e c t , t h e r e i s a s h o r t l a p s e of t i m e (sever?.."
hundred y e a r s ) b e f o r e t h e g r o u p s who e x p l o i t e d t h e s e m i a r i d z o n e s
a d o p t t h e new t o o l s . I t i s n o t y e t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e whether
t h e y grew t h e c e r e a l s o r o b t a i n e d them from t h e f a r m e r s o f t h e
M e d i t e r r a n e a n zone. The p a l e o c l i m a t i c e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o a w e t t e r
p e r i o d ( t h e s e v e n t h millennium B . C . ) , and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c u l -
t i v a t i n g b a r l e y during a seasonal migratory p a t t e r n ( l i k e t h a t of
Bedouin g r o u p s ) s h o u l d n o t be r u l e d o u t .
The B o t a n i c a l Remains
The s c a r c i t y o f p a l e o b o t a n i c a l remains i s p a r t l y , b u t n o t
s o l e l y , due t o t h e u s e o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e
past. The main r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f p l a n t remains a r e
t h e p h y s i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e d e p o s i t s and t h e s e a s o n a l c l i m a t i c
v a r i a t i o n s t y p i c a l o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n zone. The a n n u a l w e t t i n g
and d r y i n g o f t h e c l a y e y terra rossa s o i l s and o f t h e loamy c l a y
harnra s o i l s ( i n t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n ) d e s t r o y e d most o f t h e o r g a n i c
s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e s i t e s under d i s c u s s i o n . Moreover, t h e summer
c r a c k i n g of t h e s e s o i l s e n a b l e d minute specimens t o p e n e t r a t e
e a r l i e r l a y e r s . A s a r e s u l t , even t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h a r c o a l
samples f o r d a t i n g i s l i m i t e d . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e f a i r l y good
p r e s e r v a t i o n of bones compensates f o r t h i s . The s i t u a t i o n i n t h e
s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s is t h e r e v e - t s e ; char-coal i s w e l l p r e s e r v e d but
t h e bones have m o s t l y decayed. The b e t t e r p r e s e r v a t i o n of p l a n t
remains o c c u r r e d i n s i l t i c d e p o s i t s on t h e margin of t h e d e s e r t s
a s i n J e r i c h o and S a l i b i y a I X ( i n t h e Lower J o r d a n V a l l e y ) .
The s c a n t a v a i l a b l e g r a i n s from t h e s o u t h e r n Levant ( i n c l u d i n g
t h o s e a n a l y z e d i n u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a ) i n d i c a t e t h a t Emmer wheat,
and p o s s i b l y a form o f d o m e s t i c a t e d b a r l e y c a n be found from t h e
P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A (8300-7500 B .C . ) onwards (Hopf 1969) .
Except f o r a r a r e o c c u r r e n c e of Tr'Lt'Leton d'Le0ccm i n Kebaran
l a y e r s a t Nahal Oren (Noy e t a l . 1 9 7 3 ) , i s o l a t e d g r a i n s i n d i c a t e
5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT 107
t h e u s e o f w i l d c e r e a l s u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e P r e - P o t t e r y
N e o l i t h i c A and even l a t e r .
C u l t i v a t i o n o f wheat a n d w i l d b a r l e y was r e c e n t l y confirmed
f o r e a r l y e i g h t millennium s i t e s i n t h e Damascus Basin (Van Z e i s t
and Bakker-Heeres 1 9 7 9 ) . S i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s a r e known a l r e a d y
from J e r i c h c , T e l l Mureybit, and Abu H u r e i r a i n t h e E u p h r a t e s
v a l l e y and t h e l a t e r s i t e o f Beidha (Helbaek 1966; Hopf 1969;
Moore 1978; Van Z e i s t 1 9 7 0 ) .
C o l l e c t i o n o f w i l d f r u i t s and n u t s (almonds, p i s t a c h i o ) con-
tinued i n the following millennia. The g a t h e r i n g of w i l d p u l s e s
s l o w l y gave way d u r i n g t h e e i g h t h millennium t o t h e i r s y s t e m a t i c
c u l t i v a t i o n (Van Z e i s t and Bakker-Heeres 1979; Zohary and Hopf
1 9 7 3 ) . One may t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f w i l d
c e r e a l s , p u l s e s , f r u i t s , and n u t s s h i f t e d in t h e same o r d e r i n t o
s y s t e m a t i c c u l t i v a t i o n , which l e d t h r o u g h i t s ongoing a n n u a l p r o -
c e d u r e s t o t h e d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s s p e c i e s . Farming o f
g r a i n s and s e e d s p r e c e d e d t h e g a r d e n i n g o f f r u i t t r e e s by a b o u t
three millennia.
T h i s f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e i s n o t r e a l l y amenable t o t h e
t e s t i n g of any h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f
v e g e t a b l e and meat f o o d s t u f f s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s under d i s c u s s i o n
within each of t h e various archaeological e n t i t i e s . For t h i s
r e a s o n we have u n d e r t a k e n a comprehensive program of s t r o n t i u m
a n a l y s e s o f f a u n a l a n d human b o n e s , d i s c u s s e d below.
S h i f t s i n t h e Faunal Spectra
Keeping i n mind t h e p r e l i m i n a r y n a t u r e of some o f t h e r e p o r t s ,

we h a v e summarized t h e f a u n a l d a t a p u b l i s h e d by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i -
g a t o r s i n F i g u r e 5.3. The h i s t o g r a m s r e p r e s e n t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s
of bone c o u n t s (and n o t t h e minimum number o f i n d i v i d u a l s ) . The
o v e r a l l p a t t e r n e x h i b i t s a c l e a r s h i f t from a v a i l a b l e game t o
dominance o f c a p r o v i n e s d u r i n q t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B ( c a .
7500-6000 B . C . ) . (The p r e s e n c e of i b e x i n s i t e s s u c h a s Rosh
Horesha and Abu Salem i n t h e Neqev H i g h l a n d s i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l o -
c a l environment and n o t an e a r l y d o m e s t i c a t i o n . The s c a r c i t y o f
Capra i n t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d s h o u l d b e n o t e d . )
From comparison o f t h e changes i n t h e f a u n a l s p e c t r a w i t h t h e
s h i f t s i n v e g e t a l r e s o u r c e s , one may c o n c l u d e t h a t animal domes-
t i c a t i o n f o l l o w e d c e r e a l c u l t i v a t i o n by s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s .
S i t e L o c a t i o n s , S i t e C o n t e n t s , and P a t t e r n s o f E x p l o i t a t i o n
F i g u r e 5 . 4 i s a t e n t a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e major economic
a c t i v i t i e s a n d i n t e r r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n of a n n u a l movement o r mere
e x p e d i t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , supplemented w i t h rough e s t i m a t e s o f
s i t e s i z e (Bar-Yosef, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) . T h e prime a r e a i n which
t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o c u l t i v a t i o n and herding domesticated animals
o r i g i n a l l y t o o k p l a c e i s t h e "Pistachio-Quercetum zone"
'I-
E ?
GAmEnING
LARGE SITES
* flLWIXC
SMALt. s z r F 5
1 , -
" " H T l u G & G & T " r R , H G
-,
WALL SITES
- - - --
=
. -rnCk\, KrBm\
FIGURE 5 . 4 . T e n t a t i v e s m m o f ma.?or economic a c t i v i t i e s

" 0 "
i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c sequence of the southern l e v a n t
(de Contenson and Van Liere 1 9 6 4 ) . I n t e r m s of. v e g e t a t i o n a l zones

a t t h e end of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e and e a r l y Holocene, i t i n c l u d e s t h e
Mediterranean and I r a n o - T u r a n i a n r e g i o n s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e
J o r d a n V a l l e y , s t r e t c h i n g i n t o i n l a n d S y r i a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s Val-
ley. I n t h e m a r g i n a l , s e m i a r i d , and a r i d a r e a s ( w e t t e r d u r i n g
t h e s e v e n t h millennium B.C.), l o c a l a d a p t a t i o n s e n a b l e d t h e
emergence o f p a s t o r a l s o c i e t i e s .
FIGURE 5 . 3 . Summary o f unguzate fauna; s ; z s t v a fwr, rna.j.0~

s i t e s i n t h e m c h a e d o q i c a 2 sequence o f tkc sa^'^herr. Levant
( t a k e n from Bar-Yosef 1980).
110 PATRICIA SMITH ET AL
SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR CHANGE I N DIET AND HEALTH STATUS
Specimens A v a i l a b l e f o r Study
The p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e N a t u f i a n i s p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h
o n l y two f a i r l y complete s k e l e t o n s , b o t h f e m a l e , from Ein Gev.
One, from Ein Gev I , i s d a t e d t o c i r c a 1 3 , 7 5 0 B.P.; t h e o t h e r
from Nahal Ein Gev, i s d a t e d t o c i r c a 1700 B.P. (Arensburg 1977;
Arensburg and Bar-Yosef 1 9 7 3 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e f r a g m e n t a r y
r e m a i n s , m a i n l y t e e t h a n d j a w s , from t h e A u r i g n a c i a n d e p o s i t s a t
E l Wad and Kebara, a s w e l l a s one i n t a c t humerus from Kebara
(McCown and K e i t h 19391. T h e r e a r e no p r e c i s e d a t e s f o r t h e s e
specimens, which McCown and K e i t h c o n s i d e r e d i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e
from t h e N a t u f i a n r e m a i n s a t t h e s i t e , a l t h o u g h Henry and
S e r v e l l o (1974) have proposed an approximate d a t e o f 1 3 , 0 0 0 B.C.E.
The N a t u f i a n i s much b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o v e r 200 s k e l e t a l
remains from d i f f e r e n t s i t e s . Most o f t h e s e a r e i n t h e n o r t h e r n
and c e n t r a l r e g i o n s o f I s r a e l : Shukbah (Garrod 1 9 4 2 b ) , E l Wad
I
(Garrod a n d Bate 1 9 3 7 ) , Kebara ( T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e 1 9 3 2 ) , Nahal Oren
!
(Nay e t a l . 1973; S t e k e l i s a n d Y i z r a e l i 19631, Eynan ( P e r r o t
1966; V a l l a 1 9 8 1 ) , Hayonim (Bar-Yosef and Goren 19731, and R a k e f e t . i
I n most c a s e s t h e N a t u f i a n b u r i a l s were dug i n t o t h e l i v i n g
f l o o r s o f e a r l i e r l e v e l s o f o c c u p a t i o n . A t E l Wad, specimens have 1
been r e s o r t e d and r e l a b e l e d s e v e r a l t i m e s , a n d it i s d i f f i c u l t t o !
d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f most of t h e specimens
d e s c r i b e d i n Garrod and B a t e (19371. A t Eynan, t h e b e s t - p r e s e r v e d
s k e l e t o n s a r e those? from t h e e a r l i e s t p h a s e , a l t h o u g h t e e t h and
I
jaws from a l l p h a s e s a r e w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d ( V a l l a 1 9 8 1 ) . A t
Hayonim, most of t h e b u r i a l s d a t e t o t h e E a r l y N a t u f i a n p h a s e I
Bar-Yosef and Gore" 1 9 7 3 ) . A t Nahal Oren, most o f t h e b u r i a l s
d a t e t o the Late Natufian. A t Erq e l Ahmar a n d Kebara, most
b u r i a l s d a t e t o t h e E a r l y N a t u f i a n ( N e u v i l l e 1951; T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e
1932).
F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , t h e s k e l e t a l r e c o r d i s less c o m p l e t e . At
J e r i c h o , the l a r g e s t s i t e excavated, with both Pre-Pottery Neolithic
A and P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B r e m a i n s , t h e r e is a s y e t no f i n a l re-
p o r t a v a i l a b l e . Most of t h e p u b l i s h e d d a t a a r e drawn from f i e l d
n o t e s (Kurth and R 6 h r e r - E r t l 1 9 8 1 ) . Most of t h e o t h e r s i t e s have
y i e l d e d much smaller s a m p l e s , m a i n l y from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c
B levels. These i n c l u d e Beisamoun and Abu Ghosh ( L e c h e v a l l i e r
1 9 7 8 ) , Sheikh A l i (Ferembach 19741, Abu Madi, Wadi T b e i k , and Ugrat
e l Mahed from s o u t h e r n S i n a i [Bar-Yosef 1980; Herschkowitz, 1 9 8 2 ) .
P h y s i c a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d M i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r y Trends
E a r l y R m sapier.s ir, t h e L e v a n t , r e p r e s e n t e d by s k e l e t a l re-

mains from Skhul and Q a f z e h , were t a l l and qracile i n comparison
w i t h N e a n d e r t a l s from Europe. The specimens a v a i l a b l e , e x c e p t f o r
Skhul 5 , a r e d o l i c o c e p h a l i c , w i t h l a r g e and prominent f a c e s a n d
5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT Ill
t e e t h (McCown and K e i t h 1939; Smith, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) ;

Vandermeersch 1 9 8 1 ) . The b e s t - p r e s e r v e d of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c
remains, which a r e from E i n Gev, a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e s e e a r l y
specimens by more t h a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . They d i f f e r from them i n
s t a t u r e , c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology, and t o o t h s i z e , a n d b e a r a
c l o s e resemblance t o t h e l a t e r N a t u f i a n s i n t h e s e f e a t u r e s
(Arensburq a n d Bar-Yosef 1973; Arensburq 1977; Smith 1 9 7 7 ) . The
more f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s from E l Wad and Kebara d e s c r i b e d by
McCown and K e i t h (1939) a l s o r e s e m b l e t h e N a t u f i a n s . Although
t h e r e a r e few specimens from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c , i t seems t h a t
by t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h i s p e r i o d , t h o s e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
t y p i c a l o f t h e N a t u f i a n s were a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e r e g i o n .
The p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e N a t u f i a n s have been d e s -
c r i b e d i n some d e t a i l (Arensburg 1973; Ear-Yosef e t a l . 1971-1972;
C r o g n i e r and Dupouy-Madre 1974; Ferembach 1959, 1961, 1977; K e i t h
1931, 1934; McCown 1939; Smith 1970, 1979; S o l i v e r e s 1976;
V a l l o i s 1 9 3 6 ) . The N a t u f i a n s were o f s h o r t t o medium s t a t u r e ,
w i t h m a l e s a v e r a g i n g 1 6 5 cm a n d f e m a l e s 152 cm i n h e i g h t ( T a b l e
5.1). T h e i r s k u l l s were a l s o d o l i c o c e p h a l i c , w i t h l a r g e c r a n i a l
c a p a c i t y ; b r o a d , s h o r t f a c e s ; prominent zygoma; a n d a tendency t o
a l v e o l a r prognathism (Table 5 . 2 ) . The m a n d i b l e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by low, b r o a d rami w i t h s h o r t body l e n g t h and d e e p symphyses
(Table 5 . 3 ) . The t e e t h a r e narrow m e s i o d i s t a l l y b u t broad bucco-
l i n g u a l l y , w i t h l a r g e l i n q u a l t u b e r c l e s on t h e m e x i l l a r y i n c i s o r s
and c a n i n e s a n d l a r g e C a r a b e l l i c u s p s on t h e m a x i l l a r y f i r s t
molars. The p r e m o l a r s a n d t h i r d m o l a r s i n b o t h jaws a r e e s p e c i a l -
l y s m a l l and a g e n e s i s o f t h i r d m o l a r s i s f r e q u e n t (Smith 1970,
1973).
While a l l t h o s e who have s t u d i e d t h e N a t u f i a n s a g r e e t h e i r
e s s e n t i a l homogeneity, Ferembach (1961, 19771, S o l i v e r e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) ,
and C r o g n i e r and Dupouy-Madre (1974) found some s t a t i s t i c a l l y si9-
n i f i c ~ l n td i f f e r e n c e s between samples from Eynan and Nahal Oren i n
head form, f a c i a l b r e a d t h , and m a n d i b u l a r and p o s t c r a n i a l r o b u s t -
icity. The Nahal Oren specimens t e n d t o have s h o r t e r , r o u n d e r
c r a n i a , w i t h reduced b i a y q o m a t i c and ramal w i d t h . Samples from
t h e o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s f a l l between t h e s e e x t r e m e s , w i t h Eynan
among t h e most r o b u s t and Nahal Oren t h e most g r a c i l e . 'When t h e s e
two samples a r e compared w i t h t h o s e found a t o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s ,
Nahal o r e n a p p e a r s t o be t h e most d i v e r g e n t ( t a b l e s 5 . 2 and 5.3),
and r e s e m b l e s t h e l a t e r N e o l i t h i c samples. For example, ramus
width i n males a t Nahal o r e n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r t h a n a t any
other s i t e ( p < .05). Eynan, a s Ferembach (1977) p o i n t e d o u t ,
d i v e r g e s i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n toward extreme r o b u s t i c i t y ,
and i n t h i s f e a t u r e i s matched o n l y by a f e w specimens from o t h e r
Natufian s i t e s .
I t h a s been p o s t u l a t e d t h a t d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s may a c c o u n t
f o r t h e o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n r o b u s t i c i t y between specimens
from Nahal Oren and Eynan (Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ) . However, t h e s p e c i -
mens from Eynan d e s c r i b e d by Ferembach (1961) a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o
t h e e a r l i e s t p h a s e o f t h e N a t u f i a n ( V a l l a 19811, whereas t h o s e
from N a h a l Oren b e l o n g t o t h e t e r m i n a l N a t u f l c m . The i r o r p h o i o c i c a i
112 PATRICIA SMITH E T A L
TABLE 5 . 1 S t a t u r e and Dimorphism i n D i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s a
Male Fema l e b
- - TotalDimorphism
Period So. X No. X range %
Mausterian
Skhul, Qafzeh
Natufian ( t o t a l ,
El bad
Skukbah (43Je
Eunan
Nahal Oren
Hayonim
Neolithic
Jerioho p ~ n . 4 ~
Jer-ichc P P N B ~
Abu ~ o s h f
Beisamwvf
South ~ i n a i f
Chalcolithic
Jericho
Bybtos
Bronze Age
JebeZ Q a n q i i r
Sasa
Jen'e'hn
Hellenistie
Jericho
Arab
DOP
A Z Z d a t a based on f e w l e n g t h , e x c e p t u h e r e s t a t e d o t h e r w i s e .
maze
^ p e r c e n t a g e dimorphism c a l c u l a t e d a s -,Ã‘Ã‘ x 100.
'Based o n e s t i m a t e s from K e i t h (19341.

d P r e - ~ o t t e ' n ^ Pdeolithic A.
ePre-Potteq, N e o l i t h i c B.
f ~ a l c u l a t e d frcm Long b o n e s o t h e r t h a n femur.
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e two s i t e s , t h e n , may a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d

t o r e f l e c t a c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e r a t h e r t h a n a r e g i o n a l one.
The i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a t u s o f t h e o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s i s a l s o con-
p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i r c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y mixed composition of samples
from b o t h e a r l y and l a t e p h a s e s o f t h e N a t u f i a n . Unfortunately,

t h e sample s i z e i s t o o s m a l l t o p e r m i t p r o p e r t e s t i n g f o r mor-
p h o l o g i c a l change o v e r t i m e a t Eynan. However, a s t r o n t i u m -
calcium s t u d y ( s e e below) a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s i s f e a s i b l e , and may
be used t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x t e n t of d i e - t a w change o v e r t h i s
period.
I n t h e N e o l i t h i c , t h e few P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A specimens
t h a t have been d e s c r i b e d from J e r i c h n r e s e m b l e t h e Naha1 Oren
Natufians. The P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B samples show t h a t a c l e a r
d i v i s i o n e x i s t s between n o r t h e r n andcen.t-r.al groups,_.w-hJ-ch_,wexe
~ ~
-
a d o p t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , and t h e ' s o u t h e r n S i n a i g r~~- o u-. p , which
~ --
~~
continued
t o depend on h u n t i n g a n d g ~ t h e ' r t n ~ - T hs o e u t h e r n S i n a i spe&iehs
show a c l o s e resemblance- t o t h i ~ a t u f i a n si n s t a t u r e , ' c f a n i S l
l e n g t h , b i z y g o m a t i c w i d t h , and m a n w u l a r s i z e . The main d i f f e r -
ence between'qhem i s found i n c r a n i a l b r e a d t h , which i s excep-
t i o n a l l y narrow i n t h e .--fcl-ier~ .~
~ S i n-a i sample.
I n t h e more n o r t h e r l y s i t e s , a marked i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e i s
found i n a l l P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B s a m p l e s . A t Jericho, the
i n c r e a s e i n male s t a t u r e between P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and" P r e -
P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h a mean
i n c r e a s e i n h e i g h t o f 4 cm. Female s t a t u r e showed no s i q n i f ' i c a n t
i n c r e a s e o v e r tfie same p e r i o d o f t i m e , w i t h mean s t a t u r e o f
157 cm f o r P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and 158 cm f o r P r e - P o t t e r y
N e o l i t h i c B . . As T a b l e 5 . 1 shows, t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e
i n s t a t u r e between N a t u f i a n a.~ n d P r e - P o t...-
~ t e r.y -.N..-
moreover, t h e i n c r e a s e G a J l e - . . s t a t u r e found i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y
-~ -.- - . .
--
e o l i. ~t h. i c A p o p u l a t i o n s ;
~
N e o l i t h i c B was n o t k i n t a i n e d i n l a t e r period-
,
C r a n i a l m o g ' h ~ l o g y , b u t n o t fc5'Eth size, a l s o shows s i g n i f i c a n t

-
chanqes from t h e---N a t u f i a n t o .l-bsÃ‘Nee.Lijih.ip I n t h e n o r t h e r n and
c e n t r a l N a l i t h l c g r o u p s , t h e c r a n i a a r e s b r t e r and t h e b y
I keeping with t h e longer f a c e s , t h e
-these-&--the N ~ t u f 1 a n - s . w ~ -i t h i n c ~ ~ s e d
maximum l e n g t h and' c o r p u s 1e n g t h a s as. ramus .~~height-.but
~
re-
duced r a m u s w i d t h . T h e s e ~ e o l i t h i cp o p u l a t i o n s , t h e n , resemble
t h e Nahal Oren ~ a t u f i a n s . I n t h e s o u t h e r n S i n a i N e o l i t h i c sample,
n e i t h e r s t a t u r e n o r c r a n i o f a c i a l morpholoqy d e p a r t s from t h e
N a t u f i a n norm t o t h e e x t e n t found i n t h e n o r t h e r n s i t e s . T h i s may
be r e l a t e d t o t h e dichotomy i n l i f e - s t y l e s s u g g e s t e d by t h e
archaeological findings. The complex of changes found i n t h e
c r a n i o f a c i a l complex o f p o p u l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e ,
i i t h longer,' nirro-wec:face's
i n c l u d i n g more- - g l o b u T a r - ~ - s k u i 'Iw and
m a n d i b l e s , i s m a i n t a i n e d "by l a t e r p o p u l a ' t i 6 h s i n t h i s r e g i o n . The
o n l y s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t change i s a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l r e d u c -
t i o n i n t o o t h s i z e between P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B and Bronze Age
populations.
S i m i l a r changes have been d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e i n p o p u l a t i o n s
a d o p t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e ( C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven 1 9 7 3 ) . They have
been i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s m a i n t a i n i n g l a r g e t e e t h and powerful m a s t i c a -
t o r y a c t i v i t y i n t a l l , large-muscled h u n t e r s . A s T a b l e s 5 . 3 and
5 . 4 (A a n d B ) i n d i c a t e , t h e sequence o f changes i n I s r a e l and
TO
. m.
w m
a a
w m
to a
..
w w
m to
CY a
m to
Q
w
. m.CQ
m b3
to (0
. .
TO h
IN- CQ
toto
to to
--
NATUFIAN
BRONZE
Jehel Qa'akiir
CHALCOLITHIC
Jenchn - ARAB
nor
N E O L I T H I C PPNB BYZANTINE
Meiron
J e r ' c h a ~
N E O L I T H I C PPNA HELLENISTIC
El Wad Jericho Jer,cho
n
1 I ,
0 100 0 100
FIGURE 5 . 5 . Frequency distribution of different age groups based o n skeletal remains.

118 PATRICIA SMITH E T A L .
TABLE 5.4A Mesiodistat Measurements o f T e e t h i n D i f f e r e n t

Periods
Epipateotithic Neolithic Bronze

- - -
Tooth No. X SD No. X SD No. X SD
Maxi Via
7 8.7
12 6.6
10 7.8
8 7.3
8 7.3
10 10.6
9 10.0
6 9.1
Mandible
3 5.3
11 6.0
10 7.0
7 7.1
9 7.1
16 11.2
13 10.9
9 10.7
Jordan a p p e a r s t o c o n s i s t o f r e d u c e d r o b u s t i c i t y f o l l o w e d by
dental reduction. These f i n d i n g s a r e n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
c o n c l u s i o n s o f C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven.!
Paleodemography
The Upper P a l e o l i t h i c E i n Gev f e m a l e s were found a s p r i m a r y

b u r i a l s b e n e a t h l i v i n g f l o o r s . A t E l Wad and Kebara, t h e
Aurignacian remains were f r a g m e n t a r y and p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t d i s -
t u r b e d s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s . Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e y p r o v i d e l i t t l e
i n f o r m a t i o n o n paleodemography b u t do i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n
b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t are repeated i n t h e Natufian.
A t t h e N a t u f i a n and N e o l i t h i c s i t e s , b o t h p r i m a r y and
secondary s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e b u r i a l s were found. This p a t t e r n
i s r e p e a t e d i n l a t e r p e r i o d s . The d i s s o c i a t i o n o f b o n e s i n
s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s compounds t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and
a g e d e t e r m i n a t i o n and i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o o r r e c o v e r y o f
i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e of e i t h e r poor p r e s e r v a t i o n o r t h e i r
d i s p o s a l elsewhere.
TABLE 5.4B Buecotingual Measurements o f T e e t h i n Different

Periods
Natufian NeoZitkic Bronze

- - -
Tooth No. X SD No. X SD Ho. X SD
Mandible
5 6.2 0.2
12 6.4 0.2
13 8.2 0.9
10 8.2 0.4
14 8.3 1.3
16 10.8 0.3
12 10.6 0.3
9 10.3 0.1
T h i s l a s t p o i n t can b e d e i n o n s t r a t e d by examining t h e d e v i a t i o n s
from m o r t a l i t y p r o f i l e s o f p o p u l a t i o n s f o r which r e l i a b l e d a t a a r e
a v a i l a b l e ( G r i n b l a t 1982). M o r t a l i t y i s normally h i g h e s t i n t h e
f i r s t y e a r of l i f e , f a l l s s l i g h t l y i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , and is
l o w e s t i n l a t e c h i l d h o o d and a d o l e s c e n c e . I n p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h low
l i f e e x p e c t a n c y , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n f a n t d e a t h s may e x c e e d 4 0 % .
T h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f young a d u l t d e a t h s
w i t h o n l y a few i n d i v i d u a l s s u r v i v i n g t o middle o r o l d a g e .
I n c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h a lower f r e q u e n c y
o f i n f a n t d e a t h s and a h i g h e r r a t i o o f o l d e r t o younger i n d i v i d -
uals. F i g u r e 5.5 g i v e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of age a t d e a t h f o r
N a t u f i a n and l a t e r groups. I n c l u d e d a r e t h r e e s a m p l e s from s i t e s
where p r i m a r y b u r i a l was p r a c t i c e d a n d r e c o v e r y was qood. Hel-
l e n i s t i c J e r i c h o r e p r e s e n t s a p o p u l a t i o n i n r e l a t i v e l y good h e a l t h
w i t h qood l i f e e x p e c t a n c y ( H a c h l i l i e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . B y z a n t i n e
Meiron i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a p o p u l a t i o n w i t h p o o r e r l i f e expec-
t a n c y (Smith e t a l . 1981) a n d t h e e a r l y Arab p o p u l a t i o n from Dor
r e p r e s e n t s a g r o u p i n p o o r h e a l t h w i t h low l i f e e x p e c t a n c y (Smith
and Berkowitz, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) . I n e a c h group t h e r e i s an i n -
v e r s e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e p e r c e n t a g e of i n f a n t d e a t h s a n d t h a t
of older adults.
120 PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.
However, t h e N a t u f i a n s i t e s show no such p a t t e r n i n g . A t

Shukbah and a t E l Wad, K e i t h r e p o r t e d 38 and 26% s u b a d u l t s , r e -
s p e c t i v e l y . A t Nahal Oren 1 4 % , a t Eynan 27%, and a t Hayonim 59%
of t h o s e found were i d e n t i f i e d a s s u b a d u l t s . However, v e r y few
of t h e N a t u f i a n a d u l t s were found i n t h e o l d e r a d u l t c a t e g o r y .
S i m i l a r d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e e x p e c t e d p a t t e r n a r e found i n t h e
N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e s and in s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s i t e s from l a t e r
periods. The i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t some o t h e r means must b e a d o p t e d
t o estimate longevity i n these populations.
A n a l y s i s o f t h e r a t i o o f young t o o l d a d u l t s can p r o v i d e t h i s
information. Using t h i s a p p r o a c h , it seems t h a t l o n g e v i t y i n -
c r e a s e d i n t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d and showed a second b u t temporary
i n c r e a s e in t h e l a t e H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman p e r i o d . Arensburg
(1973) e s t i m a t e d an a v e r a g e l i f e s p a n of 30 y e a r s f o r t h e Epi-
p a l e o l i t h i c , i n c r e a s i n g t o 34 i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , 39 i n t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman p e r i o d s , and d r o p p i n g s l i g h t l y t h e r e a f t e r
t o 32 y e a r s i n e a r l y Arabs. Female l i f e e x p e c t a n c y o v e r t h e same
p e r i o d s a v e r a g e d some 4 y e a r s l e s s i n each g r o u p .
S k e l e t a l Pathology
S k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y h a s n o t y e t been a n a l y z e d i n d e t a i l f o r
e i t h e r the Epipaleolithic o r the Neolithic. At l e a s t f o u r a d u l t s
from Nahal Oren and t h r e e from Eynan have m i l d c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a
and p a r i e t a l p i t t i n g . Cranial thickness i n a l l Natufian s k u l l s
is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f l a t e r g r o u p s ( A n i 1 9 8 3 ) , b u t t h i s may
represent genetic r a t h e r than pathological v a r i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y
s i n c e t h e c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s of t h e i r l o n g bones i s a l s o g r e a t e r
than t h a t of l a t e r populations. T h e r e i s no mention o f c r i b r a
o r b i t a l i a i n a n a l y s e s of N e o l i t h i c specimens, b u t t h i c k e n i n g o f
t h e d i p l o e i n two c r a n i a from J e r i c h o was r e p o r t e d by Kurth a n d
R6brer-Ertl (1981). I n a l l subsequent p e r i o d s t h e incidence of
c r i b r a and p a r i e t a l p i t t i n g i s h i g h , w i t h some 40% o f a d u l t s and
60% o f c h i l d r e n a f f e c t e d ( T a b l e 5 . 5 ) . S i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n seems
t o have a f f e c t e d males and f e m a l e s s i m i l a r l y (Nathan a n d Haas
1966; Smith a n d Berkowitz, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) , t h e c o n d i t i o n h e r e
may b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n t o d i e t .
The t h i c k n e s s of c o r t i c a l bone i n t h e humerus o f Middle
P a l e o l i t h i c N a t u f i a n and more r e c e n t g r o u p s h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n
measured by Smith e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 a , b ) . According t o Bloom and Laws
( l 9 7 O ) , a v a l u e of 7.0 o r l e s s f o r combined c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s
(CCT) o f humerus i s d i a g n o s t i c of o s t e o p o r o s i s . T h i s c o n d i t i o n
was d i a g n o s e d i n o n e f e m a l e from ~l Wad, i n 20-30% of Bronze Age
and Roman samples, and i n 53% of f e m a l e s from t h e e a r l y Arab
s i t e o f Dor. With CCT v a l u e s c o r r e c t e d f o r a g e and s i z e , CCT i n
t h e N a t u f i a n s a n d Middle P a l e o l i t h i c specimens i s s i m i l a r a n d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r than i n l a t e r populations (Table 5 . 6 ) . This
may r e f l e c t f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n u s e o f t h e arms a s w e l l a s
b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n t h e e a r l i e r populations.
TABLE 5.5 C r i b m Orbitaliaa
Children Adults
Number Frequency 1mber Frequenq
Group examined (%) examined (%)
Natufian 2 50
Chalao l i t h-ia 4 100
M. Bronze 5 100
Roman-Byzantine 21 62
Early Arab 33 84
~Cm2.ymiZd categoq--porosities--present i n Natufians. I n

a t i o t h e r groups t h e c o n d i t i o n v a r i e s from mild t o very severe,
a f t e ~t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n employed i n Nat'hm and Baas (1966).
While no N e o l i t h i c b o n e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y , some

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f bone p a t h o l o g y have been p r o v i d e d by Kurth and
R 6 h r e r - E r t l ( 1 9 8 1 ) . They found t h a t l o n g bones of 2 8 i n d i v i d u a l s
showed s i g n s o f c o r t i c a l h y p e r t r o p h y , which was t e n t a t i v e l y a t -
t r i b u t e d t o calcium deficiency. They a l s o d e s c r i b e d one two-
y e a r - o l d i n f a n t w i t h bony d e f o r m i t i e s p o s s i b l y due t o h e r e d i t a r y
v i t a m i n D - r e s i s t a n t r i c k e t s . The C h a l c o l i t h i c r e m a i n s a r e t o o
s c a n t t o p r o v i d e much i n f o r m a t i o n . However, j u v e n i l e s k e l e t o n s
from Ghassul show e x c e p t i o n a l l y t h i n c o r t i c a l bone f o r s i z e i n
r e l a t i o n t o l e n g t h and a n a v e r a g e of s i x growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n
the t i b i a . A l l have enamel h y p o p l a s i a and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a .
Few s i g n s of trauma o r f r a c t u r e have been r e p o r t e d , w i t h o n l y
t h r e e c a s e s d e s c r i b e d f o r N e o l i t h i c J e r i c h o i n t h e abovementioned
report. However, few c a s e s o f trauma o r d e f o r m i t i e s have been
r e p o r t e d from any s i t e i n t h i s r e g i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f p e r i o d .
There i s , t h e r e f o r e , l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t i n j u r y d u r i n g
hunting o r a s a r e s u l t of i n t e r - o r intragroup aggression.
Dental Pathology
I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y , a d i s t i n c t i o n must b e
made between enamel h y p o p l a s i a and o t h e r p a t h o l o g i c a l l e s i o n s .
Enamel h y p o p l a s i a r e f l e c t s d e v e l o p m e n t a l d i s t u r b a n c e s d u r i n g
tooth formation, and so r e l a t e s t o s p e c i f i c e v e n t s i n p r e n a t a l
l i f e and e a r l y i n f a n c y , when t o o t h crown development t a k e s p l a c e .
A t t r i t i o n , c a r i e s , and p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e a r e , i n c o n t r a s t ,
c u m u l a t i v e d i s e a s e s t h a t r e f l e c t in. a d u l t s t h e s u m of past
dietary habits.
TABLE 5 . 6 Measurements i n t k Humerus of Females ( L e f t Side OnZy)
CCP CCT/Lenqtk Maximum L e q t k

- - -
so. x No. x So. x
Pa%eo%itkie 1 10.0 10.0 1 3.4 3.4 1 330 --
Natufian IS 8.810.5-6.0 4 3.2 3.4-2.8 6 282 288-277
M . Bronze 10 7.7 10.1-4.1 8 2.4 3.2-1.4 8 306 321-293
Roman 19 8.0 9.7-5.7 11 2.7 3.3-2.0 11 287 302-265
Arab 14 7.3 10.1-4.3 11 2.4 3.2-1.6 11 301 332-281
'^'Combined e m t i c a t t h i c k n e s s .
TABLE 5 . 7 Disti<bution o f Dental Pathology by Period and Age

GroupU
Total Aged Aged Frequenc3 (%)

number > 6 >20 Hypo- Tooth
examined years G a r s p l a s i a Caries loss
Natufian
E l Wad
Kebara
Shukbah
Eynan
Nahal Grfin.
Hay onim
Neolithic
Jericho PPNB
Abu Ghosh
Chalcolithic
Azor
Arad
Beersheba
Bronze Age
Jebel Qa ' a k i i r
Sasa
Jer-icho
Roman Jerusalem and.

Ein Gedi
a ~ l y p o p l a s i ac a l c u l a t e d a s percentage o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h per-
manent t e e t h w i t h hypoptasia ( i . e . , aged s i x o r more). Caries and
t o o t h l o s s c a l c u l a t e d a s percentage o f a d u l t s ( i . e . , aged 20 or
more) u i t h e i t h e r c o n d i t i o n .
Nmbers i n parentheses r e f l e c t frequencies derived from small
samples.
Enamel Hypoplasia
I n t h e N a t u f i a n s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a was found i n l e s s t h a n 1%

o f p r i m a r y t e e t h , b u t i n 20-30% o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h permanent
t e e t h from a l l s i t e s e x c e p t Nahal Oxen. A t Nahal Oren, t h e
p r e v a l e n c e o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a was h i g h e r , w i t h 5 4 % a f f e c t e d
(Table 5 . 7 ) . Hypoplasia was most commonly found on t h e c e r v i c a l
t h i r d t o h a l f o f c a n i n e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e t o o t h
I24 PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.
formed between t h e a g e s o f t h r e e and f o u r y e a r s ( S c o t t and Symons

1 9 8 0 ) . A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a was found a t t h e
North A f r i c a n E p i p a l e o l i t h i c s i t e of T a f o r a l t , b u t i n h i g h e r f r e -
q u e n c i e s ( P o i t r a t - T a r g o l a 1 9 6 2 ) . I t presumably r e p r e s e n t s d i e t a r y
d i s t u r b a n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h weaning. I t h a s r e c e n t l y been suy-
q e s t e d t h a t it i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e p i s o d e s o f lowered l e v e l s o f
serum c a l c i u m v a l u e s o f t h e o r d e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e t a n y ; t h a t i s ,
8.0 my ( N i k i f o r u k and P r a s e r 1 9 8 1 ) .
A s T a b l e 5 . 7 shows, t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a a t t h e
I
N a t u f i a n s i t e s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t found i n Middle P a l e o l i t h i c
huminids. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a i s s l i g h t l y m u r e p r e v a l e n t i n t h e
N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e s , and i n c r e a s e s a g a i n i n l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s . At
t h e s e l a t e r s i t e s , h y p o p l a s i a i s found w i t h some r e g u l a r i t y i n
primary t e e t h . I t i s a l s o found on t h e f i r s t permanent m o l a r s and
i n c i s o r s , which d e v e l o p a t an e a r l i e r a g e t h a n t h e c a n i n e s . This
s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d r e n were weaned a t an e a r l i e r age i n l a t e r
p e r i o d s , a f i n d i n g c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e presumably d e c r e a s e d i n t e r -
v a l between c h i l d b i r t h s .
A method f o r examining t h e p a t t e r n of d i e t a r y s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n
and weaning on t h e b a s i s o f s t r o n t i u m - c a l c i u m r a t i o s i n j u v e n i l e
b o n e s h a s r e c e n t l y been d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r t h e Arab p o p u l a t i o n a t
Dor. I n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n a mean a g e of 2 . 5 y e a r s f o r weaning was
e s t i m a t e d ( S i l l e n and Smith 1 9 8 4 ) . We hope t o a p p l y t h i s method
t o t h e N a t u f i a n and P r e - P o t t e q N e o l i t h i c sample t o examine f u r t h e r
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between weaning a g e and economic change i n t h e
Levantine archaeological sequence.
The h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s p r e -
sumably r e f l e c t s a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f c h i l d h o o d d i s t u r b a n c e s i n
t h e l a t e r groups. I t may a l s o mean t h a t a s i m i l a r p e r c e n t a g e was k
a f f e c t e d i n t h e e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s b u t t h a t fewer s u r v i v e d s u c h
episodes. However, t h e c o n d i t i o n h a s been found i n e x t r e m e l y
h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i n A u s t r a l i a n p r e - c o n t a c t h u n t e r s and g a t h e r e r s . '
I n d i f f e r e n t samples r a n q i n q from 6000 B.P. t o 1800 A.D., t h e i n -
c i d e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a v a r i e d between 70 and 8 0 % . I t a f f e c t e d
mainly canines, as i n t h e Natufians. T h e r e was no e v i d e n c e t o
s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h reduced l i f e e x p e c t a n c y .
Other Dental Evidence
I n t e r - s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n age of i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t o some ex- I

t e n t r e f l e c t e d i n f r e q u e n c y o f antemortem t o o t h l o s s . T h i s i s
most pronounced a t E l Wad (where two c o m p l e t e l y d e n t u r e l e s s i n -
d i v i d u a l s were f o - ~ n d ) f, o l l o w e d by Eynan, Nahal Oren, Hayonim, 1,
and Kebara i n d e c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f f r e q u e n c y (Table 5 . 8 ) . Mean
values f o r a t t r i t i o n vary. A t t r i t i o n was most s e v e r e a t E l Wad
and Eynan, and l e a s t s e v e r e a t Kebara and Hayonim. These d i f -
f e r e n c e s were m a i n t a i n e d u s i n g a g e - c o r r e c t e d s c o r e s (Smith 1 9 7 0 ) .
Given t h e homogeneity o f t o o t h s i z e , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s can b e
c o n s i d e r e d e v i d e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a b r a s i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e
foods i n g e s t e d .
I
TABLE 5.8 Frequency Distribution of Dental Disease i n

Natufian Adultsa
Percentage
Number of Percentage mztemortm
Site teeth caries loss
E l Wad 601 2.8 15.0

Kfkra 306 0.3 0.9
Hayonim 70 (0.51 2.8
Eynan 327 3.7 2.7
Nahd Oren 264 7.6 2.6
"Â¥!Takefrom Smith ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
F u r t h e r grounds f o r assuming d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a t e o f a t -
t r i t i o n a r e p r o v i d e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between l e v e l s o f a t t r i -
t i o n i n f i r s t a n d s e c o n d permanent m l a r s . Since eruption times
of t h e s e two t e e t h d i f f e r by 6 y e a r s , d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t r i t i o n
v a l u e s between t h e s e two t e e t h r e f l e c t t h i s 6 y e a r p e r i o d . When
pronounced, t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i c a t e s e v e r e a t t r i t i o n r a t e s .
I n a comparison o f a t t r i t i o n s c o r e s i n f i r s t and s e c o n d m o l a r s ,
s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r r a t e s o f a t t r i t i o n were d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r
Kebara a s compared t o E l Wad, Eynan, and Nahal Oren (Smith 1970,
1 9 7 2 ) . C a r i o u s l e s i o n s were found i n l e s s t h a n 1 . 5 % of t e e t h
from Hayonim and Kebara and i n 2 - 3 % o f t e e t h from E l Wad and
Eynan, b u t i n 6.8% of t e e t h from Nahal Oren. Periodontal
d i s e a s e , measured by t h e e x t e n t o f a l v e o l a r r e c e s s i o n , was a l s o
more pronounced a t Nahal Oren ( T a b l e 5 . 3 ) . Nahal Oren, t h e n ,
shows e v i d e n c e o f d e n t a l d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s u s u a l l y found i n a s s o -
c i a t i o n w i t h a s t i c k y c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t ( p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e and
c a r i e s ) a s well a s a higher incidence of hypoplasia than t h a t
found a t o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s . T h i s e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y change
a g r e e s w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d changes i n c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology d i s -
c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n on s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y .
D e n t a l d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s a t t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e s resemble t h o s e
found a t Nahal Oren, w i t h s l i g h t l y more c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l
d i s e a s e , antemortem t o o t h l o s s , and h y p o p l a s i a t h a n t h a t c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c of t h e Natufians i n general. Dental h e a l t h s t a t u s a t
t h i s t i m e , however, i s s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of
later agriculturalists. Here p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n food p r e p a -
r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e - h - t - r o d u c t i o n o f p o t t e r y , a s w e l l as d i f f e r -
e n c e s i n food s e l e c t i o n , may b e r e s p o n s i b l e . The main d i f f e r e n c e s
found a r e i n t h e i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f h y p o p l a s i a , p e r i o d o n t a l
d i s e a s e , a n d antemortem t o o t h loss i n t h e l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s .
I26 PATRICIA SMITH ET AL
Strontium-Calcium Ratios
Research i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h e m i s t r y o f s t r o n t i u m a n d
calcium h a s d e l i v e r e d an u n a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t : a method f o r t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e amounts o f meat and v e g e t a b l e
foods i n p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s in s k e l e t o n s . S i n c e v e g e t a b l e f o o d s con-
t a i n h i g h e r .strontium-calcium (Sr/Ca) r a t i o s t h a n do meat f o o d s ,
d i e t s h e a v i l y depend--table foods r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y
h i g h Sr/Ca r a t i o s i n bone. I n c o n t r a s t , d i e t s h e a v i l y dependent
on meat f o o d s result i n r e l a t i v e l y low Sr/Ca r a t i o s i n bone. De-
t a i l e d background i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t e c h n i q u e h a s been p r e s e n t e d
e l s e w h e r e ( S i l l e n and Kavanaqh 1 9 8 2 ) .
A t l e a s t two Sr/Ca s t u d i e s h a v e been d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y
a t t h e Levantine sequence. Schoeninger (1981, 1982) e x p l i c i t l y
s e t o u t t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n
t h e Near E a s t was p r i m a r i l y an economic o r a s u b s i s t e n c e change.
She examined t h e L e v a n t i n e sequence r e p r e s e n t e d by specimens from
l e v e l s G-B ( M o u s t e r i a n - N a t u f i a n ) a t E l Wad, and a s i m i l a r sequence
a t Kebara. On t h e b a s i s of comparisons o f human specimens t o
h e r b i v o r e specimens, s h e concluded t h a t " w i t h i n t h e Levant t h e
n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s a t Kebara B and ~l.'w&&~.--(~-etufien~s)
were i n c l u d i n g l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of . p l a n t m a t e r i a l i n t h e i r
" d i e t s " . , (_Schoeninger 1981, p . 8 7 ) . T h i s co"c1usion' w a ' s - i n d e p a d e n t -
l y ' e s t a b l i s h e d by d a t a w e h a v e g a t h e r e d f o r t h e N a t u f i a n a t
Hayonim Cave ( S i l l e n 1 9 8 1 a , b ) . I n o u r s t u d y , it was found t h a t
N a t u f i a n human Sr/Ca l e v e l s f e l l midway ~ . between t h e Sr/Ca l e v e l s
of N a t u f i a n c a r n i v o r e s and t h o s e ~. o .f h e r b i v o r e s , "I'efle'cTi"'" nq a
c l e a r l y omniva;?us dietary pattern. .-
A more c o n t r 6 M s i a l concl-us-i- r e a c h e d by S c h o e n i n g e r d e r i v e s
from h e r comparison o f t h e N a t u f i a n r e s u l t s t o t h o s e from Kebara C
( K e b a r a n ) . Based on a comparison of human t o h e r b i v o r e bone, s h e
c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e Natuf i a n " r e p r e s e n t s ( a n ) i n c r e a s e d u s e i n ''
p l a n t m a t e r i a l when compared w i t h t h e e a r l i e r human p o p u l a t i o n of

Kebara C ( S c h o e n i n g e r 1981, p . 8 7 ) . I n t u r n , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s
used t o s u p p o r t t h e "broad-spectrum" h y p o t h e s i s o f F l a n n e r y t h a t
t h e major s u b s i s t e n c e change i n t h e r e g i o n o c c u r r e d w e l l b e f o r e
t h e development o f c u l t i v a t i o n , a n d t h a t c u l t i v a t i o n developed as
a means t r - ~ e r p e t u a t e.?a*.. s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n .
However, the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p r e - ~ a t u f i a nE p i p a l e o l i t h i c
d i e t s w i t h Sr/Ca a n a l y s e s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e p a u c i t y o f s k e l e t a l
s a m p l e s from t h i s p e r i o d , and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h e m i c a l change
d u r i n g i n t e r m e n t . F o r example, no d i f f e r e n c e i n Sr/Ca r a t i o s he-
tween h e r b i v o r e and c a r n i v o r e f a u n a is d e t e c t a b l e f o r t h e Kebaran
a t E i n Gev ( A . S i l l e n , u n p u b l i s h e d ) . Also, t h e c h a r r e d nSTture of
t h e human sample from Kebara C (Kebaran) r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f
whether i t i s comparable t o u n c h a r r e d bone from l a t e r p e r i o d s .
Strontium-calcium a n a l y s e s can n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n -
f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g d i e t a r y change b e f o r e a n d / o r c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h
t h e b e q i n n i n g of food p r o d u c t i o n i f r e a s o n a b l e sample s i z e s , appro-
p r i a t e s i t e s , a n d f a u n a l and o t h e r c o n t r o l s ' a r e employed. To t h i s
~. ~
. -
end, i n 1980, we d e s i g n e d a n i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f t h e r e l e v a n t f a u n a l
and human m a t e r i a l from some 1 0 s i t e s , i n c l u d i n g Nahal Oren,
Hayonim Cave and T e r r a c e , Eynan, Kebara, E l Wad and Mureybet,
J e r i c h o , Abu Gosh, and Beisamoun. The s t u d y , which i s s t i l l un-
derway, i n c o r p o r a t e s w e l l o v e r 500 s p e c i m e n s , i n c l u d i n g
c a r n i v o r e s , h e r b i v o r e s , a n d humans of known a g e and sex:-
F o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r , we have conducted a p r e l i m i -
n a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c
B of J e r i c h o , a n d h a v e compared t h e s e d a t a t o d a t a a l r e a d y pub--
l i s h e d f o r t h e N a t u f i a n a t Hayonim Cave. I t s h o u l d b e emphasized
t h a t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.9 r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r i m f i n d i n g
and s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n a s a c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t o f t h e s t u d y .
I n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B it i s c l e a r t h a t human d i e t s
have s h i f t e d t o a g r e a t e r dependence o n meat p r o d u c t s a s compared
t o t h e Natufian. T h i s phenomenon i s e a s i l y s e e n when t h e d a t a f o r
humans" a r e compared t o t h e m i d p o i n t between t h e a v e r a g e Sr/Ca
values of h e r b i v o r e s and c a r n i v o r e s . A t Hayonim, t h e a v e r a g e
Sr/Ca v a l u e f o r t h e humans i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e m i d p o i n t
f o r f a u n a a t t h a t s i t e . However, a t J e r i c h o ( P r e - P o t t e r y
N e o l i t h i c B), t h e mean human v a l u e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lower t h a n t h e
corresponding f a u n a l midpoint. I t is o f i n t e r e s t t h a t t h i s f i n d -
i n g c o i n c i d e s w i t h b o t h t h e f a u n a l e v i d e n c e f o r dependence o n
a n i m a l husbandry i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B and t h e s k e l e t a l
e v i d e n c e f o r i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d .
DISCUSSION
From t h e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e d a t a , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s -
t a b l i s h t h e s e v e r i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g o n Upper
P a l e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e L e v a n t . The d i f f e r e n c e s found i n
s t a t u r e and g e n e r a l s k e l e t a l morphology between p i d d l e P a l e o l i t h i c
and Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s a r e , however, sm-ff-i-ciently'TZFge
t o i n d i c a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f humans w i t h
t h e i r environment. Synchronous changes o c c u r i n Europe a t t h i s ~.
t i m e ( P r a y e r l98O), b u t n o t i n N o r t h ' A f r i c a IFerembach 19621 o r
t h e N i l e V a l l e y ( - m d e r s o n 1968; Greene and Annelagos 1972; Smith
1979). I n these instances, E p i p a l e o l i t h i c populations maintained
l a r g e s t a t u r e , r o b u s t i c i t y , and l a r g e t - t h , s i z e . --
S i n c e t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t l a r g e - s c a l e p o p u l a t i o n
r e p l a c e m e n t i n any r e g i o n a t t h i s t i m e , t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l changes
o b s e r v e d may b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s long-term m i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s .
An a s s o c i a t i o n between s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n and c h a n g e s ' i n h u n t i n g
s t r a t e g i e s h a s been proposed f o r E u r o p e..a n - U p p e r - P a l e o l i t h i c popu-
~ ~ ~
l a t i o n s (Brace 1973; P r a y e r 1 9 8 0 ) . These i n v e s t i g a t o r s have sug-

gested" t h a t improved t e c h n o l o g y ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e u s e o f m i s s i l e
p o i n t s ) , a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s e d emphasis on h u n t i n g s m a l l e r , ' l e s s
dangerous mammals, r e m v e d e a r l i e r s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s t h a t had
128 PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.
TABLE 5 . 9 Sv/Ca Values fran t h e Haijonim Natuf-ian and t i e r i c h

? r e - P o t t e q Neotithic E0
SmpZe N Sr/Ca SO
Hayonim Natufian B
Carnivores ( F e l t s sp. o n l y )
Herbiuores (GaseZla sp. only)
Midpoint between herbivores and carnivores
Humans
A l l adult humans
Mates
Females
Jer'icho ?re-Pottery NeoZith'ic B

C&vores ( F e l t s sp. only)
Herbivores (Gazel Ia sp. o n l y )
Midpoint between herbivores and-carnivores
Humans
Ati adult humans
Males
Females
aHayon'im Natufian h a n s are i n d i s t k j u i s - h a b l e from t h e m i d -

point between herbivore and carnivore fauna. On t}ie other hand,
Jer'icho ?re-Pottery fleolithic B humans are s h i f t e d considerably
i n the direction of carnivores.
m a i n t a i n e d t h e l a r g e s i z e and marked dimorphism o f e a r l i e r human

populations.
I n t h e Levant t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h i s view.
Few changes in p a t t e r n s o f a n i m a l e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e e v i d e n t b e f o r e
t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B; moreover, dimorphism i n s t a t u r e shows
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from t h e Middle P a l e o l i t h i c u n t i l r e c e n t
t i m e s . Many mammalian s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s human p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e
.-
Levant a n d Northern Europe d o , however, show a r e d u c t i o n i n s i z e
towards t h e end o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , w i t h p r e d a t o r s e s p e c i a l l y ' a f -
f e c t e d (Davis 1977, 1 9 8 1 ) . There a r e , however, few p r e c e d e n t s
f o r r e l a t i n g t h e o b s e r v e d chances i n human s t a t u r e t o s i z e change
i n carnivores.
E t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a common r e s p o n s e
t o s t r e s s i n hunter-gatherer s o c i e t i e s i s population r e s t r i c t i o n .
The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s f o r t h e Levant i n d i c a t e t h a t by t h e
end o f t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c , t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h i s r e g i o n had,
i n f a c t , c o n s i d e r a b l y increased i n s i z e as shown by t h e i n c r e a s e
i n number, s i z e , and d e n s i t y o f s e t t l e m e n t s ~ . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t ,
i f anyFhing, a more p o s i t i v e b a l a n c e h a d been a c h i e v e d , p r e -
.
sumably due t o a l t e r e d modes o f p r o d u c t i o n .
The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s d i s c u s s e d , i n t h i s c h a p t e r , a s
w e l l as s t u d i e s o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y and s k e l e t a l s t r o n t i u m ,
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t by t h e N a t u f i a n t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r -
s i t e d i v e r s i t y i n resource u t i l i z a t i o n , - w i t h intensive c e r e a l
consumption a t some- .s. i~.,.. t. e s ( S i l l e p l 9 8 4 ) . T h e e a r l y claii^fcii.
~ ~
d o m e s t i c a t e d d o g s i n t h e N a t u f i a n (Garrod and B a t e 1937) h a s now

been v i n d i c a t e d ( D a v i s and V a l l a 1 9 7 8 ) , a l t h o u g h no o t h e r domes-
t i c a t e d p l a n t s o r a n i m a l s h a v e been d e f i n i t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
the Natufian. E t h n o g r a p h i c r e p o r t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t many
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s o c i e t i e s have d o m e s t i c a t e d d o g s w i t h o u t o t h e r
domesticates. T h e r e f o r e , t h e N a t u f i a n d o g s c a n n o t be t a k e n ' a s
e v i d e n c e "Fr t h e d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f h e r d a n i m a l s .
The w e l l - b u i l t s t r u c t u r e s from t h e N a t u f i a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h
s t o r a g e p i t s , i n d i c a t e a t l e a s t some d e g r e e o f p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e -
ment a s w e l l a s t h e u s e ' o f s t o r e d f o o d s . A t Hayonim, t h e
c o n t i n u e d u s e of t h e same s i t e by members of t h e s a m e l i n e a g e i s
f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e i n s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s of b u r i a l s
of i n d i v i d u a l s with congenital absence o f t h i r d molars i n f a r
h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n a L oLher N d t u f i a n s i t e s (Smith 1 9 7 3 ) .
The g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d s i z e of s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e N e o l i t h i c i s
i n d i c a t i v e of improved r e l i a b i l i t y o f r e s o u r c e s . The a s s o c i a t i o n
of P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B c u l t u r e w i t h i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e may
r e f l e c t s e c u l a r t r e n d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h improved food s u p p l i e s :
t h e Sr/Ca d a t a c o l l e c t e d from J e r i c h o s o f a r i n d i c a t e a propor-
t i o n a l i n c r e a s e o f meat: a n d / o r d a i r y p r o t e i n i n d i e t s . The
sudden abandonment of P r e - P o t t e r y ' ~ & l i t h i b B s i t e s s u g g e s t s , how-
e v e r , t h a t t h i s p e r i o d o f p l e n t y was s h o r t l i v e d . T h i s h a s been
a t t r i b u t e d t o various f a c t o r s including increasing"competition f o r
d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r i d i f i c a t i o n , and mounting
population pressure.
~ i v e nt h e p r e s e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e s k e l e t a l r e c o r d , we can-
n o t s t a t e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e changes f o r l o n g e v i t y , b u t t h e
d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e do d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e
N a t u f i a n and pre-pottei'y N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s was s u p e r i o r t o
t h a t of l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s i n t h i s r e g i o n .
we may t h u s c o n c l u d e t h a t , a t l e a s t i n t h i s r e g i o n , t h e i n i -
t i a l s t e p s i n p l a n t and a n i m a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n were n o t a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l stress o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g h e a l t h s t a t u s . R a t h e r ,
h e a l t h s t a t u s ' i n t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c N a t u f i a n s was comparable t o
t h a t of Middle P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and p r o b a b l y was
superior t o t h a t of ~ o i t h American h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s of t h e same
period. G o o d ' h e a l t h s t a t u s was m a i n t a i n e d i n p r e - p o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c
p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d it i s o n l y i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s , when i n t e n s i v e
a g r i c u l t u r e and husbandry w e r e f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d , t h a t h e a l t h
s t a n d a r d s d e c l i n e d markedly. T h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n and s y s t e m i c
h e a l t h seems t o b e r e l a t e d t o c K r o n i c d i s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n t o
p e r i o d i c b o u t s _ ? f f o o d s h o r t a g e s , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
of developmental l e s i o n s i n t h e t e e ' t h ' m d b o n e s and t h e p o o r - c o n -
d i t i o n o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s examined. I f , t h e n , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r
t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and permanent
s e t t l e m e n t s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of endemic d i s e a s e , it i s o n l y i n
these l a t e r periods t h a t t h e i r presence is manifest i n s k e l e t a l
pathology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
D i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f this r e s e a r c h were s u p p o r t e d by a number

o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e I s r a e l Academy o f S c i e n c e s , t h e
Wenner-Gren Foundation f o r A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h , t h e N a t i o n a l
S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , and t h e Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n . Human s k e l e -
t o n s from J e r i c h o were sampled from t h e K u r t h c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e
Z o o l o y i s c h e S t a a t s s a m l u n q (Munich).
We t h a n k Denise Ferembach ( M a i t r e d e Recherche, CNRS), Monique
L e c h e v a l l i e r ( U n i v e r s i t e de P a r i s VI) , Olav R s h r e r - E r t l ( Z m -
l o y i s c h e S t a a t s s m l u n q , Munich), G o t t f r i e d K u r t h ( C a r o l i n a -
Wi 1heImina T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , J u l i e t Clutton-Erock ( B r i t i s h
Museum [ ~ a t u r a l~ i s t o r y )] , Baruch Arensburq ( U n i v e r s i t y o f T e l
A v i v ) , and Aviv Eytan ( I s r a e l Department of A n t i q u i t i e s ) f o r p r o -
v i d i n g access t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n s i n t h e i r c a r e .
We would f u r t h e r l i k e t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e s e
i n d i v i d u a l s f o r the v a l u a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t took p l a c e during
t h e course; o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .
REFERENCES
Acreche, M.
1982 Cranial v a r i a t i o n between EBIV and MBII: A discpiminant
a r l d ~ s i s , M.Sc. t h e s i s , Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , J e r u s a l e m .
Anderson, J. E.
1968 L a t e P a l e o l i t h i c s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Nubia. In
.
Prehistory in N-ubia (Vol 11), e d i t e d b y F . Wendorf,
-
-CD. 996-1017. S.K.U. P r e s s , D a l l a s .
Anderson, P. C.
1980 A t e s t i m o n y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t a s k s : D i a g n o s t i c r e s i d u e s and
s t o n e t o o l working e d q e s . World Archaeology 12:181-194.
Ani, S.
1983 The r e l a t i o n o f cranial thickness t o s i z e and shape o f
the skuIZ: A radiographic study. DMD t h e s i s , Hebrew
University, Jerusalem.
Arensburq, H.
1973 The people in the land o f I s r a e l from the pi-~aleolithic
t o present t h s s . P ~ . D . t h e s i s , T e l Aviv U n i v e r s i t y ,
Israel.
5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT I31
1977 New Upper P a l e o l i t h i c remains from I s r a e l . I n Eretz-

Israel (Vol. X I I I ) , e d i t e d by B. Arensburg and 0 . Bar-
Yosef, p p . 208-215. I s r a e l Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Arensburq, B . , and 0 . Bar-Yosef
1973 Human remains from Ein Gev I , J o r d a n V a l l e y , I s r a e l .
Paleoorient 1 :2201-2206.
Arensburq, B . , P. Smith, and R. Yaker
1978 The human r e m a i n s from Abou Gosh. I n Abou Gosh and
Beisamoun, e d i t e d by M. L e c h e v a l l i e r . Memoires e t t r a v a u x
du c e n t r e d e r e c h e r c h e s p r e h i s t o r i q u e s de J e r u s a l e m , No. 2 ,
pp. 95-105.
Bar-Yosef, 0.
1978 The L e v a n t i n e E p i - P a l e o l i t h i c a s t h e background f o r t h e
"Neolithic Revolution." P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t c o n f e r e n c e on
The O r i g i n s of A g r i c u l t u r e and Technology: E a s t o r West
Asia? [ p r o c e e d i n g s volume o f t h e same t i t l e , e d i t e d by
P. Mortensen a n d P. S o r e n s e n , i n p r e s s , 1984.1 I n p r e s s .
1980 P r e h i s t o r y o f t h e L e v a n t . Annual Review of Anthropology
9:lOl-133.
1981a The " P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c " p e r i o d i n t h e S o u t h e r n
Levant. I n Prehistoire du Levant, ColZoques Internationaux,
e d i t e d by J. Cauvin and P. S a n l a v i l l e , p p . 555-569.
E d i t i o n s , CNRS, P a r i s .
1981b The E p i - P a l e o l i t h i c complexes i n t h e S o u t h e r n L e v a n t .
I n Prehistoire du Levant, Colloques I n t e w a t i o n a u x , e d i t e d
by J . Cauvin and P . S a n l a v i l l e . E d i t i o n s CNRS, P a r i s .
In . p r e.
paration. The P r e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l .
Bar-Yosef and N . Goren
1973 N a t u f i a n r e m a i n s from Hayonim Cave. Pateorient 1 :49-68.
Bar-Yosef, 0., B. Arensburg and P. Smith
1971-1972 Alqunas Notas Acerca d e l a c u l t u r a N a t u f i e n c e .
An~purias 3 3 : 1-42.
Bloom, R. A . , and J . W. Laws
1970 Humeral c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s a s an i n d e x o f o s t e o p o r o s i s i n
women. B r i t i s h Journal of Radioloa-'~43:522-527.
Brace, C. L.
1973 Sexual dimorphism i n human e v o l u t i o n . Yearbook o f
Physical Anthropoloqy 1 6 : 31-49.
C a r l s o n , D. S., and D. P. Van Gerven
1973 M a s t i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n and p o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e e v o l u t i o n i n Nu-
b i a . American Journal o f Physical A'r.t'hro~oloq^46:495-506.
Cauvin, J .
1978 L e s p r e m i e r s v i l l a g e s de S y r i e - P a l e s t i n e d e l x e au V I I e
i l l e n a i r e a v a n t J . C. C o l l e c t i o n s de l a Maison de
1 ' 0 r i e n t Ancien No. 4 .
Chamla, M. C.
1980 The s e t t l e m e n t o f non-Saharan A l g e r i a from t h e E p i p a l e o -
l i t h i c t o modern t i m e s . I n The physical anth~opologyo f
European populations, e d i t e d by I . Schwidetsky, B.
C h i a r e l l i and 0. Necrasov, pp. 257-270. Mouton, The Hague.
Clutton-Brock, J.
1979 The mammalian r e m a i n s from J e r i c h o T e l l . Proceedings o f
t h e P r e h i s t o r i c So&e% 45:135-157.
C r o q n i e r , E., and M. Dupouy-Madre
1974 Les N a t o u f i e n s du Nahal Oren. Paleorient 2:1C/3-121.
Davis, 5 . J.
1977 S i z e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e f o x , Vulpes v u l p e s i n t h e
P a l a l a r c t i c t o d a y and i n I s r a e l d u r i n g t h e l a t e Q u a t e r n a r y .
Journal o f Zoology 1 8 2 : 343-351.
1978 Etude d e l a f a u n e . I n Abou Gosh e t Beisamoun, e d i t e d by
M. L e c h e v a l l i e r . Memoires e t t r a v a u x du c e n t r e d e
r e c h e r c h e s p r e h i s t o r i q u e s d e J e r u s a l e m , No. 2 , p p . 195-197.
1981 The e f f e c t s o f t e m p e r a t u r e change and d o m e s t i c a t i o n on
t h e body s i z e of L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e t o Holocene m a m m a l s o f
I s r a e l . faleobiologg 7:101-114.
D a v i s , S. J., and F. V a l l a
1978 Evidence of d o m e s t i c a t i o n of t h e dog 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s ago i n
t h e N a t u f i a n of I s r a e l . Nature (London) 276:608-610.
de Contenson, H . , and W. J. Van L i e r e
1964 Sondages a T e l l Ramad en 1963, r a p p o r t p r e l i m i n a i r e .
A n d e s Archeologiques de S y r i e 1 4 :log-124.
Ferembach, D .
1958 Note p r e l i m i n a i r e s u r l e s o s s e m e n t s humaines d e c o u v e r t e s
a S a f a d i I s r a e l . L a b o r a t o r i e d m A n t h r o p o l o q i eP h y s i q u e d e
l ' e c o l e des hauts Etudes. P a r i s . Physique de l ' e c o l e des
hauts Etudes. Paris.
1959 Note s u r un c r a n e b r a c h y c e p h a l e e t deux mandibules du
Mesolithique d ' I s r a e l . I s r a e l Exploration Journal 9:65-
73.
1961 S q u e l e t t e s du N a t o u f i e n d V I s r a e l , e t u d e a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e .
L 'Anthropologie 65:46-66.
1962 La n e c r o p o l e E p i p a l e o l i t h i q u e de T a f o r a l t (Maroc O r i e n t a l ) .
Rabat, CNRS.
1974 Note s u r l e e a u e l e t t e d ' e n f a n t n e o l i t h i c d e Sheikh Aly
( I s r a e l ) . T e k u f a t Ha-even 12:47-49.
1977 Les N a t o u f i e n s de P a l e s t i n e . I n Eretz-Yisraez (Vol. X I I I ) ,
e d i t e d by B . Arensburq and 0 . Bar-Yosef.
I s r a e l Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
1978 Les N a t o u f i e n s e t l'homme d e Combe C a p e l l e . B u l l e t i n e t
Memoire de l a SociStd Anthropoloqique~ de Paris 5:131-
136.
Ferembach, D . , and M. L e c h a v a l l i e r .
1973 Decouverte d e s c r a n e s surmodeles d a n s u n e h a b i t a t i o n du
V I I i e n n e m i l l e n a i r e a Beisamoun, I s r a e l . Paleorient 1 :
223-230.
F i e l d , H.
1952 The F a i y m , S i n a i , Sudan, Kenya E . Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , Cambridqe.
F r a y e r , D. W .
1980 Sexual dimorphism and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i n t h e L a t e
P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene of Europe. Journal of Human
Evolution 9 : 399-415.
Garrod, D. A . E .
1942a E x c a v a t i o n s i n t h e c a v e s o f Wadi el-Muqhara, 1929-1930.
B u l l e t i n o f t h e American School o f P r e h i s t o r i c Research
7:5-11.
1942b E x c a v a t i o n s a t t h e cave of Shukbah, P a l e s t i n e , 1928.
Proceedings o f t h e P r e h i s t o r i c S o c i e t y N.S. 8:l-20.
1957 The N a t u f i a n c u l t u r e : The l i f e and economy o f a Meso-
l i t h i c p e o p l e i n t h e Near E a s t . Proceedings o f t h e
B r i t i s h Academy 43:211-227.
Garrod, D . A . E . , and D. M. A. Bate
1937 The Stone Aae o f Mount C a m e l : Excavations a t t h e Wadi
el-Muqhara " ( ~ o l . 1 ) . Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ( C l a r e n d o n ),
London and New York.
Greene, D. L . , and G . J . Armelagos
1972 The Wadi H a l f a M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n . Department of
Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts Amherst Research
Report NO. 11.
G r i n b l a t , J.
1982 Aging in t h e world: Demographic d e t e r m i n a n t s , p a s t t r e n d s
and l o n g t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e s t o 2075. World Health S t a t i s -
t i c s 35:124-132.
H a c h l i l i , R . , B. Arensburg, and A. K i l l e b r e w
1981 The J e w i s h n e c r o p o l i s a t J e r i c h o . Current Anthropology
22: 701-702.
Hassan, F.
1981 Demographic a r c h a e o l o g y . Academic P r e s s , New York.
Helbaek, H .
1966 P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c f a r m i n g a t Beidha. P a l e s t i n e Ex-
p l o r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y 98:61-66.
Henry, D. O., and A . F. S e r v e l l o
1974 Compendium of C14 d e t e r m i n a t i o n s d e r i v e d from Near
E a s t e r n p r e h i s t o r i c d e p o s i t s . P a k o r i e n t 2:19-44.
Hershkowitz, I .
1982 The N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e South S i n a i and i t s r e l a -
t i o n t o o t h e r Mediterranean groups: An a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
study. M.Sc. t h e s i s , Tel-Aviv U n i v e r s i t y , I s r a e l .
Hoof,
- . M.
1969 P l a n t remains and e a r l y f a r m i n g i n J e r i c h o . I n The domes-
t i c a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f @ants and animals, e d i t e d by
P. J. Ucko and G . W. Dimbleby, pp. 355-359. Duckworth,
London.
Hughes, D. R.
1 9 6 5 Appendix 11: Human bones. I n rier<cho I I , e d i t e d by
K. M. Kenyon, pp. 664-685. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London
K e i t h , A.
1931 New d i s c o v e r i e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e u n t i q l i k y o f man. Norton,
New York.
1934 he l a t e P a l e o l i t h i c i n h a b i t a n t s o f P a l e s t i n e . Proceed-
i n g s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conferexse of Pyehi-story ayid
Protohistory Sciences l s t , pp. 4 6 - 4 7 .
134 PATRICIA SMITH ETAL.
Kozlowski, S . K .
1973 The Meso'lithic i n Ewape. Warsaw u n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw.
Kurth, G . , and 0. R o h r e r - E r t l
1981 On the a n t h r o p o l o g y o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o C h a l c o l i t h i c human
remains from t h e T e l l e s - S u l t a n i n J e r i c h o , J o r d a n . I n Ex-
cauations a t Jericho (Vol. I l l ) , e d i t e d by K . M. Kenyon,
pp. 407-499. B r i t i s h School of Archaeology, J e r u s a l e m .
L e c h e v a l l i e r , M. ( e d i t o r )
1978 Abou Gosh e t Beisamoun. Deux g i s e m e n t s d u V I I e m i l l e n a i r e
a v a n t 1 ' S r e c h r e t i e n n e en I s r a e l . Memoires e t t r a v a u x du
c e n t r e d e r e c h e r c h e s p r e h i s t o r i q u e s de J e r u s a l e m , No. 2 .
Mastin, B. A.
1964 The e x t e n d e d b u r i a l s a t Magharet e l Wad. Journal o f t h e
Royal Anthropologica'l I n s t i t u t e 94 :44-50.
MCCOwn, T . D.
1939 The Natilfian crania from Mount C a m e l . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y .
McCown, T . D . , and A. K e i t h
1939 The S t o n e Age of Mount C a m e l (Vol. 11). Oxford U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , Oxford.
Moore, A . M. T.
1978 The Neo'lit?r:c o f t h e Levant. Ph.D. t h e s i s , Oxford Univer-
sity.
Nathan, H . , and N . Haas
1966 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . A bone c o n d i t i o n of t h e o r b i t of unknown
nature. I s r a e l Journal o f MedicaZ Sciences 2:171-191.
Neuville, R.
1951 Le P a l e o l i t h i q u e e t l e M e s o l i t h i q u e du D e s e r t de J u d e e .
Archives de 1 ' I n s t i t u t e de Paleontologic hma'ine Memoire
No. 2 4 .
N i k i f o r u k , G . , and D . F r a s e r
1 9 8 1 E t i o l o g y o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a : A unifying concept.
Journal of P e d i a t r i c s 38:888-893.
Noy, T . , A . J . Legqe, a n d E . S. Higgs
1973 Recent e x c a v a t i o n s a t Nahal Oren, I s r a e l . Proceedings of
the P r e h i s t o r i c S o c i e t y 39:75-'39.
Ozbek, M.
1974 Etude dip. l a defamation r-r-anie11-s a r t i f i r i e l l e chez l e s
C h a l c o l i t h i q x e s de Byblos. B u l l e t i n s e t Memoires de Za
ScciStS dfAnthrovoZoaie
- . . ., de Paris 13:155-481.
1975 IIommes de Bzc'.-o,s. Etiide comparative des s q u d e t t e s des
Q.Qes de meza-^r au Proche-Orient. P ~ . D . dissertation,
University of P a r i s , France.
Peretz, B.
1980 D e n t a l iror2ho:oqy and p a t h o l o g y o f Middle Bronze Age
p o p u l a t i o n s i n I s r a e l . DMD t h e s i s , H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y ,
Jerusalem.
p e r r o t , J.
1966 L e oj.se3cr.t N a t o u f i e n de Mallaha (Eynan) I s r a e l . L'Ant'hvo-
P o i t r a t - T a r g o l a , M.
1962 P a t h o l o g i e d e n t a i r e e t m a x i l l a i r e . I n La Necropole
epipaZeoZithique de T a f o r a l t , e d i t e d by D . Ferembach,
p p . 161-171. C e n t r e N a t i o n a l e Recherches S c i e n t i f i q u e ,
Paris.
Redman, C . L .
1978 The r i s e o f CtV-ilisation. Freeman, San F r a n c i s c o .
S c h o e n i n g e r , M.
1981 The a g r i c u l t u r a l " r e v o l u t i o n : " I t s e f f e c t on human d i e t
i n p r e h i s t o r i c I r a n a n d I s r a e l . Pateorient 7 : 73-92.
S c o t t , J. H . , and N. B. Symons
1980 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o d e n t a l anatomy. L i v i n g s t o n e , London.
1982 D i e t and t h e e v o l u t i o n of modem human form i n t h e Middle
E a s t . American Journal o f Physical AnthropZogy 58: 3 7 -
52.
S i l l e n , A.
1981a S t r o n t i u m and d i e t a t Havonim Cave. American Journal o f
Physical Anthropology 56:131-137.
1981b P o s t d e p o s i t i o n a l changes i n N a t u f i a n and A u r i g n a c i a n
bones from Hayonim Cave. Pateorient 7:81-85.
S i l l e n , A.
1984 D i e t a r y v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c o f t h e Levant.
Paleorient, i n p r e s s .
S i l l e n , A , , and M. Kavanagh
1982 S t r o n t i u m a n d p a l e o d i e t a r y r e s e a r c h : A review. Yearbook
o f Phyeioal Anthropology 25:67-90.
S i l l e n , A . , and P. Smith
1984 S t r o n t i u m / c a l c i u m r a t i o s r e v e a l weaning-age i n a s k e l e t a l
p o p u l a t i o n . J o u r m l o f Archaeological Science, i n p r e s s .
Smith, P .
1970 Dental morphoZoqij and pathotogy i n t h e f l a t k f i a n s : The
t Z evidence for d i e t a r y s p e c i a ^ i z a t i o n . P~.D.
t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago, Chicago.
1972 D i e t and a t t r i t i o n i n t h e N c t u f i a n s . American Journal of
1973 Family b u r i a l s a t Hayonim. i'ateov-imt 1:69-71.
1977 Regional v a r i a t i o n i n t o o t h s i z e and p a t h o l o g y i n f o s s i l
hominids. American Journal of PhfsicaZ A n f h w p d o g y
47:459-466.
1979 Regional d i v e r s i t y i n E p i p a l e o l i t h i c ; ? o g u l a t i o n s . Inter-
national J o m a Z of S k e f e t a l Research 6:243-250.
I" P r e p a r a t i o n . C r a n i o f a c i a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e Upper P l e i s t o c e n e .
s m i t h , P . , and J. Berkowitz. In preparation. An a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
approach t o t h e p a s t : Dor, a case s t u d y .
Smith, P . , R . A. Bloom, and J. Berkowitz
1983 Bone morphology and biomechanical e ? f i c i e n c y i n f o s s i l
hominids. Current Anthropology 5<:662-663.
s m i t h , P . , R. A. Bloom, and J. Berkowitz
1984 D i a c h r o n i c t r e n d s i n humeral c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s o f Near
Eastern Populations. JournaZ of *,-or ? ~ 5 l u t i o n , i n
press.
Smith, P . , E . Bournemann, and J. Z i a s

I n Excava-
1981 The s k e l e t a l remains i n t h e Meiron e x c a v a t i o n s .
t i o n s a t Ancient Meiron, Meiron Excavation Project, Vol.
I l l . pp. 100-118. American School o f O r i e n t a l Research,
Chapel H i l l , North C a r o l i n a .
Smith, P . , and S. Tau
1978 D e n t a l p a t h o l o g y in t h e p e r i o d of t h e Roman Empire: A
comparison of two p o p u l a t i o n s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal o f
S k e l e t a l Research 5: 35-41.
S o l i v e r e s , 0.
1976 Les Natoufiens de Mallaha ( I s r a e l ) . Ph.D. t h e s i s , Univer-
s i t y of P a r i s , F r a n c e .
1978 Les r e s t e s p o s t - c e p h a l i q u e s . I n Abou Gosh e t Eeisamoun,
e d i t e d by M. L e c h a v a l l i e r . Memo-ires e t T r a v a i l t e s de
Cams, pp. 181-194.
S t e k e l i s , M. and T . Y i z r a e l i
1963 E x c a v a t i o n s a t Nahal Oren. I s r a e l Exploration Journal 1 3 :
1-12.
T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e , F.
1932 E x c a v a t i o n s i n t h e Mugharet el-Kebarah. Journal o f t h e
Royal AnthropologiaaZ I n s t i t u t e 62:271-276.
V a l l a , P.
1981 Les e t a b l i s s e m e n t s n a t o u f i e n s d a n s I e n o r d d 8 1 s r a e l .
C o l l o q u e s I n t e r n a t i o n a u x du CNRS No. 598, pp. 409-419.
V a l l o i s , H . V.
1936 L e s o s s e m e n t s N a t o u f i e n s d 7 E r q el-Ahmar ( P a l e s t i n e ) .
L 'Anthrupologie 46: 529-539.
Vandermeersch, B .
1981 ~ e hso m e s f o s s i l e s de ~ a f z e h ( I s r a e l ) . Cahiers de PaZeon-
t o l o g i e fPu2emntkropologie) du CNRS.
Van Z e i s t , W.
1970 The O r i e n t a l I n s t i t u t e e x c a v a t i o n s a t Mureybet, S y r i a :
P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t on t h e 1965 campaign. 111. The
paleobotany. Journal of Near Eastern S t u d i e s 29:167-176.
Van Z e i s t , W . , and J. A . H . Bakker-Heeres
1979 Some economic and e c o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p l a n t hus-
bandry o f T e l l Aswad. Paleorient 5:161-169.
Zohary, D . , and M. Hopf
1973 D o m e s t i c a t i o n of p u l s e s i n t h e Old World. Science 1 8 2 :
(4115) : 887-894.
CHAPTER 6
SKELETAL PATHOLOGY FROM THE PALEOLITHIC

THROUGH THE METAL AGES I N I R A N AND I R A Q
Ted A. Rathbun
U n i v e r s i t y o f South Carolina
INTRODUCTION
It i s somewhat i r o n i c t h a t i n t h i s a r e a t h a t has received ex-

t e n s i v e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e domestication and
u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , so l i t t l e i s known about t h e p h y s i c a l
a s p e c t s of t h e groups i n g e n e r a l and t h e i r pathology i n p a r t i c u l a r .
When viewed i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e e a r l y excavation
Process with minimal a t t e n t i o n given t o human remains can, perhaps,
be Understood; however, t h e v a g a r i e s of excavation, p r e s e r v a t i o n ,
^d l e s s t h a n p r o p e r a n a l y s i s and r e p o r t a g e of o s t e o l o g i c a l d a t a
Preclude s y s t e m a t i c comparisons r e q u i r e d t o understand temporal
change. The n e g l e c t of t h e s e ~ o t e n t i a l l ys i g n i f i c a n t d a t a i n r e -
p o r t s and r e s e a r c h d e s i g n s is i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e summary comments
i n an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s y n t h e s i s of t h e Middle E a s t ~ e o l i t h i c
(Mellaart 1974): " ~ist o n l y in t h e l a s t few decades t h a t s c h o l a r s
have l e a r n e d t o pay p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n t o p l a n t and animal remains,
but how many have r e a l i z e d t h e ~ o t e n t i a lof a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
s t u d i e s , demography, and t h e o f t h e human s k e l e t a l r e -
mains? rp. 2741"
The a r e a s of Southwest Asia considered i n t h i s chapter have
been c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s an e c o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l mosaic. The
range of environmental zones i n c l o s e proximity i n c l u d e p l a t e a u s ,
intermontane v a l l e y s , piedmont s t e p p e , a l l u v i a l d e s e r t , and r i v e r
'âlleys. The l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l mosaic has a l s o produced chronolo-
g i e s in c u l t u r a l development t h a t a r e r e g i o n a l l y s p e c i f i c w i t h i n
t h e g e n e r a l o l d World c a t e g o r i e s of c u l t u r a l s t a g e s .
Few human remains have been r e p o r t e d o r analyzed from t h e Pre-
a q r i c ~ l t u r a lperiods before 900 B.C. Some b u r i a l s have been noted,
but t o o f r e q u e n t l y t h e poor p r e s e r v a t i o n prompted excavators t o
6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ 139
e a r l i e r p e r i o d s i n c l u d e more f r e q u e n t secondary b u r i a l s a s i n d i -
c a t e d by b i n o s s u a r i e s with m u l t i p l e s k e l e t o n s a s s o c i a t e d with
houses and s e r e n d i p i t o u s recovery of body p a r t s . S i n g l e inhuma-
t i o n s beneath house f l o o r s and occasional cremations have been
found. S e p a r a t e cemetery a r e a s with primary b u r i a l s a r e r e p o r t e d
with some o f t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e s . The metal ages a l s o r e f l e c t
v a r i e t y i n d i s p o s a l of t h e dead. These p e r i o d s appear t o i n c l u d e
many more s e p a r a t e burying grounds and d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t of
t h e dead by s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s . This range of b u r i a l p r a c t i c e h a s
c o n t r i b u t e d t o o u r l e s s than complete and systematic coverage of
t h e human p o p u l a t i o n s .
DEMOGRAPHY
The s u b s i d i a r y recovery of human remains during t r a d i t i o n a l

excavation i n t h i s a r e a provides l i t t l e assurance t h a t t h e mate-
r i a l s recovered a r e adequate samples o f t h e populations. The
r e g i o n a l i n c r e a s e o f population s i z e and d e n s i t y appears g e n e r a l ,
b u t s p e c i f i c developments have been only estimated by s i t e s i z e
and d i s t r i b u t i o n , number of houses, and ethnographic analogy.
S e t t l e d v i l l a g e s r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l homesteads mark t h e
N e o l i t h i c , and t h e metal ages i n c l u d e urban c e n t e r s with s a t e l l i t e
Peasant v i l l a g e s . This p a t t e r n of land use s t i l l i s observable
with contemporary groups. T o t a l population e s t i m a t e s and growth
r a t e s i n t h e a r e a have been suggested by ~ a r n e i r oand H i l s e (1966)
and Hassan (1973, 1979) .
Although c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t e x i s t s i n anthropology f o r
demographic a n a l y s i s of p a s t p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e data b a s e i n South-
west Asia i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r a v i a b l e temporal comparison o f
Survivorship and lifeexpectancy. Empirical and model l i f e t a b l e s
have been generated from s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n s ( s e e Table 6.2 f o r a
metal age example) . problems of sampling, u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
P r e a d u l t s , unsystematic excavation, and sporadic o s t e o l o g i c a l
a n a l y s i s make demographic s p e c i f i c s tenuous.
The l a c k o f p r e a d u l t s k e l e t o n s i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n samples ap-
p e a r s t o be due t~ t h e f r i a b i l i t y of t h e younger bone and t h e
f r e q u e n t discarding of t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e f i e l d than t o r a r i t y o f
i n t e r m e n t . ~ r c h ~ ~ ~ l o gr ei pcoar tl s commonly s t a t e t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e
course of e v e n t s . childhood m o r t a l i t y , however, i s u s u a l l y sUg-
g e s t e d t o be h i g h i n r e p o r t s f o r t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,t h e l a t e r m e t a l
ages, and e x t a n t groups (Rathbun and Bass 1977) . Unfortunately,
t h e l a c k of p r e c i s i o n in aging and i n s u f f i c i e n t data f o r s p e c i f i c
age c a t e g o r i e s preclude systematic comparisons o f t h e demographic
f e a t u r e s of s u r v i v o and rs~ m o~ a l i t y . The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of
r tp
c o l l e c t i o n s o f a d u l t s k e l e t o n s has a l s o been s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d
(Novel1 1980) . problems of i n t e r o b s e r v e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r i t e r i a
of aging on f r e q u e n t l y fragmentary s k e l e t o n s must a l s o be con-
s i d e r ed.
140
TED A. RATHBUN
TABLE 6. I Human Remains i n Iran and Iraq

Individ- Pathol-
uats r e - Dmog- ogy r e - cranial
h t t u r a t Stage Dates B. C. ported mphj ported metries
Preaqricultural
Shanidar
Neanderthals Yes Yes Yes
Hot u Yes Yes Yes
B e l t Cave NO NO 1
P e r i o d totals 12 12 13
Neolithic
Zawi Chemi Yes Yes Yes
Ganj Dareh Yes Yes Yes
Jarmo NO No NO
Deh L u r a n NO NO NO
Choqa S e f i d NO NO NO
Tepe Guran NO NO NO
B e l t Cave NO No NO
Hassuna Yes Yes Yes
H a j ii Firuz Yes Yes NO

T e l l as-Sawwan No NO NO
Sialk 1 , 2 , 3 Yes NO Yes
Period t o t a l s 146 1 30 116
Chalcolithic
T e p e Gawra 1 NO 1
Sialk 4 NO Yes
Yesa
Seh Gabi Yes NO
Yes
Hissar I Yes Yes
Yes
Period t o t a l s 35 9
9
Bronze
H a s a n l u VII-IX Yes Yes
Yes
H i s s a r I1 Yes
Yes Yes
H i s s a r 111 Yes
Yes Yes
Geoy Yes
Yes Yes
Sharh-i-Sokhta Yes
Yes NO
Kish 1-5 Yes
Yes Yes
Di-nkha I V Yes
Yes Yes
Period totals 355
355 297
6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL. AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ 141
Infra-
crania Z
metrics Stature D e n t i t i o n Source
Yes Yes Yes T r i n k a u s (1978, 1980) ; S t e w a r t (1977)

Yes Yes Yes Angel (1952) ; Angel and Coon (1952) ;
Coon and Angel (1953)
No No 1 Coon (1951) ; Angel (1952)
12 12 13
Yes Yes Yes Ferembach (1970)

Yes Yes Yes Lambert (1979, 1 9 8 0 ) ; Melkeljohn e t
a l . (1980)
No No Yes Braidwood and Braidwood (1950) ;
Dahlberg (1960)
No No NO Hole e t a l . (1969, 1967)
No No No Hole (1977)
No No NO Mortensen (1964)
No No Yes Coon (1951)
No No Yes Coon (1950) ; Abdul Aziz and S l i p k a
(1966)
No Yes Yes Voight (1983) ; T u r n q u i s t (1976)
No No NO El-Wailly (1964)
No 1 Yes V a l l o i s (1938)
95 126 156
No No Yes Krogman (1950)

No NO Yes Vallois (1938)
No No NO Skinner (1980) ; Hamlin (1973)
1 1 Yes Krogman (194Oa, 1940b, 1 9 4 0 ~ )
1 1 32
Yes Yes Yes Rathbun (1972)

No Yes Yes Krogman (1940a, 1940b, 1 9 4 0 ~ )
Yes Yes No Krogman (1940a, 1940b)
No NO Yes Cave and Centeno (1951)
Yes Yes No P a r d i n i (1977)
P a r d i n i and S a r v a r i - N e q a h b a (1977)
332 348 159
(Continued)
TED A. RATHBUN
(Table 6.1 eant-inued)

Individ- Pathol-
uaZs P ~ ÃDemog- ogy re- C d a l
CuZtural Stage- Dates B.C. ported raphy pop-bed metries
Iron
Shah Tepe 2000 32 No No Yes
Giyan 2000 5 Yes Yes Yes
Dinkha 11-111 1350-800 34 Yes Yes Yes
Hasanlu 111-V 1350-800 141 Yes Yes Yes
Sialk 5,6 1200-1000 20 Yes NO Yes
Dailaman 1000 78 Yes No Yes
Nippur 900-500 73 Yes Yes Yes
Kish, 6, 7 , U 530 429 Yes Yes Yes
Takht-i-
Suleiman 450 29 Yes Yes Yes
Yorqan 300 A.D. 27 Yes Yes Yes
Period t o t a l s 868 836 7 38 868
aInfants only.
crania.
"Pasterania.
Table 6.3 p r e s e n t s m o r t a l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n on i n d i v i d u a l s by
s i t e s and periods a s reported i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . lncornparable
sample s i z e s between t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and l a t e r groups do
allow v a l i d s t a t i s t i c a l treatment. Analysis f o r s i g n i f i c a n t dif-
ferences between l a t e r periods f o r b o t h s e x e s pooled, a s w e l l as
i n d i v i d u a l comparisons, r e v e a l e d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
ferences between a d j a c e n t p e r i o d s . ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e i s a consistent
sexually dimorphic t r e n d i n m o r t a l i t y , w i t h males dying a t a greater
none of t h e major c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s r e v e a l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t
difference a t t h e p = .05 l e v e l . w i t h i n t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,chalc0-
l i t h i c r and Iron ages, however, d i f f e r e n t i a l by sex i n age at
death approaches s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , l e v e l s . This differ-
ential i n t h e metal ages has been suggested as a c o n t r i b u t i n g
to population V a r i a t i o n by gender and d i f f e r e n t i a l migra-
tion i n t h e a r e a ( R a t h b u 3-982).
6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ
m a -
erania2
metries S t a t u r e Dentition Source
Yes Yes No F u r s t (1939)

No No No V a l l o i s (1935)
No Yes Yes V a l l o i s (1938)
Yes Yes No Ikeda (1968)
Yes Yes Yes Swindler (1956) ; Rathbun and r all in
(1978)
Yes Yes Yes mthbun (1975); Carbonell (1958,
1966)
Yes Yes No Stonn (1976)

No No Yes S t a r r (1939)
816 836 724
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth c u r v e s of l o n g bone development have been used a s good

i n d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o s u b s i s t e n c e . TO d a t e ,
s e r i e s from Southwest Asia has s u f f i c i e n t subadult d a t a f o r
this t y p e o f a n a l y s i s .
Table 6.4 p r e s e n t s a d u l t s t a t u r e and t h e male-female r a t i o s of
sexual dimorphism. ~ d ~ s tla ttu r e is considered a f a i r l y p o o r i n -
d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s s i n c e growth i s c o n t r o l l e d and i n -
fluenced by a m u l t i t u d e of f a c t o r s . The s l i g h t changes o v e r time
should n o t be d e f i n i t i v e s i n c e t h e Sample s i z e s i n
some p e r i o d s a r e t i n y and t h e range of environmental c o n t e x t s dur-
l n 9 each p e r i o d v a r i e s considerably. The s l i g h t decrease i n t h e
N e o l i t h i c from t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a g e may be s u g g e s t i v e and
would be consistent w i t h adjustments t o a d i f f e r e n t economic base.
i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e a s well t h a t t h e female mean h e i g h t
very s t e a d y from t h e N e o l i t h i c through t h e I r o n Age while
^ e male means a r e more i r r e g u l a r . ~ n d i v i d u a lcomparisons of
mean h e i g h t f r o m contiguous p e r i o d s f o r each s e x d i d n o t r e a c h
s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s f o r e i t h e r gender. The s e x u a l d i m r p h i s m Index
a l s o v a r i e s i r r e g u l a r l y w i t h time and again no s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s
a r e seen across c u l t u r a l periods. within-period comparisons by
144
TED A. RATHBUN
TABLE 6 . 2 Life Table, Pooled Populations, Dinkha Tepe, Iran
Age ( X I dx lx qx Lx Tz ex
0 2 4.35 100 .0435 489.12 2839.04 28.39
5 1 2.17 95.65 ,0230 472.82 2349.92 24.57
10 2 4.35 93.48 .0465 456.52 1877.10 20.08
15 4 8.70 89.13 .0976 448.90 1420.58 15.94
20 8 17.39 80.43 .2162 358.68 971.68 12.08
25 9 19.57 63.04 .3104 341.28 631.00 9.72
30 9 19.56 43.47 .4500 168.45 271.72 6.25
35 7 15.22 23.91 .6366 81.52 103.27 4.32
40 4 8.70 8.70 1 21.75 21.75 2.50
TABLE 6 . 3 Mean Age a t Death After Age 1 5 Years

- -
Males Females Poo led.

Site Age N Age N Age 717
Preagricultural
Shanidar Neandertal 40 5 28 1 38 6
Hotu 40 1 32 2 35 3
Neolithic
Zawi-Chemi
Ganj Dareh
All levels
Level 4
Level 6
Ha s s u n a
Hajii Firuz
Sialk I,II,In
All levels
Period I
P e r i o d 11
P e r i o d I11
Period t o t a l s
Chalcolithic
Gawra
S i a l k Iv
Hissar I
Period t o t a l s
Bronze Age
Hasanlu VII-IX 33 1 25 5
H i s s a r 11 2
30 9 26 7 278 16
H i s s a r 111
31 105 28 33 29
(Table 6 . 3 continued)
Males females Poo led

Site Age ff A g e N A g e S
Geoy
Shahr-i Sokhta
A l l levels
Period I
Period I1
Period I11
Kish I-v
A l l levels
Period I1
Period I11
Dinkha Iv
Period t o t a l s
Iron Age
Giyan
Dinkha 11, I11
All l e v e l s
Period I1
Period 111
Hasanlu 111-V
All l e v e l s
Period 111
Period I V
Period V
S i a l k V,VI
A l l levels
Period VI
Dail aman
1000 B.C.
300-500 B.C.
Nippur
Kish VI,VII,
unknown
A l l levels
Period V I
Unknown
Takht-i Suleiman
Yorgan
Period t o t a l s
TED A. RATHBUN
146
Table 6 . 4 Stature
Males Females
Stature Stature ~ d e - m a l e
Site (ern) N (em) N ratio
Preaqricultural
Shanidar
Neandertals
Hotu
Neolithic
Zawi Chemi
Ganj Dareh
Tepe S i a l k
I-IV
Period t o t a l s
Bronze Age
Hasanlu V I I - I X
Hissar I1
Hissar 111
Shahr-i Sokhta
Kish E.D. I11
Dinkha Iv
Period t o t a l s
Iron Age
Shah Tepe
Dinkha 11,111
Hasanlu 1 1 1 - V
S i a l k v, VI
Dailaman I
Dailaman II
Nippur
Kish VI ,VII,U
Period t o t a l s
gender indicated s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a 11 c a s e s except the

Neolithic. Even w i t h t h e decrease i n s i z e of t h e males i n the
Iron ages, sexual dimorphism d i d n o t e x h i b i t a s i g n i f i c a n t decline.
I t is not known i f t h e convergence i n mean male and mean female
height is due t o d i e t a r y differences o r changes i n childhood In-
fluences such a s a c t i v i t y l e v e l s o r economic r o l e s . It has been
(Gray and Wolfe 1980) t h a t g r e a t e r male h e i g h t i s asso-
d a t e d with polygynous marriage but n o t w i t h t h e degree of sexual
dimorphism, which is influenced by dietary f a c t o r s and genetics:
The of t h e female s t a t u r e means over t i m e and t h e varia*
b i l i t y o f t h e male means may suggest q r e a t e r a c t i v i t y change f o r

t h e males. I n t r a r e g i o n a l migration during t h e metal ages must
a l s o be recognized a s a p o s s i b l e f e a t u r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a s
well a s temporal t r e n d s .
Sexual dimorphic c r a n i a l dimensions of metal age samples have
shown no c l e a r tendency t o vary by e i t h e r geographical subregion
o r time ( F i n k e l 1982). S i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e percentages of sexual
dimorphism o f t h e s k u l l f o r N e o l i t h i c and Bronze age samples were
a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of e a r l i e r commonality of a c t i v i t y .
I n c r e a s e s i n t h e percentaqe of sexual dimorphism were noted with
Proto-urban and urban p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t presumably have developed
marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n economic a c t i v i t y by gender. Sexual d i -
morphism i n urban c e n t e r s was a l s o found t o be g r e a t e r i n samples
of upper-class i n d i v i d u a l s with good n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h . The
e l i t e and n o n - e l i t e groups were markedly d i f f e r e n t i n percentage
of s e x u a l dimorphism. These f i n d i n g s support t h e contention t h a t
h e a l t h , n u t r i t i o n , s e t t l e m e n t type, and form of economic sub-
sistence a r e associated.
Growth d i s t u r b a n c e and recovery during development i s sug-
r e s t e d by t h e occurrence of H a r r i s l i n e s among some of t h e popula-
t i o n s . The t h r e e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d i v i d u a l s from Hotu appear t o
l a c k t h e l i n e s . They occur i n t h e s k e l e t o n s from a few s i t e s i n
t h e N e o l i t h i c and succeeding p e r i o d s . Not a l l samples have been
examined r a d i o g r a p h i c a l l y , but t h e trend appears t o b e one of i n -
c r e a s e o v e r time. The N e o l i t h i c population from G a n j Dareh had a
10% frequency (Meiklejohn e t a l . 1980) ; 69% of t h e i n f a n t s from
t h e C h a l c o l i t h i c s i t e Seh Gabi (Skinner 1980) and 92% of t h e Bronze
and I r o n age a d u l t s a t Dinkha Tepe (Rathbun 1981) e x h i b i t e d l i n e s .
A t t h e l a t t e r site, t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of l i n e s decreased s l i g h t l y
through time. ~ l t h o ~ gt hhe sample s i z e s a r e small, t h e Bronze Age
group had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i n e s than t h e I r o n Age ones, es-
p e c i a l l y f o r males. The age of formation was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y
d i f f e r e n t , with Bronze Age c h i l d r e n experiencing growth d i s t u r b a n c e
more i n t h e l a t e r childhood y e a r s and t h e l a t e I r o n Age Sample
showing d i s t u r b a n c e more i n e a r l i e r childhood.
A combined study of H a r r i s l i n e s and l i n e a r enamel h ~ ~ o ~ l a s i a s
a t t h i s metal a g e s i t e i n d i c a t e d g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s . Table 6.5
P r e s e n t s t h e composite p i c t u r e of age of developmental d i s t u r b a n c e
with r e g u l a r p e r i o d i c s t r e s s b e t w e n a g e s 2 and 11. The frequency
of H a r r i s l i n e formation peaked between 7 and 11 y e a r s , but
P e r i o d i c stresses a r e i n d i c a t e d throughout t h e developmental y e a r s .
Seasonal food inadequacies, r a t h e r than chronic m a l n u t r i t i o n , a r e
Suggested by t h e e t i o l o g y of t h e l i n e formation, which r e w i r e s a
recovery phase. The r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l of ~ a r r i sl i n e s i n
e a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c groups m y be due t o t h e death of s t r e s s e d i n -
d i v i d u a l s a t a younger age and hence t h e i r exclusion from t h e a d u l t
sample, i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note, however, t h a t 71% Of t h e post-
n a t a l i n f a n t sample at t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l s i t e , Seh Gabi, evidenced
s k e l e t a l stunt,-ng (skinner 1980) . NO d e f i n i t i v e comparative s t a t e -
ments a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t s u f f i c i e n t subadult samples and compar-

a b l e c o l l e c t i o n s w i t h s i m i l a r age s t r u c t u r e , completeness I and
Preservation.
TAW 6 -6 Age Oi,&fali-but'wn. of Stress O a ~ e w S e . aat Ifink'ha Tepe, Ivan
B 1 8 Z 4 5 6 ? 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 2 7 1 8 I S
H a r r i s Lines
Period 11
Males' ( 2 )
Females (4)
period I11
Males ( 8 )
Females (6)
Period I V
Males (2)
Females (3)
Total (%)
Hypoplasias
P e r i o d I1
Males ( 8 ) 3 4 2 4
Females (4) I l l 1
Subadults ( 31 1 1 3 2 2 2 1
p e r i o d 111
Males ( 8 )
Females (5)
S u b a d u l t s ( 3)
Period IV
Males ( 5 )
Females (.a)
T o t a l adults (%)
6 THE PALEOLlTHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ
NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES
P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n Sou'thwest Asian p o p u l a t i o n s i s r e p o r t e d
from t h e N e o l i t h i c onward. Some d e s c r i p t i o n s , however, do n o t make
c l e a r whether o n l y o r b i t a l l e s i o n s a r e p r e s e n t o r o t h e r c r a n i a l
changes were o b s e r v e d . No mention i s made o f d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o r
r a d i o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s o f an expanded d i p l o e . No f i r m s u g g e s t i o n o f
a g e n e t i c anemia is i n d i c a t e d ; r a t h e r , t h e l e s i o n s a r e presumed t o
i n d i c a t e n u t r i t i o n a l l y d e r i v e d i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia.
No c a s e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a were n o t e d a t Ganj ~ a r e hb u t 42%
of t h e Zawi Chemi sample showed s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n s o f anemia. The
average o f t h e s e two s i t e s , t h e n , g i v e s a N e o l i t h i c a v e r a g e of 21%.
The somewhat l a t e r ~ e Gabi h i n f a n t s e x p r e s s e d a 28% r a t e of o r b i t a l
l e s i o n s , b u t t h e r e i s some q u e s t i o n concerning t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l
d i a g n o s i s and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l e s i o n s . I n t h e m e t a l a g e groups
of t h e I r a n i a n p l a t e a u and t h e ~ e s o p o t a m i a nv a l l e y an a v e r a g e o f
2 3 % of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s had o r b i t a l l e s i o n s (Rathbun 1980). No
r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s were d e t e c t a b l e i n t h e pooled d a t a f o r t h e s e
urban g r o u p s even though t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f m a l a r i a w i t h i r r i g a t i o n
a g r i c u l t u r e i n Mesopotamia would s u g g e s t a probable h i g h e r r a t e .
S u b a d u l t s t h e r e e x h i b i t e d a h i g h e r r a t e o f o c c u r r e n c e of t h e con-
d i t i o n t h a n d i d s u b a d u l t s i n I r a n , b u t i n b o t h a r e a s males were
l e a s t a f f e c t e d . The h i g h e r r a t e f o r females and c h i l d r e n may su9-
9 e s t t h e e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t i a l food a c c e s s , pregnancy, l a c t a t i o n ,
and p a r a s i t i s m .
NO c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n i s made i n many o f t h e r e p o r t s among
c r a n i a l o s t e o p o r o s i s , ~ i t t i n gi n g e n e r a l , and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s
with expanded diploe. I f the cranial pitting reflects nutritional
f a c t o r s , t h e n a temporal t r e n d emerges. One of t h r e e p r e -
N e o l i t h i c i n d i v i d u a l s a t ~ o t ue x h i b i t e d s l i g h t o c c i p i t a l p i t t i n g
and 33% o f t h e N e o l i t h i c H a j j i F i r u z and Ganj ~ a r e h ,I r a n , samples
had s u c h l e s i o n s , b u t o n l y 1 of 1 8 ( 6 % ) of t h e p o s t n a t a l i n f a n t s
a t Seh Gabi and 3% of t h e m e t a l age samples e x h i b i t e d c r a n i a l
l e s i o n s . Age d i f f e r e n c e s were not noted among t h e m e t a l age
I r a n i a n g r o u p s , b u t ~ ~ ~ o ~ o t a r snuibaa dn u l t s had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
h i g h e r frequency t h a n a d u l t s . The lower r a t e of o c c u r r e n c e d u r i n g
the l a t e r may r e f l e c t a decreased s e v e r i t y o f anemic con-
ditions, but t h i s i s hard t o j u s t i f y w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e
s t a b i l i t y o f t h e o r b i t a l l e s i o n s through t i m e -
DENTAL PATHOLOGY
The e x p r e s s i o n of d e n t a l pathology i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e
g e n e t i c component of t h e d e n t i t i o n , m e t a b o l i c e v e n t s , t h e c o n s i s -
t e n c y and n u t r i t i v e n a t u r e of t h e d i e t i t s e l f , food p r o c e s s i n g
techniques, and oral hygiene. D e n t a l a t t r i t i o n p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s
t h e Combination of f a c t o r s i n t h e most s t r i k i n g way. The d e g r e e
150 TED A. RATHBUN
and r a t e of a t t r i t i o n i s u s u a l l y given i n t h e 1iteratnre of South-

west Asia i n r e l a t i v e terms. R e p r t S from the Neo1ifchic & ? s c r i b e
t h e degree as marked and strong. A t H a j j i l?iru!d the r a t e of at-
t r i t i o n was slow enough f o r secondary d e n t h i e t o formi.and a
" s i l t y " d i e t i s suggested a t Jarmo. NO man1-10n is made O f
t r i t i o n f o r t h e pre-Neolithic Hotu group* but t h e ~ h a i ~ i d a~r~ a n d e r -
t a t s exhibited marked a t t r i t i o n . The &egraa of attrition a ~ n ~ r a l l ~
i s associated with age i n all t h e groups. The metal ago p ~ p u l a -
t i o n s a l s o e x h i b i t a t t r i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y aÂ t h e molars, and it
described a s medium t o marked, i n s e v e r i t y . Food p r o p a r a t i o n
techniques with i n c l u s i o n of g r i t are usually suggested as the
major c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o the condition.
Carious l e s i o n s a r e common i n Southwest Asia. It3 those re-
p o r t s s u f f i c i e n t l y complete t o enable one t o derive a f233WeRW
r a t e , 33% of t h e Neolithic i n d i v i d u a l s exhibited c a r i o u s lesions,
but t h e frequencies range from 3 t o 43% (Table 6.6) . A t Hajji
Firuz t h e condition i s described as common. The Bronze and. I r o n
age samples from I r a n and Mesopotamia expressed a 36% rate.
general impression is t h a t interproximal l e s i o n s a t the Crown-
root juncture a r e more common t h a n l e s i o n s on the crown. It i s
l i k e l y t h a t i n both t h e e a r l i e r and l a t e r groups a t t r i t i o n has
obscured t h e crown c a r i e s . The c a r i e s r a t e varies c o n s i d e r a b l y by
individual s i t e during t h e metal ages w i t h a range of 8-54%. The
Mesopotamian v a l l e y s i t e s of Kish and Nippur had s i g n i f i c a n t l y
lower r a t e s than t h e contemporary groups on -the I r a n i a n Plateau.,
Males had t h e highest r a t e s f o r both c a r i e s and alveolar abscesssing
i n both regions.
Alveolar abscesses a r e f r e q u e n t l y found i n conj u n c t i o n w i t h
carious l e s i o n s , p e r i o d o n t o ~ l a s i ~and , attrition. A l l 'three of Ihe
pre-Neolithic individuals e x h i b i t e d p e r i a p i e a l abscesses; 20% of
t h e Neolithic samples and 37% of t h e metal age gronj-is exhibited ab-
scesses- This e r r a t i c temporal t r e n d , and the regional and sex
d i s t r i b u t i o n with male I r a n i a n s hav&q the hiqhost rate, remains
unexplained.
The frequency of p e r i o d o n t o c l a s i a appears to have remained
f a i r l y s t a b l e . Half of t h e Shanidar Heandertfcii.~,601, of the
Neolithic individuals, and 52% of the metal age sample at Kish,
exhibited r e s o r p t i o n . altmgh w precise figures are
given, o t h e r r e p o r t s f r e q u e n t l y n o t e lieriodontoclasia and calculus
around t h e p o s t e r i o r teeth. This pattern would suggest
Oral hygiene a s well a s d i e t a s c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s i n r e s o r ~ t J - o ~ *
The frequency and timing of Linear eaaatel h y p o p l a s i a formation
have been i n v e s t i g a t e d in these skeletal samples-
reading of e a r l i e r r e p o r t s suggests t h a t interobserver dif-
ferences i n scoring t h e presence and severity of the hyyopldaias
is a s e r i o u s problem in developing comparisons. ~ ~ d i v i d u a l
sitti
is a l s o notable. The general temt,oral change is w in-
crease in frequency and s e v e r i t y of t h e s e defects. It is
whether any of t h e pre-Heolithig ~ a p l e s the
condition* Only Ganj Daroh is th apoljthit; hts &en 2~ailiii~53
ipec'ficall~ f o r t h e trait, with ($% of tilF i n d i m a l s p~i15'1*ill*3
152 TED A. RATHBUN
lines. ~ o ~ t ~ - f pi av cee n t of t h e p o s t n a t a l i n f a n t s a t Seh Gabi of

the l a t e N e o l i t h i c - ~ h a l c o l i t h i ~ r e f l e c t e d t h i s t y p e o f s t r e s s indi-
cator. The average r a t e of occurrence f o r t h e metal a g e groups
was 14%. Regional comparisons i n d i c a t e a S i g n i f i c a n t l y higher
frequency i n t h e I r a n i a n samples. Males and s u b a d u l t s i n I r a n had
a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher r a t e than t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n ~ e s o p o t a m i a t
b u t t h e r a t e s i n females were s i m i l a r .
A more d e t a i l e d study of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s t h a t i n c l u d e d both
Harris l i n e s and l i n e a r enamel hypoplasias of t h e Bronze and I r o n
age samples from Dinkha Tepe, I r a n (Rathbun 1981) r e v e a l e d a Very
high r a t e of hypoplasias (77%) with both temporal and sexual d i f -
ferences. When only hypoplasias of moderate t o s e v e r e expression
were examined, s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s appeared.
The e a r l i e r I r o n Age group had a higher r a t e than t h e l a t e r I r o n
Age sample. Within-period v a r i a t i o n was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t i n a few
instances: Bronze Age males had a higher r a t e than females and
l a t e I r o n Age subadults expressed a higher r a t e t h a n a d u l t s . The
g r e a t e r frequency and g e n e r a l l y more s e v e r e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e hy-
p o p l a s i a s i n subadults suggest t h a t t h e i r e a r l i e r d e a t h was l i n k e d
t o t h e amount and frequency of s t r e s s . The g e n e r a l l y higher r a t e
f o r a d u l t males, although n o t a t t h e p = .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e !
supports t h e contention t h a t growing males a r e more v u l n e r a b l e to
stress.
Although t h e frequencies of s t r e s s e p i s o d e s a s i n d i c a t e d by
Harris l i n e s and l i n e a r enamel hypoplasias i n d i c a t e g e n e r a l
t i o n s , t h e composite age p a t t e r n s of formation r e v e a l e d p e r i o d i c
s t r e s s between t h e ages of 2 and 11. The o n s e t of t h e m a j o r i t y of
hypoplasias occurs i n t h e age range i n which weaning and s t r e s s
from d i a r r h e a s and f e v e r s w i t h g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l i n f e c t i o n s a r e
highly probable. Although contemporary p o p u l a t i o n s r e f l e c t hypo-
~ l a s i aformation most f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e f i r s t 2 y e a r s of l i f e ,
t h e Dinkha Tepe sample appears t o have been more prone t o stress
somewhat l a t e r , which suggests a delayed weaning p e r i o d ( s e e Tabie
6.5).
Although Buikstra and Cook (1980) c a u t i o n a g a i n s t combining
t h e s e s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s a s evidence f o r single d i s r u p t i o n s due to
t h e i r d i f f e r e n t e t i o l o g i e s , t h e composite p i c t u r e o f t i m i n g of
t h e i n d i c a t o r s extends t h e range of i n f o r m a t i o n . The continued
periodic s t r e s s i n t o l a t e r childhood, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e H a r r i s
lines, t h e contention of a p e r i o d i c n u t r i t i o n a l depriva-
tion- I n f a c t , t h e process of H a r r i s l i n e formation w i t h t h e
neces s a r ~recovery phase would support; t h e h y p o t h e s i s of seasona1
inadequacies r a t h e r t h a n c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n . The relative
of Harris l i n e s during e a r l y childhood may b e due t o
the nature of t h e s t r e s s , t h e e t i o l o g y o f t h e i n d i c a t o r s , o r quite
probably t h e remodeling o f t h e e a r l i e r lines.
The
temporal reduction of H a r r i s line frequency among
fromt h e Bronze through t h e I r o n ages may i n d i c a t e a Slight
Improvement in t h e s u b s i s t e n c e base, b u t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t
difference in o r frequency f o r t h e females. The I r o n Age
S U f~e r e d growth d i s r u p t i o n s earlier than
t h e Bronze Age ones, b u t t h e sample s i z e s a r e too small f o r a

definitive statement.
P e r i o d i c n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy cannot be considered t h e o n l y
s t r e s s o r , however, s i n c e o t h e r p a t h o l o g i e s and d i s e a s e s have been
documented t h a t could, i n s e r i a l combination, produce r e c u r r e n t
developmental d i s r u p t i o n s . ~ l t h o u g hit i s dangerous t o e x t r a p o l a t e
Present c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e p a s t s i n c e pathogens a s well a s popula-
t i o n s and c u l t u r a l systems change, West Azerbaijan has been h o s t t o
a number o f endemic d i s e a s e s : v i s c e r a l leishrnaniasis, m a l a r i a ,
Ornithodom s t h o l o z a n i , endemic r e l a p s i n g f e v e r , a n t h r a x , l e p r o s y ,
b r u c e l l o s i s , s h i g e l l o s i s , typhoid f e v e r , and s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s
(Hekrnat 1970) . I n t e s t i n a l ~ a r a s i t ei n f e s t a t i o n and t h e organisms'
y e a r l y c y c l e s may be c r i t i c a l because u t i l i z a t i o n of n u t r i e n t s de-
pends n o t o n l y on what goes i n , b u t on what s t a y s i n .
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
TABLE 6.7 Common Pathologies i n Iran and Iraq
PuZeoZith-io Pre-NeoIithic Neo Zithie ChaZcoZithic Bronze and
Iron Aqe
Percentage S Percentage N Percent- Percentage N Percentage N
-
Harris l i n e s ?
Cribra
orbitalia 0
Cranial
osteoporisis 0
Infection 17 6 0 30 56 26 30 3 54 0
Trauma
Arthritis 50 6 100 3 63 8 -- 35 333

INFECTION
Even though i t i s conmonly argued t h a t i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e

usually i n c r e a s e s w i t h population density and s e t t l e m e n t aggrega-
t i o n , evidence o f chronic i n f e c t i o n i n t h e skeleton i s r e l a t i v e l y
r a r e i n Southwest Asian samples. The s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n of
i n f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s and d i e t have been well documented. A s can be
seen i n Table 6 . 7 , t h e documented r a t e of i n f e c t i o n d e c l i n e s
through t i m e i n t h e a r e a . A number of t h e i n f e c t i o n s a r e l o c a l i z e d
and may be t h e r e s u l t of trauma. The d e c l i n e from approximately
30% of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e Neandertal and Neolithic samples
through 26% of t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l Seh Gabi i n f a n t s t o a general r a t e
of 3% among metal age populations, however, may be due t o i n c r e a s e s
i n a c u t e and epidemic i n f e c t i o n s t h a t caused death before s k e l e t a l
r e a c t i o n could occur. Very few s p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o n p a t t e r n s have
been diagnosed.
Radiographic examination of 15 metal age s k u l l s from ink ha
T e ~ edocumented osseous change i n t h e middle e a r from a c u t e and
chronic inflammation o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e nasophaqnx (Rathbun and
Mallin 1977). Three of seven i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e I r o n Age and
t h r e e of f o u r Bronze Age i n d i v i d u a l s exhibited t h e s e changes. ~ i v e
of s i x males, one of s i x females, and none of t h e t h r e e subadults
were a f f e c t e d . Age a t d e a t h f o r t h e a f f l i c t e d a d u l t s was under
3 5 Years. Since 40% of this small sample were a f f e c t e d with
o t i t i s media, it c a n be suggested t h a t cold-related i n f e c t i o n s o r
Possibly measles and t h e p o s s i b l e r e s u l t a n t hearing impairment
would lower t h e productivity of t h e a f f l i c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . The
s u g g e s t s t h a t middle e a r d i s e a s e was an important i l l n e s s
in t h i s s o c i e t y .
Analysis of t r a m as a pathology i s complicated by t h e d i f f i -

c u l tof~ discerning whether t h e trauma is t h e r e s u l t o f a c c i d e n t
Or h o s t i l i t y and whether it is r e l a t e d t o h a b i t a t and t e r r a i n O r t o
of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . The temporal t r e n d appears t o be one
Of decline. ~ w ~ - t h io f~ tdh ~ e shanidar Neandertals (four of s i x )
e x h i b i t e d evidence of trauma (Trinkaus and Zimrnennan 1982) - The
r e p o r t s of t h e n e o l i t h i c samples range from nonreport-uig of trauma
57% of t h e adult- aff l i c k e d a t ~ ajij F i r u z . ~ w e n t y - s i xp e r c e n t
Of t h e tran~it-~~~l seh ~ ~ i nbf a ni t s (5 of 19) r e f l e c t e d l o c a l i z e d
and trauma. The metal a g e survey (Rathbun 1980) i n d i c a t e d
a trauma r a t e of approximately 15%. I n t h i s study some of t h e
traumas were obviously t h e r e s u l t of h o s t i l i t y , from sword and mace
l o w s . Some of t h e postcranial f r a c t u r e s were equally dramatic.
i s d i f f i c u l t to determine whether t h e s e traumas were from f a l l s
The a r e a l a n a l y s i s revealed a
perhaps, from kicks by
156 TED A. RATHBUN 1
much higher r a t e of head wounds f o r I r a n i a n males than females,
but no such sex difference was s i g n i f i c a n t i n Mesopotamia. The
Iranians, however, had a higher r a t e than t h a t found i n t h e Meso-
potamian samples. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e by e i t h e r a r e a o r sex
was noted i n the postcranial material. Age, however, was important
since children exhibited fewer p o s t c r a n i a l traumas i n both a r e a s .
Although a r t i f i c i a l breaching of t h e s k u l l cannot be associated
d i r e c t l y with trauma, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e in-
stances of trephination noted a t Zawi Chemi (Ferembach 1970) and a t
Dinkha Tepe (Mallin and Rathbun 1976) may have been attempts t o
relieve depressed f r a c t u r e s and other trauma (Rathbun and all in
1979).
OSTEOARTHRITIs
Even though degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e and s p e c i f i c n u t r i t i o n a l

f a c t o r s of past populations have not been l i n k e d d i r e c t l y , t h e pat-
tern and frequency of such changes with types of p h y s i c a l activity
may Suggest a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s . Edynak (1976) attempted t o
e s t a b l i s h l i f e - s t y l e s from s k e l e t a l material using t h i s approachy
Similar types of analysis have not been attempted i n Soutwest Asia
with any precision.
The reported frequency of o s t e o a r t h r i t i c changes v a r i e s con-
siderably by time period and by a r e a . Half of t h e Shanidar
Neandertals exhibited a r t h r i t i c changes and a l l of t h e pre-
Neolithic individuals a t Hotu r e f l e c t e d s t r e s s , e s p e c i a l l y of the
lower back and hands (Angel 1952). ~t t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e of H a j j i
Firuz, o s t e o a r t h r i t i s was t h e most common pathology present and
f l i c t e d 63%of the a d u l t s . ~t other s i t e s during t h i s time, de-
generative j o i n t disease was present a t Ganj Dareh and none was
mentioned f o r the Zawi Chemi sample. I n t h e l a t t e r case, howeverf
it i s not c l e a r whether t h e condition was not p r e s e n t o r simply
reported. I n the metal age samples a r t h r i t i c changes were common.
The frequency ranges from 6 t o 35% with t h e most common locations
i n descending frequency a s follows: vertebrae--35%, k n e e - 2 ,
e1hw--21%, shoulder--13%, hip--11%, mandibleÃ‘6 (mthbun 1980) -
It should be remembered t h a t t h e average age a t death f o r
these samples was low. The r e l a t i v e l y high frequency and
of degenerative change can be a t t r i b u t e d t o physical
stress and not t o age alone. The trend f o r decreasing frequency
time Probably can be r e l a t e d t o changes i n economic activi-
ties associated with urban l i f e . Type of t e r r a i n appears t o play
a in t h e expression of t h e pathology s i n c e t h e ~ r a n i a ns a
revealed a higher frequency +-han t h e ~ ~ s o ~ o t a m i a n
NONPATTERNED PATHOLOGY
The f i n a l n o t a t i o n of i d i o s y n c r a t i c and nonpatterned d i s e a s e

s t a t e s and p a t h o l o g i e s i s included t o complement t h e preceding
surveys of p o s s i b l e i n d i c a t o r s of changing economic conditions.
During t h e N e o l i t h i c one case of c r a n i a l hypervascularis t h a t
was a t t r i b u t e d t o t u b e r c u l o s i s , s y p h i l i s , o r m e t a s t a t i c cancer was
reported by Ferembach (1970) f o r t h e Zawi Chemi sample. She a l s o
i n d i c a t e d a p o s s i b l e c a s e of Hand-SchEller-Christian d i s e a s e , one
i n s t a n c e of o s t e o l y s i s o f t h e a t l a s l e f t p o s t e r i o r a r c , one case
of s p i n a b i f i d a o c c u l t a ( a l s o observed i n t h e metal age g r o u p s ) ,
and a l l o b s e r v a b l e temporal bones with a u d i t o r y t o r i . One c a s e of
o s t e o l y t i c s k u l l l e s i o n s , one i n s t a n c e of a c h i l d w i t h g e n e r a l i z e d
metabolic d i s e a s e , perhaps from m u l t i p l e vitamin d e f i c i e n c y , and
h ~ p e r c e m e n t o s i si n 37% of t h e d e n t a l elements were r e p o r t e d from
Ganj Dareh ( M e i k l e j o h e t a l . 1980). p o s s i b l e s t i l l b o r n and co-
joined t w i n s were r e p o r t e d a t Hassuna (Abdul ~ z i and z Slipka
1966). The H a j j i F i r u z N e o l i t h i c sample a l s o included a c o n g e n i t a l
h i p deformity o r a s e p t i c n e c r o s i s , a p o s s i b l e m e t a s t a t i c tumor t h a t
occurred along t h e s u p e r i o r s a g i t t a l venous s i n u s , and t h i c k v a u l t s
i n a l l a d u l t c r a n i a (Turnquist 1976).
The c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s i n g before and a f t e r b i r t h o f t h e Seh
Gabi C h a l c o l i t h i c i n f a n t sample was supported by t h e frequency of
bone r a r e f a c t i o n : 14 of 1 6 o r 88% of t h e p o s t n a t a l specimens. The
mean age a t d e a t h f o r t h e 30 recovered i n f a n t s Was approximately
6 months, w i t h 1 0 of t h e 3 0 d e a t h s occurring around p a r t u r i t i o n
(Skinner 1 9 8 0 ) .
The l a t e r m e t a l a g e samples include a v a r i e t y of i n d i v i d u a l
Pathologies . Krogman (1940a ,b) reported a v a r i e t y of p a t h o l o g i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s a t Tepe H i s s a r , and Rathbun (1972, 1975) reviews i n -
d i v i d u a l skeletons for p a t h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s . iff e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s
a number of abnormal bones i s n o t d e f i n i t i v e .
TEMPORAL TRENDS
The p i c t u r e of t h e health and d i s e a s e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s e p a s t

Populations in Southwest Asia i s indeed hazy. NO s i n g l e period has
been analyzed a d e q u a t e l y from t h i s ~ e r s ~ e c t i vand e when a time
i s added, t h e e f f e c t i s much l i k e t h a t of l o o k i n g through
an extremely shadowy kaleidoscope.
I n a t t e m p t i n g t o summarize t h e d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s under con-
s i d e r a t i o n , one can make only a few tenuous g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about
each Period. The p a l e o l i t h i c samples appear t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d
high r a t e s of trauma, degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e , d e n t i t i o n w i t h
b u t few c a r i e s , frequent t o o t h l o s s , and p e r i o d o n t a l
d i s e a s e . Sexual dimorphism appears t o be s i m i l a r t o t h a t of r e c e n t
humans .
I;
i
The preagricultural sample a l s o had frequent degenerative j o i n t
disease (especially of t h e v e r t e b r a e ) , p e r i a p i c a l abscesses, and
traces of osteoporosis but no Harris l i n e s t h a t would i n d i c a t e r e -
I
I
covery from metabolic i n s u l t .
The composite from t h e Neolithic samples a l s o includes high
rates of degenerative j o i n t disease, frequent trauma, marked a t -
1
2
t r i t i o n , and frequent carious l e s i o n s . I n f e c t i o n was r e l a t i v e l y

1
common.
The metal age groups were s u b j e c t t o a range of pathology- \
producing conditions. Age a t death i s not markedly d i f f e r e n t from
e a r l i e r samples. ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e i s a decrease i n male s t a t u r e , t h e
reasons f o r t h i s a r e not a t a l l c l e a r .
I
The detection and firm a r t i c u l a t i o n of temporal t r e n d s i n t h e
q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e expression of pathology i n t h e I
skeleton and t h e i r association with socioeconomic change i n south-
west Asia a r e currently next t o impossible. The s k e l e t a l sample 1
s i z e s a r e extremely e r r a t i c and small i n c r i t i c a l p e r i o d s , t h e
published l i t e r a t u r e i s inadequate i n both e x t e n t and comparability,
and reported methods of diagnosis and c r i t e r i a t r a d i t i o n a l l y have
been vague. Many of t h e inadequacies of t h e d a t a base stem from
t h e h i s t o r i c a l lack of concern f o r t h e skeleton a s an archaeologi-
c a l resource.
In t h i s review of t h e published l i t e r a t u r e , and with t h e Pre-
viously s t a t e d caveats, it appears t h a t demographic s t a b i l i t y t
rather than a marked improvement i n longevity, i s i n d i c a t e d with
the major changes from p r e a g r i c u l t u r e t o v i l l a g e fanning t o t h e
urban s t a t e . Males c o n s i s t e n t l y l i v e d longer than females, but the
data are inadequate f o r l i f e t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n with subadult seg-
ments of t h e populations. Population aggregation i n t h e l a t e r
periods appears more important than a proposed demographic transi-
t i o n linked t o food a v a i l a b i l i t y .
Evaluations of estimates of s t a t u r e of t h e populations and
temporal trends a r e complicated by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d a p t a t i o n
to d i f f e r e n t ecological niches and by migration. NO s i n g l e envi-
ronmental zone has s u f f i c i e n t s k e l e t a l samples t o document t h e
changes over time. Migrations within t h e a r e a a r e archaeolo9ical1y
and h i s t o r i c a l l y documented. Sexual dimorphism i n a d u l t s t a t u r e
-
does n o t change temporally a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l
Within each period except t h e Neolithic, males were s i g n i f i c a n t l y
than females. The only temporal t r e n d appears t o be
i n female s t a t u r e and a reduction i n average male
Stature during t h e urban metal ages. A number of explanations are
possible, but t h e existence of fewer differences i n t h e gender-
r e l a t e d socioeconomic r o l e s appears t o be t h e most l i k e l y explana-
t ion.
higher r a t e of recovery from i n s u l t o r a higher pathogen exposure

from t h e combination of urban l i v i n g , hygiene, p a r a s i t e l o a d s , and
p e r i o d s of r e l a t i v e d i e t a r y inadequacy. I t a l s o should be noted
t h a t t h e r e appears t o be a reduction i n t h e evidence of i n f e c t i o n
from t h e N e o l i t h i c t o t h e l a t e r metal ages.
Expression of trauma i n t h e s k e l e t o n appears t o decrease
through time. However, I h a s t e n t o mention t h a t much of t h e
trauma seen i n t h e l a t e r c u l t u r a l phases appears t o be from human
v i o l e n c e . I t i s impossible t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a t o t h e r times among
human v i o l e n c e , trauma through a c c i d e n t i n rugged t e r r a i n s , and
p o s s i b l e i n j u r y from work with animals.
No g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i e t a r y i r o n q u a l i t y between p r e a g r i c u l -
t u r a l and i n t e n s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r a l samples a r e noted by t h e frequen-
cy of c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . The lower incidence among males may be due
to d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o i r o n resources o r t o t h e metabolic de-
mands of pregnancy and l a c t a t i o n i n females and of development i n
children.
The a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i v e amounts of calcium and strontium
Preserved i n t h e bone a t N e o l i t h i c s i t e s d i d n o t i n d i c a t e a Sig-
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from hunter-gatherers i n t h e g e n e r a l a r e a .
Marked i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n samples was noted. The r o l e of
animal husbandry i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l groups i s a s i g n i f i c a n t e l e -
ment of Southwest Asian c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y . comparison with urban
Populations p o s s i b l y would be enlightening.
Dental c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c u l t u r a l ~ r a c t i c e sof food
P r e p a r a t i o n and hygiene a l s o appear r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e . here i s
a very s l i g h t reduction i n t h e degree and o n s e t of a t t r i t i o n of t h e
t o o t h crowns, b u t c a r i o u s l e s i o n s , abscesses, and p e r i o d o n t a l
d i s e a s e were common f e a t u r e s throughout time.
P h y s i c a l s t r e s s , a s i n d i c a t e d by degenerative changes i n vari-
ous j o i n t s , d e c r e a s e s with urban l i f e . NO Simple pattern o r ex-
p l a n a t i o n should be invoked s i n c e o s t e o a r t h r i t i c changes occur
early i n l i f e t o modern standards. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
t h e s t r e s s a t p a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s v a r i e s g r e a t l y by s i t e and w i t h i n
each p e r i o d .
CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
The s a d p i c t u r e of t h e p a u c i t y of s p e c i f i c information on
h e a l t h , disease, and socioeconomic change i n Southwest ~ s i a at
P r e s e n t can be improved. ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t gaps i n
ê temporal sequence of a v a i l a b l e s k e l e t a l s e r i e s , systematic r e -
study of t h e a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s i n museums and o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s
w i t h a focus o n pathology would provide a p r i o r i t y b a s i s f o r
further research. The r e s t u d y p r o j e c t n o t only Should i n c l u d e
through g r o s s observation, b u t should employ radiog-
raphic, chemical, and methods. Since a m u l t i d i s c i p l i -
nary approach appears most prof i t a b l e , some c o n s i d e r a t i o n must be
TED A. RATHBUN
given t o t h e use o f comparable c r i t e r i a and methods of d a t a col-

lection. Problems of archaeological information and representa-
tiveness of t h e samples w i l l remain f o r t h i s m a t e r i a l excavated
i n the past. Restudy with new techniques of e x t a n t c o l l e c t i o n s ,
no matter how limited, could provide s i g n i f i c a n t new information
(Buikstra and Gordon 1981; Peebles e t a1 1981) . . The mo st serious
limitations of t h e present c o l l e c t i o n s a r e small sample s i z e f o r
some periods, fragmentation of individual s k e l e t o n s , l a c k of sub-
adult s e r i e s , and lack of proper curation.
Research s t r a t e g i e s involving new m a t e r i a l s probably w i l l
require a regional approach. Although multicomponent sites a r e
present i n the area, individual s i t e a n a l y s i s , although extremely
important, should be approached with t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e
area is characterized by ecological d i v e r s i t y . Resources a s well
a s reciprocity among t h e a r t i c u l a t e d populations i n t h e i r d i v e r s e
ecozones must be considered. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and excavation of
human remains from s i t e s i n the Upper P a l e o l i t h i c with a hunter-
gatherer resource base, t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l Mesolithic samples, and a
range of Neolithic adaptations i n t h e mountain v a l l e y s and t h e ad-
jacent p l a i n s would be t h e i d e a l s i t u a t i o n . Some s t r i d e s have been
made in the analysis of f l o r a l remains and t h e f a u n a l m a t e r i a l s
have received intensive a t t e n t i o n a t s p e c i f i c s i t e s and i n some
regions with sophisticated methodolcqies (Meadow and Zeder 1978) -
Considerations of t h e domestication process and t h e c u l t u r a l dy-
Il8miee Snv~lveda r e important, but somewhat l e s s a t t e n t i o n has been
given to t h e d i e t a r y u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e s e resources. ~ s ~ e c i a l l ~
lacking is t h e consideration of t h e s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s of t h e
presence of pathogens i n animals and human s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o disd
ease. Mixed farming and p a s t o r a l adaptations have been charac-
t ~ r i ~oft tih ~ i s a r e a f o r s i g n i f i c a n t periods of time. Since
pathgens and human populations have adapted t o each o t h e r throuqh
th& e ~ i d e m ~ ~ ~ operspectivegi~al should be productive i n this
regard.
~thno-osteologyand comparative a n a l y s i s of e x t a n t g r a i n
fanners, mixed farmers, p a s t o r a l i s t s , and urban groups generate
airectiong for model extensions i n t o t h e p a s t . Although such
models a r e important h e u r i s t i c devices, empirical d a t a from Skele-
s e r i e s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r a f u l l understanding of p a s t c u l t u r a l
dynamics and the e f f e c t s of socioeconomic change on t h e h e a l t h
the populations.
Specific a t t e n t i o n must be given to t h e c o l l e c t i o n of s u f f i c i e n t
s k e l e t a l material t o allow v a l i d s t a t i s t i c a l manipulation f o r demo-
graphic and comparative s t u d i e s . Especially c r i t i c a l i s a repre-
sentative sample of subadult m a t e r i a l s , which t r a d i t i o n a l l y have
not collect@d. Local and regional i n resources,
population d i s t r i b u t i o n , environmental factors affec t i n 9 health,
nutritional adequacy of food resources, and t h e n a t u r e of t h e
pathogens still must be considered i n d e t a i l . The importance
genfier age and sex s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , class distinctions
in c u l t u r a l Systems a r e other s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s be
considered i n a comprehensive a n a l y s i s of t h e e f f e c t s of socio-

economic change on h e a l t h .
This review of s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of h e a l t h s t a t u s of groups
from t h e Middle P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e metal ages i n I r a n and
I r a q h i g h l i g h t e d how l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been given t o t h i s im-
portant d a t a r e s o u r c e . Even though many important d a t a have been
l o s t due t o i n a t t e n t i o n t o s k e l e t a l remains i n t h e a r e a , e x t a n t
Collections may y e t y i e l d i n s i g h t s i n t o b i o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n as-
sociated with changes i n c u l t u r a l systems. Previous archaeologi-
Cal r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a h a s n o t provided t h e information needed
t o attempt t o a d d r e s s t h e many i n t e r r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s of h e a l t h
and socioeconomic change. F u t u r e cooperation among a r c h a e o l o g i s t s ,
physical a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , and o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s w i l l be necessary
t o document t h e h e a l t h - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s o f p a r t i c u l a r groups and
t a p o r a l trends. I n our a t t e m p t s t o address t h e problems of h e a l t h
change over time, we must a l s o come t o terms with t h e meaning of
these p o s s i b l e t r e n d s : a r e they causes o r consequences of socio-
economic change?
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-Qyelr J-L., and C. S . Coon

1952 Axial Skeleton of an Upper p a l a e o l i t h i c -woman from H O ~ U .
American hUmazo f physical ~nt'hpopoZogy1 0 ( 3 ) : 2 5 2 -
162
TED A. RATHBUN
Aufderheide, A. C . , G. Rapp, and W. m r e n t z

1982 S k e l e t a l l e a d a n a l y s i s , Dinkha Tepe, I r a n . M s . on ~ i l e ,
Archaeometry Laboratory and Department of ~ a t h o l o g y ,
u n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota, Duluth.
Braidwood, R. J., and L. b raid wood
1950 J-o: A v i l l a g e of e a r l y farmers i n I r a q . ~ n t G u i t y24:
189-195.
~ u i k s t r a ,J. E., and D. C. Cook
1980 Palaeopathology: An American account. ~ n n u a l~ e v i e wo f
Anthropology 3 :433-470.
Buikstra, J . E . , and C. C. Gordon
1981 The study and restudy of human s k e l e t a l s e r i e s : The im-
portance of long term c u r a t i o n . Annals of t h e New ~ o r k
Academy o f Sciences 376: 449-465.
Cappieri, M.
1969 The Mediterranean r a c e i n Asia b e f o r e t h e I r o n Age.
O C C U S Paper ~ ~ No. 8. F i e l d Research P r o j e c t s , M i a m i -
1970 The Mesopotamians of t h e C h a l c o l i t h i c and Bronze Ages.
OCCUS'LOZU'~Paper No. 1 2 . F i e l d Research p r o j e c t s , ~ i a m i -
Carbonell, V. M.
1958 The dentition of the Kish population, 3,000 B. C. aster'
t h e s i s , University of Chicago.
1966 The p a l e o d e n t a l pathology o f a n c i e n t ~ e s o p o t a m i a n s .
Journal of Dental Research 45: 413.
Carneiro, R. L., and D. F. H i l s e
1966 On determining t h e probable r a t e of p o p u l a t i o n growth
during t h e N e o l i t h i c . American Anthropologist 68:177-180.
cave, A. J. E., and E. H. A. Centeno
1951 The human c r a n i a . In Excavations i n ~ z e r b a i g a ni n 19481
e d i t e d by Burton Brown, pp. 206-225. Murray, london-
Coon, C. S.
1950 Three s k u l l s from T e l l Hassuna. Sumer 6: 93-96.
1951 0e Q x p l ~ r a t i o n s -in Iran. U n i v e r s i t y Museum, university
of Pennsylvania, P h i l a d e l p h i a .
Coon, C. S., and J. L. Angel
1953 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e Hotu S k e l e t o n s . American ~ o u
of P'hvsha.1- ~nt'hrapology11:256.
Dahlberg, A. A.
1960 The d e n t i t i o n of t h e f i r s t (Jam0 lraq) -
American Jam-a2 of Physical Anthropology 28:243-2s6-
EdYnak, G . J.
1976 L i f e - s t y l e s from s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l : A medieval yugoslav
example. I n The measures o f man, e d i t e d by E. G i l e s and
J. S - F r i e d l a e n d e r , pp. 408-432. peabody Museum Press!
Cambridge.
El-Wailly, F.
1964 Foreword. Smep 20~1-3.
E1-Waill~, F - , and B. A. es-soof
1965 The excavations a t T e l l Es-Sawwan: ~irst re-
p o r t . Smer 21-17-32.
Ferembach, D.
1970 Etude a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e d e s ossements humains p r o t o -
N e o l i t h i q u e d e Z a w i - C h d Shanidar ( I r a q ) . S m r 26:21-
64.
Finkel, D. J.
1974 The dynamics o f Middle Eastern s k e l e t a l populations. P~.D.
d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon.
1982 Sexual dimorphism and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n i n Middle E a s t e r n
s k e l e t a l populations. I n Sexual dimorphism i n Homo
S a p h s ; A question o f s i z e , e d i t e d by R . L. H a l l , p p . 165-
185. P r a e g e r , New York.
F u r s t , c. M.
1939 The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g the excavations of
D r . 1. J. Arne in Shah Tepe a t ~ s t r a b a d - G o r g a n i n I r a n .
R e p o r t s from t h e s c i e n t i f i c e x p e d i t i o n t o the North-
w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s o f China under t h e l e a d e r s h i p of
D r . Svan Hedin. The 5'&-S&sh ~ x p e d i t i o np u b l i c a t i o n
No. 9 (Archaeology 4) . Bokforlogs A k t i e b o l a g e t Thule,
Stockholm.
G r a ~ t J - P., and L. D. Wolfe
1980 Height and s e x u a l dimorphism o f s t a t u r e among human so-
c i e t i e s . Americm Jowm.al of physical Anthropology 53 ( 3 ) :
441-456.
Hamlin, c.
lg73 The 1971 e x c a v a t i o n s o f Seh Gabi, I r a n . Archaeology 26:
224-247.
Sassan, F A.
l g 7 3 On mechanisms of p o p u l a t i o n growth d u r i n g t h e n e o l i t h i c .
Clovent Anthropology 14:535-543.
l g 7 9 Demography and archaeology. Annual ~ e v okf ~ n t h r o p o l o a
8:137-160.
Hek-at, M.
l g 7 0 Geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n g u i d e t o endemic d i s e a s e s of
Iran. Study NO. 40. F i e l d ~ e s e a r c hp r o j e c t s , coconut
Grove, Miami .
Hole, F.
19^ S t u d i e s i n t h e a r c h e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of t h e D* turan.
P l a i n . Memoirs o f t h e Museum o f ~ n t h r o p o l o g yUnzversztY
o f Michigan A m Arbor No. 9.
1 F . , and K. V. F l a n n e r y
9 The Pre-history of south-Western Iran: A preliminary
r e p o r t . promedings o f f i e prehistoric Society 33:147-
206.
F - , K. V. F l a n n e r y , and J. A. N e e l Y
1969 P r e h i s t o r y and human ecology o f t h e Deb Luran 'lain.
Memoirs o f t h e Museum o f ~ n t h r o p o l o g yUniversity of
Michigan Ann Arbor No. 1.
Ikeda, J.
1968 Anthropological s t u d i e s o f West ~ s i a II- . Human remains
o t o a n Norfchyn I r a n - Tokyo univepsit~
Iraq-1ran h & e o l o g i e a l ~ a p e d z t w nNo. 9 -
TED A. RATHBUN
164
Krogman, W. M.
1940s Racial t y p e s from Tepe Hissar, I r a n , from t h e l a t e f i f t h
t o t h e e a r l y second millenium B.C. A c h a p t e r i n t h e pro-
t o h i s t o r y of Asia Minor and t h e Middle E a s t . Verhmde-
lingen der Koninkli.J'ke Nederladsche Akademie van Weten-
schappen Afdeeling Natuwkunde rYeede S e c t i e Dee1 39, No.
L.
1940b The s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f an e a r l y I r a n i a n s i t e .
B u l l e t i n o f t h e History of Medicine 8:28-48.
1940c The p e o p l e s o f e a r l y I r a n and t h e i r e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n s .
American Journal of Physical ~ n t h o p o l o g y26:269-308.
1950 Report on a s k u l l from t h e Well i n Area A. I n Excavations
a t Tepe Gawra (Vol. 11) e d i t e d by A . T o b l e r , pp. 216-220-
University of Pennsylvania Museum Monographs No. 2.
Lambert, P . J.
1979 Early N e o l i t h i c c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n a t Ganj Dareh Tepe,
I r a n . Canadian Review of ~ h ~ s i c Anthropologyal 1 ( 2 ) :51-
54.
1980 An osteologioal analysis o f t h e ~ e o l i t h i cs k e l e t a l popula-
from D& Dareh Tepe, Iran. M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , univer-
s i t y o f Manitoba.
M a l l i n , R., and T. A. Rathbun.
1976 A t r e p h i n e d s k u l l from I r a n . B u l l e t i n o f t h e S e w York
Academy o f Medicine 52(7):782-787.
McNeill, W. H.
1976 Plagues and peoples. Doubleday, New York.
1979 H i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s of m i g r a t i o n . Current ~ n t h r o p o l o g y
20 (1) :95-102.
Meadow, R. W., and M. A. Zeder
1978 Approaches t o f a u n a l a n a l y s i s i n t h e Middle E a s t .
Peabody Museum o f Araheology and Ethnology ~ u l l e t i nNo- -
Meiklejohn, C . r P. Lambert, and C. Byrne
1g80 Demography and p a t h o l o g y o f t h e Ganj Dareh p o p u l a t i o n :
E a r l y N e o l i t h i c I r a n . American Journal of ~ h y s z c a l
Anthropology 52 (2) :2 55.
M e l l a a r t , J.
1974 The f l e o l i t h i c o f t h e Nem East. s c r i b n e r t s , New York.
Mortensen, P .
1964 11. E a r l y v i l l a g e farming o c c u p a t i o n . Acta APchi&ogica
34:110-121.
Howell, G. w.
1980 M i l e s method o f a g i n g d e n t i t i o n s o f Teps H i s s a r : A good
method, a bad sample, b u t y i e l d i n g t o o l s o f p o s s i b l e use
f o r o t h e r samples. American J o m a Z o f f h y s i e a z
Anthropology 52 (2 :263.
Gates, J.
historic Society 39: 147-181.

P a r d i n i , E.
1977 G l i i n u m a t i d i Shahr-i-Sokhta (Sistan, I r a n ) . Studio
O s t e o l o g i c o Preliminare--11 P a r t e . Archivio per
2-Anthrcrpologia e l a Ehologia C V I I : 159-235.
P a r d i n i , E., a n d A. A. Sarvari-Negahban
1977 C r a n i o l o g i a d e g l i i n u m a t i d i Shahr-i-Sokhta (Sistan, Iran) .
Studio preliminare. Arch-wio per 2-Antropologia e l a
Etndoq-ia CVI:1-49.
Peebles, C. S., M. J. Schoeninger, V. P. S t e p o n a t i s , and C. M.
Scarry
1981 A p r e c i o u s bequest: Contemporary r e s e a r c h w i t h t h e WPA-
CCC c o l l e c t i o n s from Moundville Alabama. Annals o f the
New Jork Academy of Sciences 376:433-447.
Rathbun, T. A.
A study of the physical c b a c t e r i s t i c s of the ancient in-
fw.-bitants of Hasanlu, Iran. Study No. 68. F i e l d Research
P r o j e c t s , Coconut Grove, M i a m i .
A study o f t h e physical characteristies of the ancient i n -
habitants o f Kish, Iraq. s t u d y NO. 87. F i e l d Research
P r o j e c t s , Coconut Grove, Miami.
M e t r i c and d i s c r e t e t r a i t v a r i a t i o n among Metal Age
I r a n i a n and Mesopotamian p o p u l a t i o n s . American Journal o f
Physical Anthopology 5 0 ( 3 ) ~ 4 7 3 .
P a t t e r n s of p a t h o l o g y among Metal Age I r a n i a n and Mesopo-
tamian populations . American Journal of ~ h y s i c a Anthro-l
pology 52:269.
H a r r i s l i n e s and d e n t i t i o n a s i n d i r e c t evidence of
n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t e s i n e a r l y I r o n Age I r a n . American
Journal of Physical ~ n t h o p o l o g y54 ( 3 ) :266.
Morphological a f f i n i t i e s and demography o f ~ e t a Age l
Southwest Asian p o p u l a t i o n s . ~merican~ o u m a lo f ~ h y s i c a l
S k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from Dinkha Tepe, I r a n . MS. on F i l e ,
Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of South Carolina.
905.
1979 A probable tr&phination: ~ o atn e n l a r g e d p a r i e t a l foramen.
B~2Zeti.nof 6% yo& Academy of Medicine 55 (7) :717-
723.
166 TED A. RATHBUN
Schoeninger, M. J.
1981 The a g r i c u l t u r a l " r e v o l u t i o n " ; Its e f f e c t on human d i e t
i n p r e h i s t o r i c I r a n and I s r a e l . ~ a l e o x i e n t7:73-92.
1982 ~ i e and t t h e e v o l u t i o n o f modern human form i n t h e ~ i d d l e
East. Amerban Journal of Physical ~nthxopology5 8 (1):37-
52.
Singh, P.
1974 Neolithic c u l t w e s of Western Asia. seminar P r e s s , New
York.
Skinner, M. F.
1980 P a t h o l o g i e s among i n f a n t s from Seh Gabi, I r a n . ~me'r'Lean
Journal of Physical Anthropology 52 ( 2 ) :280.
S t a r r , R. F. S.
1939 Nuai, report on the excavations of Yorgan Tepa near
Grkuk, Iraq, 1927-1931 (Vol. I ) . Harvard u n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , Cambridge.
Stewart, T. D.
1977 The Neanderthal s k e l e t a l remains from S h a n i d a r Cave, I r a q :
A summary o f f i n d i n g s t o d a t e . Proceedings of the Am&-
can Philosophical Society 121 ( 2 ) :121-165.
Storm, S.
1976 Vie S k d e t e vom Takht-i-SuZeÂ¥una (Word-West I r a n ) . Ph. D.
thesis, Freie UniversitXt, Berlin.
Swindler, D R. .
1956 A study o f t h s cranial and skeletal material excavated a t
flippur. U n i v e r s i t y Museum Monograph, U n i v e r s i t y of
Pennsylvania, P h i l a d e l p h i a .
Trinkaus, E.
1978 Dental remains from t h e Shanidar a d u l t ~ e a n d e r t h a l s -
h m a l of Human Evolution 7:369-382.
1980 Sexual d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e N e a n d e r t h a l limb b o n e s . ~ o
of Human Evolution 9:377-397.
Trinkaus, E., and M. R. Z h e r m a n
1982 Trauma among t h e Shanidar N e a n d e r t h a l s . A ~ & Q X ~ 0 ~
o f Physbal Anthropology 5 7 ( 1 ) : a - 7 6 .
T u r n q u i s t , J.
1976 The N e o l i t h i c s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n from H a j j i F i r u z TePe-
Appendix I n Voight , M., H a j j i F i r u z Tepe: ~n ~ c o n o m i cRe-
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a S i x t h M i l l e n i m Community i n Western
I r a n . Ph. D. T h e s i s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : u n i v e r s i t y o f Penn-
s y l v a n i a . Appendix C: pp. 823-846.
V a l l o i s , H. v.
Voigt, M. M.
1977 The s u b s i s t e n c e economy o f a s i x t h millenium v i l l a g e i n
t h e Ushnu Solduz V a l l e y . B-L'bliotheeaMesapotamiea,
Undena, Malidu, pp. 307-346.
1983 H a j j i F i r u z Tepe: The N e o l i t h i c s e t t l e m e n t . I n Hasanlu
excavation reports (Vol I ) . .
m. 70-94. U n i v e r s i t y Museum Monographs, No. 50, Univer-
s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a , P h i l a d e l p h i a .
Wright, G . A.
1971 O r i g i n s o f f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n Southwestern Asia: A survey
o f i d e a s . Current Anthropology 12:447-475.
CHAPTER 7
GROWTH, NUTRITION, AND PATHOLOGY

I N CHANGING PALEODEMOGRAPHIC SETTINGS I N SOUTH ASIA
Kenneth A. R. Kennedy
~ c o l o g yand systematics
Division of Biological Sciences
Cornell University
This chapter summarizes recent i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the s k e l e t a l

biology of human populations marking t h e socioeconomic t r a n s i t i o n
from hunting and gathering t o i n t e n s i v e food production s t r a t e g i e s
i n South Asia. This region i s defined a s including I n d i a , Burma,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, ~ f g h a n i s t a n ,and t h e Himalayan c o u n t r i e s of
Nepal, Sikhim, and Buthan, a s well a s S r i Lanka and o t h e r i s l a n d s
o f t h e Indian Ocean and Bay o f Bengal. Both f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y
research i n t o t h e s k e l e t a l biology of ancient mortuary samples and
the published a r c h i v a l record a r e discussed a g a i n s t t h e background
of the archaeological record. P a r t i c u l a r reference i s made t o
changing p a t t e r n s of i n d i v i d u a l growth and development, paleode-.
mography, s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l pathology, and n u t r i t i o n . I t i s
concluded t h a t t h e adoption of i n t e n s i f i e d u t i l i z a t i o n and pro-
cessing of vegetable food sources by Neolithic and l a t e r popula-
t i o n s permitted increasing population d e n s i t y b u t l e d t o lower
q u a l i t y n u t r i t i o n and an i n c r e a s e i n c e r t a i n pathologies. There
are i n d i c a t i o n s of a highly successful economic homeostasis f o r
many p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l Mesolithic populations, but it i s suggested
t h a t population growth may have placed s t r e s s on t h e s e groups and
encouraged t h e i r g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e food resource base
through i n c i p i e n t pastoralism and p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n .
p A L AT THE~ ORIGINS~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Copyright ~ by Academic Press, Inc
0 1984
OF AGRICULTURE 169 ~ l nehts
t of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0 12 179080 0
KENNETH A. R. KENNEDY
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SKELETAL RECORD
Recent summaries of t h e archaeology of South Asia (Agrawal

1982; Allchin and Allchin 1982; Deraniyagala 1981; F a i r s e r v i s
1975; Jacobson 1979; Khan 1968; Sankalia 1974, 1977), although
employing varying terminologies and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , recognize a
sequence of technological s t a g e s roughly analogous t o t h e
Paleolithic-1ron Age sequence of Europe. However, t h e r e continues
t o be u n c e r t a i n t y over t h e c o r r e c t usage of terms such a s
" N e o l i t h i c , " " C h a l c o l i t h i c ," and "Megalithic" when they a r e applied
t o s p e c i f i c s i t e s i n t h e region. And, although t h e r e i s a general
succession of c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s from Paleolithic-Mesolithic
hunting and gathering groups t o N e o l i t h i c , C h a l c o l i t h i c , and I r o n
Age lifeways, t h e times of t h e emergence of new economies vary
considerably in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e subcontinent and not a l l of
t h e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s a r e represented i n every region. Local
" s u r v i v a l s " of more ancient lifeways may form symbiotic r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s with "more advanced" c u l t u r e s i n a given a r e a such t h a t a
chronology of uniform c u l t u r e periods does n o t r e a d i l y apply. A
somewhat broader s e t of economic c a t e g o r i e s w i l l t h e r e f o r e be
employed h e r e (Table 7 . 1 ) . There e x i s t s today a human s k e l e t a l
record of over 1700 i n d i v i d u a l specimens from 63 b u r i a l s i t e s
covering a temporal span of 30,000 years f o r which some descrip-
t i o n of s k e l e t a l biology and archaeological context a r e published.
This chapter, building on a r e c e n t catalogue of t h e 63 s i t e s
(Kennedy and Caldwell 19841, organizes t h e s e d a t a i n t o c a t e g o r i e s
of specimens of P l e i s t o c e n e o r u n c e r t a i n a n t i q u i t y , e a r l y
Holocene and recent hunting and gathering communities, e a r l y
farming-herding communities, mature farming communities, e a r l y
(Harappan, Bronze Age) c i v i l i z a t i o n s , and I r o n Age populations.
The l a r g e r s k e l e t a l s e r i e s a r e derived from e a r l y and mature
farming s i t e s of c e n t r a l and south I n d i a and from s i t e s of t h e
Harappan c i v i l i z a t i o n of t h e northwestern s e c t o r (Table 7 . 2 ) . Not
included i n this c a t a l o g a r e r e c e n t l y described s k e l e t o n s from
t h r e e s i t e s f o r which published d a t a were n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e a t t h e
time t h e catalog was prepared: t h e e a r l y "Neolithic" s i t e s of
Burzahom and Kashmir (Basu and P a l 1980) and Mehrgarh i n
Baluchistan and t h e l a t e r farming s i t e of Inamqaon i n Maharashtra
(J. R. Lukacs, personal communication) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above-
mentioned s i t e s , t h e r e a r e more than 108 s i t e s r e p o r t e d , y i e l d i n g
more than 1000 s k e l e t a l specimens t h a t a r e a s y e t undescribed b u t
of which many a r e known t o be both complete and r e l a t i v e l y w e l l
preserved.
Summary sources of South Asian s k e l e t a l d a t a a r e authored by
Biichi (19681, P. Gupta (1975, 1976), S . P. Gupta (1972), J a i n
(1979), Kennedy (1975b), Murty (1974), Sahni (1956) , and Sarkar
(1964, 1972). Problem-oriented s t u d i e s a r e fewer (Kennedy 1973a,b1
1975a,c, 1980s; Lukacs 1983a, 1984; Lukacs e t a l . 1984; Sen 1964).
S t u d i e s of South Asian b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s i n which some a t t e n t i o n i s
given t o s k e l e t a l anatomy o r mortuary d i s p o s i t i o n have focused on
1 A B L L ^. 1 ChmnoZoqv of South A.%a P r e h - i . s t m c ~u7tzcre8
GeographicuZ Regzon
Indo-
Greater Indus Gangetic Deacon South
Culture ~ u ~ u a h % ~ t ~ a l Rajasthan
l e ~ ~ ~andhara KaslunirPlain Plateau Iiulia S r i ~anka'
search base ( A n n a n d a l e 1909; Kennedy 1972b).
- - -- -
nqe i s from 168 t o 190 cm. Female s t a t u r e e r l a p t h i s range
d f o r Mahadahans t h e range i s from 162 t o .cm Accompanying
s s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e i s another indicator o
velopment--degree o f s k e l e t a l - m u s c u l a r r o b u s t i
n g e t i c hominids a r e e x c e p t i o n a l l y r o b u s t i n c r
a n i a l anatomy, t h e i r l a r g e heads s u p p o r t i n g we
p r a o r b i t a l t o r i , s h a r p nuchal l i n e s , l a r g e mas
t h prominent supramastoid c r e s t s , and well-marked temporal
n e s . Mandibles a r e massive and have well-formed mental emi-
c e s and e v e r t e d gonia. These f e a t u r e s o f t a l l s t a t u r e and
k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s e people of
erminal P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e s r e a l i z e d t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l of t h e i r
S a r k a r 1.960, 1 9 7 2 ) . Most o f t h e r e p o r t s r e l a t e t o d e n t a l
176 KENNETH A . R . KENNEDY
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t r e n d s d e s c r i b e d f o r E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n and
s o u t h e a s t A s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y mechanisms
176 KENNETH A . R. KENNEDY
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t r e n d s d e s c r i b e d f o r E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n and
s o u t h e a s t A s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y mechanisms
ese o b s e r v a t i
n e a s p e c t of
chanqes .
Growth A r r e s t
R e c o r d i n q of H a r r i s l i n e s drid r e l a t e d m a r k e r s of i n t e r r u p t e d
g r o w t h p c ~ t t c r n si s a r e c e n t p r a c t i c e i n S o u t h A s i a n p d l e o d e m o q -
2c). (These
mbs a n d other
a p p a n mor-
not f o u n d in s k e l e t o n s from t h e Harappan s i t e s .
CHAPTER 8
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA :

SUDANESE NUBIA A S A CASE STUDY
Debra L. M a r t i n
School of N a t u r a l S c i e n c e
Hampshire C o l l e g e
George J . ArrneZagos
A Zan 3. ~00~-3ma.n1
Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y
U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s - A m h e r s t
Dennis P. Van Geyven
Department of A n t h r o p o l o g y
U n i v e r s i t y o f Colorado, B o u l d e r
INTRODUCTION
This c h a p t e r examines t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o
aqricul t u r e and x-he s u b s e q u e n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l
production on t h e b i o l o g y o f a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s from Lower
Nubia. The a n a l y s i s was d e r i v e d from t h e human r e m a i n s , and
. from an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s e t t i n g a n d t h e c u l -
tural a d a p t a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n s l i v i n g i n t h e a r e a d u r i n g t h e
l a s t 12,000 y e a r s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , w e h a v e examined t h e p a t t e r n
of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , c h a n g e s i n morphology, a l t e r a t i o n s i.n
, growth and d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e i m p a c t of m o r t a l i t y a n d m o r b i d i t y
; on life e x p e c t a n c y , and t h e i m p a c t of d i s e a s e stress.
- The s e l e c t i o n of Lower Nubian remains i s b a s e d on t h e e x c e l -
lent a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s r e c o v e r e d from t h e a r e a .
The Nubian material r e p r e s e n t s o n e o f t h e most i n t e n s i v e l y
studied a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e world w i t h 36 m a j o r
Present address : Depaptmenz of orthodontic.^, University of

Connecticut Health Center, Farminqton, Connecticut 06032.
PALEOPA'I'IIOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS
0FAGIUCUl.TURE
1 94 DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.
e x c a v a t i o n s c o m p l e t e d i-n t h e l a s t 7 5 y e a r s a n d more t h a n 1000

s i t e s e x c a v a t e d (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e s e s i t e s s p a n a p e r i o d from the
hunting-gathering s t a g e t o a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i n t h e
area.
Although Nubia p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r examining
t h e i m p a c t of a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e b i o l o g y o f e a r l i e r
p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e r e a r e a number o f p r o b l e m s t h a t c o m p l i c a t e
a t t e m p t s t o m e a s u r e t h e magnitude o f t h a t i m p a c t . The most
i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m is t h a t w e do n o t h a v e l a r g e s a m p l e s o f m.iteria1
from t h e c r i t i c 2 a l p e r i o d s d u r i n g which t.he t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o
a g r i c u l t u r e occurred. The b e s t e v i d e n c e comes from t h e p h a s e s in
Nubian p r e h i s t o r y d u r i n g which t h e r e i s an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of
aqricult u r a l production.
Lower Nubia i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e N i l e R i v e r V a l l e y extending
from t h e F i r s t C a t a r a c t a t Aswan t o t h e Second C a t a r a c t a t Wadi
H d f a ( F i g u r e 8 . 1 ) . The r e g i o n r e p r e s e n t e d a main l i n e of
communication c o n n e c t i n g s u b S a h a r a n A f r i c a a n d t h e Meditteranean
( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . The s t u d y w i l l f o c u s on t h e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s
e x c a v a t e d n e a r Wadi H a l f a , a n d a l s o on materials (from the
K u l u b n a r t i s i t e ) i n an a d j a c e n t port i o n o f Upper Nubia known as
t h e Batn e l H a j a r .
CULTURE HISTORY
P o p u l a t i o n s u s e d in t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e m a t e r i a l s from t h e i
1~1esoli:hic ( c a . 1 2 , 0 0 0 B.C. ) , N e o l i t h i c (5000-3600 B.C. ) , A-Group
(2400-2400 B.C. ) , C-Group (2400-100 B.C. ) , M e r o i t i c (350 B.C. -
A . D . 3501, X-Group o r B a l l a n a ( A . D . 350-550) , and C h r i s t i a n (A.D.
550-1350) p e r i - o d s ( T a b l e 8 . 1 ) . The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l i n this
s t u d y was e x c a v a t e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f i r s t U n i v e r s i t y of
C o l o r a d o Nubian E x p e d i - t i o n , 1963-1964 s e a s o n (of which Armelagos
was a member), and t h e Colorado-Kentucky E x p e d i t i o n ( i n which Van
Gerven was P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r ) .
The s e v e n p e r i o d s o f Nubian p r e h i s t o r y c a n b e p l a c e d i n t o
t h r e e b r o a d e r p h a s e s o f c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t to
t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f a g r i c u l t u r e o n b i o l o g y . The
f i r s t p h a s e r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n from g a t h e r i n g and
h u n t i n c t o a g r i c u l t u r e and i n c l u d e s t h e m e s o l i t h i c a n d N e o l i t h i c
periods. I n Lower Nubia, t h e N e o l i t h i c development never results
i n t h e i n t e n s i v e e x p l . o i t a t i o n o f p l a n t s and a n i m a l s t h a t occurred
in other areas. The n e x t p h a s e r e p r e s e n t s a n o n i n t e n s i v e agricul-
t u r a l p e r i o d i n which t h e A-Group and C-Group u t i l i z e d a n annual
cycle o f p r o d u c e . During t h e t h i r d p h a s e , i n t e n s i v e u t i l i z a t i o n
o f t h e N i l e V a l l e y became p o s s i b i e b e c a u s e o f t h e u s e o f t h e
w a t e r w h e e l . The M e r o i t i c , X-Group, a n d C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s display
v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . Summarized b r i e f l y i n
t h e n e x t s e c t i o n a r e t h e c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s t h a t have o c c u r r e d durir
t h e major time p e r i o d s .
8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA
I
FIGURE 8 . 1 . M a p of A'friea u i t k snZarqea sectio'n showing loca-

tion of Wadi Haifa (reproduced from Martin 1 9 8 3 ) .
196 DEBRA L. MARTIN LT AJ!..
TABLE 8 . 1 Chronology and Sample S i z e o f Remains Used i n This

Studfl
Kentucky-
,.I
1
-
%me Scanda-m~ian Co lorado Colorado
M e s o l i t h i c 1 1 , 9 5 0 - 6 4 0 0 3. C. 39
A-Group 3400-2400 B.C. 105
C-Group 2400-1200 B. 17. 65-7 21
Meroi t i c 350 B.C.-A.D. 350 135 129
X-Group A . D . 350-550 166 2.18
Christian A.D. 5h0-13 57 403 188
-- - - - -
'^The Sc-andanavicm sample is used by V a p Psielson (1970), t'ke

Zor~adosample is from the Wadi- Haifa area, and t h e Kentueky-
from tne Batn el war vegiun of KuZubnartz.
lorado s,ampte i s
T r a n s i t i o n a l Phase
Mesotifhie (ll,9LO-6400 B.C. )
The a r c h a e o l o g i ca 1 evidence i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c
p o p u l a t i o n s i n Lower Nubia r e l i e d on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a r g e
game, f i s h , and seed collecting (Greene and Annelagos 1 9 7 2 ) .
Saxe (1966) c i t e s e v i d e n c e of l a r g e game h u n t i n g ; t h e occurrence
o f bones of l a r g e b o v i n e s p e c i e s i n s i t e s s u g g e s t semisedentary
o c c u p a t i o n s . Fishing and s h e l l f i s h g a t h e r i n g were s u b s t a n t i a t e d
by numerous f i s h v e r t e b r a e and s h e l l f i s h remains found w i t h the
b u r i a l s and throughout t h e s i t e s . Many small and l a r g e grinding
s t o n e s s u g g e s t e d t h e importance of g a t h e r i n g and u t i l i z a t i o n of
wild g r a s s seeds.
The development of a g r i c u l t u r e a p p e a r s l a t e i n Lower Nubia an

i s n o t pronounced i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . The l a t e occur-
r e n c e of d o m e s t i c a t e d p l a n t s and animals may r e f l e c t geographic
f a c t o r s t h a t impeded t h e s p r e a d from n o r t h e r n A f r i c a i n t o t h e
s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n , o r may i n d i c a t e t h a t s e e d - c o l l e c t i n g and fishin
were extremely s u c c e s s f u l . I n t h e Wadi Halfa N e o l i t h i c s i t e s
t h e r e i s an i n d i c a t i o n of heavy r e l i a n c e on f i s h i n g and hunting;
some c u l t i q e n s a r e found, however, implying a t l e a s t i n c i p i e n t
agriculture.
Nonintens i v e A g r i c u l t u r a l Phase
A-Group r e p r e s e n t s a t r a n s i t i o n from t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d i n
terms of b o t h t e c h n o l o g y a n d s u b s i s t e n c e . Economic b e h a v i o r was
specialized f o r N i l e e c o l o g y and i n v o l v e d a mixed s t r a t e g y . The
archaeological r e c o r d shows t h a t d o m e s t i c a t e d g r a i n s , h ~ n t e d
animals, f i s h , and g a t h e r e d s e e d c o n s t i t u t e d t h e d i e t a r y base.
The farming s t r a t e g y w a s n o t a n i n t e n s i v e o n e ; s i n g l e a n n u a l c r o p s
were h a r v e s t e d and t l i e s u c c e s s was d e p e n d e n t on t h e a n n u a l o v e r -
flow of t h e N i l e d u r i n g t h e f l o o d s e a s o n (August-November)
(Trigger 1965). The m a j o r c r o p , which was u s e d a s b o t h a f o o d
source and f o d d e r , was m i l l e t . M i l l e t was less e f f i c i e n t i n t e r m s
of p r o d u c t i v i t y and n u t r i t i o n a l c o n t e n t t h a n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l
crops (such a s b a r l e y a n d w h e a t ) , b u t c o u l d more p r e d i c t a b l y be
harvested p r i o r t o t h e f l o o d s e a s o n .
The c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e A-Group p o p u l a t i o n from N e o l i t h i c popu-
l a t i o n s is s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n c o n s i s t e n t s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n ! n q ,
pottery s t y l e s , and b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e , a n
indigenous development o f t r a n s i t i o n a l economy g r e w from e x i s t i n g
conditions and l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n s .
S i m i l a r t o t h e A-Group i n a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , C-Group p o p u l a -
tions e x h i b i t e d a mixed economy with r e l i a n c e on d o m e s t i c a t e d
g r a i n s ( p r i m a r y m i l l e t ) , f i s h , a n d h u n t e d a n i m a l s . T h e r e was an
increase i n t r a d e i t e m s f r o m t h e N o r t h (Egypt). The r e l a t i v e
prosperity o f t h e r e g i o n was h i g h .
The C-Group p o p u l a t i o n s a r e d i r e c t l y d e s c e n d e d from the
A-Grou?, a l t h o u g h t h e y occur f o l l o w i n g a brief abandonment o f
Lower Nubia b r o u g h t o n by p o l i t i c a l a n d economic f a c t o r s ( T r i g g e r
1965). P o l i t i c a l pressure from t h e Old Kingdom had p u s h e d i n -
digenous Nubians from Lower t o Upper Nubia d u r i n g t h e A-Group t o
C-Group t r a n s i t i o n . T h e b i o l o g i c a l homogeneity o f t h e two groups
emphasizes the r o l e of exogenous p o l i t i c a l a n d economic f a c t o r s
i n the b r i e f abandonment a f t e r t h e A-Group t i m e p e r i o d (ca. 2400
B . C . ) (Adams 1977) .
Following t h e C-Group period t h e r e was a n o t h e r e x o d u s o f
Nubians southward. A s l o w b u t c o n t i n u a l d e c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n
size r e s u l t e d from c o n t i n u e d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e from Egypt ( T r i g g e r
1965). F o r 1000 y e a r s f o l l o w i n q t h e C-Group p e r i o d , t h e r e g i o n o f
Lower Nubia remained u n o c c u p i e d b e c a u s e a d e c r e a s e i n t h e N i l e
water l e v e l c r e a t e d an e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r t 3 e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e
area.
DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL. ?
TABL,E 8.2 Estimates o f Population Growth Based on Settlement^

Patterns o f Excavated ArehueoZogieal S i t e s i n Louer Nubiaa
-- --
Phase Popu Zution Estimate
---- --
Intensive
Meroi-tic 60,000
X-Group 44,000
Christian 60,000
----- - -- --.
u ~ r z G Q a 1965
r :1 6 0 .
I n t e n s i v e A g r i c u l t u r a l Phase
Meroitic (350 B.C. -A. D. 3.50)

The r e o c c u p a t i o n o f Lower r.?ubia o c c u r r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w a t e r w h e e l (saqia) in Upper Nubia (Adams a
1970). T h e w a t e r w h e e l i n c r e a s e d t h e p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l of t h e *
r e g i o n , p e r m i t t i n g s u p p o r t of a l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n t h a n b e f o r e
(Table 8 . 2 ) . F a r m e r s could now grow s e v e r a l c r o p s a y e a r , and
t h e l e v e l a r e a s f a r t h e r back from t h e N ~ l e ( a s we11 a s t h e high ,'
b a n k s ) c o u l d b e w a t e r e d and used ( T r i a q e r 1 9 6 5 ) . However, crops ;.
grown on t h e s e lands r e q u i r e d a much g r e a t e r i n v e s t m e n t acre-by- :
a c r e t h a n did s i n g l e a n n u a l c r o p s grown o n t h e a l l u v i a l f l o o d '
p l a i n s . The new s y s t e m t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e d i n p u t s of '

b o t h t i m e and e n e r g y .
The M e r o i t i c c u l t u r e f l o u r i s h e d a t this t i m e and Lower Nubia *
was i m p o r t a n t f o r t r a d e and communication between t h e Mediter-
r a n e a n and s u b S a h a r a n A f r i c a . However, most o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s
w e r e s m a l l and r e l a t i v e l y poor. The i n h a b i t a n t s o f Lower Nubia
w e r e b e i n g r u l e d from Upper Nubia and may have been s u p p o r t i n g
t h e a r e a w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . Even w i t h the
w a t e r w h e e l , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l w a s r e l a t i v e l y l o w , and trade
~ 1 c c o m t e df o r much of t h e g r o w t h ( T r l q g e r 1 9 6 5 ) .
T h e archaeo1ogic:al record shows a f a r m i n g s t r a t e g y t h a t now *
i n v o l v e d t h r e e g r o w l ng s e a s o n s . Crops h a r v e s t e d i n c l u d e d m i l l e t , =
w h e a t , b a r l e y , bearm, tobacco, l e n t i l s , p e a s , <ind watermelon

( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . Ddtes, mangoes, a n d c i t - r u s t r e e s c o u l d also be
k e p t w a t e r e d d u r i n g d r y s e a s o n s t o p r o d u c e more f r u i t . C a t t l e , a
s h e e p , and g o a t s p r o b a b l y w e r e h e r d e d and a n i m a l husbandry may

have b e e n o n l y s l i g h t l y less i m p o r t a n t t h a n a g r i c u l t u r e (Adams
1 9 7 7 ) . C a t t l e were u s e d -:(I run t h e w a t e r w h e e l , and were not
e a t e n . T r i g g e r (1965) s u g g e s t s t h a t m i l k a n d bur-ter may have
been i m p o r t a n t sollrc:es of f o o d f o r t r a d e .
--
.+
- 8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRIC.4
--.
-
*-3,.
^c?
The M e r o i t i c p e o p l e had a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e f o r development o f
' the f u l l a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i r r e q i o n . I m m e d i a t e l y t o
the north l a y t h e w e a l t h y Roman p r o v i n c e o f Dodekashoenos , a ter-
' ninus t o r t h e c a r a v a n t r a d e w i t h sub S a h a i a n A f r i c a . The Lower
6 Nubians, s u b j e c t s o f t h e Upper Nubian Kingdom o f Meroe, t r a d e d
f - their s u r p l u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e t o t h i s " i n d u s t r i a l i z e d " Roman
province (Adams 1970) . I n r e t u r n they r e c e i v e d a b o u n t i f u l range
?- of the t r a d e goods o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . Toward t h e
l a t e r s t a q e o f t h e M e r o i t i c period, t h e Lower Nubi a n s h a d a c h i e v e d
a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l o f c u l t - u r a l development t h a n t h e a r e a
had ever s e e n b e f o r e . S e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n d i c a t e that t h e popu-
lation s i z e i n c r e a s e d a n d c l u s t e r e d i n t o d e n s e p o c k e t s a r o u n d t h e
irrigated f i e l d s ( T r i g g e r 1965) .
By A.D. 350, t h e d e c l i n e of t h e Kingdom of Kush a n d t h e
Kingdom o f Meroe b r o u g h t a n end t o p r o s p e r i t y i n Lower Nubia. The
Rozan Empire was b e s e t w i t h g o v e r n m e n t a l i n s t a b i l i t y , f a m i n e ,
p l a p e s , and w a r s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) .
. X-Group (BulZana Culture) (A.D. 350-550)

During t h e X-Group p e r i o d , t h e l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s f i s -
sioned i n t o s m a l l e r v i l l a g e s c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h a d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n
of power and an i n c r e a s e i n l o c a l v i l l a g e autonomy ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) .
Several r e s e a r c h e r s have e m p h a s i z e d u u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n
a r t i f a c t s between M e r o i t i c a n d X-Group p o p u l a t i o n s and have suq-
gested a c u l t u r a l d e c l i n e due t o an i n v a s i o n o f new p o p u l a t i o n
into Lower Nubia (e. g . , B a t r a w i 1 9 4 6 ; .%rant 1 9 2 5 ) . However, an
analysis o f a r t i f a c t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a r e no s t r i k i n g dif-
ferences (Adams 1977) . B u r i a l p a t t e r n s , p o t t e r y t y p e s , i r o n
spears, a r r o w h e a d s , a n d Lools w e r e common t o both p e r i o d s
(Trigger 1 9 6 5 ) . While t h e q u a l i t y o f X-Group p o t t e r y may n o t h a v e
been e q u a l i n f a b r i c o r d e c o r a t i o n t o t h a t p r e v i o u s l y p r o d u c e d i n
Meroitic t i m e s , i t was v e r y s i m i l a r a n d a1 l d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d be
traced t o a M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r i g i n (Adams 1 9 7 0 ) . I t would a p p e a r ,
t h e r e f o r e , that i n d i g e n o u s Nubian i n f 1u e n c e s remained s t r o n g i n t o
the X-Group p e r i o d . S i m i l a r i t i e s i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l
realms s u g g e s t c o n t i n u i t y ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ; Vaqn N i e l s o n 1 9 7 0 ) .
Gene t i c and b i o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y h a s a l s o been documented u s i n g
d i s c r e t e d e n t a l t r a i t s ( G r e e n e 1 9 6 6 ) and c r a n i a l t r a i t s (Berry and
Berry 1973; B e r r y e t a l . 1967) .
X-Group s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s were s i m i l a r t o the M e r o i t i c
s t r a t e g y o f i n t e n s i v e a q r i c u l Lure w-i t h m o d e r a t e a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y
(Vagn N i e l s o n 1 9 7 0 ) . Due t o l o c a l autonomy o f Nubian v i l l a g e s ,
trade n e t w o r k s and t r a d e items w e r e n o t v e r y p r o n o u n c e d . T h i s
lack of l u x u r y and e x o t i c a r t i f a c L s i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d
has been i n t e r p r e t e d a s a " d e c l i n e " i n t h e c : u l t u r a l a c h i e v e m e n t s
p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d f o r t h e Meroitic ( A d a m s 1 9 7 7 ) . Whether t h e
s h i f t i n p e r c e n t a g e of t r a d e i t e m s i s due t o <-I d e c l i n e i n a r t i s t i c
ambitions o r t o a d e c l i n e i n n e c e s s i t y o f r e c i p r o c a l t r a d i n g o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l goods f o r " h a r d " g o o d s i s d e b a t a b l e . While t h e r e is
no e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g a change i n t h e u n d e r i y i n g s u b s i s t e n c e
9
DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL. .
p a t t e r n , X-Group p e o p l e were more i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d w e r e n o t obliged.

t o trade a g r i c u l t u r a l products. It i s n o t c l e a r from t h e archaeo-
l o g i c a l r e c o r d t o w h a t d e g r e e t h e X-Group may have been p r a c t i c i n g
i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t t h e r e a p p e a r s to have been a reduced :
demand f o r f o o d from n e i g h b o r i n g C J t i e s .
Christian (A.D. 550-1300)
The C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d shows much c u l t u r a l g r o w t h and r e l i g i o u s .,

reunification. I n i t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by E g y p t , t h e c h u r c h r o s e t o
become t h e f o c u s o f Nubi an i n d e p e n d e n c e . U r b a n i z a t i o n and s t r a t i -
f i c a t i o n a r e e v i d e n t i n t h e h o u s i n g s t y l e s , a r c h i t e c t u r e , and
s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . P o p u l a t i o n s began t o c l u s t e r ,
i n l a r g e c e n t e r s and m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t i e s t o w a r d t h e end of t h e
t i m e p e r i o d , b u t t h e r e was n o t a n i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e on :
a l a r g e s c a l e (Table 8- 2 ) .
S u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s were a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e p r e v i o u s two
time periods. A g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s d i d seem t o i n t e n s i f y , how- ;
e v e r . I n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y p o o r r e g i o n s , a r t i f i c i a l t e r r a c e s were .
b u i l t a s h i g h as the w a t e r w h e e l c o u l d r e a c h ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . Trade
n e t w o r k s w e r e o n c e a g a i n very s t r o n g . T r i g g e r (1965: 1 4 5 ) s t a t e s -
t h a t Nubians were t r a d i n g s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s l a v e s t o E g y p t each :
y e a r i n r e t u r n f o r wheat, b a r l e y , l e n t i l s , c l o t h , and h o r s e s . In
a d d i t i o n , d a t e s , f i g s , g r a p e s , a n d o t h e r f r u i t s were imported from
Egypt. I n t e n s i fi . c a t i o n o f a g r i . c u 1t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , w i t h no e v i - -
dence f o r l a r g e i n c r e a s e s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , s u g g e s t s a
g r e a t e r demand f o r g o o d s i n t h e c i t i e s .
The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l . r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e h i s t o r y shows
t h e i m p a c t o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s and p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s
change. There a r e p e r i o d s of environmental i n s t a b i l i t y (decline
i n t h e l e v e l of t h e Ni-1.e) i n which Nubia was not. h a b i t a b l e , such
a s t h e 1000-year hi-atus; f o l l o w i n g t h e C-Group o c c u p a t i o n . I n other,
p e r i o d s d u r i n g which e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s were c o n s t a n t , p o l i t i c a l :
and r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r s w e r e p r i m a r y f e a t u r e s o f c u l t u r a l change.
The t r a n s i t i o n s from M c r o i t i c t o X-Group t o C h r i s t i a n p h a s e s were
due t o such s o c i o p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s .
The m a j o r s h i f t i n t h e food b a s e i n Nubia o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the
M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c t r a n s i t i o n (3600 B.C .) . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e ,
t h e s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s changed from a r e l i a n c e on h u n t e d and
g a t h e r e d food t o a food base t h a t i n c l u d e d a s i n q l e a n n u a l c r o p of .
m i l l e t d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e (A- a n d C-Group :
p h a s e , 3400-100 B . C . ) . While c u l t i g e n s a p p e a r t o b e p a r t of t h e
d i e t , t h e e c o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y o f t h e N i l e p r e c l u d e d t o t a l re- '
l i a n c e o n them. With t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e w a t e r w h e e l , a g r i c u l t u r a l
p o t e n t i a l i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e c u J . t i g e n s became v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
d i e t a s w e l l r i a i-n t r a d e . The M e r o i t i c (350 B.C. -A.D. 350) shows 1
an i n t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e l a n d t o p r o d u c e three a n n u a l c y c l e s o f '
8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN I'REHISTORIC AFRICA
harvesting, which p r o m o t e d a dependence o n a b r o a d v a r i e t y o f

c u l t i g e n s . The C h r i s t i a n g r o u p (A.D. 550-1350) shows a s i m i l a r
pattern of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . The t i m e p e r i o d between t h e
Meroitic and t h e C h r i s t i a n p h a s e , t h e X-Group (A.D. 350-550) ,
does show a d e c r e a s e i n i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g , r e f l e c t i n g s o c i o p o l iti-
cal changes.
During t h e M e r o i t i c a n d C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s , l a r g e power c e n t e r s
outside t h e l o c a l v i l l a g e s l i n k e d t h e a r e a i n t o pronounced t r a d e
networks. T h i s i n f l u e n c e d the f l o w of g o o d s a n d a c c e s s to goods.
Because of r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e t i e s , t h e M e r o i t i c a n d C h r i s t i a n
groups showed a n i n t e n s i f i e d p a t t e r n of p r o d u c t i o n t h a t was n o t
related t o an i n t e r n a l i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e ( r e f e r t o
Table 8 . 2 ) . T h i s p a t t e r n s u g g e s t s a flow o f t h e c u l t i g e n s t o t h e
neighboring c i t i e s . The X-Group r e s e m b l e s t h e e a r l i e r A- and
C-Groups, w i t h l i t t l e p o l i t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n , l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d
autonomous v i l l . a g e s , a n d l i t t l e o r no trade w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g
c i t i e s . The X-Group v i l l a g e s were more e v e n l y s p a c e d a l o n g t h e
Nile.
E c o l o g i c a l l y , t h e cirea was m a r g i n a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o a g r i - c u l -
t u r e . T h e amount: o f a r a b l e l a n d was l i m i t e d and e v e n s l i g h t
declines i n a v a i l a b l e l a n d c o u l d h a v e had s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n
the a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l . While t h e w a t e r w h e e l a l l o w e d some
independence from random f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e w a t e r t a b l e and
allowed f o r i r r i g a t i o n when n e c e s s a r y , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l r e -
mained l i m i t e d . The e x p l o i t a t i o n o f f a r m i n g v i l l a g e s d u r i n g
periods of o u t s i d e p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l , t h e r e f o r e , c o u l d h a v e a
dramatic impact o n t h e f o o d a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e l o c a l p e a s a n t r y .
POPULATION GROWTH
There a r e a t p r e s e n t n o p u b l i s h e d reports e s t i m a t i n q t h e p p u -
lations s i z e during t h e Mesolithic-Neolithic t r a n s i t i o n a l phase.
Trigger (1965:160) e s t i m a t e s t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n size f o r t h e
A-Group was 33,000 and t h a t it r o s e t o 1 7 , 5 0 0 in t h e C-Group p e r i o d
i n Lower Nubia. D u r i n g t h e M e r o i t i c , t h e p o p u l a t i o n r o s e t o
60,000, b u t t h e r e was a 26% d e c r e a s e i n the X-Group p e r i o d ( t o
44,000). There was a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n p h a s e
t o 50,000 ( T a b l e 8 . 2 ) . T h e s e e s t i m a t e s a r e b a s e d o n t-he s i z e and
r e l a t i v e numbers of s e t t l e m e n t components i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g ica 1
samples, and n o t on a b s o l u t e numbers.
During t h e p e r i o d o f n o n i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e (A- and C-Group) ,
population s i z e averaged 1 5 , 0 0 0 . R e l i a n c e o n a n n u a l f l o o d i n g f o r
produce s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d p o p u l a t i o n growth. Moreover, t h e d e c l i n e
i n t h e N i l e w a t e r l e v e l made t h e a r e a i n h o s p i t a b l e f o r 1000 y e a r s .
Then, w i t h t h e r i s e i n t h e N i l e a n d t h e use of t h e w a t e r w h e e l , t h e
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e became a m a j o r f a c t o r i n p o p u l a t i o n
growth. I n a d d i t i o n , the u n i f i c a t i o n o f Nubia u n d e r M e r o i t i c
p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e a l s o s t i m u l a t e d i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l
DEBRA 1,. MARTIN ET AL..
FIGURE 8 . 2 . Changes i n cranial morphology from i k e MesoLItkzC

f---) t o the MXCH (Meroitie, X-Group, and Christian, combined)
(---- ) . These c ? - q e s involved a reduction i n t h e s i z e of the
rriasticatory muscles, a reduction in the s i z e of the loiter face,
a reduction "in crania1 length, and an 'increase -in c r a n i a l height.
p r o d u c t i o n and p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h . F o l l o w i n g t h e b r e a k u p o f t h e
M e r o d t i c e m p i r e , t h e r e was a l o s s o f o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e population.
This d e c l i n e d u r i n g t h e X-Group p e r i o d l i k e l y r e p r e s e n t s a l a c k of
demand f o r i n t e n s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , a n d a d e c r e a s e in
t h e amount o f o v e r a l l a c t i v i t y i n Lower Nubia r e l a t e d t o t r a d e and
comrnunication between t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n and s u b S a h a r a n A f r i c a .
The s l i g h t growth d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n q p e r i o d r e f l e c t s the impact
of religious re-unification.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES RELATED TO THE DEVELOPMENT

AND INTENSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE
C r a n i a l - F a c i a l Chanqes
Nubian M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r o b u s t
c r a n i a , t y p i c a l l y with l a r g e b r o w r i d g e s , l a r g e f l a t t e n e d faces,
an? bun-shaped o c c i p u t s (Greene and Armelayos 1 9 7 2 ) . Chanqes i n
l? ter N u b i a n p o p u l a t i o n s i n v o l v e a progressive d e c r e a s e i n t h e
r o b u s t i c i t y o f t h e e n t i r e c r a n i o f a c i a l complex, '3 r o t a t i o n of the
m i d - f a c e a n d l o w e r f a c e t o a p o s i t i o n more i n f e r i o r t o the c r a n i a l
v a u l t , and a r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n c r a n i a l h e i g h t w i t h a decrease
i n l e n g t h ( C a r l s o n and Van Gerven 1.977; Van Gerven et a l . 1979)
(Figure 8 . 2 ) .
8 SOCIOECONOMIC: CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA 203
E a r l i e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e change i n c r a n i o f a c i a l morpholo-
gy r e l i e d on r a c i a l a d m i x t u r e h y p o t h e s e s which e x p l a i n s a l l changes
i n c r a n i a l morphology i n terms o f r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e p o p u l a t i o n b y
another ( B a t r a w i 1 9 4 6 ) . More r e c e n t b i o c u l t u r a l models have p r o -
posed t h a t a d i e t a r y chanqc i n v o l v i n g a r e d u c t i o n i n a t t r i t i o n r a t e
and an i n c r e a s e i n c a r i o g e n i c f o o d s c o u l d have p r e c i p i t a t e d s e l e c -
tion f o r s m a l l e r and m o r p h o l o q i c a l l y less complex t e e t h . This then
could have led t o a r e d u c t i o n i n f a c i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e w i t h a compen-
satory change i n t h e c r a n i a l v a u l t and b a s e t o meet t h e s t r e s s e s
acting on them ( C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven 1 9 7 7 ; G r e e n e and Armelagos
1972 1 .
The most. d r a m a t i c change i n f a c i a l morphology o c c u r s from t h e
Mesolithic p h a s e t o t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e o f A- and
C-Group . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , N e o l i t h i c m a t e r i a l i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o
document t h e p e r i o d o f m o s t r a p i d c h a n g e . The m o r p h o l o q i c a l
changes d e s c r i b e d c o n t i n u e f r o m t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e t o t h e
intensive phase. Given t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
d i e t a r y c h a n g e s , t h e i m p a c t o f a s h i f t - f r o m f-oods o b t a i n e d by
gathering and h u n t i n g t o a s t a p l e c o n s i s t i n g of m i l l e t may have
provided t h e i m p e t u s f o r n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n and t h e c h a n g e s i n
c r a n i o f a c i a l morphol.ogy .
Stature
S t a t u r e has b e e n a s s e s s e d f o r a l l t h e m a j o r g r o u p s e x c e p t f o r t h e
N e o l i t h i c . Based on t h e maximum Length o f t h e f e m u r , t h e g r e a t e s t
d i f f e r e n c e between mean v a l u e s ( f o r b o t h m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s ) i s
found between t h e A-Group and t h e X-Group . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s
s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 5% l e v e l (Vagn N i e l s o n 1 9 7 0 ) . Although t h e
r e d u c t i o n i n stature i s s i m i l a r f o r b o t h m a l e s and f m a l e s , o n l y
t h e males shaw a s t a t i s t - i c a l l y si g n i f -i c a n t dec1.i ne . For m a l e s ,
t h e g r e a t e s t a v e r a g e l e n g t h o f femur o c c u r s For t h e A-Group, w i t h
47.6 cm, and i t d e c r e a s e s t o 4 5 . 5 a n d 4 5 . 0 c m i n t h e C-Group and
M e r o i t i c , r e s p e c t i v e l y . However, t h e X-Group m a l e s show a s i q n i f i -
c a n t d e c r e a s e t o 4 4 . 5 cm, a n d f e m o r a l l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s t o 4 5 . 0 c m
i n t h e C h r i s t i a n s . F e m a l e s show less v a r i a t i o n i n fem-iir l e n q t h ,
with t h e A-Group h a v i n g a mean o f 4 2 - 5 and t h e C-Group 3. mean o f
42.1 c m . The M e r o i t i c , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n f e m a l e s a l l show
femur l e n g t h s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 1 c m ( T a b l e 8 . 3 ) .
I N T E N S I F I C A T I O N O F AGRICULTURE AND CHANGES

I N THE P A T T E R N O F DISEASE
The l a c k o f e x t e n s i v e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from t h e M e s o l i t h i c -
N e o l i t h i c p h a s e makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i r e c t l y a s s e s s t h e i m p a c t
of t h e t r a n s i t i o n from g a t h e r i n q a n d h u n t i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r e . I n
our sample, t h e r e i s e v e n d i f f i c u l t y i n a n a l y z i n g m a t e r i a l from
TABLE 8 . 3 Maximum Femoral L m g ths for the Combined Excavated
S i t e s from Louer ~ u b - ~ a ~
(am)
- ---
46.05
47.6
Ma le s
âx7;m7vim
femoral
zqt'h
4A .,!I
45.0
44.5
45.0
--
Fma l c ,q
-- -----
Maximum
a ~ u t uas surnrnari-zed b g Vaqn Nielson ( 1 9 ? 0 : 8 6 ) .

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL4
--
t h e rionintensive agriculture; 1 p e r i o d . What we have been able t o

Dimorphism
demonstrate i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e
( M r o i t i c , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n ) , t h e r e i s a p a t t e r n of n u t r i -
t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y that i s r e l a t e d t o t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f
a g r i c u l t u r e . W e do not know whether t h i s p a t t e r n e x i s t e d in
p e r i o d s o f l e s s i n t e n s e a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , but the few indi-
c a t i o n s t h a t we do have suggest t h a t t h e e a r l i e r d i e t a r y base was
sufficient .
Long Bone Growth and Development
The p a t t e r n of long bone growth and development i n t h e juvenile :

p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Nubian remains ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
Meroitic , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n phases) was st.udied i n order t o
j d e n t i f y p e r i o d s of probable s t r e s s (Annelagos e t a l . 1 9 7 1 ) . Un-
f o r t u n a t e l y , no such d a t a from t h e e a r l i e r Nubian qroups a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r comparison. ) This a n a l y s i s provides a measure of
t h e amount of developmental s t r e s s experienced by the subadult
p o r t i o n s of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l phase. While no i n t e r g r o u p compari- ;
sons a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e data f o r t h e combined i n t e n s i v e aqricultu-
r a l phases suggest t h a t t h e s u b a d u l t s were experiencing develop-
mental s t r e s s .
A comparison of t h e Nubian d a t a w i t h t h e d a t a f o r a sample of *
present-day American boys h i g h l i g h t s t h e e f f e c t s of t h i s stress.
Among Americans, growth i s a c c e l e r a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t s e v e r a l years -
>
of l i f e , and d e c e l e r a t e s r a p i d l y t h e r e a f t e r . T h e second period of -.

a c c e l e r a t i o n begins i n mid-childhood and reaches a peak during the '
ado1 e s c e n t growth s p u r t . By c o n t r a s t , Nubian growth apparently
-ieclined s t e a d i l y from the f i r s t through the seventh years of l i f e r u
+
7
;
-
'I
-a
^
.%
^-
zq SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA
fr.
&
- reaching a p o i n t o f l i t t l e o r n o i n c r e a s e between t h e a g e s o f f i v e
and seven. The two p e r i o d s o f catch-^^^^ g r o w t h a r e v i s i b l e a s
=
v<--
episodes o f s h a r p l y a c c e l e r a t e d i n c r e a s e i n bone l e n g t h .
-.s
Although t h e p a t t e r n s o f Nubian l o n g bone l e n g t h s d o n o t ap-
"pear g r o s s l y a b n o r m a l , b o t h t h e r a p i d d e c e l e r a t i o n o f g r o w t h i n
k.. early childhood and t h e c e s s a t i o n o f growth a r o u n d a g e s i x sug-
p- gest t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t r e s s a t t h e s e p e r i o d s . Since t h e process
i? of growth r e q u i r e s h i g h i n p u t s o f e n e r g y and p r o t e i n , dny f a c t o r
- that i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n a f f e c t g r o w t h . Growth
. retardation c o u l d b e a r e s u l t o f e i t h e r d e c r e a s e d n u t r i e n t i n t a k e
. or increased n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s , a s i n t h e c a s e o f trauma o r
infection.
P o r o t i c Hyperostosis
Vagn N i e l s o n (1970) has a n a l y z e d al.1 a d u l t s k e l e t o n s w i t h

- crania p r e s e n t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c
hyperostosis . U n f ~ r t u n ~ a t e l yt,h e r e a r e no p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s f o r
the M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c r a t e s o f p o r o L i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , b u t t h e r e
. are r e p o r t s f o r t h e A-Group t h r o u g h t h e C h r i s t i a n p h a s e s . Cribra
o r b i t a l i a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e s i n a d u l t m a l e s i n t h e C-Group
r e l a t i v e t o t h o s e i n t h e A-group. Frequencies o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a
then i n c r e a s e s l i g h t l y i n t h e M e r o i t i c , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n
groups. The f e m a l e s show a v e r y d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n o f i n v o l v e m e n t .
The h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c y o f c r l b r a o r b i t a l i a f o r f e m a l e s i s i n t h e
X-group and t h e l o w e s t f r e q u e n c y is i n t h e C h r i s t i a n g r o u p . The
A-Group, C-Group, and M e r o i t i c show r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s
for females t h a n f o r m a l e s ( T a b l e 8 . 4 ) .
The C h r i s t i a n s i t e o f K u l u b n a r t i h a s even h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s
of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s . T h e two C h r i s t i a n c e m e t e r i e s h a v e f r e -
q ~ e n c i e so f 9 4 . 4 and 8 2 . 0 , w i t h most c a s e s showing s l i g h t o r
moderate p i t t i n g . P l o t t i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s d y i n g
with and w i t h o u t p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s shows t h a t t h o s e w i t h t h e
a f f l i c t i o n had a much h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f d y i n g in a l l a g e
groups (Van Gerven e t a l . 1981 ) .
D e n t a l Caries and Enamel M i c r o d e f e c t s
Annelagos (1969) a n a l y z e d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c a r i o u s l e s - i o n s f o r
the Nubian s e r i e s from Wadi Halfa . The p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r i o u s
lesions on t h e d e n t i t i o n was r e c o r d e d by t o t a l number o f t e e t h
observed. The f r e q u e n c y was v e r y low ( 1 . 0 % ) in t h e M e s o l i L h i c
sample and i n c r e a s e d t o 1 8 . 0 % i.n t h e Christian p h a s e .
Rudney (1981) a n a l y z e d e n a m e l m i c r o d e f e c t s f o r t h e Meroi t i c
and X-Group p o p u l a t i o n s from Wadi H a l f a . P a t h o 1 o g i c ; a l band s c o r e s
were d e r i v e d from t h e f r e q u e n c y o f b a n d s p e r t o o t h and eqame.1
nypoplasias w e r e added t o t h e s c o r e when t h e y a o p e a r i n d e p e n d e n t
of a m i c r o d e f e c t . F o r b o t h t h e m e s i o b u c c a l and a i s t o l i n q u d l
cusps, t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l b a n d s c o r e s a r e g r e a t e r f o r suback-ilts 222
DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL. ;
TABLE 8 . 4 Frequency of Cribr-a Orbitazia in Males and FemaLes

during t h e A-Group fhr'ouq'h. the Christian Phases i n fubia0'
- ------ P ---
Kales - -- --- FmLes
Frequency Fr equenc,q
P'ha se 0 A? (%) a;
-
<
-
--
- - -- -
A-Group 14.3 21 18.2 22
C-i'ko~~p 2.9 140 il.2 18
Mero it ic .
,i2 77 14.6 89
'/.-Group 9.8 92 26.6 79
C n r ititid'n 11.1 27 2.8 36
revolted i n V a p Nielson ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
ât~
a d u l t s i n the M e r o i t i c , a n d l e s s Jn t h e X-Group s u b a d u l t s and

a d u l t s . Two-way a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e showed t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e -
between t h e mean s c o r e s was s i g n ~ f i c a n t ( p < - 0 0 1 ) . T h e r e are .
no o t h e r d a t a t o make even gross c o m p a r i s o n s t o o t h e r p h a s e s .
This two-phase s t u d y i s i m p o r t a n t , however, b e c a u s e i t p o i n t s t o
d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f stress between t-wo q r o u p s t h a t a r e a g r i - :
c u l t u r a l i s t s . Because t h e X-Group shows less d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t r e s s , :
i t s u g q e s t s t h a t t h i s p e r ~ o dc h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o c a l autonomy a n d 1
d i s p e r s e d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s may have been less s t r e s s f u l .
Premature 0s t e o p r o s i s
Huss-Ashmore (1978) a n a l y z e d m i c r o r a d ~ o g r a p n s o f f e m o r a l cross ;

s e c t i o n s o f 75 Wadi H a l f a Nubian j u v e n i l e s a g e d from b i r t h t o 1 4
y e a r s . C o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s was measured arid compared w i t h t h e
;
t o t a l midshaf t diameter ( F i g u r e 8 . 3 ) . C o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s n o t o n l y
f a i l s t o i n c r e a s e w j t h a g e , b u t shows e v i d e n c e o f a n a c t u a l de- -
crease ai'ter the a g e of 10. T h e mean percentage o f c o r t i c a l area :
was a l s o p l o t t e d f o r t h e combined s a m p l e ; i t i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the .
f i r s t t w o y e a r s a n d t h e n d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y (Armelagos e t a l . 1982). .
A comparison with a modern w e l l - n o u r i s h e d p o p u l a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d
i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . Whereas t h e modern p o p u l a t i o n (Garn 1970)
showed a steady i n c r e a s e i n p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r t i c a l a r e a from
birth, t h e Nubian s a m p l e showed a d e c r e a s e after t h e age o f two.
T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n s u a q e s t - s t h a t l o n g bone g r o w t h was m a i n t a i n e d a t :
t h e e x p e n s e o f tori-ical bone q r o w t h . S i n c e t h i s s t u d y incl-uded 1
o n l y t h e s u b a d u l ts from t h e i n t e n s i f i ed a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s
( M e r o i t i c , X-Croup, and C h r i . s t i a n ) , n o c o m p a r i s o n c a n be made with
t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l o r non-intensive phases.
E v i d e n c e a l s o e x i s t s that young a d u l t females in t h e intensive i,
a g r i c u l t u r a L p h a s e s were e x p e r i e n c i n g n u t r i t i o n a l problems. There .
was a d e f i n i t e and c o n t i n u a l l o s s o f c o r t i c a l bone ( a s measured by
^? 8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA
I
l l l i l i l l l l l [ 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
AGE
FIGURE 8 - 3 . Femoral cowieaZ. thickness and midshaft w i d t j ,

; (means and standard d e v i a t i o n s ) pZot-ced for' subadutt age. Wii ie
; total midshafi: ~ ~ i d inar'eas~s
th with age, t h e a c t u a l thickness of
the cortex does not, i n d i c a t i n g the rnaintenaÂ¥ya of grouth a t tlw-
expense of t h i c k n e s s . This is in response t o p ~ o t e i n - c a l o r i e
dnutritwn.
, the p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r t i c a l b o n e ) i n f e m a l e s f o l l o w i n g t h e t w e n t i e t h
year and c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h o u t l i f e (Mart-in a n d A m e l a g o s 1 9 7 9 ) .
The e a r l y a g e of o n s e t a n d t h e d i s t i n c t i v e p a t t e r n o f bone l o s s
- suggest t h a t t h e f e m a l e s e g m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y
- c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r e m a t u r e b o n e l o s s n o t n o r m a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e
; aginq p r o c e s s .
A microscopic study w a s undertaken t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e underlv-
ing p r o c e s s e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d t h e o c c u r r e n c e of p r e m a t u r e
o s t e o p o r o s i s ( M a r t i n 1 9 8 3 ) . Two s e p a r a t e p r o c e s s e s a t t h e h i s t o -
- logical l e v e l a p p e a r t o be t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e t o t a l amount
of bone p r e s e n t . F i r s t , young f e m a l e s e x h i b i t b o n e s t h a t a r e
extremely p o r o u s due t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e s o r o t i o n activity, and
-. second, t h e b o n e t h a t i s p r e s e n t i s n o t well m i n e r a l i z e d ,
suggesting a s l o w e r r a t e o f f o r m a t i o n t h a n n o r m a l .
Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e t r e n d s i n p r e m a t u r e o s t e o p o r o s i s f o r sub-
adults a n d young a d u l t f e m a l e s s u g g e s t that t h e intensive a g r i c u l -
- t u r a l p h a s e proc'.-icea n u t r i t i o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s . W h i l e t h e r e i s n o
comparison wit: :he n o n i n t e n s i v e a n d t r a n s i t i o n a l p h a s e s , t h e
DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.
p r e s e n c e o f p o o r l y m i n e r a l i z e d b o n e a n d a c t i v e r e s o r p t i o n suggests
t h a t i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s may p r o d u c e s u b g r o u p s a t
r i s k . T h e s e s u b g r o u p s , b e c a u s e o f i n c r e a s e d n u t r i e n t demands, do
n o t have a c c e s s t o n e c e s s a r y resources. I n terms o f skeletal
g r o w t h , d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , t h e n u t r i t i o n a 1 problems
could be g e n e r a l p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n , imbalances i n the
c a l c i u m / p h o s p h o r u s r a t i o , o r m a l a b s o r p t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s because of
i n f e c t i o n s o r t r a u m a . These r e s u l t s a r e i m p o r t a n t , e v e n without
d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n t o e a r l i e r g r o u p s , b e c a u s e t h e problems i n
m i n e r a l i z a t i o n and t h e r e s u l t a n t premature o s t e o p o r o s i s provide
i n d i s p u t a b l e e v i d e n c e o f n u t r i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s t h a t c a n r e s u l t from
r e l i a n c e on a s i n g l e s t a p l e c r o p ( i n t h i s c a s e , m i l l e t ) .
Infectious D i sease
The f r e q u e n c y of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s i s e x t r e m e l y low i n t h e
Nubi an Wadi Ha i f a p o p u l a t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e are no a v a i l -
able d a t a o n t h e f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s i n t h e t r a n s i -
t i o n a l o r n o n i n t e n s i v e a a r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e s . Among t h e M e r o i t i c
s a m p l e s , o n l y 6 . 6 % o f the i n d i v i d u a l s show e v i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o u s
l e s i o n s . I n t h e X-Group, 12 - 0 % show e v i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n s , and
t h e combined C h r i s t i a n sample shows 1 5 . 0 % (Armelagos 1 9 6 8 ) . These
c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w r a t e s may b e e x p l a i n e d b y e v i d e n c e t h a t p r e h i s -
t o r i c Nubians were i n g e s t i n g t e t r a c y c l i n e , a broad-spectrum
a n t i b i o t i c ( B a s s e t e t a]. 1 9 8 1 ) . S t o r a g e o f g r a i n i n mud b i n s may
have p r o v i d e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e g r o w t h o f
Streptomyces, a m o l d - l i k e b a c t e r i u m t h a t p r o d u c e s t e t r a c y c l i n e s .
The amount o f t e t r a c y c l i n e r-ngested h a s n o t been d e t e r m i n e d , but a
p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f femoral c o r t i c a l bone suggests a t l e a s t
"therapeutic" levels.
F l u o r e s c e n t m i c r o s c o p y on t h e s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Kulubnarti
a l s o show e v i d e n c e o f t e t r a c y c l i n e i n g e s t i o n , b u t a t a lower r a t e
( 3 - 6 % ) (Hummert a n d Van Gerven 1 9 8 2 ) . The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e
Wadi H a l f a g r o u p (which shows e x t r e m e amounts o f f l u o r e s c e n c e ) and
t h e K u l u b n a r t i s a m p l e may be t h e r e s u l t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l and
economic d i f f e r e n c e s . K u l u b n a r t i was a n e x t r e m e l y i s o l a t e d region,
w i t h s m a l l - s c a l e f l o o d p l a i n a g r i c u l t u r e on f amily-owned p l o t s .
These p l o t s p r o b a b l y p r o v i d e d d i r e c t f a m i l i a l u s e a n d 1 - i t t l e in
t h e way o f l o n g - t e r m s t o r a g e , which would m i n i m i z e g r a i n spoilage.
Because e v e n l o w - l e v e l i n g e s t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g a n t i -
b i o t i c s c a n have a n i m p a c t on i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e r a t e s , i t should
b e i n v e s t i g a t e d v i a f l u o r e s c e n t microscopy o n a l l p r e h i s t o r i c
skel e t a 1 s a m p l e s t h a t come from c u l t u r e s t h a t may have s t o r e d
grain.
.,-
ft SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA
AGE
grn1
,.J.<J~RZ8 . 4 . Life expectancy for each age group based on fkc
mean age at death f o r t h e Meroitie (-1, K-Group (----), and
Christian (--I phai~~~.
MORTALITY
The a n a l y s i s of" m o r t a l i t y p r o f i l e s of t h e samples from t h e

Heroit-ic, X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n c e m e t e r i e s s b w t h a t age-specif i c
l i f e expectancies o f t h e M e r o i t i c and X-Group p o p u l a t i o n s were
very s i m i l a r , whereas life expectancy i n t h e C h r i s t i a n sample w a s
greater (Figure 8 . 4 ) . T h e X-Group p o p u l a t i o n experienced some
improvements i n l i f e expectancy i n e a r l y childhood, b u t t h e
Christians show a g r e a t e r l i f e expectancy a t every age. Tn qene-
ral, m o r t a l i t y i s high among i n f a n t s , l e v e l s o f f s l i g h t l y among
young a d u l t s , and i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y among o l d e r a d u l t s (Amel-agos
1969) . Figure 8 . 4 p r e s e n t s t h e l i f e expectancy a t v a r i o u s ages
for t h e t h r e e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e phases. While mean a g e s a t
death f o r t h e M e r o i t i c and X-Group are s i m i l a r ( 2 4 . 4 8 and 2 5 . 1 7
years, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , a f t e r t h e age of 20 t h e X-Group show a d i s -
tinct trend toward g r e a t e r 1 i f e expectancy.
Mortality d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t i n t h e Wadi Halfa a r e a , t h e breakup
of the Kingdom of Meroe d i d not r e s u l t i n a d e c l i n e i n l i f e ex-
pectancy. The r e - u n i f i c a t i o n o f Nubia under C h r i s t i a n i t y , however,
did r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement i n l i f e expectancy.
-
SUMMARY
The s h i f t from g a t h e r i n g a n d h u n t i n g i n Nubia i s d i f f i c u l t to

i d e n t i f y i n t h e archaeological record. While w e c a n d i s t i n g u i s h
t h e t r a n s i t i o n from M e s o l i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c , t h e c h a n g e s i n adap- .
t a t i o n a r e n o t a s marked a s o n e would e x p e c t . The N e o l . i t n i c
p o p u l . a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d to s u p p l e m e n t t h e i r d i e t w i t h g a t h e r e d seeds
and h u n t e d game. Even d u r i n g t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e ( A - and
C - ~ r o u p ), ' y a k h e r i n g rind h u n t i n g c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p l nment a g r i c u l t u -
r a l product:^. T h e in t e n s i f i c a Lion o n l y o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e
M e r o i t i c , X-Group and C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s when t h e waterwheel. was
used f o r i r r i g a t i o n .
The f o l l . o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s have b e e n made :
1. S i q n i f i c a n t p o p u l a t i o n growth o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n
t o agriculture. The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e led t o f u r t h e r
increases. The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o c h a n c e s i n
t h e environment ( t h e l e v e l o f t h e N i l e ) , t e c h n o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s
( u s e o f t h e w a t e r w h o e l . ) , and p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s u c h a s t h e u n i -
f i c a L i o n o f t h e area i n t o c. w i d e r p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,
t h e r e was a f o u r f o l d p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r phase
o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n ( M e r o i t i c p h a s e ) . The d e c l i n e o f M e r o i t i c
c o n t r o l of t h e a r e a is r e f l e c t e d i n a 21% d e c l i n e i n population
s i z e a n d i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e X-Group. With t h e r e - u n i f i c a t i o n
under C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e r e was a 1.2% i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e .
2. T h e shift t o a q r i c u l t u r e a n d s u b s e q u e n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
had a s i g n i f i - c a n t i m p a c t on c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology. T h e r e was a
r e d u c t i o n i n r o b u s t i c i t y of t h e f a c e , a n i n c r e a s e i n c r a n i a l
h e i g h t , and a d e c r e a s e i n c r a n i a l l e n g t h . The t r e n d i n f a c i a l re- -
d u c t i o n c o n t i n u e d from t h e M e s o l i t h i c Lo t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d with
t h e e x c e p t i o n of a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n p r o g n a t h i m d u r i n g t h e
X-Group p e r i o d .
3 . T h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s i z e a n d c o m p l e x i t y of t h e
t e e t h from t h e t r a n s it i o n a l p h a s e ( M e s o l i t h i c ) t o t h e i n t e n s i v e
a g r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e ( M e r o i t i c ) . I n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t a v a i l a b l e from
t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e (A- a n d C-Group) .
4 . The f r e q u e n c y o f d e n t a l c a r i e s i n c r e a s e s from 1%i n t h e
t r a n s i t i o n a l Mesol i t h i c p h a s e t o 18Oe i n t h e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l . t u r e
p h a s e . T h e a t t r i t i o n of d e n t a l . enamel may h a v e b e e n a f a c t o r i n
t h e low f r e q u e n c y o f c:ari e s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n . Lower
i n t a k e o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s and s u g a r i s obv ious1.y a n o t h e r f a c t o r .
During t h e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c ' d t . u r e p h a s e , t h e t r e n d was t o increased
p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , w i t h a peak i n t h e C h r i s t i a n o e r i o d .
5 . T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f i r o n d e f i c i.ency a n e m i a i n populations :
from b o t h n o n i n t e n s i v e and i n t - e n s i v e p h a s e s o f Nubi.an a g r i c u l t u r a l
development.
6 . D u r i n g t h e i n t e n s i v e p h a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l development,
t h e r e a r e a number of i n d i c a t o r s t h a t s u g g e s t s e r i o u s n u t r i t i o n a l
d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e s u b a d u l t s . Combined w i t h i n c i d e n c e s o f porotL-
h v p e r o s t o s i s , t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e a l s o o f p r e m a t u r e o s t e o p o r o s i s and
t- =+
!?-
3 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA 21 1
3
j^
!-retardation. These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t l o n g bone g r o w t h i s
j? being maintained a t t h e e x p e n s e o f c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s .
7 . During t h e i n t e n s i v e p h a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t
$=-therea r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e w e r e n u t r i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s i n t h e
^.'-adultp o r t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t - i o n s . Although b o t h m a l e s and f e -
4
;$males show e v i d e n c e o f i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a n d p r e m a t u r e
~ + o s t e o p r o s i s t, h e r e i s a h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s e patho1.ogie.s
among young f e m a l e s . I n t h e 20-29-year a a e r a n g e t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e
; that bone i s b e i n g r e s o r b e d a n d f o r m a t i o n of new bone i s b e i n g
:curbed. The l o s s o f n u t r i e n t s and m i n e r a l s d u r i n g r e p e a t e d p r e g -
n a n c i e s and l o n g l a c t a t i o n p e r i o d s may b e t h e c a u s e o f t h e problem.
5 Problems with m i n e r a l i z a t i o n may a l s o b e due t o p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n c y .
8. The low f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e d u r i n g t h e i n t e n -
s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e p h a s e was p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i n g e s t i o n o f
- tetracyclines t h a t contaminated the g r a i n .
= 9. V a r i a t i o n s in m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e i n t e n s i v e p h a s e o f ag-
r i c u l t u r e may b e r e l a t e d t o c h a n g e s i n p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e . The
; lower l i f e e x p e c t a n c y i n t h e M e r o i t i c p o p u l a t i o n may r e f l e c t - t h e i r
marginal l o c a t i o n t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e Kingdom o f Meroe. The
' improvement d u r i n g t h e X-Group p e r i o d i n d i c a t e s t h a t l o c a l i z e d
control may have some a d v a n t a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c c e s s
t o r e s o u r c e s . F u r t h e r improvement o c c u r s d u r i n g t-he Chri s t i a n
period (under r e u n i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e Wadi Malta area a s t h e pol it-i-
- cal power c e n t e r ) .
I n sum, t h e b u l k o f t h e s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Lower Nubia have
b e e n used t o show a d i f f e r e n t i a l p a t t e r n o f b i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e
related t o a g r i c u l t u r a l &ztens'if'ieat'ion, and n o t t o a g r i c u l t u r a 1.
origins. While t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f o o d b a s e c h a n g e s l i t t l e d u r i n g
the l a t t e r p h a s e s , t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d economic a c t i v i t i e s t h a t de-
- fined t h e l e v e l of i n t e n s i t y of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g y do
change. H e a l t h i n d i c a t o r s r e f l e c t t h e d e g r e e t o which human
groups have a c c e s s t o t h e a c t u a l c u l t i g e n s t h a t t h e y grow. I f
. cultigens a r e used a s t r a d e i t e m s t o support t h e c i t i e s , t h e
health of t h e g r o u p w i l l d e c l i n e a s c u l . t i g e n s a r e t r a d e d f o r " h a r d
goods." T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what i s s e e n i n t h e M e r o i t i c and
Christian phases.
The d a t a from Lower Nubia s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l a r g e r c o r e a r e a s
such a s t h e Kingdom o f Meroe and Egypt w e r e s u p p o r t e d in p a r t by
imported goods and s l a v e s f r o m t h e o u t e r l o c a l p e a s a n t r i e s . Lower
Nubia n e a r Wadi H a l f a p r o v i d e d a c o r r i d o r c o n n e c t i n g Egypt w i t h
sub Saharan A f r i c a . Lower N u b i a , a s a c a s e s t u d y o f t h e i m p a c t of
socioeconomic change, shows t h a t w h i l e dependence on a s i n g l e
staple c r o p may be d e l e t e r i o u s t o h e a l t h , t h e l e v e l of p o l i t i c a l
- and economic i n t e r a c t i o n s i s j u s t a s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r h e a l t h . The
health d a t a o n t h e X-Group a n d t h e d a t a from K u l u b n a r t i s u g g e s t
t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s f a r e b e t t e r i n t e r m s o f h e a l t h when l e f t
to t h e i r own d e v i c e s . L o c a l autonomy a n d l e s s e n e d t r a d e i n t e r a c -
t i o n s a s s u r e that t h e c u l t i q e n s b e i n g grown w i l l c i r c u l a t e
throughout t h e v i l l a g e s , a n d t h a t h e a l t h and l o n g e v i t y w i l l
improve.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s r e s e a r c h h a s been s u p p o r t e d i n p a r t by a U n i v e r s i t y of
M a s s a c h u s e t t s B i o m e d i c a l R e s e a r c h S u p p o r t G r a n t NIH-RR07048. We
would l i k e t o t h a n k Mark Cohen a n d Lynn Miller f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l
comments o n e a r l i e r d r a f t s o f t h i s p a p e r .
REFERENCES
Adams, W. Y.
1970 A r e - a p p r a i s a l o f Nubian c u l t u r e h i s t o r y . &entai-ia.
3;?: 269-279.
1977 Nwia: CoTT'ido'c t o Africa. P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press,
Princeton.
Armelagos , George J .
1968 m e o p a t h o l o g y o f three ca2chaeological populat7;on.s from
Sudanese m a . Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of
An t h r o p o l o q y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , B o u l d e r .
1 9 6 9 D i s e a s e i n a n c i e n t Nubia. Scieme 263:255-259.
Armelagos , George J . , James IL M i e l k e , K i p l i n g H . Owen, Dennis P .
Van Gerven , J . R. Dewey, a n d P a u l E. Mahler
1972 Bone g r o w t h a n d development in p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s
from Sudanese N u b i a . dourna'i. of limm Evolution 1:89-119.
Armelagos , George J. , Rebecca Huss-Ashmore, and Debra L. M a r t i n
1982 Morphometrics a s i n d i c a t o r s o f d i e t a r y s t r e s s in prehis-
t o r i c Nubia. Muaeum Applied Science Center for Archaeolog-i/ :i
J O U Z:22-26. ~ 'i
B a s s e t t , E . , M a r g a r e t K i e t h , George J. Armelagos, Debra L. Martin, ,I
a n d A. V i l l a n u e v a 3
1981 T e t r a c y c l i n e - l a b e l e d human b o n e from p r e h i s t o r i c Sudanese

N u b i a ( A . D . 350) . Science ?,09: 1532-1534. l
I
B a t r a w i , A. M.
1 9 4 6 The r a c i a l h i s t o r y o f E g y p t a n d N u b i a , P a r t 11. Journal !
of che Royal AnthropoZo~icaZ institute 76:132-156. 1d
,?
B e r r y , A. C . , a n d R . J . Berry !
1973 O r i g i n s a n d r e l a t i o n s of t h e a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s . I n ?opu-
;ation Biology of Ancient Egyptzans, e d i t e d b y D . R .
B r o t h w e l l a n d B. A . C h i a r e l l i , p p . 200-208. Academic
p r e s s , New York.
B e r r y , A. C . , R. J . B e r r y , and P . J . Ucko
1967 G e n e t i c a l chanqe i n a n c i e n t E q v p t . Nan 2:551-506.
C a r l s o n , Davi d S . , and Denni s P Van Gerven .
1977 M a s t i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n a n d p o s ' c - P l e i s t o c e n e e v o l u t i o n i n
N u b i a . American Journal of P h y s ~ c aAnthropozogg ~ 46-5- ,
506.
Garn, S t a n l e y M .
1970 The e a r l i e r gain and l a t e r l o s s of c o r t i c a l bone i n
n u t r i t i a n a l perspective. Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d .
Greene, D. L.
1966 D e n t i t i o n a n d t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i - p o f some
M e r o i t i c , X-Group a n d C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n s from Wadi H a l f a ,
Sudan. Kush 14:285-288.
Greene , D. L. , a n d George J. Armelaqos
1972 The Wadi Half a M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n . Depaptment of An-
th~opoZogy, University of Massacku:;ett.s, AmhRvst Research
Report N O . 11.
Hummert, J . R . , a n d Dennis P . Van Gerven
1982 T e t r a c y c l i n e - l a b e l e d human bone from a Medieval p o p u l a t i o n
in N u b i a ' s B a t n e l H a j a r (550-1400 A . D . ) .
H m a n Biology
54:355-364.
Huss-Ashrnore , Rebecca
1978 N u t r i t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n in a Nubian s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n .
American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 4 8 : 407 ( A b s t r . ) .
Martin, Debra L.
1983 Paleophyswlogicat aspects o f s'hs'Letal remodeling i n the
. Mepoitic, X-Group and Christian populations from Sudanese
~Vubia. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst.
Martin, Debra L. , a n d George J. Annelagos
1979 Morphometrics o f compact bone: An example from Sudanese
Nubia. American J o u d of Physicaz Anthropology 5 3 :571-
578.
Morant, G . M .
1925 A s t u d y o f E g y p t i a n c r a n i o l o g y from p r e h i s t o r i c t o Roman
t i m e s . BiometrzkG 17:l-52.
Rudney, J. D.
1981 The paleoep-idemiology o f early chi Zdhood s t r e s s in tb)o
ancient populations f r o m Nubia. P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o ,
Boulder.
Saxe, A. A.
1966 Social dimensions o f movtuary practices i n a Mesolithie
population from Wadi Halfa, Sudan. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t Lhe
American A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n m e e t i n g s , P i t t s b u r g .
T r i g g e r , Bruce G .
1965 History and settZe,ment "in Lc1u)er JV'ubia. ~ a U~n i vee r s i t y
P r e s s , Cambridge.
Vagn N i e l s o n , 0.
1970 The Nubian skeleton through 4000 Years. Andelsbogt-ryk-
k e r i e t i Odense , Copenhaq en.
Van Gerven, D e n n i s P . , David S. C a r l s o n , and George J . Annelagos
1979 R a c i a l h i s t o r y and b i o c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n o f Nubian
archaeological populations. Journal o f African History
14:555-564.
2 14 DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.
Van Gerven, D e n n i s P . , M. K. Sanford, and J. R. H m e r t

1981 Mortality a n d culture change i n Nubia's Batn e l Hajar.
Journal of ,u"tffnav E v o h t i o n 10:395-408.
have become inc
v e r , many mortuary s i t e s l a c k charcoal, and we have been l e s s
t i i f i e d w i t h collagen d a t e s thus f a ocation
cemeteries--spatiall y removed from -is
STRA
here -
ever, s i g n i f i c a
1 L a t e Woodland
o r e strontium (
i s r a p i d l y expanding p o p u l a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h i s may

JANE K. BL'IKSTRi
Orleans:.
er, J.
Craniometry and b i o l o q i c a l d i s t a n c e : B i o c u l t u r a l con-
paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 47th annual me he Society
v i l l c , Kentucky.
R.
T a t c Woodland rnor~tuory s i t e s i n u e s t - c e n t r a l I Z l i w i s :
ciologioal ~ & r ~ r e t a t i o n
- -
Department of Anthropoid
s i t y , Evanston, t l l i n o i s .
CHAPTER 10
SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH I N THE LOWER ILLINOIS

VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Delta Colt-ins Cook

Indiana University
In w e s t c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s t h e archaeological record presents

a P i c t u r e of g r a d u a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of food production. The do-
minant element i n t h i s p i c t u r e i s a mixed hunting and g a t h e r i n g
t h a t s t r e s s e s d e e r and o t h e r t e r r e s t r i a l game, n u t
h a r v e s t i n g , and r i v e r i n e r e s o u r c e s . Evidence of c o l l e c t i o n and
o f o i l y and s t a r c h y s e e d s , squash, and gourds appears
in t h e r e c o r d a s e a r l y a s we have human s k e l e t a l remains w i t h
which t o t e s t i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of Sub-
sistence b a s e change. From Middle Archaic through Woodland times
these P l a n t s p l a y a n i n c r e a s i n g l y important r o l e i n s u b s i s t e n c e .
t . After
D . A foodla land t i m e s , maize appears i n t h e
r e c o r d , -and 3 r l n q t h e &fississippian it f i s e s PernaPs-
-st i m ~ r t a n t ' e T e m e n t in- iood econ-
Ai^lT'e^-aTny/2; A S C-1977) ~ . These
changes a r e accompanied by changes i n community s i z e , s o c i a l Corn-
p l e x i t y , r e g i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n , and e x t r a r e g i o n a l t r a d e , reaching
their z e n i t h i n two p e r i o d s of what c a l d w e l l has c a l l e d c u l t u r a l
f l o r e s c e n c e o r climax: Middle woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n
C a l d w e l i 1 9 6 2 ) . The i n t e r v e n i n g Late woodland p e r i o d i s one of
change in subsistence accompanied by i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of ex-
p l o i t a t i o n of localr e s o u r c e s and by r e l a t i v e s o c i a l i n s u l a r i t y
~ i e 1 9s 8 1 ) . Jane B u i k s t r a S s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s
(Chapter 9 ) p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d review o f t h e r i c h and v a r i e d i n -
formation t h a t is a v a i l a b l e on t h e s e a s p e c t s of t h e prehistory
the r e g i on.
T h i s p a p e r presentsevidence f o r t h e e f f e c t s of intensifica-
i o n of food p r o d u c t i o n on h e a l t h i n west c e n t r a l ~ l l i n o i s - ~ n
~ THE 0
p A L E O P A T ' l O ~ AT ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ ~ Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press. Inc
OF AGRICULTUR~
235 t s reproduction in any form reserved
AII r ~ ~ h of
ISBN 0-12-1790804
236 DELLA COLLINS COOK
reviewing these d a t a I would l i k e t o f o c u s on t h r e e i s s u e s . The

f i r s t i s t h e comparative c o s t s and b e n e f i t s of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a s
r e f l e c t e d i n s k e l e t a l biology. The second concerns t h e compara-
b i l i t y of t h e v a r i o u s kinds of d a t a t h a t can be m a r s h a l l e d i n
assessing health. The t h i r d r e g a r d s t h e c o n t r a r y e f f e c t s of
v a r i a b l e s linked t o subsistence--for example, p o p u l a t i o n s i z e ,
settlement p a t t e r n , s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e epidemiology
of i n f e c t i o u s diseases--on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d a t a from skele-
t a l remains.
However s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e models we wish t o t e s t i n p r e h i s t o r y ,
we i n e v i t a b l y confront l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by t h e v a g a r i e s of
preservation and recovery. West c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s h a s produced
l a r g e and well-preserved s e r i e s of s k e l e t a l remains. However,
these s e r i e s a r e not equally r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e p e r i o d s of time
t h a t a r e of i n t e r e s t i n studying s u b s i s t e n c e change.^ The ~ i d d l e
Archaic period is represented by 2 5 i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e Koster
s i t e (6000-3000 B.C.) and by 36 i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e Gibson Mound
group. The Late Archaic component from t h e P e t e Klunk Mound
group i s t h e only analyzed s e r i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h i s p e r i o d
(Buikstra 1981; Charles and Buikstra 1 9 8 3 ) . E a r l y woodland mate-
r i a l s a r e fragmentary and of q u e s t i o n a b l e provenience (Charles et
a l . , n.d.). I n c o n t r a s t , t h e Middle Woodland, e a r l y L a t e woodland$
l a t e Late Woodland, and e a r l y M i s s i s s i p p i a n p e r i o d s a r e r e p r e -
sented by s e v e r a l s e r i e s each, and s e r i e s of 200 o r more a r e t h e
r u l e . After A.D. 1200 t h e r e i s l i t t l e evidence f o r s u b s t a n t i a l
population i n t h e region, and t h e r e a r e no s k e l e t a l remains s u i t -
able f o r a n a l y s i s . For a p i c t u r e of h e a l t h i n l a t e r ~ i s s i s s i ~ ~
times we must t u r n t o t h e c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s Valley t o t h e n o r t h
(Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11, t h i s volume), o r t o t h e cahokia re-
gion t o t h e south (Milner 1982).
1
Assignment o f a l l individuals -in a given s k e l e t a l s e r i e s to
a time period may be problematic, e s p e c i a l l y uhere Late woodland
materials are concerned. Most researchers i n t h e region meas-
signed specimens t h a t cannot be associated u i t h minor components
on s t r a t i g r w c or a r t i f a c t u a l grounds t o t h e d o m i m t component
a t a given mortuary s i t e , and there i s l i k e l y t o be some c k o n o -
logical, heterogeneity i n most o f t h e s e r i e s discussed bekxd. For
a discussion of dating of Middle Woodland mortuary components, see
Buikstra (2976). Conner his r e c e n t l y undertaken a r e v i s i o n o f the
d a t i w of Late Woodland mortuary components t h a t incorporates
lagen dates and many dates from larger s e r i e s . B e conner (19B3,
n*d.); Tainter (1975) fop f u l l e r discussions.
10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
SKELETAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Bone growth and development i s m i r r o r e d i n j u v e n i l e h e i g h t f o r

age, s t a t u r e , bone p r o p o r t i o n s , and s e x u a l dimorphism i n a d u l t s ,
c o r t i c a l bone maintenance, and growth a r r e s t i n d i c a t o r s . ~ l ofl
t h e s e s o w c e s o f d a t a may be used t o s t u d y n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n
t h e l i v i n g , and t h e y p r o v i d e t h e f i r s t l i n e of evidence i n p a s t
populations. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e s o u r c e s of information i s
a complicated i s s u e , however, f o r a l l r e f l e c t i n f l u e n c e s a p a r t
from n u t r i t i o n . For example, p o p u l a t i o n - s p e c i f i c g e n e t i c f a c t o r s ,
h e t e r o s i s , and d i s e a s e l o a d a f f e c t both s k e l e t a l growth and f i n a l
a d u l t s t a t u r e , even though n u t r i t i o n p l a y s an important r o l e i n
both. S i m i l a r l y , d i s e a s e l o a d and m o r t a l i t y l e v e l s a r e r e f l e c t e d
i n s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r f r e q u e n c i e s and bone maintenance. These i n -
t e r a c t i o n s c o m p l i c a t e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d a t a on growth and
development d e r i v e d from p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t o n s , b u t t h e i n t e r a c -
t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s p r o v i d e a u s e f u l p e r s p e c t i v e on h e a l t h and adap-
tation.
J u v e n i l e Height f o r Age
DELLA COLLINS COOK
B
.
6
I
12 24
I
48
. n
72
Dental age (months)
FIGURE 10.1. Long bone length for age i n c h i l d r e n under 6

.Years o f age from four temporal components: ( a ) Middle woodland
s e r i e s from Gibson ( 0 1, LrGrient ( a), Bedford ( V ), and Joe
Gay ( 0 1 . ( b ) Early Late Woodland s e r i e s from Koster ~ o u n d s )
Dental age (months)
20 -
- 15-
CJ
L
-3
-
E
+
0
10-
c
0Ã
5-
I I 1 I I I
B 6 12 24 48 72
Dental age (months)
and Joe GW ( m;, ( c ) Late Late woodland s e r i e s from Ledders ( )>

Schitd ( m 1, seltcm( ). (a) ~ i s s i s s i p p i as e r i e s from
S c h i ~ d ( 9 ). F e w length (vertical s c a l e ) was calculated from
Other long bone lengths as necessary.
An(denta1 age i n months + 9) = A + B(femur d i a p h y s i s l e n g t h )

give a l i n e a r f i t t o t h e data. T t e s t s f o r difference i n slope
show t h a t t h e l a t e L a t e Woodland s e r i e s d i f f e r from b o t h e a r l i e r
and l a t e r groups i n having s h o r t e r femurs f o r a g e , o r a p p a r e n t
growth r e t a r d a t i o n . I n d i v i d u a l s i n a l l samples who a r e s h o r t f o r
age have h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and c i r c u l a r
c a r i e s than do t h o s e w i t h l o n g femurs f o r d e n t a l age, a r e s u l t
t h a t supports t h e inference t h a t n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e re-
s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a p p a r e n t growth r e t a r d a t i o n . However, Middle
Woodland c h i l d r e n who were a f f o r d e d e l a b o r a t e b u r i a l t r e a t m e n t do
n o t d i f f e r i n femur l e n g t h f o r age from c h i l d r e n o f a p p a r e n t l y
lower s t a t u s , d e s p i t e o t h e r evidence f o r t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s i g n i f i -
cance of Middle Woodland s t a t u s d i s t i n c t i o n s (Cook 1981, 19831,
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e e x p e r i e n c e d by l a t e L a t e woodland
c h i l d r e n under 6 y e a r s o f a g e may have been r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t when
compared w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n s due t o s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . Archaic
samples a r e t o o small t o be e v a l u a t e d .
Stature
Body s i z e i n a d u l t s i s a n o b v i o u s s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n On
change i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n a r e g i o n i n which t h e r e i s l i t t l e
evidence f o r g e o g r a p h i c a l o r c h r o n o l o g i c a l g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
( B u i k s t r a 1976, 1977; Conner 1983; D r o e s s l e r 1981) . However,
e q u a l l y obvious a r e t h e many i n f l u e n c e s a p a r t from n u t r i t i o n t h a t
may c o n t r i b u t e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d u l t s t a t u r e i n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d
p o p u l a t i o n s . H e t e r o s i s , work l o a d i n c h i l d h o o d , and d i s e a s e l o a d
a r e perhaps t h e most important s u c h f a c t o r s t h a t emerge from
s t u d i e s o f l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , and t h e y a r e l a r g e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e
t o U S i n s t u d i e s o f t h e dead.
S t a t u r e d a t a f o r a d u l t s i n 1 0 s k e l e t a l series a r e shown i n
~ i g u r e10.2. Samples a r e grouped by t i m e p e r i o d . There a r e no
obvious t i m e t r e n d s i n t h e d a t a f o r m a l e s , a l t h o u g h o u r L a t e
Archaic males and most o f t h e l a t e r s e r i e s are t a l l e r t h a n e a r l i e r
Archaic s e r i e s from t h e Midwest whose s u b s i s t e n c e was f o c u s e d more
f u l l y on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g (Newman 1962; Neumann 1952; stewart
1973:174) .' The two s h o r t e s t male series--from t h e L a t e woodland
?here are r i s k s i n comparing s t a t m e e s t i m a t e s from s t u d i ~ s

t h a t d i f f e r i n technique or t h a t do n o t s t a t e t h e methods used.
fimman (1962) reports Indian Knoll s t a t u r e a s 165.2 an i n males,
and Stewart (1973) considers t h i s , r a t h e r than e a r l i e r , smaller
estimates, e s s e n t i a l l y correct for t h i s wide-ranging ~ i d d l eArchaic
series. Neman, l i k e Neumann i n h i s typological s t u d i e s
1952, 1960) r e p o r t s a trend toward increasing s t a t u r e when Indcan
Knoll and other Middle Archaic s e r i e s ape compared w i t h l a t e r ma"
t e r i a l s . Our Late Archaic males and a l l l a t e r s e r i e s except ths
problematic Ledders and Joe Gay s e r i e s are a t l e a s t 2 cm t a u e r
average than are any o f t h e e a s t e r n North American Middle .4rcÂ¥haZ
on
s e r i e s t h a t oppear in the literature.
I0 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
G B K KO JG SL LD SA SB
ARCH MIDDLE EARLY LATE MISS
w LW LW
Temporal component
Leddersand 'Joe Gay s i t e s - - a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y s h o r t e r than a l l t h e

remaining s e r i e s e x c e p t t h e ~ ~ ~ h a iFor c . females t h e r e i s a weak
t% t r e n d toward t a l l e r s t a t u r e i n l a t e r samples, but t h e only
' l g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a r e between t h e two s h o r t e s t and t h e t h r e e
samples. I n t e r s i t e c o r r e l a t i o n s between male and female
a r e high. W h i l e o u r search f o r time t r e n d s r e l a t e d t o
subsistence change is disappointing, t h e r e is some evidence f o r
geographical h e t e r o g e n e i t y . Samples from t h e e a s t e r n b l u f f s of
the I l l i n o i s R i v e r Ã ‘ ~ o s t e and t h e v a r i o u s components a t Schild--
are r e l a t i v e l y tall, whereas ~ i s s i s ~ i p Valley pi series--Ledders
Joe Gay--are r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t . Further i n q u i r y i n t o adult
stature differences is c l e a r l y needed, b u t it i s u s e f u l to
I
242 DELLA COLLINS COOK I
t h a t a d u l t s t a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s do n o t e x p l a i n t h e s u b s i s t e n c e -
r e l a t e d t r e n d s i n j u v e n i l e h e i g h t f o r age s e e n i n t h e p r e v i o u s
section.3
A p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e meaning o f a d u l t s t a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i s
provided by t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o g r a v e goods and e l a b o r a t e
mortuary t r e a t m e n t t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e Middle Woodland p e r i o d
i n o u r r e g i o n . Males who were a f f o r d e d a c c e s s t o l i m i t e d p o r t i o n s
o f t h e mortuary program were t a l l e r t h a n t h o s e o f a p p a r e n t l y lower
s t a t u s , b o t h in t h e Gibson s e r i e s ( B u i k s t r a 1976) a n d i n t h e Klunk
s e r i e s ; h i g h - s t a t u s and l o w - s t a t u s f e m a l e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, d i d
n o t d i f f e r i n s t a t u r e (Young 1 9 8 3 ) . F a c i l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of
t h i s r e s u l t - - f o r example, p a t r i l i n e a l r u l i n g groups--are n o t
warranted, because s t u d i e s o f o t h e r s o r t s o f b i o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s
f a i l t o confirm t h i s a p p a r e n t s e x d i f f e r e n c e . Both male and f e -
male s t a t u s groups d i f f e r i n t r a c e element c o n t e n t (Szpunar 1977)
and i n t h e frequency of s t r e s s - r e l a t e d d e n t a l d e f e c t s (Cook 1 9 8 1 ) -
Low-status females a r e more p l a t y p e l l i c t h a n h i g h - s t a t u s females,
whereas male p e l v i c form d o e s n o t d i f f e r w i t h s t a t u s ( B r i n k e r ,
n.d.). Angel (1975, 1978, 1982) h a s shown t h a t i n c r e a s e d f l a t -
t e n i n g of t h e p e l v i c i n l e t i s consonant w i t h o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s of
n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . These f i n d i n g s , t a k e n t o g e t h e r , s u g g e s t t h a t
s t a t u s groups i n Middle Woodland s o c i e t y d i f f e r e d i n h e a l t h , b o t h
among males and among females. The 3.3-cm d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u r e
i n h i g h - s t a t u s and l o w - s t a t u s males in t h e c o l l e c t i o n s s t u d i e d by
Young and B u i k s t r a r e f l e c t s o n l y a p o r t i o n of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e
(Young 1 9 8 3 ) . The absence o f s t a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n females who
d i f f e r i n o t h e r b i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s may r e f l e c t s e x d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e t h i n g of growth e v e n t s , i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o stress, o r i n
underlying environmental f a c t o r s n o t r e c o v e r a b l e from t h e a r -
chaeological record. That s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a t u r e within a
sample a r e of t h e same o r d e r a s t h e between-sample d i f f e r e n c e s i n
Figure 10.2 s u g g e s t s t h a t a d u l t s t a t u r e may p r o v i d e an ambiguous
p i c t u r e o f changing b i o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s o v e r time.
~ m = ? s s l e r(1981) has presented an i n t e r e s t i n g perspective on

t h i s issue. She suggests t h a t smaller crania i n l a t e Late wood*
samples as compared u i t h both e a r l y Late Woodland and ~ i s s i s s i p ~ ~
materials r e f l e c t n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Since t h e ages o f a*tairanent
of adult stature and adult cranial dimensions are s i m i l a r , t h i s
seems u n l i k e l y i n t h e face of t h e lack o f p a t t e d s t a t u r e d f f -
ferences. However, t h e i s s u e she r a i s e s suggests t h a t f u r t h e r at-
t e n t i o n t o environmental e f f e c t s on t o t a l morphologica~pattern may
be rewarding. Since adult b r a i n s i z e i s a t t a i n e d by 10 years of
age= fm cranial dimensions may be p a r t i c u l a r l y responsive t o nu-
tÂ¥m,ti~a d e f i c i t s i n childhood (Baer and Harris 1969).
Sexual Dimorphism
While s e x u a l dimorphism has been proposed i n some modern con-

t e x t s a s a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e index o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s , it would
appear t o p r e s e n t e q u a l l y complicated problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
There i s c l e a r l y a g e n e t i c component t o population d i f f e r e n c e s i n
sexual dimorphism ( E v e l e t h 1975) , and age, a c t i v i t y , and s u r v i v o r -
s h i p d i f f e r e n c e s can b e demonstrated a s w e l l (Hamilton 1982).
Hamilton h a s p r e s e n t e d a v e r y c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f dimorphism i n
most o f t h e s e r i e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e study o f s t a t u r e j u s t p r e s e n t e d
here. These a r e t h e Middle Woodland Gibson-Klunk s e r i e s , con-
sidered a s i n g l e p o p u l a t i o n i n h e r a n a l y s i s ; t h e Koster e a r l y L a t e
Woodland s e r i e s ; t h e S c h i l d l a t e Late Woodland s e r i e s ; and t h e
combined S c h i l d M i s s i s s i p p i a n s e r i e s . Her m a t e r i a l s a r e s e l e c t e d
f o r completeness o f size-independent p e l v i c sex i n d i c a t o r s and
f o r sample s i z e . She f i n d s t h a t h e r e a r l y L a t e Woodland sample
shows d e c r e a s e d dimorphism a s a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e d female s i z e
w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t a b l e male s i z e when compared with Middle Woodland
materials. Females a l s o become more r o b u s t , t h e most s a l i e n t d i f -
ference b e i n g i n t h e development of t h e d e l t o i d t u b e r o s i t y . I n
l a t e Late Woodland times dimorphism i n c r e a s e s because r e l a t i v e
female s i z e d e c r e a s e s . I n ~ i s s i s s i p p i a ntimes dimorphi=-n
-ause female s i z e i n c r e a s & S w i t h respect t o the
1 antec-te woodland p o p u l a t i o n and w i t r e s p e c t
tQÂ¥-thereInainin=earlie s e r i e s i n h e r study. ~ i m o r p h i s mi n d e l -
t o i d t u b e r o s i t y development - i s a l s o r e d u c e d , a g a i n because females
are more r o b u s t , b o t h when compared w i t h l a t e L a t e Woodland and
with Middle Woodland, and female d e l t o i d development i n c r e a s e s
throughout.
Hamilton f i n d s t h e s e r e s u l t s somewhat p a r a d o x i c a l i n t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s model, because under t h i s
one would e x p e c t reduced dimorphism i n conjunction w i t h
i n b o t h male and female s i z e and r o b u s t i c i t y . --
.gests a more intricate s c e n a r i o , in which e a r l y L a t e Wogdland and
b - a r e zecd
- by-m~favorable resource>-
-tÂ£JÛ-t^2n^wlmmunities G l t i n g ~ b l dei s t r i b u t i o n
d - O larger-stature. This argument 1s
tressed i n h e r view by s i g n i f i c a n t dimorphism i n t r a c e element
com~siti~ i nn t h e Ladders s e r i e s , where males appear t o enjoy a
higher meat i n t a k e t h a n females (Lambert e t a l . 1979, 1982) - How-
ever, Ledders is n o t o n e of t h e s i t e s i n c l u d e d i n Hamilton's s t u d y ,
and the less c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d d a t a resented i n F i g u r e 1 0 - 2 Sug-
gest t h a t Ledders may b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by reduced s e x u a l dimor-
phism- Heterogeneity w i t h i n time and between geographical
areas may a g a i n be a problem, and s i n c e o n l y ~ a m i l t o n ' sfour
s e r i e s have been subj ected to r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s of dimorphism I and
Only two s e r i e s have produced t r a c e element d a t a , r e s o l u t i o n
this Problem must a w a i t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
Hamilton f i n d i n g of p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n development of
e l t o i d tuberosity in females from Middle woodland through
/
244 DELLA COLLINS COOK I
Mississippian times is i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e l i g h t of t h e concurrent

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f food p r o d u c t i o n t h a t t h e b o t a n i c a l r e c o r d docu-
ments. Bridges (1982, 1983) h a s r e p o r t e d s i-m i l a r i n c r e a s e s i n
-ity in a m a l e s i n a udy comparing Alabama A r c h a i c and
M i s s i s s i p p i a n m a t e r i a l s . She s u g g e s t s t h a t a c t i v i t i e s r e l a w
t o c u l t i v a t i o n may a c c o u n t o r t h i s i n c r e a s e b e c a u s e f e m a l e s had
"primary
' r e s p S n i T i b i l i t y t u r a 1 t a s k s -i
o c i e t z A simiiaL1 6 1may a c c o u n t f o r2
t h a t Hamilton documents?
1
C o r t i c a l Bone Maintenance
Bone maintenance can be r e l a t e d more d i r e c t l y t o a s p e c t s of

n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s t h a n can t h e g r o s s morphological f e a t u r e s r e -
viewed above. P e r z i g i a n (1971) e v a l u a t e d c o r t i c a l a n d t r a b e c u l a r
d e n s i t y i n t h e d i s t a l r a d i u s u s i n g photon a b s o r p t i o m e t r y , com-
p a r i n g t h e Middle Archaic I n d i a n Knoll s e r i e s w i t h t h e Klunk Middle
Woodland s e r i e s . He demonstrated g r e a t e r ~ ~ t e o p o r o t bone ic loss
in t h e I l l i n o i s Middle Woodland s e r i e s t h a n i n t h e Kentucky
hunter-gatherer m a t e r i a l w i t h more pronounced s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n
I n d i a n Knoll than i n t h e Klunk s e r i e s . OIConnor (1977) h a s re-
e v a l u a t e d P e r z i g i a n ' s d a t a , showing t h a t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e
e v a l u a t e s t h e r a t e o f l o s s r a t h e r t h a n t h e a b s o l u t e amount of l o s s -
Klunk Middle Woodland males and females l o s e bone a t a f a s t e r r a t e
with i n c r e a s i n g a g e t h a n do t h e i r Kentucky Archaic c o u n t e r p a r t s ,
b u t t h e y do n o t become a s o s t e o p o r o t i c because t h e i r i n i t i a l bone
d e n s i t y a t age 1 5 is h i g h e r . s t o u t (1978) h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
d i a g e n e s i s may b e a f a c t o r i n producing t h e r e l a t i v e l y f l a t bone
d e n s i t y d a t a P e r z i g i a n o b t a i n e d from I n d i a n K n o l l , s u g g e s t i n g h i s -
t o l o g i c a l s t u d y a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r d i r e c t bone d e n s i t y measure-
ment. NO comprehensive s t u d y o f bone d e n s i t y f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n s
discussed i n t h i s paper is a s y e t a v a i l a b l e , b u t t h e increased
r a t e of bone l o s s t h a t P e r z i g i a n o b s e r v e s when comparing h i s Middle
Woodland d a t a w i t h modern c l i n i c a l s t a n d a r d s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s may
b e a f r u i t f u l avenue of r e s e a r c h .
H i s t o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f bone maintenance i s s i m i l a r l y promis-
i n g , b u t incomplete. S t o u t (1978) compared r i b c o r t e x remodeling
r a t e s i n t h e Gibson Middle Woodland and Ladders t e r m i n a l L a t e
Woodland s e r i e s . He a t t r i b u t e s the h i q h e r r e m o d e l i n g . r a t e s i n
t$e 1a t t e r s e r i e s -hypaparathyroidism r e s ~ l t i n v -
$ow trvpôphan l e v e l s p r o v i d e d by a h i g h &ze d i e t . Howeve+-
o t h e r p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t o r y models might i n c l u d e r e l a t i v e protein-
c a l o r i e "malnutrition, low d i e t a r y talc
( P - ~ a )r$tiQ_i_high >on i n t a k e , and h i
, o t h e r s ( B e r n s t e i n e t a l . 1966; Garn e t
1967; Mazess and J o n e s 1974; Mazess and Mather 1975; p f e i f f e r and
King 1983). S t u d i e s t h a t may r e s o l v e some o f t h e s e i s s u e s i n
west c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s m a t e r i a l s a r e underway. ~ r a d t m i l l e r (n - . )
h a s demonstrated t h a t sample s i t e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l show
10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 245
important d i f f e r e n c e s i n remodeling r a t e s , drawing h i s sample from

a s i n g l e t e r m i n a l Late Woodland and Mississippian s i t e . Hansen
has begun a s t u d y o f femur midshaft h i s t o l o g y t h a t w i l l compare
samples from t h e v a r i o u s ' Woodland and Mississippian components
discussed h e r e .
The o n l y comprehensive d a t a on bone maintenance a v a i l a b l e f o r
west c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s i s t h e l e a s t t e c h n i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d . In
the study of j u v e n i l e h e i g h t f o r age presented e a r l i e r I evaluated
femoral Nordin's index4 i n t h e Gibson Middle Woodland and Ledders
terminal L a t e Woodland samples. Children 2-3 vea.l.5 of aqe--yi.
Late Woodland sample. However, t h e same c r i t i c i s m s apply t o t h i s

e x t r a p o l a t i o n from t w o samples a s t o s t o u t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of h i s
r i b remodeling d a t a above. More r e c e n t 1
cor iameter i n M i s s i s s ~
.
o
f-r
=-related - age (Cook n.d.a,d)
hyperp~hyroidism,calci
more parsimonious e x p l a n a t i o n s .
Radiographic d a t a on cor&cal bone diameters a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r
a d u l t S e r i e s represents t i v e of t h e f u l l range of time ~0mpOnentS
in west c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s (Figure 10.3). Again Nordin's index f o r
the femur i s p r e s e n t e d . This choice of technique has an advantage
in of t h i s s o r t i n t h a t measurements of c o r t i c a l
taken on a n t e r ~ - ~ o ~ t e r radiographs ior of the femur a r e
r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o age-related involution i n t h e femoral
which i s f i r s t seen i n t h e a n t e r i o r c o r t e x and t h e
Pilaster. N e v e r t h e l e s s , I l l i n o i s Valley samples from a l l time
periods I have examined show e a r l y and profound bone l o s s a s e v i -
denced by emphasis on v e r t i c a l t r a b e c u l a t i o n and a so-called
ground-glass appearance i n l o n g bone a r e a s t h a t normally show
trabeculation. Some i n d i v i d u a l s in a l l age groups show t h e s e
and a t t h e i r most extreme they a r e a s s o c i a t e d with very
lowvalues o f Nordin I s index. Because t h e s e markers of c o r t i c a l
bone l o s s appear a s e a r l y a s t h e t h i r d decade of l i f e i n west
c e n t r a l Illinois samples, I have chosen t o l i m i t comparisons t o
samples 20-34 years of age in an e f f o r t t o minimize the e f f e c t s
Of age-~rOgressive bone l o s s . I n Figure 10.3 t h e observed ranges
O f Nordinns index are very wide, and d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e skewed
toward higher values. ~ ~means a~r e e s s e ~
ntially ~
similar ~ from r
t e Archaic through Mississippian times, and no d i f f e r e n c e s are
significant. we can s e e no chronological t r e n d i n
adult c o r t i c a l bone maintenance associated with e i t h e r t h e gradual
DELLA COLLINS COOK
KAR KMW KLW KOS SLW

Temporal component
FIGURE 10.3. Means and ranges of Nordin's i n d e x f o r t h e mid-

s h a f t of femur i n s i x temporally sequential components. Note t h a t
means are highly skewed i n t h e Mississippian sample (SMISS). Male
( ) and female ( 0 ) values are v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n t h e s e 20-
t o 34-year-old samples. Sample s i z e s are a s follows: flunk
Archaic (KAR 4M, 6F), Klunk Middle Woodland (KMW 22M, 3 5 F ) , ~ h n k
e a r l y Late Woodland (KLW 3M, 7F), Koster e a r l y Late Woodland
(KOS 2IM, 17F), SchiZd l a t e Late ~ o o d l a n d (SL?? 13M, 14F), and
Schild Mississippian (SMISS 24M, 24F).
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f food p r o d u c t i o n t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h i s s e -
quence o r t h e emphasis on maize i n l a t e L a t e Woodland t i m e s .
I t i s tempting t o s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y o n s e t
of c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n and t h e l a c k of change t h r o u g h t i m e r e f l e c t
t h e s t a b l e d i e t a r y f e a t u r e s of C a l d w e l l ' s "primary f o r e s t e f f i -
ciency" i n t h e Midwest. For example, Mazess h a s a s s o c i a t e d h i g h
P-Ca r a t i o s i n l i v i n g Eskimos. A s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e may have
a p p l i e d i n o u r p o p u l a t i o n s , who made heavy u s e o f b o t h n u t s and
f i s h so s m a l l t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t i e s of bone must have been
i n g e s t e d . P-Ca r a t i o s provided by t h e v a r i o u s s t a r c h y and o i l y
seed p l a n t s used throughout o u r sequence d e s e r v e a t t e n t i o n a s
w e l l , and it i s i n t e r e s t i n q t h a t s u c h modern a n a l o g u e s a s Sun-
flower seed and buckwheat, a s w e l l a s maize, have h i g h P-Ca
r a t i o s (Ensminger 1970). E r i c k s e n (1982) h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
most p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s f o r which t h e r e a r e d a t a a p p e a r
show a c c e l e r a t e d bone l o s s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c l i n i c a l norms. She
s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a d e q u a c i e s i n t h e a g i n g of s k e l e t a l samples a r e
responsible f o r t h i s consistent d i f f e r e n c e , b u t d i e t a r y factors
d e s e r v e a t t e n t i o n a s w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n t e x t s where bone
l o s s i s prominent i n -younq- a d u l t s .
extremely low ranqe f o r N o r d i n ' s index i n o u w
p i a n sample i s n o t . The lowest v a l u e s a r e found i n
i n d i v i d u a l s who show evidence f o r s k e l e t a l t u b e r c u l o s i s o r some

v y simangeidfiqent ( B u l k s t r a and Cook 1981).
of bone d e n s i i o u n g a d u l
--
u ~ p o r t st h e m s i s of -t
c u l o s i s , b u t i t c o m p l i c a t e s infere-bout n u t r i t i o n a l change,
u i g e angen g e n e r a l h e a l t h t h a t employ t h i s indicatS?.
ex " a i r t e r e n c e s i n c o r t i c a l G n e maintenance a r e a b s e n t i n
these young a d u l t s ( F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 ) . This i s s u r p r i s i n g , given t h a t
one would e x p e c t g r e a t e r demand o n calcium r e s e r v e s i n pregnant
and l a c t a t i n g women i n t h i s age range. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e
d i f f e r e n t i a l demands imposed by r e p r o d u c t i o n may have been l e s s
heavy i n lower I l l i n o i s River v a l l e y p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n i n o t h e r
p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s in which e a r l y and pronounced sex d i f f e r -
ences i n bone maintenance have been found (Carlson e t a l . 1976;
Dewey e t a l . 1 9 6 9 ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e l a t i v e i n s e n s i t i v i -
t y o f r a d i o g r a p h i c measures of c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n may be a
f a c t o r (van Gerven e t a l . 1969) . We look forward t o t h e comple-
t i o n of more t e c h n i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d work on t h i s t o p i c .
Growth A r r e s t : H a r r i s Lines
H a r r i s l i n e s i n t h e l o n g bones and t h e p a r t i a l l y analogous

microscopic and macroscopic d i s t u r b a n c e s o f enamel development
Provide a r e c o r d o f s t r e s s experienced d u r i n g childhood t h a t i s
u s e f u l i n r e l a t i n g s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h . Most r e c e n t work on
the biology of t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s emphasizes t h a t t h e y ref1e.S
developmentalsÂ£ateÂ±lj. r a t h e r than t h e a^ it V nf 43-e.b-an^
h e a l t h p e r s e . I n them we s e e ti& e f f e c t s of a c u t e episodes_J^f,
f&ess,- b e t h e y n u t r i t i o n a l , d i s e a s e r e l a t e d , o r from some o t h e r
source- T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r H a r r i s l i n e s , which
resumed growth and may be a b s e n t i n poorly nourished PoPu-
latiom because qr0-h i s Lot s u f f i c i e n t t o allow l i n e s t o r o r s
(Dreizen e t a l . 1964; Garn 1 9 6 6 ; M u r c h i s b n z a l . ,n . d . ) .
Temporal comparisons of H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e
c h i l d r e n u n d e r s i x and f o r young a d u l t s . Figure 10.4 shows
means and r a n g e s f o r Harris l i n e counts i n c h i l d r e n from t h r e e
Gibson ~ i d d Woodland, l ~ Ledders t e r m i n a l L a t e woodland,
^d S c h i l d M i s s i s s i p p i a n . These l a s t two samples allow U s t o
e a r l y and l a t e maize-using p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h the a n t e c e -
dent i n t e n s i v e h a r v e s t c o l l e c t o r s o f Middle woodland t i m e s - In
10.4, t h e maximum H a r r i s l i n e count i s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e
distalr a d i u s , p r o x i m a l and d i s t a l t i b i a , and d i s t a l femur-
^''an i n d i v i d u a l may be represented by between one and
sites- While a g g r e g a t i o n procedures such a s t h i s O n e can be
(see Buikstra and Cook 1980 f o r r e v i e w ) , v a g a r i e s o f
P r e s e r v a t i o n in these samples make s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t i n g d i f f i c u l t
if a r e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y because many of t h e sizes
are q u i t e s m a l l . ~h~ picture of frequency d i f f e r e n c e s o b t a i n e d
"th maximum linec o u n t d a t a is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p a t t e r n s present
that
ln the f o u r sites analyzed s e p a r a t e l y ; hence I do not
the Procedure m i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e u n d e r l y i n g biology.
DELLA COLLINS COOK
B-5 6-11 12-23 24-35 36-72

Age range (months)
FIGURE 1 0 . 4 . Means and ranges of Harris l i n e counts for

children under 6 years of age. Samples are as follows: Gibson
Middle Woodland ( 1, Ledders terminal Late Woodland ( * ), and
Schild Mississippian ( x ). Sample s i z e s given i n parent'heses.
For a l l t h r e e samples, H a r r i s l i n e count r i s e s w i t h age i n

c h i l d r e n under s i x , l i n e s being v i r t u a l l y a b s e n t i n c h i l d r e n aged
5 months o r l e s s . A f t e r 6 m n t h s , l i n e counts become q u i t e
v a r i a b l e ; ranges a r e l a r g e , and d i s t r i b u t i o n of s c o r e s i s i r r e g u -
l a r . Average l i n e counts remain low i n t h e ~ i s s i s s i p p i a nsample
a t a l l a g e s h e ttw e a r l i e r groups, t h e
being s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n c h i l d r e n 2 y e a r s of age and
above when S c h i l d i s compared w i t h Gibson. The Ledders terminal
Late Woodland sample resembles t h e Middle Woodland one through
t h e second year of l i f e . A f t e r 2 y e a r s of age H a r r i s l i n e counts
approximate t h o s e i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample. Again, i n t h i s
age group, d i f f e r e n c e s between Ledders and t h e Middle woodland
Gibson sample a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l -y s i q- n i f i c a n t .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of maize t h u s would seem t o be r e f l e c t e e
?ewer H a r r i s l i n e = ~ s I n c h i l d ~ n~b f ~ l e d t o s u ~ i v ec h l l a -
hsôd; In Ledders, t h e e a r l i e r and l e s s maize dependent of the
two, evidence f o r lower l e v e l s of a c u t e s t r e s s b e g i n s a t 2 years
of a g e - I have argued t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n Middle woodland
and terminal Late Woodland c h i l d r e n r e f l e c t s weaning t o a high-
carbohydrate maize d i e t and r e s u l t i n g growth f a i l u r e , u s i n g t h e

evidence f o r l e s s e r h e i g h t f o r age i n t h e Ledders c h i l d r e n t o
b u t t r e s s t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (Cook 1979). The same i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n c a n n o t a p p l y t o t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample, because t h e r e i s
no evidence f o r growth f a i l u r e . E i t h e r M i s s i s s i p p i a n c h i l d r e n
experienced less a c u t e stress t h a n d i d Middle Woodland c h i l d r e n ,
o r other f a c t o r s a r e responsible f o r t h i s difference.
Some a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e magnitude of t h e p o s s i b l e complicat-
i n g f a c t o r s can b e g a i n e d from a l o o k a t p o s s i b l e c a u s e s of endo-
s t e a l r e s o r p t i o n which might r e s u l t i n l o s s o f H a r r i s l i n e s
through remodeling. Gam h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n with p r o t e i n -
c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n l o s e e n d o s t e a l bone (Garn e t a l . 1 9 6 9 ) , an
e x p l a n a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of low H a r r i s l i n e
f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e Ledders c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t e d h e r e . T h i s f a c t o r
can be p r e s e n t a t b i r t h i f m a t e r n a l p r o t e i n i n t a k e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y
Poor (Krishnamachari and I y e n g a r 1975). Conversely, obese s u b j e c t s
have i n c r e a s e d c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s (Garn and Solomon 1981) and might
be expected t o r e t a i n H a r r i s l i n e s l o n g e r t h a n l i g h t e r s u b j e c t s
might. S i n c e body composition i s n o t p r e s e n t l y r e c o n s t r u c t i b l e
from s k e l e t a l remains, t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s source o f v a r i a t i o n a r e
unknown, a l t h o u g h d a t a on l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n s l e a d one t o expect
higher o b e s i t y r a t e s i n s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s dependent on
c a r b o h y d r a t e - r i c h food s o u r c e s . Bone remodeling d i f f e r e n c e s due
t o such f a c t o r s a s p/Ca r a t i o , secondary hypoparathyroidism,
a c t i v i t y l e v e l s , and t h e l i k e may a l s o be i m p l i c a t e d . These con-
s i d e r a t i o n s l e a d u s t o a c c e p t o u r evidence f o r l e s s e r l e v e l s of
a c u t e s t r e s s i n c h i l d h o o d -ng maize u s e r s with c o n s i d e r a b l e
Caution.
H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s i n a d u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r a wider
range of samples. F i g u r e 10.5 p r e s e n t s ~ a r r i sl i n e counts f o r t h e
d i s t a l femur i n a d u l t s 20-34 y e a r s of age i n s i x samples ranging
from L a t e A r c h a i c t h r o u g h Mississippian times. This t r u n c a t e d
age range i s chosen because p r e v i o u s study has shown decreased
l i n e frequencies in a d u l t s o v e r age 35 i n samples from t h e r e g i o n
(Cook 1 9 7 6 ) , and t h e s t a b i l i t y of N o r d i n ' s index in t h e s e samples
(Figure 1 0 . 3 ) s u p p o r t s t h e choice. ~ i s t r i b u t i o n sof l i n e
a r e h i g h l y skewed and bimodal, t h e r e being many i n d i v i d u a l s with
no l i n e s p r e s e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e d a t a a r e presented in three
o m s : p e r c e n t a g e of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t l i n e s , average line
count i n c l u d i n g these zero v a l u e s , and average l i n e count i n in-
d i v i d u a l s w i t h Harris linesp r e s e n t . percentage without l i n e s
w i d e l y , and all samples b u t one show Substantial sex dif-
f e r e n c e s . w h i l e data on modem p o p u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t
form lines more r e a d i l y t h a n males (Marshall 1968)f as is the
case i n four of t h e five dimorphic samples h e r e , t h e size these
differences is unexpected, and it i s d i f f i c u l t t o suggest a
scenario t h a t would account f o r t h e observed pattern- One might
argue t h a t a c u t e stressexperience i n c r e a s e d f o r
time, ameliorating in t h e Mississippian p e r i o d , whereas acute
decreased for females from Archaic through
DELLA COLLINS COOK
lJ______________
KAR KMW KLW KOS SLW SMISS
Temporal component
FIGURE 10.5. Harris l i n e counts i n young a d u l t males ( * )

and females f 0 ). Values presented are frequency o f i n d i v i d u a l s
A t h no l i n e s v i s i b l e a t t h e d t s b l femur ( A ) , mean line count
including these zero values f B ) , and mean l i n e count i n those
w i t h Hawis l i n e s present (C). Sample data correspond t o those
f o r Figure 10.3.
only t o worsen i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n p e r i o d . However, t h e o t h e r

a v a i l a b l e evidence f a i l s t o s u p p o r t t h i s improbable s c e n a r i o .
Average l i n e counts including z e r o v a l u e s a r e more o r l e s s
s i m i l a r through time, and it i s d i f f i c u l t t o j u s t i f y t h e use
means i n t h e s e d a t a on s t a t i s t i c a l grounds. When o n l y those in-
d i v i d u a l s with l i n e s a r e considered, temporally d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s
emerge. Line counts a r e high i n t h e few Late Archaic specimens
included i n t h i s study; t h e r e a f t e r , f r e q u e n c i e s a r e markedly
lower- E i t h i n t h e Woodland s e q u e n F $ v toward
i n c r e a s i n g l i n e c o u n t s through t i m e , t h e l a t e L a t e woodland a n d ,
- -
'--~ i s s i s s i p p i a nmaize-using samples showing h i g h e s t v a l u e s .
4
KAR KMW KLW KOS SLW SMISS

Temporal component
FIGURE 10.6. Age o f formation of ~ a r r i sl i n e s a t t h e d i s t a l

femur i n young a d u l t s , sexes combined. Number of l i n e s observed
fop each annual growth inurement i s plotted from b i r t h through
age 17. Sample data are given i n legend t o Figure 1 0 . 3 .
o n l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e Koster female mean and

the S c h i l d female mean i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . We may
a r g u e t h a t food-on brings an i n i t i a l decrease
in acutir's'tr'ess e x p e r i e n c e followed by a modest i n c r e a s e i n s t r e s s
=oc%ted w i t h maize-centered i n t e n ~ i d ; i o p ^ . -
Some a d d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e on t h i s i n d i c a t o r can be gained
f o r t h e A r c h a i c p e r i o d from a s t u d y of H a r r i s l i n e s comparing t h e
Klunk L a t e Archaic sample used h e r e w i t h two small Middle Archaic
( B u i k s t r a 1 9 8 1 ) . NO s i g n i f i c a n t temporal t r e n d s were
s u p p o r t i n g t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ~ i c t u r eof r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y
Of Archaic a d a p t a t i o n s .
H a r r i s l i n e s a l s o provide u s e f u l information on t h e timing of
e p i s o d e s d u r i n g development. F i g u r e 10.6 shows,the d i s t r i -
bution of a g e of formation determined u s i n g t h e method of Hunt and
( 1 9 8 1 ) . The Klunk Archaic and ~ l u n kMiddle Woodland samples
are a l i k e i n showing a trend toward i n c r e a s e d r a t e s of l i n e forma-
tion--or l e s s e r opportunity f o r resorption--in l a t e r adolescence-
The l a t e r samples show a more even d i s t r i b u t i o n of age of forma-
tion. NO sample shows many l i n e s assignable t~ t h e f i r s t 6 Years
Of l i f e . The h i g h frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s i n c h i l d r e n 2-6 Years
Of age s u g g e s t s t h a t r e s o r p t i o n o f e a r l y l i n e s may be a substantia1
Problem i n t h e s e d a t a , as does t h e frequency w i t h which evidence
t r a b e c u l a r i n v o l u t i o n can be seen.
an-
Age of f o r m a t i o n d a t a can a l s o be analyzed f o r evidence
nual o r s e a s o n a l stress. ~ 1 of
1 t h e Archaic i n d i v i d u a l s who had
H a r r i s l i n e s showed evidence for annual Buikstra
'lg81)i n a s t u d y of a w i d e r age sample from t h i s c o l l e c t i o n
P e r i o d i c i t y in t h e Klunk t o b e high, b u t s i 9 n i f i -
t y l e s s t h a n in twos m a l l Middle ~ r c h a i csamples-
îs Comparison does nota d j u s t f o r z e r o l i n e c o u n t s - In
o n l y 1 of t h e 180 Woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n femora i n c l u d e d i n

t h i s study sh-dicity i n H a r r i s 1i n e s .-e ,
t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e =seasonal s t r e s s i n t h e juvenile
vp
H a r r i s l i n e d a t a (Cook 1 9 7 6 ) . We i n f e r t h a t o n e b e n e f i t o f t h e
t r a n s i t i o n t o food p r o d u c t i o n i n
-
&f f e r i n g a g a i n s t s e a s o n a l p e r i o d s o f s c a r c i t y .
Growth A r r e s t : Dental Markers
Dental i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e o f f e r a d v a n t a g e s i n
t h a t t h e y a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o remodeling and t h e y a r e l e s s depen-
d e n t on r a t e of growth. A s w i t h t h e H a r r i s l i n e s t u d i e s , d a t a a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r b o t h j u v e n i l e and a d u l t samples f o r v a r i o u s develop-
mental ranges.
C i r c u l a r c a r i e s i s a developmental l e s i o n o f t h e d e c i d u o u s
t e e t h i n which enamel formed i n t h e a n t e n a t a l o r p e r i n a t a l p e r i o d
shows chronologic h y p o p l a s i a . The r e s u l t a n t t r a n s v e r s e bands a r e
prone t o c a r i e s a t t a c k a f t e r t h e t e e t h e r u p t . I n modem d i s a d -
vantaged p o p u l a t i o n s , c h i l d r e n w i t h t h i s marker of e a r l y stress
a r e more l i k e l y t o develop p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n d u r i n g t h e
weaning p e r i o d than a r e t h e i r p e e r s w i t h o u t t h i s h i s t o r y o f S t r e s s -
I n a comparison o f Middle and L a t e Woodland m a t e r i a l s , B u i k s t r a and
I have argued t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a g e a t d e a t h
i n c h i l d r e n w i t h and w i t h o u t t h e s e h y p o p l a s t i c l e s i o n s p r o v i d e e v i -
dence f o r n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e weaning p e r i o d (Cook and
B u i k s t r a 1 9 7 9 ) . I n F i g u r e 10.7 o u r 1979 d a t a a r e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t -
i n g t h e two L a t e Woodland components it i n c l u d e d a n d a d d i n g a Mis-
s i s s i p p i a n sample. The p e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d r e n w i t h a n t e n a t a l o r
p e r i n a t a l h y p o p l a s i a i s s i m i l a r i n a l l f o u r samples. A p a r a l l e l
study of widely s e p a r a t e d s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n s from o t h e r p a r t s
North America shows t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h i s c l a s s o f h y p o p l a s i a
-
v a r i e s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n w i t h s u b s i s t e n c e (Cook n . d - c )
'%he f r w u e x y o f c a r i e s i s , n o t s u r m l - a - l $
-i n c r e a s e s a s a f u n c t i o n of maize u s e , a s measured i n ^C c o n t e n t
c o l l a g e n (van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978) .itD i s t r i b u t i o n s o f age a t
'Some caution i s needed i n interpreting 13c studies. A Â¥parti

cular level of l3C i n bone indicates the amount of 13c i n food
chiin, or the percentage of dietary carbon, n o t the proportion o f
the diet contributed by maize o r other tropical cultigens.
SeC0ndory and much higher quality 1 3 consumption
~ could r e s u l t i f
deer, raccoon, and turkeys were taken when they were attracted
corn f i e l d s . Meat from such animals would contribute t o hman l C
constangtion. Meat from domestic dogs fed on maize or wastes would
also make a contribution, as 1 3 l~e v e l s in. Amerindian dogs s h m
(BurLeigh and Brothwell 1978). Thus it i s not l i k e l y t o be the
case that maize constituted 24% of t h e d i e t in l a t e Late woodland
tunes or 52% of the d i e t for Mississippians inour region (van der
Meme and Vogel 1 9 7 8 ) .
10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 25 3
A. Circular Caries Frequency
Percentage Percentage Percentage

Sites . Component N Hypoplastic Carious C4 PZants0-
~i'bson~ MW 98 60 16 0
Klunk
Joe fkYb L I ~ 32 50 22 0
tedders LL W 38 53 24 24
Sc h a MISS 56 59 42 52
'van d e r Meme and Vogel, 1978

^cook and Buikstra, 1979
Â¡Thi sample d a t e s t o approximately t h e point o f t r a n s i t i o n t o
maize use ( T a i n t e r 1975). The C4 value for LLW may be appropriate.
(b) E N A M E L NORMAL CARIES OR DEFECT
- LLW
FIGURE 10.7. B. ~ i ~ t ~ i b uotfi nm o d deciduous emmel and

d e f e c t i v e deciduous enamelby age a t death. ~ e f e c t i v eefimel t-hat
Â ¥ x i f i t circular caries is indicated by shadedbars. Age a t death
ln years i s indicated between t h e two s e t s o f hcstogrms-
DELLA COLLINS COOK
-1 :9a\:i,(c'
0
ASS MILD MOD SEV
FIGURE 10.8. Linear enamel hypoplasia i n t h e permanent canine
o f young adults from t h e Slunk Middle Woodland ( 0 ) and Sohild
Miss~ss@p& ( ) samples ( C l i f t o n 1 9 8 2 ) . Maximum s e v e r i t y s c o w
for the oee2usal ( a ) , middle f b ) , and cervical ( a ) t h i r d s o f the
crown are analyzed separately. Scores are absent, mild, moderate,
and severe.
death a r e u n l i k e i n a l l f o u r samples, but t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e more

marked in our two Late Woodland samples, i n which no hypoplasia
c a s e s appear t o s u r v i v e t o 3 y e a r s o f age. Again we have evidence
f o r g r e a t e r childhood s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e Late Woodland p e r i o d when
it i s compared with e a r l i e r and l a t e r groups. The a v a i l a b l e
samples do n o t permit a n e x t e n s i o n of t h i s s t u d y t o t h e ~ r c h a i c .
S t u d i e s of l i n e a r enamel hypoplasia (mH) i n t h e permanent
d e n t i t i o n a r e s t i l l p r e l i m i n a r y . C l i f t o n has compared LEH fr-
n t h e c a n i n e s of a d u l t s 2 0 - 3 y e a r s o f age froni_the Klunk
Middle Woo nd S c h i l d =sippian samples (1983) - 5%
Finds a
=r
modest
sample^FigureTo.~]
s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n "T^sion f r e
. Knick (1981) has shown t
p o r t i o n of t h i s i n c r e a s e can b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e presence of
t u b e r c u l o s i s o r a s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n i n t h e S c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n . In-
d i v i d u a l s with s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s account f o r the m a j o r i t y of t h e
\
: / ~ ~
.E
.-
*
en
2
1 :
'I",
;'J
1
t
I
I
I
/
I
I
I
/
I
I
I
! a'l
B 3 B 3 B 3
Age (years)
FIGURE 10.9. Frequency o f pronounced s t r i a e of Retzius.

Vertical a x i s i s striae/T. mm band defined on th d e n t i n o e m e l
Junction. Horizontal a x i s is 2 mm bands arranged from cusp
( b i r t h ) t o cementoenamet junction ( 3 years of age a t formation).
Data are f o r the f i r s t permanent molar. From t h e l e f t , graphs
compare high and l o u s t a t u s categories i n t h e Klunk ~ i d d l e
Woodland sample ( a ) , sexes in flunk Middle woodland sample
(b), and sexes i n th Sch-bid Mississippian sample f a ) .
l a r g e proportion of a d u l t males being a b s e n t from t h e recovered

c o l l e c t i o n . The unusual dimorphism i n s t a t u r e and i n s t r e s s i n -
d i c a t o r s we have seen i n t h i s sample may r e f l e c t a s y s t e m a t i c
b i a s a g a i n s t t h e i n c l u s i o n of l a r g e , favored males (Cook n.d .b) .
The u l t i m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s problem remains t o be a s s e s s e d .
I f t h e S c h i l d sample i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f M i s s i s s i p p i a n population
biology, it provides us w i t h l i t t l e evidence f o r s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d
with maize use i n t h e lower I l l i n o i s Valley. The r e l a t i v e l y high
l e v e l s of enamel d e f e c t s t h a t Rose n o t e s i n h i s c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s
Valley samples may r e f l e c t environmental, temporal, o r c u l t u r a l
d i f f e r e n c e s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f a r e g i o n a l study.
A f i n a l source of information on s t r e s s t h a t can be a s s e s s e d
from s t u d i e s of t e e t h i s f l u c t u a t i n g asymmetry. O'Connell has
produced an exhaustive study of asymmetry i n both c r a n i a l d i s c r e t e
t r a i t s and odontometrics f o r 16 temporally d i s t i n c t samples from
lower I l l i n o i s Valley s i t e s (1983). She views asymmetry a s an
i n d i c a t o r o f developmental s t a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n o f environmental
q u a l i t y . She f i n d s g r e a t e s t asymmetry i n l a t e Middle Woodland and
l a t e Late Woodland samples. Her e a r l y Middle Woodland, e a r l y Late
Woodland, and e s p e c i a l l y M i s s i s s i p p i a n samples a r e developmentally
s t a b l e i n comparison. Her i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e r e s u l t s
focuses on change p e r s e a s t h e s t r e s s o r t o which f l u c t u a t i n g
asymmetry corresponds.
PATHOLOGY
Several a s p e c t s o f p a t h o l o g i c a l change i n t h e s k e l e t o n o f f e r
u s e f u l information about t h e h e a l t h consequences of s u b s i s t e n c e
change. Sampling b i a s i s a p r e l i m i n a r y i s s u e t h a t can be shown
t o be important in o u r region i n a t l e a s t two p e r i o d s . Buikstra
has shown t h a t t h e high f r e q u e n c i e s o f s e v e r e p a t h o l o g i c a l condi-
t i o n s observed i n remains from Middle Archaic h a b i t a t i o n s i t e s i s
t h e r e s u l t o f b i a s introduced by a b o r i g i n a l mortuary p r a c t i c e s .
Middle Archaic peoples i n t h e r e g i o n produced two complementary
types of mortuary s i t e : mounded cemeteries c o n t a i n i n g a d u l t s i n
t h e prime of l i f e and h a b i t a t i o n s i t e i n t e r m e n t s f o r t h e young,
t h e o l d , and t h e d i s a b l e d . N e i t h e r component i s demographically
complete, and i n f e r e n c e s about t h e extreme r i g o r s of ~ r c h a i clife
based on d i s e a s e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e l a t t e r t y p e (Neumann 1967)
a r e f a l l a c i o u s ( B u i k s t r a 1981). Access to p o r t i o n s o f t h e Middle
Woodland mortuary system a r e b i a s e d by age and s e x ( B u i k s t r a
1976) a s well a s by p r i o r h i s t o r y of s t r e s s e p i s o d e s (Cook l g a l ) .
But t h e r e is no evidence f o r b i a s e s r e l a t e d t o o t h e r
c o n d i t i o n s (Cook 1976), and we have no reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t the
l a r g e r Woodland cemeteries of t h e r e g i o n m i s r e p r e s e n t d i s e a s e
frequencies. The l a r g e s t M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample we have' a v a i l a b l e
shows s i g n i f i c a n t demographic b i a s , and s e v e r a l anomalies i n the
age and s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s t h a t s u g g e s t that it
Age (months)
FIGURE 10.10. Frequencies o f cribra o r b i t a l i a i n children

wider 6 years o f age i n aggregate samples from the Middle Woodland
( 8 1, early Late Woodland ( m ) , l a t e Late ~oodland( o ) , and Mis-
sissippian (x ). Samples and sample s i z e s correspond t o those i n
Figure 10.1.
m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e frequency o f p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a s w e l l
(Cook n.d.b) . However, a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d i s a b l i n g
and s e v e r e c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s a c r o s s b u r i a l t y p e s w i t h i n
the s i t e f a i l s t o produce any evidence of c u l t u r a l d i s t i n c t i o n s
based on p a t h o l o g y ( G o l d s t e i n 1980).
Cribra Orbitalia
i n t h i s age group. Anemia i n t h i s a g e group may b e r e l a t e d t o t h e

presence o f a t u b e r c u l o s i s - l i k e p a t h o l o g y i n t h i s sample ( B u i k s t r a
and Cook 1 9 8 1 ) , o r such o t h e r w i s e i n a c c e s s i b l e f e a t u r e s o f p r e -
h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e a s s t r i p p i n g o f cord blood may p r o v i d e a p l a u s i b l e
s c e n a r i o (Anonymous 1 9 7 6 ) . I n c h i l d r e n o l d e r t h a n 6 months i n
other m
Dental P a t h o l o g y
I t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f maize i s a c -
companied by changes i n o r a l h e a l t h . Not o n l y is maize h i g h e r i n
carbohydrate c o n t e n t t h a n most o t h e r f o o d s used i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c
Midwest; b o t h a r c h e o l o g i c a l and e t h n o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t
i t s u s e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s h i f t toward p o r r i d g e s and o t h e r
b o i l e d foods t h a t o n e would e x p e c t t o be more s t i c k y and hence
more c a r i o g e n i c t h a n t h o s e e a t e n by e a r l i e r p e o p l e s (Braun 1984;
Rusch-Behrend n.d. ) .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d a t a o n c a r i e s formation i n h y p o p l a s t i c
l e s i o n s of t h e d e c i d u o u s t e e t h p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 10.7, two tem-
p o r a l comparisons of o r a l h e a l t h a r e a v a i l a b l e . Modest d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e age d i s t r i b u t i o n of c a r i e s and t o o t h l o s s a r e n o t e d i n a
comparison of t h e Gibson Middle Woodland and Ledders l a t e L a t e
Woodland s e r i e s (Cook 1 9 7 9 ) . Mean number o f decayed o r l o s t t e e t h
i s h i g h e r f o r t h e t e r m i n a l L a t e Woodland j u v e n i l e s and m i d d l e
a d u l t s , r e f l e c t i n g p i t - a n d - f i s s u r e c a r i e s . k m n g a d u l t s 50 y e a r s
of age and above, t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s r e v e r s e d , r e f l e c t i n g s e v e r e
a t t r i t i o n and r e s u l t i n g t o o t h l o s s i n t h e Middle Woodland s e r i e s .
Rusch-Behrend h a s compared t h e Klunk Middle Woodland s e r i e s
with the Schild Mississip - -p i a n s e r i e s , t h e l a t t e r t h e most e x t e n s i v e
u s e r s o f maize a v a i l a b l e f o r o u r r e q i o n . Permanent d e n t i t i o n
-c a r e s i m i l a r i n s u b a d u l t s , b u t a f t e r age 2 0 a 9
frequencies of c a r i e s i n t h e M - ~ roughly-6 Z
t h e Middle Woodland s e r i e s , , p a r t i c u l a r l y for=e mandibu-
l a r t e e t h . ANOVA r e s u i show s i t e and a q e a s s i g n i f i c a n t , and
sex a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . Antemortem l o s s i s more c o m n i n t h e
M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample. P e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e is r e l a t e d t o a t t r i t i o n
and hence i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a g e i n b o t h , b u t t h i s e f f e c t i s more
pronounced i n t h e Woodland sample, which s t o w s g r e a t e r a t t r i t i o n
a t a l l a g e s (Rusch-~ehrend n.d.) .
10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICALEVIDENCE
Chronic Inflammations o f Bone
P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e v e r y common i n s k e l e t a l c o l l e c -
t i o n s from t h e Midwest, and o u r lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e y m a t e r i a l s
a r e no e x c e p t i o n . Age d i s t r i b u t i o n of l e s i o n s , d i s t r i b u t i o n s by
body p a r t , and l e s i o n t y p e s i n Middle Woodland and Late Woodland
s e r i e s p o i n t t o endemic treponematosis a s t h e modern c l i n i c a l
e n t i t y t h a t most c l o s e l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e observed epidemiolo-
9ic p a t t e r n . O v e r a l l p r e v a l e n c e i s s l i g h t l y more than 50%, w i t h
c l o s e r resemblances t o endemic s y p h i l i s i n t h e Middle Woodland
sample and t o yaws i n t h e L a t e Woodland one (Cook 1976).
A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f l e s i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n and frequency i s
P r e s e n t i n t h e Klunk L a t e Archaic s e r i e s , b u t t h e o v e r a l l
Prevalence i s 31 c a s e s i n 1 2 3 s c o r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s , o r 25%.
This s u g g e s t s t h a t a t r e p o n e m a t o s i s was p r e s e n t , b u t a t substan-
t i a l l y l o w e r l e v e l s t h a n i n Woodland times.
I n t h e S c h i l d M i s s i s s i p p i a n s e r i e s both t h e prevalence and
t h e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n of p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o
f o r Middle and L a t e Woodland s e r i e s . Extensive p r o l i f e r -
a t i v e l e s i o n s i n a d u l t s a r e somewhat more common than i n t h e two
e a r l i e r series. The resemblance t o yaws t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s o u r
l a t e L a t e Woodland samples i s t h u s somewhat more pronounced, and
as with t h e Woodland g r o u p s , d i s a b i l i t y due t o t h i s d i s e a s e must
have been a s i g n i f i c a n t burden f o r t h e child population (cook
n.d.b).
A second s i g n i f i c a n t d i s e a s e
times i n t h e lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e
l e s i o n s , a p p e a r i n g most commonly
^h'-fflo'sfae-fcSlTs" t o bone
-appropriate d i a g n o s i s a s w e l l . If t h e disease
a s we s u s p e c t , t u b e r c u l o s i s , uency of -sions is
r y disease m -o- must have prese%
pula<ioiL- ~ t appearance
s coiriîdes'TTl-blrâ'major
o l o g i c importance: t h e appearance of a large
Population a g g r e g a t e a t c a h o k i a , a M i s s i s s i p p i a n c e n t e r to which
the Mississippian s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e lower 1 l l i n o i s Valley were
satellites. ~t its h e i g h t Cahokia may have included 25,000-43~Oo0
People (Gregg 1975) . Tuberculq51A_j.sJaJ3eaSJ-Â£ysdep^nden '
d^peage^
the res
e -O -
may h a v e become e s t a b l i s h e d i n human popu1
appeaFance of such ag9re&es (Buiks=lg8l) -p
6
1
M i Z m p has s h o w t h a t much o f the difference i n bone l e s i o n
frequency, -ignoring diagnosis, t h a t i s reported f o r ~ i s s i s s i ~ ~ i ~
sês t h e American Bottoms, toiler I l l i n o i s Valley, and central
1 Illinois Valley be by s i t e wregation and s k e
I
( 8 2 ; 1-983). The relative contr<ht&n of t h e various diseases
*hat can be i d e n t i f i e d ins k e l e t a l remains and t h e degree to
î-ch temporal change is a factor i n these r e s u l t s remain to be
^Plored.
I
1
^
DELLA COLLINS COOK
Arthritis
Temporal change i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n i n g has been e v a l u a t e d i n

a recent study by Pickering (1984)- For Woodland and M i s s i s s i p -
pian samples s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s of a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n i n g a r e constant.
Relative j o i n t s i z e i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h body s i z e b u t u n c o r r e l a t e d
with j o i n t d i s e a s e . Age a t o n s e t i s e a r l i e r i n females than i n
males, b u t females a t a given a g e do n o t s h o w more s e v e r e
a r t h r i t i s than do males. There a r e no symmetry d i f f e r e n c e s i n
males and females.
T s p r a l cJanqe i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n i n g o c c u r s i n a s s o c i a t i o n
~ i t thh e > e g i n n i y s of maize c u l t x v a t ~ m
. . .e
-a
l~ ~ h
Late Late Woodland and M u s s i p p i a n females p r e s e n t z r e x t h r l -
t i s of t h e 1 e f T a m and s p i n e -
o f i d m o o d l a n e
ecome s
Late Woodland temales. In m a l s l n -t
more symmetrical i n l a t e Late Woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n samples,
a ehange Pickering a s s o c i a t e s w i t h t h e change from use of t h e
a t l a t l t o use of t h e k o w . Males s h o w no s e v e r i t y changes, while
females show no p a t t e r n changes.
Warfare
Perino has suggested t h a t t h e incidence of p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s

and p o i n t fragments imbedded i n bone o r w i t h i n body c a v i t i e s i n
Late Woodland m r t u a r y s i t e s i s evidence f o r w a r f a r e ( P e r i n 0
1973a,b,c). A survey of such i n j u r i e s i n t h e J o e Gay and Homer
Adams mound groups, b t h multicomponent s i t e s , found evidence f o r
W W ~ Si n 2% of t h e combined Middle Woodland components and 4%
t h e combined Late Woodland c o m p n e n t s (cook 1976) , s u g g e s t i n g that
warfare may have been a f e a t u r e o f h t h s o c i e t i e s . s t y l e s p r e -
s e n t s evidence f o r l i m i t a t i o n of v i l l a g e c a t c h e n t s i n Late
Woodland times (1981) t h a t may r e f l e c t c o n f l i c t a s w e l l . Both
Late Woodland and Mississippian c o l l e c t i o n s c o n t a i n some i n d i v i d -
u a l s w i t h s k u l l f r a c t u r e s compatible w i t h c e l t wounds ( p e r i n 0
1971). Thus we have evidence f o r c o n f l i c t throughout t h e sequencer
with perhaps some i n c r e a s e i n frequency i n m t e woodland times-
dence f o r changes i n p o p u l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e d u r i n g t h e Archaic

period, d e s p i t e h y p t h e s e s o t h e r s have derived from m a t e r i a l c u l -
t u r e f o r i n c r e a s i n g a d a p t i v e e f f i c i a c y from Middle t o Late
Archaic t i m e s . Comparisons o f L a t e Archaic m a t e r i a l s w i t h Middle
Woodland remains s u g g e s t t h a t l i f e span i n c r e a s e d somewhat i n
Middle Woodland t i m e s (Blakely 1971; Masset 1 9 7 6 ) . S e v e r a l ana-
l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s s u g g e s t t h a t l a t e Late Woodland samples show
an i n c r e a s e i n a g e - s p e c i f i c m o r t a l i t y compared with both e a r l i e r
and l a t e r m a t e r i a l s (Cook 1976; Cottom n . d . ) .
DISCUSSION
What a r e t h e e f f e c t s of t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f food production

on h e a l t h ? The p i c t u r e i s a c o m p l i c a t d one, and t h e m r e k i n d s
of d a t a we m a r s h a l l t h e rmre complicated t h e p i c t u r e becomes.
woodland food p r o d u c t i o n seems t o have allowed an i n c r e a s e i n
longevity a n d some b u f f e r i n g a g a i n s t s e a s o n a l S t r e s s . . T u n =
-.
duction o f maize i n l a t e - w o o d l a n d times is attended a
~ a r S f o r ~w o ~r s &e n ~i W ~y m d t h i s
bansiti-ulation a p p e a x be a t a r e l a t i v e disadvantage
when c o r n p a r d - w i t h b o t h e & l i e r and l a t e r p p u l a t i o n s . I have
t h a t t h e s e f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t a Boserupim model o f p o p ~ l a t i ~ n
pressure o n s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s a s t h e f o r c e behind t h e t r a n s i t i o n
r ~ mS e e d - h o r t i c u l t u r e and c o l l e c t i n g economies t o s y s t m s i n d u d -
in9 maize c u l t i v a t i o n ( m o k 1979; n .d. a ) . 1t i s conceivable t h a t
Other Causes, f o r example d e c r e a s e d b i r t h spacing, might produce
the a p p a r e n t c h i l d h o o d h e a l t h problems, b u t d a t a on s e t t l e m e n t
' y S t a s and f a u n a l r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f f e r independent S U P P ~ ~
t h e B0serupian model. L a t e L a t e woodland people made i n c r e a s -
ing use of m a i z e a f t e r A.D. 800 i n t h e lower 1 l l i n o i s v a l l e y , and
Of t h e i n d i c a t o r s d i s c u s s e d above li* Our maize-using p P u -
latiOns. Because ~ s s i s s i p ppeoples i a n made m r e e x t e n s i v e u s e of
mize t h a n d i d t h e i r a n t e c e d e n t s , and because we have Very little
f o r n u t r i t i o n a l d i s e a s e o r s t r e s s among M ~ S S ~ S S ~ P P ~ ~ ~
peoples, t h i s low-protein staple food does n o t i n i t s e l f account
?r the a p p a r e n t ill h e a l t h of l a t e Late woodland p e o p l e s - The
l n c o ~ o r a t i oo f~ maize intot h e continuing c o l l e c t i n g a d seed-
economy dt*ately t o have been of b i o l o g i c a l
-
benefit The o n l y n e g a t i v e a s p e c t o f this change appears be a
secondaq consequence of t h e i n c r e a s e s i n p p u l a t i o n s i z e and ag-
: wsims suf
gregation t h a t food production
3 m density-dependent i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e t h a t Was previ0--
Brit-
NO s i n g l e source of i n f o m a t i o n examined h e r e i s d e f i n i t i v e in
what it t e l l s us aout t h i s temporal sequence, and t h e various
k h d ~Of d a t a give d i f f e r e n t , complanentary i n f 0 I m a t i o n about the
N S t . I n s e v e r a l instances a given s o u r c e of d a t a i s m i s l e a d i n g
3
if analyzed without regard to o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . A u n i l i n a r model
o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h i s c l e a r l y
inappropriate. The complicated a r r a y o f v a r i a b l e s - - b o t h c u l t u r a l
and e c o l o g i c a l - - t h a t a r e l i n k e d t o s u b s i s t e n c e must b e u n d e r s t o o d
b e f o r e we have an a d e q u a t e c o n t e x t i n which t o e v a l u a t e h e a l t h
chanqes.
C o l l e c t i o n o f new d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r was s u p p o r t e d
by t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation, BNS 77-25310. I w i s h t o thank
t h e many c o l l e a g u e s who s h a r e d m a n u s c r i p t m a t e r i a l s w i t h me.
Angel, J. L .
1975 Paleoecology, p a l e o d e m q r a p h y I and h e a l t h . In ~0p~Zation
ecozogy and sociaz e v o ~ u t i o n ,e d i t e d by S . P o l g a r , PP-
167-190. The Hague.
1978 P e l v i c i n l e t form: A n e g l e c t e d index o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a -
t u s . American J o u m Z of PhysicaZ Anthropozogy 48 :378.
1982 A new measure of growth e f f i c i e n c y : Skull base height.
American J o u m Z of Physical AnthropoZogy 58: 297-305.
Anonymous
1976 C u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and anemia i n ~ i g e r i a . Nutrition Re-
view 34' ( 9 ) :269-270.
Asch, D. L., and N. B. Asch
1977 Chenopod a s c u l t i g e n : A r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f some
c o l l e c t i o n s from E a s t e r n North America. ~ i d c o n t i n e n t a z
Journal o f ArchaeoZogy 2: 3-45.
Asch, D. L. I K. B. F a r n s m r t h , and N. B. Asch
1979 Woodland s u b s i s t e n c e and s e t t l e m e n t i n w e s t c e n t r a l 11-
l i n o i s . I n Hopewe22 archaeology: The ChiZZicothe Con-
ference, e d i t e d by D. s. Brose and N. Greber, p p . 80-85-
Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohio.
Asch, N . B., R. I. Ford, and D. L. Asch
1972 P a l e o e t h n o b t a n y of t h e K o s t e r s i t e : The A r c h a i c h o r i z o n -
Izzinois Skzte h s a . m Report of Investigations No. 2.4-
Baer, M., and J. E. H a r r i s
1969 A commentary o n t h e growth o f t h e h m n b r a i n and s k u l l -
h e r k a n JourmZ of PhysicaZ Anthropozogy 30: 39-44 -
B e r n s t e i n , D. S., N. Sadowski, D. M. HegstedI c. D. G u r i , and
F. J. S t a r f
1966 p r e v a l e n c e o f o s t e o p o r o s i s i n high- and l o w - f l u o r i d e a r t a s
i n North Dakota. JoumaZ of the America Medical .4ssOcza-
t i o n 198:4gg-504.
Blakely, R. L.
1971 ~ o r t a l i t yc u r v e s of p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n s . America J m m a z
o f PhysfeaZ AnthropoZogy 34 :43-54 -
Bocquet-Appel, J. -P., and C. Masset
1982 F a r e w e l l t o paleodemography . Journaz o f Human Evolution
11:321-333.
Bradtmiller , B.
n.d. I n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y i n human bone remodelling.
Ph. D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, North-
w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , Evanston, I l l i n o i s , i n p r e p a r a t i o n .
Braun, D. P .
1984 Absolute s e r i a t i o n : A time s e r i e s approach. I n The
A ~ ~ Y osf ~arehaeozogicaz s data structures, e d i t e d by
C. C a r r , i n p r e s s . Academic P r e s s , Orlando.
Bridges, P. s.
1982 P o s t c r a n i a l dimensions i n t h e Archaic and M i s s i s s i p p i a n
c u l t u r e s o f Northern Alabama: I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p r e -
h i s t o r i c n u t r i t i o n and behavior. American JouTWZ~of
PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 57: 172-173.
1983 S u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s and biomechanical p r o p e r t i e s of
l o n g bones i n two m e r i c a n populations. American Journal
o f Physical AnthropoZogy 6 0 ~ 1 7 7 .
Brinker, R. A.
- d - P e l v i c i n d e x i n I l l i n o i s Hopewell. unpublished m n u -
script.
Buikstra, J. E.
l g 7 6 Hopewell i n t h e b w - 111inois Valley: A r e g i o n a l ap-
p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y of human b i o l o q i c a l v a r i a b i l i t y and
p r e h i s t o r i c b e h a v i o r . Northwestern u n i v e r s i t y ~ r c h e o l o -
g i c a l Program S c i e n t i f i c Papers NO. 2 -
l g 7 7 B i o c u l t u r a l dimensions o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l study: A r e g i o n a l
perspective. s a t h e m ~ n t h o p o Z o g i c a 2S O C ~&0eeedings
~ ~ Y
11:67-84.
l g 8 l Mortuary p r a c t i c e s , paleodemograph~and ~ a l e ~ A~ ~ ~
c a s e s t u d y from t h e Koster s i t e (111inois) - 1n T h
archaeozogy o f death, e d i t e d by R - chapman* I Kinnesp and -
K. Randsborg, pp. 123-132. cambridge university pressl
b n d o n and New York.
Buikstra, J. E., and D. C. cook
lg8o ~ a l e o p a ~ ~ o ~ o~nq y -
m ~e r i c a n account ~ n f l u ~ ~ of
A n t ~ ~ ~ o ~ 433-470. o ~ ~ - i ? :
'81 p r e - c o l m i a n t u b e r c u ~ o s i s i n west-centr:l I l l i n o i s : pre-
h i s t o r i c disease i n b i o c u l t u r a l perspective- In ppehfs-
t o p i e t u b e r c u ~ o s i si n americas, e d i t e d by J - E-
B u i k s t r a , pp. 115-139. Northwestern u n i v e r s i t y U C ~ W ~ O -
g i c a l Program S c i e n t i f i c Papers, No. 5 -
Burleigh, R . , and D. Brothwell
lg78 S t u d i e s on m e r i n d i a n dogs, 1: carbon i s o t o p e s in r e l a t i o n
and
t o maize i n t h e d i e t of domestic dogs from
Ecuador. Journal o f ~ ~ ~ ~ science
~ ~5:355-362-
~ q < e a
DELLA COLLINS COOK
Caldwell, J. R.
1962 Eastern North America. I n Courses toWard urban l i f e ,
e d i t e d by R. J . Braidwood and G. R. Willey, pp. 288-308.
Aldine, Chicago.
Carlson, D. S., G. J. Armelaqos, and D. P. van Gerven
1976 P a t t e r n s of a g e - r e l a t e d c o r t i c a l bone l o s s ( o s t e o p o r o s i s )
within t h e f e n o r a l d i a p h y s i s . Hmm Biology 48:295-314.
Charlesl D. R., and J . E. Buikstra
1983 Archaic mortuary s i t e s i n t h e C e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i drainage:
D i s t r i b u t i o n , s t r u c t u r e , and b e h a v i o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s -
In Archaic hunters and gatherers i n $& American M i h e s t ,
e d i t e d by J . L. P h i l l i p s and J . A. Brom, pp. 117-145.
Charles, D. R., J. E. Buikstra, and L. Koniqsberq
n.d. Terminal Archaic and E a r l y Woodland mortuary p r a c t i c e s i n
t h e lower I l l i n o i s River Valley: The b e h a v i o r a l implica-
t i o n s . Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Archeoloqical Proqram,
S c i e n t i f i c Papers, i n p r e s s .
C l i f t o n , K. M.
1983 A review o f enamel hypoplasia and i t s p r e s e n c e i n a pre-
h i s t o r i c I l l i n o i s p p u l a t i o n . M s . on f i l e , Department of
Anthropoloqy, Indiana U n i v e r s i t y .
Conner , M. D .
1983 Late Woodland b i o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n and p r e h i s t o r i c p p ~ l a -
t i o n s t r u c t u r e . Ame&zan Journal of Physical ~ n t h r o p o z o g ~
60: 184.
n.d. Doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n Department of A n t h r o p o l o w , Univer-
s i t y of Chicago. Manuscript i n p r e p a r a t i o n .
Cookf D. C.
1976 Pathologic s t a t e s and d i s e a s e p r o c e s s i n I l l i n o i s woodland
p ~ p u l a t i o n s : An epidemioloqic approach. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a -
t i o n , Department of Anthropologyl U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicaqo-
1979 s u b s i s t e n c e base and h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c ~ l l i n o i sValley:
evidence from t h e human s k e l e t o n . Medical ~ n t h r o p o l o g3: ~
109-124.
1981 m r t a l i t y , age s t r u c t u r e , and s t a t u s i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t o n s : A d e n t a l
example from t h e mwer I l l i n o i s v a l l e y . I n The U P C ~ ~ O ~ O -
gy o f death, e d i t e d by R. chapman, I . Kinnesf and K - Rands-
b r g - Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London and New York-
1983 s o c i a l s t a t u s and h e a l t h : A comparison of ~ i d d l ewoodland
and Mississippian p o p u l a t i o n s from w e s t c e n t r a l 1 l l i n o i S -
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60 :184.
n - d - a timan growth: a p e r s p e c t i v e on s u b s i s t e n c e base change-
Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Archeological program s c i e n t i f i c
Papersl i n p r e s s .
n - d - b Paleoepidemiology of t h e S c h i l d cemetery: H e a l t h Conse-
w e n c e s o f r e g i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n . I n c a h k i a and th
HfnterZands: Miss<ssippZan cuZtural v a f i a t i o n fn th
fhercean Midwestf e d i t e d by T . E. Emerson and R B. Lewis* .
Unpublished manuscript .
n.d.c ~ p i d e m i o l o g yo f c i r c u l a r c a r i e s : A p e r s p e c t i v e from p r e -
h i s t o r i c skeletons. Unpublished manuscript
n.d.d M a n u s c r i p t i n p r e p a r a t i o n .
Cook, D. C., and J. E. B u i k s t r a
1979 H e a l t h and d i f f e r e n t i a l s u r v i v a l i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s :
P r e n a t a l d e n t a l d e f e c t s . American Journal of Physical An-
thropology 51 :649-664.
Cottom, C.
n.d. Paleodemographic a n a l y s i s o f I l l i n o i s River Valley popula-
t i o n s . Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Archeological Program
S c i e n t i f i c Papers, i n press.
Dewey, J. R., G. J . Armelagos, and M. H. B a r t l e y
1969 Femoral c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n i n t h r e e Nubian a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
p o p u l a t i o n s . Human Biology 41 :13-28.
Dreizen, S., C. N. S p i r a k i s , and R. E. Stone
1964 The i n f l u e n c e of age and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s on "bone s c a r "
f o r m a t i o n i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e growing r a d i u s .
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 22:295-306.
Droessler, J .
1981 C r a n i o m e t r y and b i o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e : B i o c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i -
t y a n d change a t t h e ate-woodland-Mississippian i n t e r f a c e .
C e n t e r f o r American Archeology a t Northwestern u n i v e r s i t y ,
Evanston .
Enminger, M. E .
1970 Swine s c i e n c e . I n t e r s t a t e p r i n t e r s and P u b l i s h e r s , Dan-
ville.
Ericksen, M. F.
1982 Aging c h a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s o f t h e proximal femoral c o r t e x -
American Journal o f physical Anthropology 59:121-130-
E v e l e a , P. B.
1975 D i f f e r e n c e s between e t h n i c groups i n s e x dimorphism
a d u l t h e i g h t . Annals of Human Biology 2:35-39.
^rd, R. I.
1977 E v o l u t i o n a r y e c o l o g y and t h e e v o l u t i o n of human ecosystems:
A c a s e s t u d y from t h e midwestern USA. I n ~xplanationof
prehistoric change, e d i t e d by J . H i l l , pp. 153-184-
U n i v e r s i t y of New Mexico p r e s s , Albuquerque.
Garnr S. M.
lg6M ~ a l n u t r i t i o n a n d s k e l e t a l development i n t h e pre-school
child. i n ppe-school c K malnutrition. ~ a t i o n a lAcademy
- O f S c i e n c e - ~ a t i o n a l Research Council, Washington-
S. M . , M. A. Gum&, and B. Wagner
lg69 S u b p e r i o s t e a l gain and e n d o s t e a l l o s s i n p r o t e i n
malnutrition. American ~ ~ m T l of a l physical AnthropoZog~
! 30:153-156.
S - M . , a n d M. A. Solomon
i
1 lg81 DO t h e o b e s e have b e t t e r bones? Ecology o f Food and
Goldstein, L. G.
1980 M i s s i s s i p p i a n mortuary p r a c t i c e s : A c a s e s t u d y of two
c e m e t e r i e s i n t h e Lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e y . Northwestern
U n i v e r s i t y A r c h e o l o g i c a l Program S c i e n t i f i c P a p e r s , No.
4.
Gregg, M. L.
1975 A p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e f o r Cahokia. I l l i n o i s Archa.eologi-
cal Survey Bulletin 10:126-136.
Hamilton, M. E.
1982 Sexual dimorphism i n s k e l e t a l samples. In S e d
dimorphism i n Homo sapiens, e d i t e d by R. L. H a l l , pp.
107-163. P r a e g e r , New York.
Howell, N .
1982 V i l l a g e composition i m p l i e d by paleodemographic l i f e t a b l e :
The Libben s i t e . American Journal of ~ h y s i c a lAnthropozog~
59:263-269.
Hunt, E. E . , and J. W. Hatch
1981 The e s t i m a t i o n o f age a t d e a t h and a g e s o f f o r m a t i o n of
t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s from measurements o f human l o n g bones-
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54 :461-4 7 0 .
Knick, S. G.
1981 L i n e a r enamel h y p p l a s i a and t u b e r c u l o s i s i n p r e - ~ o l u m b i a n
North America. Ossa 8:131-138.
Krishnamachari, K. A. V. R., and L. I y e n g a r
1975 E f f e c t o f m a t e r n a l m a l n u t r i t i o n on t h e bone d e n s i t y o f the
neonates. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 28:482-
486.
Lambert, J. B., C. B. Szpunar, and J. E. ~ u i k s t r a
1979 Chemical a n a l y s i s o f e x c a v a t e d human bone from Middle and
Late Woodland s i t e s . Arehaeometry 21:115-129.
Lambert, J. B., S. M. Vlasak, A. C. Thometz, and J. E. B u i k s t r a
1982 A comparative s t u d y o f t h e chemical a n a l y s i s o f r i b s and
femurs i n Woodland p o p u l a t i o n s . American Journal o f
Lynch, S. R., I. Berelowitz, H. C. S e f t e l , G . B. M i l l e r , P. Kra-
w i t z , R. W, C h a r l t o n , and T. H. Bothwell
1967 Osteoporosis i n t h e Johannesburg Bantu. South African
Journal o f Medical Science 32:59.
Marshall, W. A.
1968 Problems i n r e l a t i n g t h e frequency o f t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s in
t h e r a d i u s t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e of d i s e a s e . I n Tht? skeUto.'
biology o f earlier human populations, e d i t e d by D. R -
Brothwell, pp. 245-262. Pergamon, New York.
Masset, C.
1976 Sur l a m o r t a l i t 6 chez les a n c i e n s ~ n d i e n sd e 1 1 l i n o i s -
Current Anthropology 17: 128-132.
Mazess, R. B., and R. Jones
1974 Weight and d e n s i t y of S a d l e r m i u t Eskimo l o n g b o n e s -
Human Biology 4 4 : 537-548.
Mazess', R. B. , and W. B. Mather

1975 Bone m i n e r a l c o n t e n t i n Canadian Eskimos. Human Biology
47:45-63.
Milner, G. R.
Measuring p r e h i s t o r i c l e v e l s o f h e a l t h : A s t u d y o f Mis-
s i s s i p p i a n p e r i o d s k e l e t a l remains from t h e American
Bottom, I l l i n o i s . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f
Anthropology, Northwestern University.
The c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f M i s s i s s i p p i a n community
health: An examination o f p o p u l a t i o n s from two a r e a s
of w e s t e r n I l l i n o i s . Ammican ~ o u r n a lof Physical An-
~ ~ P o ~ o Z 60:227-228.
O ~ Y
Murchison, M. A . , D. W. m s l e y , and A. J. R i o p e l l e
n.d. T r a n s v e r s e l i n e f o r m a t i o n i n p r o t e i n deprived r h e s u s
monkeys. Unpublished manuscript.
Neumann, G. K.
1952 Archeology and r a c e i n t h e American Indian. I n
Archeology o f t h e Eastern United S t a t e s , e d i t e d by
J. B. G r i f f i n , pp. 13-34. U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s ,
Chicago.
1960 O r i g i n s o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e f i d d l e f i s s i s s i p p i area.
Proceedings o f t h e Indiana Academy of sciences 60:
66-68.
Neumann, H. W.
l967 The p a l e o p a t h o l o g y o f t h e Archaic ~ o d o cROC^ S h e l t e r
i n h a b i t a n t s . I l l i n o i s s t a t e Museum Reports of ~ n v e s t i -
gat-ions 11.
Newman, M. T.
1962 E v o l u t i o n a r y change i n body s i z e and head form i n American
I n d i a n s . American Anthropologist 64:237-257-
O'connell, B. L. H.
l983 F l u c t u a t i n g asymmetry a s a measure o f developmental
s t a b i l i t y i n I l l i n o i s Woodland Ph-D- disser-
t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, Northwestern Univer-
sity.
O'connor, N. J -
1-1.
The M i s s i s s i p p i a n component a t t h e S c h i l d site (No- 4) 1

Greene County, l l l i n o i s . I l l i n o i s ~rchaeologzcalSurvey
B u l l e t i n 8:1-148.
^he L a t e Woodland component a t t h e S c h i l d sites, Greene
County, I l l i n o i s . ~ l l i Archaeological
~ ~ i ~ Survey metin
9 :90-i&.
The L a t e Woodland a t t h e P e t e Klunk
C a l h c~o u ~n t y , I l l i n o i s . I l l i n o i s ~ c h e o l o g i c a z Survey
m e t i n 9 :58-89.
1973c The Koster Mounds, Greene County, I l l i n o i s . 1lliZ0'is

Archaeo'Logieal Survey Bulletin 9:141-210.
Perzigian, A.
1971 G e r o n t a l o s t e o p o r o t i c bone l o s s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c Indian
p o p u l a t i o n s . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthro-
pology, I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y .
P e t e r s e n , W.
1975 A demographer's view o f p r e h i s t o r i c demography. Current
P f e i f f e r , S., and P. King
1983 C o r t i c a l bone formation and d i e t among p r o t o h i s t o r i c
I r o q u o i a n s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology
60:23-28.
P i c k e r i n g , R. B.
1984 An examination o f p a t t e r n s o f a r t h r i t i s i n Middle woodland,
L a t e Woodland, and M i s s i s s i p p i a n s k e l e t a l series from t h e
Lower I l l i n o i s Valley. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , ~ e p a r t m e n tof
Anthropology, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y .
P r o t o s , M.
1982 A b i o l o g i c a l t e s t o f G o l d s t e i n ' s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t o u t l y i n g
mortuary s i t e s w i l l b e e g a l i t a r i a n i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e -
Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e I n d i a n a Aca-
demy o f S c i e n c e s , N o t r e Dame, I n d i a n a .
Rose, J. C.
1977 Defective enamel h i s t o l o g y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t e e t h from
I l l i n o i s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46:
439-446.
Rusch-Behrend, G. D.
n.d. C u l t u r e change and d e n t a l h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c 1 l l i n o i s .
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, I n d i a n a
University.
Stewart, T. D.
1973 The people of America. S c r i b n e r ' s , N e w York.
S t o u t , S. D.
1978 H i s t o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a n c i e n t
bone. Current Anthropology 19:600-604.
S t y l e s , B. W.
1981 Faunal e x p l o i t a t i o n and r e s o u r c e s e l e c t i o n : E a r l y Late
Woodland s u b s i s t e n c e in t h e Lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e y -
Northwestern. U n i v e r s i t y A r c h e o l o g i c a l program s c i e n t i f i c
Papers, No. 3 .
Szpunar, C. B.
1977 Atomic a b s o r p t i o n a n a l y s i s of a r c h e o l o g i c a l remains: Hmm
r i b s from Woodland mortuary sites. ph .D. d i s s e r t a t i o n #
Department of Chemistry, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y .
T a i n t e r , J. A.
1975 The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f s o c i a l change: woodland Ws-
terns i n w e s t - c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s . p h . ~ . d i s s e r t a t i o n , Depart-
ment of Anthropology, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y .
van d e r Meme, N. J., and J C. Vogel .
1978 13c c o n t e n t of human c o l l a a e n a s a measure o f p r e h i s t o r i c
in LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
d i e t i n Woodland North America. Nature 276:815-816.

van Gerven, D. P . , G. J. Armelagos, and M. H. B a r t l e y
1969 Roentgenographic and d i r e c t measurement o f femoral c o r t i -
cal i n v o l u t i o n in a p r e h i s t o r i c M i s s i s s i p p i a n p o p u l a t i o n .
American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 31 :23-38.
young, S. G.
1983 S e x u a l dimorphism and s t r e s s a t Klunk mounds. Bachelor's
Honors P a p e r on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, Indiana
University.
CHAPTER 11
HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS, ILLINOIS (A.D. 950-1300)
Alan H . ~oodman'
U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts-Amherst
John Lallo
Cleveland S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
George J. Amelagos
Jerome C . Rose
U n i v e r s i t y of A r k a n s a s - F a y e t t e v i l l e
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Purpose and Overview
Economic and c u l t u r a l changes a r e powerful d e t e r m i n a n t s of t h e

p a t t e r n s of m o r b i d i t y , m o r t a l i t y , and s t r e s s ( s e e C a s s e l , 1976;
Dubos 1965; Hinkle 1 9 7 4 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a c a s e s t u d y of
t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of economic and c u l t u r a l change f o r p r e h i s t o r i c
p o p u l a t i o n s from Dickson Mounds, I l l i n o i s ( c a . A.D. 950-1300) .
The p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r a r e twofold. The f i r s t i s t o docu-
ment changing p a t t e r n s of s t r e s s . S t r e s s , o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s -
r u p t i o n , i s used a s a g e n e r a l t e r m f o r any i n d i c a t i o n of d e c r e a s e d
p r e s e n t address: Department of Orthodontics, University of

Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032.
PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc
OF AGRlCULTURE 27 1 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0-12-179080-0
a b i l i t y t o adapt biologically. Changing p a t t e r n s f o r t e n i n d i c a -

t o r s of s t r e s s a r e presented. I n d i c a t o r s i n c l u d e measures o f
g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n , g r o w t h r e t a r d a t i o n , d i s e a s e , and m o r t a l i t y .
P a t t e r n s i n c l u d e mean f r e q u e n c y , s e v e r i t y , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
s t r e s s by age and s e x . The s e c o n d p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o
make i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l and econo-
mic c h a n g e s a s c a u s e s o f t h e o b s e r v e d p a t t e r n s o f stress.
E i g h t of t e n i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s i n c r e a s e i n s e v e r i t y a n d / o r
f r e q u e n c y t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson. The t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h i s i n c r e a s e i s t h a t it i s d u e t o l o c a l , e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s
s u c h a s i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i -
c u l t u r e ( s e e Goodman e t a l . 1980; L a l l o 1973; L a l l o e t a l . 1977,
1978, 1 9 8 0 ) . W e a r g u e t h a t t h e b r o a d p a t t e r n o f i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s
e v i d e n c e d a t Dickson may b e e q u a l l y due t o D i c k s o n ' s i n c r e a s i n g
i n v o l v e m e n t i n M i s s i s s i p p i a n - b a s e d exchange s y s t e m s (Harn 1978,
1980).
The Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e p r e s e n t s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h r e e
t r e n d s a t Dickson: (1) i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and s e d e n t i s m ,
( 2 ) i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f m a i z e a g r i c u l t u r e , and ( 3 ) e x t e n s i o n and
intensification of trade. Increased population d e n s i t y and
s e d e n t i s m and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f maize a g r i c u l t u r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y
l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , w h i l e t h e e x t e n s i o n and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
o f t r a d e r e p r e s e n t s an e x t e n s i o n o f l o c a l p r o c e s s e s i n t o r e g i o n a l
s y s t e m s . I n t h i s s y s t e m , Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s may have become i n -
c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d w i t h more p o w e r f u l M i s s i s s i p p i a n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l
s y s t e m s t o t h e s o u t h . A s Dickson was b r o u g h t i n t o s o c i a l and eco-
nomic s p h e r e s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s e more p o w e r f u l M i s s i s s i p p i a n
c e n t e r s ( s u c h a s C a h o k i a ) , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s
would have l o s t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r means o f p r o d u c t i o n . A s Cahokia
and o t h e r c o r e M i s s i s s i p p i a n a r e a s expanded t h e i r i n f l u e n c e ,
Dickson and o t h e r p e r i p h e r a l s i t e s a r e l i k e l y t o have become more
i n v o l v e d w i t h and d e p e n d e n t on p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r e g i o n a l t r a d e -
exchange s y s t e m . The i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n t e r n a l , l o c a l p r o c e s s e s
( i . e . , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y ) and r e g i o n a l p r o c e s -
ses seems t o h a v e had a p r o f o u n d l y n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on h e a l t h .
Archaeological Reconstruction
Dickson Mounds i s a multicomponent h a b i t a t i o n - b u r i a l complex.

I t i s l o c a t e d n e a r Lewistown, I l l i n o i s , a t t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e
I l l i n o i s a n d Spoon r i v e r s i n t h e C e n t r a l I l l i n o i s V a l l e y ( F i g u r e
11.1). T h r e e c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s have been d e l i m i t e d a t t h e s i t e .
These a r e d e f i n e d a s L a t e Woodland, M i s s i s s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d
L a t e Woodland, and Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n .
The L a t e Woodland (LW) o c c u p a t i o n ( c i r c a A . D . 950-1100) i s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a g e n e r a l i z e d h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g economy w i t h
s e a s o n a l camp s i t e s u t i l i z e d by a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l (75-125) group
of people. A t t h i s t i m e M i s s i s s i p p i a n c u l t u r e was d e v e l o p i n g
180 km t o t h e s o u t h a t Cahokia i n t h e American Bottoms ( s e e Fowler
1 9 7 8 ) . A t t h e e n d of t h i s h o r i z o n t h e LW had come u n d e r t h e
FULTON COUNTY
ILLINOIS
d Weir
Orendorf
Keeler.
Morton.
Fiedler
EmmonsJ 0
L
Crable*
Rose*
u Miles
FIGURE 11.1. Area map of Diekson and selected Spoon River

Tradition s i t e s ( a f t e r Ham 1 9 8 0 : ~ ) .
i n Âl u e n c e o f t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n (MM) c u l t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y t o
be r e d e f i n e d a s M i s s i s s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland (MALW)
(approximately A.D. 1100-1200).
The MALW p r e s e n t s a mixed h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g and a g r i c u l t u r a l
economy. The Eveland s i t e , 230 m t o t h e southwest o f t h e b u r i a l
complex, covered l e s s t h a n 1 . 5 ha and i s e s t i m a t e d t o have been
permanently occupied by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50-75 i n d i v i d u a l s (Harn ,
p e r s o n a l communication). By t h e end of t h i s p e r i o d e v i d e n c e f o r
l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e i s s e e n i n t h e form o f v i l l a g e r e f u s e and
g r a v e o f f e r i n g s (Conrad and Harn 1 9 7 2 ) .
The MM a t Dickson ( c a . A.D. 1200-1300) r e p r e s e n t s t h e culmina-
t i o n o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n i n f l u e n c e begun a t t h e e n d of t h e LW.
The s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s o n e o f h a m l e t s w i t h
s u r r o u n d i n g s u p p o r t camps, e x t r a c t i v e s i t e s , and work s t a t i o n s
t i e d t o a l o c a l c e r e m o n i a l c e n t e r (Harn 1 9 7 8 ) . The Myer-Dickson
s i t e i s such a hamlet. I t s h o u s e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n rows w i t h a n
open p l a z a . I t i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 ha i n a r e a and was o c c u p i e d by
a s many a s 440 i n d i v i d u a l s (Harn n . d . , T a b l e 1 ) . Myer-Dickson i s
o n e o f 7 h a m l e t s and 31 camps assumed t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
Larson c e r e m o n i a l c e n t e r 11 krn t o t h e s o u t h w e s t . Larson i s f u l l y
Mississippian. The s i t e i n c l u d e s 32 ha o f d i s p e r s e d o c c u p a t i o n
d e b r i s and 8 ha o f c o n c e n t r a t e d o c c u p a t i o n . A p a l i s a d e e n c l o s e d
t h e mound, p l a z a , and a t l e a s t 6 ha o f s e t t l e m e n t . Large quanti-
t i e s o f foreign-made i t e m s a r e f o u n d i n d e b r i s and c e m e t e r i e s .
Harn (1978:251) s u g g e s t s a p o p u l a t i o n o f between 600 and 1170 i n -
d i v i d u a l s b a s e d on a n e s t i m a t e d maximum o f 234 h a b i t a t i o n s t r u c -
tures.
Skeletal Materials
The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s u t i l i z e d i n t h e s t u d i e s c i t e d i n t h i s
c h a p t e r were l o a n e d f o r s t u d y by t h e s t a f f of t h e Dickson Mounds
Museum, a b r a n c h of t h e I l l i n o i s S t a t e Museum. These m a t e r i a l s
i n c l u d e t h e r e m a i n s from a l l 595 b u r i a l s t h a t w e r e e x c a v a t e d d u r -
i n g t h e 1966 and 1967 f i e l d s e a s o n s a t Dickson. C u l t u r a l a f f i l i a -
t i o n s were made b a s e d o n b u r i a l c l u s t e r s and g r a v e f u r n i t u r e by
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a t Dickson (Alan H a m , p e r s o n a l communication w i t h
John L a l l o ; L a l l o 1973 : 2 7 ) .
Age a n d s e x d e t e r m i n a t i o n s were b a s e d on t h e agreement o f
m u l t i p l e methods. Methods u t i l i z e d i n a g i n g s u b a d u l t s (0-15 y e a r s )
included t h e following: (1) t h e p a t t e r n o f d e n t a l e r u p t i o n ( a f t e r
Schour and M a s s l e r 1 9 4 4 ) , ( 2 ) e p i p h y s e a l c l o s u r e ( a f t e r Krogman
19621, ( 3 ) f u s i o n o f t h e v e r t e b r a e ( a f t e r Anderson 1 9 6 2 ) , and
( 4 ) t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f c e n t e r s o f o s s i f i c a t i o n ( a f t e r Krogman 1 9 6 2 ) .
Methods u t i l i z e d t o a g e a d u l t s (15-65 y e a r s ) i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w -
ing: (1) t h e p a t t e r n of d e n t a l e r u p t i o n ( a f t e r Schour and M a s s l e r
1944) , ( 2 ) e p i p h y s e a l c l o s u r e ( a f t e r Krogman 1962 ) , ( 3 ) c h a n g e s i n
t h e p u b l i c symphysis (Todd-Lyon [ a f t e r Todd 19371 a n d McKern-
I
S t e w a r t [ 1 9 5 7 ] ) , and ( 4 ) t h e d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n p a t t e r n f o r Dickson
Mounds ( s e e Harn 1971 and 1 9 8 0 ) .
Based on t h e s e methods, a g e was d e t e r m i n e d t o y e a r l y i n t e r v a l s
f o r s u b a d u l t s ( e - g . , 0-1, 1-2, 3-4, ... , 14-15) and t o 5-year
i n t e r v a l s f o r a d u l t s ( e - g . , 15-20, 20-25, 25-30, .. ., 6 0 - 6 5 ) . F o r
p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s t h e s e a g e c l a s s e s have been c o l l a p s e d , a s i s
e v i d e n c e d i n t h e l i f e t a b l e s ( s e e T a b l e s 11.1 and 1 1 . 2 ) ( L a l l o e t
a l . , 1978).
11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS 275
TABLE 11.1 L i f e Table for the Late Woodland and the Mississip-
pian Acculturated Late Woodland for the Ages 0-60 Years
x dx lx qx =x Ex
TABLE 11.2 L i f e Table for t h e Middle Mississippian for the

Ages 0-60 Years
x dx lx Ix LX Ex
0 48 '21 7 1000 217 891.5 19

1 19 86 783 110 740 23
2 16 72 697 103 1983 24
5 17 77 625 123 2932.5 24
10 10 45 548 82 2627.5 22
15 23 104 503 207 2255 18
20 24 109 399 273 3445 18
30 27 122 290 421 2290 13
40 25 114 168 678 1110 8
50 12 54 54 1000 270 5
- - -
221 1000 0
Sex d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r a d u l t s commenced a f t e r completion of

age d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . The following methods were u t i l i z e d i n de-
t e r m i n a t i o n of sex ( a f t e r L a l l o 1973: 36) : (1) d e n t a l m e t r i c s f o r
Dickson Mounds ( s e e Ditch and Rose 1972); ( 2 ) d i s c r i m i n a n t func-
t i o n a n a l y s i s based on Dickson Mounds p e l v i c measures ( s e e Gustav
1 9 7 2 ) , complemented by o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s c i a t i c notch and p r e -
a u r i c u l a r s u l c u s ; ( 3 ) d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s based on
Dickson Mounds femoral measures (Van Gerven 1972), and ( 4 ) c r a n i a l
morphology ( a f t e r Ascadi and Nemeskeri 1971): s u p r a - o r b i t a l r i d g e ,
nuchal c r e s t , mastoid p r o c e s s , eye o r b i t s , and g e n e r a l r o b u s t i c i t y .
S t a t e of p r e s e r v a t i o n was g e n e r a l l y good t o e x c e l l e n t . Perio-
s t e a l bone g e n e r a l l y s u f f e r e d l i t t l e from interment. Most
i n d i v i d u a l s were r e p r e s e n t e d by near-complete o r complete s k e l e -
t o n s . T h e r e f o r e , a l l b u t a handful of i n d i v i d u a l s (N = 38) could
be aged, sexed, and a s s i g n e d t o a c u l t u r a l horizon. The following
s t u d i e s a r e based on t h e sample t h a t could be given an a g e , s e x ,
and c u l t u r a l assignment ( N = 5 5 7 ) . While a n a l y s i s of m o r t a l i t y
i n c l u d e s t h i s e n t i r e sample, o t h e r a n a l y s e s , dependent on t h e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s p e c i f i c bone o r t e e t h , a r e based on sub-samples
o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s . Although r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s cannot be
measured f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s , i t i s reasonable t o a s -
sume t h a t t h e sample i s a f a i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e base
p o p u l a t i o n s based on a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence f o r e x c l u s i v e u s e of
t h e b u r i a l mounds ( s e e Harn 1980).
An a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s f o r an a n a l y s i s of
h e a l t h changes through time i s a high degree of g e n e t i c homo-
g e n e i t y through time. Cohen (1974) a s s e s s e d t h e r e l a t i v e degree
of g e n e t i c d i s t a n c e between t h e t h r e e Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s and
Mound 72 from Cahokia, a M i s s i s s i p p i a n group (Fowler 1969). I n
h e r a n a l y s i s , Cohen compares d i s t a n c e s based on d e n t a l t r a i t s
considered t o be of e i t h e r h i g h o r low h e r i t a b i l i t y . A s w e l l ,
r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e measures such a s Mahalanobis 0-square were com-
puted based on a v a r i e t y of measures. Analysis of t h e Dickson
s e r i e s revealed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between c u l t u r a l
phases i n t r a i t s of high h e r i t a b i l i t y . However, comparison of
Dickson with t h e Cahokia s e r i e s y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
i n i n c i s o r and c a n i n e s h o v e l i n g , median r i d g e s , g i n g i v a l borders,
C a r a b e l l i ' s cusp, and molar groove p a t t e r n s . A l l of t h e s e t r a i t s
a r e considered t o b e under s t r o n g g e n e t i c c o n t r o l . Mahalanobis
0-square v a l u e s c o r r o b o r a t e t h e s e f i n d i n g s. The 0-square f o r
comparison o f Dickson with Cahokia i s n e a r l y t e n times g r e a t e r
than t h e 0-square f o r i n t e r n a l comparison (4.01 v e r s u s 0 . 4 1 ) .

These r e s u l t s s t r o n g l y suggest t h a t t h e Dickson s e r i e s i s
g e n e t i c a l l y continuous and they s t r o n g l y suggest a g a i n s t r a p i d
Â¥i situ e v o l u t i o n o r migration-population replacement s e n a r i o s .
In summary, Dickson a f f o r d s an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r
studying t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of c u l t u r a l change. The s k e l e t a l
m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t d a t a base f o r a paleoepidemiolo-
q i c a l a n a l y s i s . Extensive a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s
pointed toward t h e wholesale n a t u r e of c u l t u r a l and e c o l o g i c a l
change. I n o t h e r words, Dickson r e p r e s e n t s a well-preserved
s k e l e t a l sample of a p o p u l a t i o n t h a t underwent r a p i d c u l t u r a l and
economic change.
INDICATORS OF STRESS
Model f o r Studying S t r e s s i n S k e l e t a l P o p u l a t i o n s
Our paleoepidemiological study i s organized w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o

a model o f t h e causes o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s and i n d i c a t o r s
of d i s r u p t i o n a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y i n s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s
(Figure 11.2) (Armelagos e t a l . 1980; Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982).
The b i o p h y s i c a l environment imposes c o n s t r a i n t s ( r e s o u r c e l i m i t a -
t i o n s and s t r e s s o r s ) on human p o p u l a t i o n s (box 1 i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 ) .
Although c u l t u r a l systems may f u n c t i o n t o b u f f e r o r modify t h e
e f f e c t s of b i o p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s , o f t e n c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s may
a c t t o impose new s t r e s s o r s o r t o l i m i t a c c e s s t o c r i t i c a l r e -
s o u r c e s (box 2 ) . For example, while a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
may l e a d t o a g r e a t e r n e t e x t r a c t i o n o f energy, it may come a t a
c o s t of decreased a v a i l a b i l i t y and use of o t h e r e s s e n t i a l r e -
sources and i n c r e a s e d exposure t o c r i t i c a l s t r e s s o r s such a s novel
pathogens.
The impact of c o n s t r a i n t s on an i n d i v i d u a l i s a l s o mediated by
h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s (box 3 ) . The g e n e r a l h e a l t h o f an i n -
I
I d i v i d u a l , age, s e x , g e n e t i c makeup, and many o t h e r f a c t o r s may i n -
1 f l u e n c e t h e magnitude o f physiologic a 1 d i s r u p t i o n ( s t r e s s ) caused
by a given c o n s t r a i n t (box 4 ) . While p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n i s
n o t d i r e c t l y measurable i n t h e dead, it may be i n f e r r e d from a
v a r i e t y of i t s e f f e c t s (box 5 ) . I f s t r e s s i s severe and long
l a s t i n g , then it w i l l be evidenced i n growth d i s r u p t i o n , i n mr-
t a l i t y , and u l t i m a t e l y i n d e a t h (Selye 1976). Death may b e t h e
u l t i m a t e measure of t h e b i o l o g i c a l organism's i n a b i l i t y t o s u f f e r
t h e consequences o f p o o r l y b u f f e r e d s t r e s s o r s and r e s o u r c e l i m i t a -
t i o n s (Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1982) .
The model i s o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d a s follows. Impacts of s t r e s s
a r e measurable in a s k e l e t a l s e r i e s . V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r e s u l t i n g
i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s a r e assumed t o be due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e
experience of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s . These, i n t u r n , a r e
assumed t o be a f u n c t i o n of t h e amount of c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g and
3
1 ENVIRONMENTAL CULTURAL FILTER (MODIFY HOST INDICATORS
CONSTRAINTS EXISTING AND PRODUCES RESISTANCE DISRUPTION OF STRESS
NEW CONSTRAINTS)
A. Stressors A. Age A. Growth disruption and alteratioi
B. Limiting A. Agricultural intensification B. Sex 1. Altered growth curves
B. Increased population C. Genetic 2 Decreased sexual dimorphism
density and sedentansm susceptibility 3. Harris lines
4 Linear enamel hypoplasias
C. Extended and intensified
5 Wilson bands
trade including increased
involvement with Mississippian 0. Disease
centers 1. Porotic hyperostosis
2 Infectious lesions
3. Traumatic lesions
4. Degenerative lesions
- - - - - - --- - - --------
---------- ------- -
. Death
FIGURE 11.2 Model o f t h e causes o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s and i n d i c a t o r s o f d i s r u p t i o n .

h o s t r e s i s t a n c e s u b t r a c t e d from t h e s e v e r i t y o f c u l t u r a l l y and
e c o l o g i c a l l y produced c o n s t r a i n t s .
F o r t h e Dickson c a s e s t u d y , o n e can assume t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l
c o n s t r a i n t s have remained r o u g h l y c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h t i m e (Harn
1 9 8 0 ) . A s w e l l , s i n c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n shows a h i g h d e g r e e o f
g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h t i m e (Cohen 19741, it i s l i k e l y t h a t
g e n e t i c a l l y b a s e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s h a v e remained c o n s t a n t
(save f o r changes t h a t a r e a f u n c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s ) .
Thus, we a r e l e f t t o assume t h a t c h a n g e s i n s t r e s s l e v e l s may b e
due t o changes i n c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . These c h a n g e s a r e e v a l u a t e d
with reference t o multiple i n d i c a t o r s of disruption.
Long Bone Grouth
Attained Length and Circumference. L a l l o (1973) h a s p r e s e n t e d an

a n a l y s i s o f l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e d a t a f o r t i b i a e , h u m e r i , and
femora. D a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s i n c r e m e n t a l i n c r e a s e , r e l a t i v e
p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e , and a t t a i n e d d i s t a n c e . Below we p r e s e n t d a t a
from L a l l o (1973) i n t h e form o f d i s t a n c e c u r v e s . F i v e hundred
fifty-seven b u r i a l s a r e included i n t h e following analysis. This
r e p r e s e n t s t h e e n t i r e sample t h a t c o u l d b e a g e d , s e x e d , and
assigned t o a c u l t u r a l horizon.
F i g u r e s 1 1 . 3 and 1 1 . 4 a r e d i s t a n c e c u r v e s f o r t o t a l l e n g t h
and c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e t i b i a . On a v e r a g e , t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p -
p i a n t i b i a a r e l o n g e r a t b i r t h ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 3 ) . However, t h e r e i s a
s l o w i n g o f growth i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e l a t i v e t o t h e L a t e
Woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland s a m p l e s .
T h i s r e l a t i v e s l o w h g i s most e v i d e n t from 2 t o 5 y e a r s o f a g e .
I t i s a t t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e a t t a i n e d l e n g t h f o r t h e MM f a l l s below
t h a t f o r t h e MALW and t h e LW. Once t h e g r e a t e r a t t a i n e d growth
of t h e L W and MALW s a m p l e s a r e a c h i e v e d , t h e y remain r e l a t i v e l y
constant u n t i l maturity.
F i g u r e 11.4 demonstrates t h a t t h e p a t t e r n observed f o r a t t a i n e d
circumference is s i m i l a r t o t h e p a t t e r n presented f o r a t t a i n e d
l e n g t h . The main s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e t h e g r e a t e r s i z e a t b i r t h o f t h e
Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n s and t h e s l o w i n g o f growth o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n
r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r populations, resulting i n a l e s s e r attained
g r o w t h by t h e a g e o f f i v e . The c i r c u m f e r e n c e c u r v e s d i f f e r from
t h e l e n g t h c u r v e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g ways: (1) t h e a g e a t which t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s between g r o w t h c u r v e s i s g r e a t e s t , ( 2 ) t h e amount o f
" c a t c h - u p " growth e v i d e n c e d from a g e s 1 5 t o 25, and ( 3 ) t h e r e l a -
t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c t u a l a t t a i n e d growth a t d i f f e r e n t ages
between c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s . The g r e a t e s t d i s t a n c e between growth
c u r v e s i s found between a g e s 1 0 and 1 5 w i t h s u b s e q u e n t l y t h e
g r e a t e s t c a t c h - u p by a g e 25.
A s e r i e s o f a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVAS) were performed i n
o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r o r n o t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t a i n e d growth
were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r any o f t h e a g e g r o u p s ( T a b l e
11.4) . Significant results ( p < . 0 5 ) were o b t a i n e d f o r b o t h t i b i a 1
l e n g t h a n d c i r c u m f e r e n c e f o r t h e 5- 1 0 - y e a r age g r o u p . However,
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a r e found f o r e i t h e r measure i n a n y o f
2 5 10 15 25 35
Age in Years
FIGURE 11.3. Distance curves of t i b i a l length for the Late

Woodland f-), Mississippian ~ e e u l t u r a t e dLate Woodland (----),
and Mississippian f - - - - - ) c u l t u r a l horizons (ages 0-35 y e a r s ) .
Values for ages 15, 25, and 35 years include the epiphysis (from
Lallo 1 9 7 3 : 8 4 ) .
t h e o t h e r age c l a s s e s . While most r e s u l t s a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y

s i g n i f i c a n t , a l l measures from t h e 2-5-year c l a s s t o o l d e r age
c l a s s e s a r e i n t h e expected d i r e c t i o n .
Evidence f o r an unusual d e c r e a s e i n growth v e l o c i t y around
t h e age o f two a l s o comes from a n a t t e m p t t o f i t t i b i a l l e n g t h
a g a i n s t d e n t a l l y aged i n d i v i d u a l s ( b i r t h t o 7 y e a r s , d a t a from
Bickerton 1 9 7 9 ) . A t h i r d - d e g r e e polynomial gave a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
b e t t e r f i t t o t h e d a t a t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d second-degree f u n c t i o n
(Goodman 1 9 8 0 ) . The a d d i t i o n a l d e g r e e u t i l i z e d f o r c u r v e f i t t i n g
seems t o be a r e s u l t of t h e d e c r e a s e i n observed l e n g t h o v e r
t h a t " p r e d i c t e d " by t h e second-degree f i t f o r i n d i v i d u a l s between
t h e ages o f 1 . 5 and 3 y e a r s . I n summary, t i b i a l growth d a t a
s u g g e s t i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n . Further-
more, t h e s e d a t a h i g h l i g h t t h e 2-5 y e a r p e r i o d a s o n e i n which
s t r e s s may be most s e v e r e .
S e d Dimorphism
While L a l l o (1973) was a b l e t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t l o n g bone l e n g t h

and circumference growth v e l o c i t i e s and achieved growth a r e
g e n e r a l l y dampened i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e l a t i v e t o t h e
p r i o r c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s , i t remained t o b e s e e n whether t h i s slow-
11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS
Age in Years
Distance curves for t i b i a 2 e i r c m f e r e n c e for
FIGURE 1 1 . 4 .
the Late Woodland ,)-f Mississippian Acculturated Late
Woodland (-----), and Mississippian (
(ages 0-35 years), (Lallo 1 9 7 3 : 8 7 ) .
-
) c u l t u r a l horizons
i n g o f growth d i f f e r e n t i a l l y a f f e c t e d males, thus d e c r e a s i n g t h e

amount of sexual dimorphism.
L a l l o u t i l i z e d an e x t e n s i v e s e t of o s t e o m e t r i c measures of
t h e p e l v i s and femur i n h i s a n a l y s i s of sexual dimorphism. These
measures and d a t a were obtained from Gustav (1972) f o r t h e p e l v i s
and Van Gerven (1972) f o r t h e femur. Both of t h e s e s t u d i e s i n -
c l u d e stepwise d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s e s of s e x based on t h e
r e s p e c t i v e femoral o r p e l v i c measures. L a l l o , t h e r e f o r e , had t h e
advantage of u t i l i z i n g t w o s e t s of measures t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y
been i s o l a t e d a s d i s c r i m i n a t o r s o f s e x i n t h e Dickson c o l l e c t i o n .
A s e r i e s of two-way ANOVAs (sex and c u l t u r e a s main e f f e c t s )
were run w i t h d a t a from 14 femoral and 21 p e l v i c measures ( L a l l o ,
1973:112-113). I f sexual dimorphism d e c r e a s e s through time, then
we would expect a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n between sex and c u l t u r e
( t h e two main e f f e c t s ) . However, s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s were
n o t found .
While t h e sexual dimorphism r e s u l t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , they
r e q u i r e d i s c u s s i o n . The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t r e s s would d i f f e r e n -
t i a l l y a f f e c t males d e r i v e s from S t i n i ( 1 9 6 9 ) , who t h e o r i z e s t h a t
t h e female endocrinological system i s b e t t e r a b l e t o b u f f e r nu-
t r i t i o n a l i n s u l t s . However, he i s r e f e r r i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
TABLE 11.3 Summary S t a t i s t i c s o f Long Bone Measurements for

Late Woodland, Mississippian ~ e e u Z t u r a t e dLate Woodland, and
Mississippian Individuals Ages 5-10 Years (Sexes Combined)
Measurement N Mean SD f-valuea df
Tibia b n g t h 3.56 2/23

LW 16 228.6 6.3
MALW 31 229.2 10.6
M 20 209.0 8.4
Tibia eiremjference 3.96
LW 16 33.3 2.6
MALW 31 32.8 2.4
M 20 25.2 1.9
a
Denotes s i y n i f i e a n t f -value a t .O5.
t h a t o c c u r s beginning w i t h s e x u a l m a t u r a t i o n . This h y p o t h e s i s may

n o t be r e l e v a n t t o t h e Dickson s i t u a t i o n , a s it a p p e a r s t h a t
maximum s t r e s s i s evidenced much before s e x u a l m a t u r a t i o n . F i n a l l y ,
t h e S t i n i h y p o t h e s i s d o e s n o t account f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
males were a b l e t o "keep up" r e l a t i v e t o females because t h e y were
g i v e n g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s and were more b u f f e r e d from
stress.
There a r e a l s o a s e r i e s of methodological r e a s o n s why t h e S t i n i
h y p o t h e s i s may n o t b e e v i d e n c e d i n t h e Dickson d a t a . F i r s t and
foremost i s t h e confounding problem o f b o t h s e x i n g and a n a l y z i n g
f o r s t r e s s u s i n g t h e same s e t o f measures. Second, t h e sample
s i z e s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e s m a l l (84 i n t h e p e l v i c measures
and 97 f o r t h e femoral measures) f o r a two-way ANOVA w i t h s i x c e l l s .
And t h i r d , t h e s t u d y o f Gustav (1972) and Van Gerven (1972) pur-
p o s e l y excluded p a t h o l o g i c a l specimens. While this i s s e n s i b l e i n
an a n a l y s i s o f measures t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t e f o r s e x , it may g r e a t l y
reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r d i s c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d e g r e e o f
s e x u a l dimorphism based on t h e amount of s t r e s s .
We conclude t h a t t h e amount of s e x u a l dimorphism i s r e l a t i v e l y
i n v a r i a b l e among t h e t h r e e Dickson c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s . While t h e s e
d a t a may be evidence t h a t s t r e s s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e t h r o u q h t i m e a t
Dickson, t h e y may a l s o b e i n s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
Harris Lines
Frequencies. Goodman and C l a r k (1981) have p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s

of changing s t r e s s through t i m e a t Dickson a s evidenced i n t h e f r e -
quency and t i m e o f o c c u r r e n c e o f H a r r i s l i n e s on d i s t a l and p r o x i -
mal t i b i a . Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e frequency o f
H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 11.5. Results are given per
i n d i v i d u a l and a r e g i v e n f o r t h e e n t i r e sample ( N = 130) , and a r e
broken down by age c l a s s (younger and o l d e r a d u l t s ) , s e x , and c u l -
t u r a l horizon.
TABLE 11.4 Harris Lines in t h e Diekson Mounds Populations:

Means and Standard Deviations for the Number o f Lines on Distal
and Proximal Tibias
- -
Distal t i b i a Proximal t i b i a
Standard Standard
Sample ( N ) Mean deviation Mean deviation
By Culture:
L
W ( 10 ) 1.30 1.49 0.70 1.88
MALW ( 4 7 ) 1 .19 1.33 0.49 1.00
MM ( 5 1 ) 1.06 1.22 0.57 1.03
By Age:
15-39 years ( 4 0 ) 1.38 1.30 0.75 1.43
40-60 years ( 3 0 ) 1 .23 1.19 0.57 0.73
By Sex:
Females ( 4 3 ) 1.21 1.23 0.53 0.98
Males ( 6 5 ) 1.46 1.30 0.74 1.33
Total Sample ( 1 3 0 ) 1.13 1.27 0.55 1.12
The mean number o f l i n e s / t i b i a i s 1 . 6 8 (1.13 d i s t a l l y and 0.55

p r o x i m a l l y ) . T h i s frequency i s w i t h i n t h e range g i v e n by Wells
(1967) f o r h i s Anglo-Saxon p o p u l a t i o n s (0.8-5.1 l i n e s / t i b i a ) . The
f i g u r e i s l e s s t h a n t h a t found by Nichens (1975) f o r a Mesa Verde
sample and by ~ o o d a l l (1968) f o r a sample from Casas Grandes. On
t h e o t h e r hand, McHenry (1968) r e p o r t s a mean o f 8.01 lines/femur
f o r a p r e h i s t o r i c s e r i e s from t h e San Joaquin V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a .
There a r e more H a r r i s l i n e s found o n t h e d i s t a l than on t h e
proximal end (mean of 1.13 v e r s u s 0 . 5 5 ) . T h i s conf irms t h e f i n d i n g
of o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s (Garn e t d l . 1968; Park 1 9 6 4 ) .
C u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h and
w i t h o u t one o r more H a r r i s l i n e s on t h e proximal o r d i s t a l t i b i a
were t e s t e d f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . No c u l t u r a l comparison
y i e l d e d a s i g n i f i c a n t c h i - s q u a r e v a l u e ( b a s e d on S i e g e 1 1 9 5 6 ) .
Furthermore, t h e s l i g h t t r e n d of d e c r e a s e d frequency o f H a r r i s
l i n e s through time r u n s c o u n t e r t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s .
Although t h e d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t found t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t , males have a h i g h e r frequency o f l i n e s t h a n do females.
T h i s t r e n d may s u p p o r t t h e view t h a t t h e growing male i s more s u s -
c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s than t h e growing f e m a l e . However, somewhat
c o n t r a r y t o t h e S t i n i h y p o t h e s i s , females have a g r e a t e r frequency
of H a r r i s l i n e s d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t growth s p u r t w h i l e males
have a h i g h e r frequency d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 7 y e a r s o f l i f e .
Distribution by Age a t Occurrence. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f H a r r i s

l i n e s by t h e time of t h e i r development f o r t h e d i s t a l t i b i a i s
p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 11.5. C h r o n o l o g i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e MALW
Developmental Age (Years)

FIGURE 11.5. Percentage of grauth a r r e s t l i n e s i n combined
male and female d i s t a l t i b i a s for Mississippian Aceulturated Late
woodland (-) f N = 47) and ~ i d d l eMississippian f - - - - - ) (N =
51) populations (Goodman and Clark 1981:45).
and MM samples. Both c h r o n o l o g i e s show two peaks. A major peak

i s found between t h e a g e s o f b i r t h and 3 y e a r s , and a minor peak
around t h e a g e s o f 12-14 y e a r s . The c h r o n o l o g i e s do n o t d i f f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from each o t h e r (Kolmogorov-Smimov t e s t ) a n d ,
indeed, a r e remarkably s i m i l a r i n shape.
The H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c y d a t a do n o t s u p p o r t t h e view t h a t
h e a l t h d e c r e a s e d t h r o u g h time a t Dickson. Indeed, t h e r e i s a
t r e n d o f i n c r e a s e d frequency o f l i n e s i n t h e e a r l i e r groups.
These d a t a a r e e q u i v o c a l . Recent reviews ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980;
Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1982) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e frequency o f H a r r i s
l i n e s may n o t be a v a l i d i n d i c a t o r o f t h e d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l
d i s r u p t i o n ( s t r e s s ) . T h i s r e a s o n i n g l i e s mainly w i t h t h e poor
a s s o c i a t i o n o f H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h o t h e r measures o f
s t r e s s i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s and t h e poor a s s o c i a t i o n s o f
H a r r i s l i n e s w i t h known s t r e s s o r s i n b o t h animal and human c l i n i -
cal studies. I f one q u e s t i o n s whether o r n o t H a r r i s l i n e s them-
selves a r e v a l i d s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s , then chronologies of Harris
l i n e s a s r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s
through p e r i o d s o f s k e l e t a l m a t u r a t i o n a l s o must b e q u e s t i o n e d .
Our d a t a show a peak frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s p r e c i s e l y when
growth v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e s t and when t h e growing i n d i v i d u a l s
might be e x p e c t e d t o be more s u s c e p t i b l e t o growth d i s r u p t i o n .
Thus, t h e H a r r i s l i n e c h r o n o l o g i e s may r e f l e c t h o s t s u s c e p t i b i l i -
t y t o s t r e s s more t h a n exposure t o and s t r e n g t h of s t r e s s o r s .
TABLE 11.5 Mean Number o f Growth Disruptions (Hupoplasias)

per Individual i n tk Dickson Populations
-
Grouth disruptions/individuuZ
Individuals with
A l l individuals complete measurementsa'
Population M F A Total M F A Total
LW .17 1.42 .OO .90 .OO 1.29 .OO .90

UALV 1.26 .82 2.00 1.18 1.25 1.29 2.00 1.45
MM 1.43 1.47 3.25 1.61 1.43 1.64 3.25 1.86
---- ----
1.20 1.24 2.09 1.31 1.25 1.44 2.09 1.52
^Â¥M males; F , females; A, adolescents.

b ~ i r t ht o 7 years.
Linear E r n e l Hypoflasia
Frequencies. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a r e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n enamel t h i c k -

n e s s r e s u l t i n g from s y s t e m i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s (Goodman e t
a l . 1 9 8 0 ) . The p a t t e r n of h y p o p l a s i a s on d e n t a l enamel can be
read a s a kymographic r e c o r d of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n ( s t r e s s )
d u r i n g t h e time of t h e e n a m e l ' s development (Kreshover 1960; S a r n a t
and Schour 1 9 4 1 ) . And, because mature enamel i s u n a l t e r a b l e by i n -
t e r n a l b i o l o g i c a l e v e n t s , h y p o p l a s i a s may p r o v i d e a permanent
"memory" of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s d u r i n g t h e time of t h e ena-
m e l ' s development (Goodman e t a l . 1980) .
Goodman and co-workers (1980) have p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f t h e
frequency of enamel h y p o p l a s i a s f o r t h e Dickson Mound i n d i v i d u a l s
w i t h permanent d e n t i t i o n s . The sample c o n s i s t e d o f a l l a d o l e s c e n t s
and a d u l t s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y complete d e n t i t i o n (N = 111). Ages of
i n d i v i d u a l s and a v a i l a b l e enamel ( a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e of e r r o r due
t o t o o t h l o s s and a t t r i t i o n ) d i d n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y by s e x o r
c u l t u r a l horizon.
The mean number of h y p o p l a s i a s p e r i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e Dickson
p o p u l a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 11.6. The means a r e p r e s e n t e d
b o t h f o r a l l i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e sample and f o r i n d i v i d u a l s
w i t h complete enamel a l l o w i n g measurements from b i r t h t o 7 y e a r s
of a g e . T h i s second s e t of means h e l p s t o c o n t r o l f o r d i f -
f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of enamel f o r s t u d y caused mainly by d e n t a l
attrition.
A c l e a r t r e n d of i n c r e a s e d growth d i s r u p t i o n i s e v i d e n t through
time a t Dickson. Mean f r e q u e n c i e s by c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n i n c r e a s e
from 0.90 i n t h e LW t o 1.18 i n t h e MALW t o 1 . 6 1 i n t h e MM. This
t r e n d i s a l s o e v i d e n t i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h complete measurements
from b i r t h t o 7 y e a r s (Table 1 1 . 6 ) and i s evidenced t h a t t h e
t r e n d i s n o t due t o a d i f f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of enamel f o r
study. I n f a c t , when c o n t r o l l i n g f o r enamel a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e
TABLE 11.6 Number of Individuals w~t'houtGrowth Disruptions

(Hypoplasias) and the Number of Individuals w , f h One. or More
Growth Disruptions by Cultural Horizon
One o r more
Hgpop l a s i a s hypoplasias Total
No. % No. % No. %
~-
Late Woodland (LW) 11 55 9 45 20 100

Mississ@phzn
Aecult~~ated
Late Woodland (MALW) 18 40 27 60 45 100
Middle
Mississippian (MM) 9 20 37 80 46 100
38 34 73 66 Ill 100
Summary of Chi-square T e s t s Where t h e Frequency of Individuals
with One or More Growth Arrest piso odes Were Compared t o Those
without a Growth Arrest Episode (see Table 3 ) . dates ' Correction
I s Used When df Equals 1
Chi-square value f d f )
L
W versus MALW -7
L
W versus MM 6.8 ( 1 )
MALW versus MM 3.8 ( z ) ~
LU versus MALW versus MM 11.0 ( 2 j a
t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f h y p o p l a s i a s becomes more

pronounced.
C h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s e s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e whether
t h e s e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The
sample was d i c h o t o m i z e d i n t o t h o s e w i t h o n e o r more growth d i s r u p -
t i o n s and t h o s e w i t h o u t growth d i s r u p t i o n s ( s e e T a b l e 1 1 . 7 ) . The
LW and M A L W d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from e a c h o t h e r . However,
t h e MM d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from b o t h t h e LW and t h e MALW (p < .01
and p < .O5, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . I n sum, t h e h y p o p l a s i a d a t a s u p p o r t
t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n was more f r e q u e n t
and s e v e r e i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n .
Annual C y d e s of S t r e s s ( S e a s o n a l i t y ) . F r e q u e n c i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e
o f two growth d i s r u p t i o n s s e p a r a t e d by 1 2 and 6 months a r e p r e s e n t e d
i n Table 11.8. The number of growth d i s r u p t i o n s s e p a r a t e d by a y e a r
i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e number o f d i s r u p t i o n s s e p a r a t e d by 6 months i n
a l l h o r i z o n s . R e s u l t s f o r t h e MALW a p p r o a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e , and o v e r -
a l l r e s u l t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t ( p = -0336).
TABLE 11.7 Number o f Cases i n Which Two Growth D h p t i o n s

(Hypoplasias) Are Separated by a Half Year and Number o f Cases i n
Which Two Growth Disruptions Are Separated by a Year
Binomia 2
one -tai Zeda
.5 Years 1 . 0 Years probability
Late Woodland 1 3 --
Mississippian
Accu Zturated
Late Woodland 5 12 ,072
Middle
Mississippian 10 14 .271
- -
16 29 .0336
2 195 6.
"Â¥Sieg
The o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n s o v e r t i m e w i t h i n a n i n -
d i v i d u a l i s n o t random. The o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n
s e p a r a t e d by y e a r l y i n t e r v a l s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t p r e d i c t e d by
c h a n c e . T h i s phenomena i s l i k e l y t o b e due t o an a n n u a l c y c l e o f
s t r e s s (Goodman e t a l . 1980) s u c h a s m i g h t o c c u r i f a g i v e n s e a s o n
were r e g u l a r l y more s t r e s s f u l t h a n t h e o t h e r s . Since a g r i c u l t u r e
may p r o v i d e a r e s o u r c e b a s e t o b u f f e r t h e s e s e a s o n a l d e p r i v a t i o n s ,
t h e s e d a t a may h e l p <to e x p l a i n why a g r i c u l t u r e became i n t e n s i f i e d
i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n .
Wilson Bands
'Frequencies. Rose e t a l . (1978) h a v e p r e s e n t e d a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s

of Wilson bands i n a Middle Woodland sample from Gibson Mound and
t h e MALW and Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n from Dickson. Data a r e p r e s e n t e d
on t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f Wilson bands ( s e e T a b l e 1 1 . 9 ) ,
t h e c h r o n o l o g y and p e a k p e r i o d o f t h e i r development, and t h e i r a s -
s o c i a t i o n w i t h age a t d e a t h ( s e e T a b l e 1 1 . 1 0 ) . The sample was
randomly s e l e c t e d from i n d i v i d u a l s 15 y e a r s o l d o r o l d e r and i n -
c l u d e s 87 m a n d i b u l a r c a n i n e s .
A n e a r l y f o u r f o l d i n c r e a s e i n percentage of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h
Wilson b a n d s i s s e e n i f one compares t h e MW a t Gibson ( 1 0 . 3 % ) t o
t h e MALW a t Dickson ( 2 1 . 4 % ) and t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n a t Dickson
( 4 0 . 0 % ) . These r e s e a r c h e r s a l s o c a l c u l a t e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f h a l f -
y e a r enamel u n i t s w i t h Wilson bands ( a method u s e d t o c o n t r o l f o r
d i f f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e n a m e l ) . T h i s method o f c a l c u l a t i o n
r e d u c e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two Dickson samples. The p e r -
c e n t a g e o f enamel u n i t s w i t h Wilson bands i s 4 . 4 i n t h e MALW and
7 . 7 i n t h e MM. Only t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e MW and MM was found
t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (chi-square t e s t corrected f o r
continuity; Siege1 1956).
TABLE 11.8 Prevalence and Percentages per Individual and

One-half Year Enamel Unit of Wilson Bands
Percentage Percentage
Witson Indi- E n d 'indi - ename l
bands victuals units viduaI unit
Middle Woodland 3 29 157 10.3 1.9

(Gibson)
MALW 6 28 136 21.4 4.4
(Dickson)
Mississwan 12 30 163 40.0 7.4
(Dickson) - - - - -
21 87 456 24.1 4.6
TABLE 11.9 A Comparison of the Mean Ages a t Death ( i n years)

of Individuals w-ifh A t Least One Wilson Band and Those wifhout
W-Llson Bands
Wifh With no
W i lson W i lson
bands bands Difference
Middle Woodland 20.0 45.0 25.0

(Gibson)
MALW 28.4 40.2 11.8
(Dickson)
Mi.ssissippian 27.6 40.4 12. 8
(Dickson)
Distribution by Age a t Occurrence. The mean a g e o f o c c u r r e n c e and

t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f Wilson b a n d s were a l s o c a l c u l a t e d .
The mean a g e o f o c c u r r e n c e i s 2.25 y e a r s f o r t h e MW, 2.92 y e a r s
f o r t h e MALW, a n d 2.40 y e a r s f o r t h e MM. The c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s of bands a r e a l s o s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . The MW c u r v e h a s
a broad and f l a t p e a k from 0 . 5 t o 4 . 0 y e a r s . The MALW h a s a broad
peak from 2.0 t o 4 . 5 w i t h a h i g h p o i n t a t 2.25 y e a r s . The MW h a s
a p l a t e a u from 1 . 0 t o 3 . 5 w i t h h i g h p e a k s a t 1 . 7 5 and 3 . 2 5 y e a r s .
Association w i t h Age a t Death. Rose e t a l . (1978) examined t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between Wilson b a n d s and a g e a t d e a t h i n a d u l t h o o d
( s e e Table 11.7) . T h i s a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d two n o t e w o r t h y r e s u l t s .
F i r s t , t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h Wilson bands i s
lower t h a n t h a t f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t Wilson b a n d s i n a l l c u l -
tures--from 11.8 t o 25.0 y e a r s e a r l i e r . Furthermore, t h i s d i f f e r -
e n c e i s g r e a t e r i n t h e Dickson s e r i e s t h a n i n t h e l e s s s t r e s s e d
Gibson Mound s e r i e s . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be-

tween age a t d e a t h and childhood s t r e s s (Wilson band frequencies)
i s not p r e s e n t e d .
The a n a l y s i s of Wilson bands h e l p s t o r e f i n e t h e p i c t u r e of
increased s t r e s s a t Dickson. F i r s t , Wilson band frequency d a t a
a r e s t r o n g evidence f o r i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s through time. Second,
t h e chronologies, with peak p e r i o d s of s t r e s s around t h e ages of
2-3 y e a r s , corroborate t h e timing of maximum s t r e s s evidenced i n
the H a r r i s l i n e and long bone growth d a t a . F i n a l l y , t h e Wilson
band d a t a demonstrate t h a t childhood s t r e s s , a s measured by Wilson
band f r e q u e n c i e s , i s " p r e d i c t i v e " of age a t death. Therefore,
childhood s t r e s s ( o r a c o v a r i a t e o f it) i s highly s i g n i f i c a n t t o
s u r v i v a l . Furthermore, t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i n c r e a s e s i n importance
through time.
Frequencies. P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i s a g e n e r a l term used t o iden-

t i f y bony l e s i o n s t h a t a r e l o c a l i z e d on t h e s u p e r i o r border of t h e
o r b i t s and t h e e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e of t h e c r a n i a and a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a t h i n n i n g of t h e s u b p e r i o s t e a l c o r t i c a l bone and corresponding
expansion of t h e d i p o l e (Armelagos 1967; Carlson e t a l . 1974;
Lallo e t a l . 1977). L a l l o and co-workers (1977) provide a d e t a i l e d
study of t h e presence o f p o r o t i c l e s i o n s i n subadult c r a n i a from
Dickson. This sample c o n s i s t s of 238 i n d i v i d u a l s , of which 87
(36.5%) show evidence f o r p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s (Table 11.11) . The
frequency of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n c r e a s e s from 13.6% i n t h e LW
t o 32.2% i n t h e MAL% and 51.5% i n t h e MM. D i f f e r e n c e s between c u l -
t u r a l horizons i n t h e frequency of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a r e s t a t i s -
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t by chi-square a n a l y s i s (p < -05; Lallo e t a l .
1977).
Degree of Involvement (Severity) of P o r o t i c ~ y ~ e r o s t o s i s .The f r e -

quency of occurrence of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s by s i t e and t y p e of
involvement i s presented i n Table 11.8. The o r b i t s a r e t h e primary
s i t e of occurrence of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s . I n the LW, p o r o t i c
hyperostosis i s limited t o the orbitas (cribra o r b i t a l i a ) . How-
e v e r , i n t h e MALW and MM, i n d i v i d u a l s with c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a tend
i n c r e a s i n g l y t o have p o r o t i c involvement a t o t h e r s i t e s i n t h e form
of spongy h y p e r o s t o s i s and/or o s t e o p o r o t i c p i t t i n g . The involvement
of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a t s i t e s o t h e r t h a n t h e o r b i t s s u g g e s t s a
more i n c l u s i v e and a more severe m a n i f e s t a t i o n . Not only does
p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s show a f o u r - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n frequency, but
it a l s o i n c r e a s e s i n percentage of "severe" c a s e s from 0.0% i n
t h e LW t o 6.5% i n t h e MALW t o 17.8% i n t h e MM. As t h e s e a u t h o r s
hypothesized, the frequency and degree of involvement of p o r o t i c
h y p e r o s t o s i s i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e d u t i l i z a t i o n of maize a g r i -
culture.
Q
--
-.
....
IN'S
-.
[N. M
-.
<XI
4g
3 ----
LTSWtoM
C\]WNc^
IN.
N
L
LTS
-.1
0
0
.+ --.-.-.--.
Q
.....
Q Q Q Q Q
--,--.-.-.
Q Q Q Q Q
-----
Q Ã Q Q Q Q Q
3 Q Q Q Q Q
N r - N N W
3
Tj IN'SWCs-Mto
r-
0
I n f e c t i o u s Lesions
Frequencies. L a l l o and co-workers (1978) have summarized t h e e v i -

dence f o r changing f r e q u e n c i e s o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s t h r o u g h t i m e
a t Dickson. The a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d on b o t h a d u l t s and s u b a d u l t s .
The L W a n d t h e MALW a r e combined i n t o a l o w - i n t e n s i t y a g r i c u l t u r e
p o p u l a t i o n and t h i s combined sample i s compared t o a MM sample.
I n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s i n c l u d e p e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e o m y e l i t i s . Al-
though t h e s e two t y p e s o f i n f e c t i o n w e r e r e c o r d e d s e p a r a t e l y , t h i s
a n a l y s i s c o n s i d e r s them t o g e t h e r . F r e q u e n c i e s a r e f o r t h e combi-
n a t i o n of e i t h e r o r both t y p e s o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s .
The p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s d o u b l e s
from t h e l o w - i n t e n s i t y a g r i c u l t u r e LW-MALW h o r i z o n s t o t h e more
i n t e n s i f i e d MM p e r i o d ( 3 1 t o 6 7 % ) ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 2 ) . T h i s o v e r a l l
p a t t e r n i s e v i d e n c e d i n b o t h t h e a d u l t and s u b a d u l t segments o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n and i n f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s . I n summary, t h e i n c r e a s e d
r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e i s a g e n e r a l phenomenon, c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c o f a l l a g e and s e x c l a s s e s .
Severity and Association u i t h Age a t Death
S e v e r i t y o f i n f e c t i o n was d e t e r m i n e d by a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e g r e e
of i n f e c t i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t f o r t h e t i b i a . The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e
t i b i a was b a s e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g : (1) i t s h i g h r a t e o f p r e s e r v a -
t i o n among l o n g b o n e s , ( 2 ) i t s b r o a d p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e , which
f a c i l i t a t e s o b s e r v a t i o n , and ( 3 ) t h e f a c t t h a t it i s t h e bone w i t h
t h e h i g h e s t r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n i n t h i s sample ( L a l l o e t a l . 1978) .
S e v e r i t y was d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :
(1) e x t e n t o f i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e , ( 2 ) c h a r a c -
t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e t i s s u e destruction ( p i t t e d , ridged, scarred, o r
s i n u s t r a c k e d ) , and ( 3 ) t h e amount o f bone t i s s u e d e s t r u c t i o n s .
Nine s t a g e s o f s e v e r i t y (from L a l l o 1973) were combined i n t o t h r e e
severity l e v e l s (Lallo e t a l . 1978).
The p e r c e n t a g e o f t i b i a e w i t h e v i d e n c e f o r i n f e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s
from 26% i n LW-MALW s a m p l e t o 84% i n t h e MM sample ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 3 ) .
Thus, t h e p a t t e r n o f i n f e c t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e f o r t h e t i b i a i s
s i m i l a r t o t h e p a t t e r n of i n f e c t i o n through time f o r a l l s k e l e t a l
r e m a i n s , s a v e f o r a n even more pronounced r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e
MM sample. F o r i n d i v i d u a l s a g e d 15-25 y e a r s , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f
t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s i n c r e a s e s from 25% i n t h e low a g r i c u l t u r a l i n -
t e n s i t y sample t o 77% i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l y more i n t e n s i f i e d MM
(Table 11.14) . F u r t h e r m o r e , of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n f e c t i o n s i n t h i s
a g e c l a s s , t h o s e i n t h e MM a r e much more l i k e l y t o have e i t h e r
moderate o r s e v e r e involvement (Table 1 1 . 4 ) . F i n a l l y , t h e s e r e -
s e a r c h e r s have a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s
w i t h t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s i s l e s s t h a n t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s
w i t h o u t t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s and t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h o l d s f o r b o t h
s a m p l e s i n t h i s s t u d y . A s an example, t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r
a d u l t s ( o v e r 20 y e a r s ) i n t h e MALW i s 39.5 y e a r s . However, t h e
mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s l i g h t t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s i s
37 y e a r s and 35.1 y e a r s f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s e v e r e i n f e c t i o n s .
TABLE 11.11 Summary F i g u r e s f o r t h e Frequency o f O c c u r r e n c e

o f ~ n f e c t i o u sD i s e a s e
Age N Number w i t h i n f e c t i o n %a
- - -- -
0-59.9 yearsb
LW + MALW 351 108 31
MM 221 149 67
0-14.9 y e a r s b
LW +
MALW 125 34 27
MM 110 74 67
b
15-59.9 y e a r s
LW +
MALW 226 74 33
MM Ill 75 68
15-15.9 y e a r s
Females
LW + MALW 110 35 32
M.4 61 43 71
Males
LW + MALW 116 39 34
MM 50 32 64
a A l l p e r c e n t a g e s 'have b e e n r o u n d e d o f f t o t h e n e a r e s t w h o l e
number.
b ~ h e s ef r e q u e n c i e s i n c l u d e t h e combined m a l e and female t o t a l s .
TABLE 11 - 1 2 Frequency o f I n f e c t i o u s L e s i o n s o f the T i b i a
Number
N infected %a
LW + MALW 353 90 26
MM 194 163 84
S e v e r i t y o f T i b i a2 Involvement
N Slight Moderate Severe
LW + MALW 90 56 ( 6 2 % ) 27 ( 3 0 % ) 7 f 8%)
MM 163 45 ( 2 8 % ) 80 ( 4 9 % ) 38 ( 2 3 % )
~ l p e lr c e n t a g e s h a v e b e e n rounded o f f t o t h e n e a r e s t w h d e
number.
These d a t a a r e evidence t h a t i n f e c t i o n and i t s v a r i a t e s a r e s i q -

n i f i c a n t h e a l t h events f o r a l l p o p u l a t i o n s .
TABLE 11.13 Frequency of I n f e c t i o u s Lesions of th Tibia,

Young ~ d u l t s(15-25 Years)
Number
N infected za
L
W + MALW
MM
Severity of ~ i b i a Involvement
l
N Slight Moderate Severe
LW + MALW 28 21 (75%) 5 (18%) 2 ( 7%)
MM 33 10 (30%) 16 (49%) 7 (21%)
A X percentages 'have been rounded o f f t o the nearest whole

number.
Traumatic Lesions
L a l l o (1973) has p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f both c r a n i a l and

p o s t c r a n i a l t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s . Data p r e s e n t e d below a r e f o r
p o s t c r a n i a l f r a c t u r e s (Table 1 1 . 1 5 ) . The most common s i t e s o f
f r a c t u r e s a r e t h e humerus, c l a v i c l e , u l n a , and r a d i u s . Since t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a t h o l o g i e s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s k e l e t o n s i s n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s , a l l p o s t c r a n i a l
f r e a c t u r e s a r e combined. For t h e e n t i r e sample (ages 0-65 y e a r s ) ,
t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n has a s l i g h t l y higher frequency o f f r a c t u r e s
than t h e MALW and t h e L W (19.5, 16.4, and 13.4%, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
However, t h i s p a t t e r n i s n o t c o n s i s t e n t among age and s e x
c l a s s e s . For s u b a d u l t s t h e o v e r a l l t r e n d i s r e v e r s e d . LW sub-
a d u l t s have a h i g h e r frequency of f r a c t u r e s t h a n t h o s e i n t h e MALW
and t h e MM (10.2, 9.8, and 6 . 4 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Adults (males
and females combined) i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n have n e a r l y twice t h e
frequency of t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s a s a d u l t s i n t h e MALW and LW
groups (32.4 t o 16.4 and 20.5%). F i n a l l y , when d a t a f o r t h e sexes
a r e analyzed s e p a r a t e l y , i t becomes c l e a r t h a t a d u l t males, e s -
p e c i a l l y i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n , a r e most f r e q u e n t l y a f f e c t e d by
t r a u m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . The frequency of t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n s i n c r e a s e s
from 23.5% i n LW females and 16.4% i n MALW females t o 31.1% i n MM
females. The frequency of t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n s i n c r e a s e s from 17.9%
in L W males and 16.4% i n MALW males t o 38 .O% i n MM males. In sum-
mary, p o s t c r a n i a l t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s f o l l o w t h e t r e n d of in-
c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e through time. Furthermore, t h i s t r e n d i s most
pronounced f o r males.
TABLE 11.14 Summary o f t h e A n a l g s i s o f V a r i a n c e and Duncan Is

New M u l t i p Z e Range T e s t f o r Trauma f o r t h e L a t e Woodland, Missis-
s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland, and t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n (Ages
0-65)
Dunoan's New M u l t i p Z e
Age ( y e a r s ) Mean f r e q u e n c y o f trauma Range T e s t
0-65
LW
MALW
M
0-1 5
LW
MALW
M
15-65
LW 20.5
MALW 16.4
M 32.4
15-65 ( F e m a l e s ) MALW LW M
LW 23.5 16.4 17.9 -
38.0
MLW 16.4
M 31.1
15-65 ( M a l e s )
LW
MAL W
M
~ e n o t e s i g n i f i c a n t f-value at p < .0 5 .
L a l l o (1973) h a s p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s ,
o s t e o p h y t o s i s , a n d d e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e v e r t e b r a l centrum i n t h e
Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 6 ) . F o r a l l a d u l t s t h e r e i s a
s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e frequency of degenerative p a t h o l o g i e s
( o f a l l s i t e s combined) from 39.7% i n t h e L W t o 41.8% i n t h e MALW
and 65.8% i n t h e MW. A l l c u l t u r a l frequencies a r e significantly
d i f f e r e n t from e a c h o t h e r (Duncan's m u l t i p l e r a n g e s t e s t ; s e e
L a l l o 1 9 7 3 : 2 2 2 ) . T h i s t r e n d i s s i m i l a r and is e v i d e n c e d i n b o t h
m a l e s and f e m a l e s .
Data a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d f o r s t a g e s o f s e v e r i t y o f d e g e n e r a t i o n
o f t h e centrum and o s t e o p h y t o s i s ( s e e L a l l o 1973 :223-248) . Data
a r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l v e r t e b r a e and n o t f o r i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s . For
b o t h centrum d e g e n e r a t i o n and o s t e o p h y t o s i s t h e r e i s a c l e a r t r e n d
of i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f a f f e c t e d v e r t e b r a e by c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s ,
295
TABLE 11.15 Summary o f the Analysis of Variance and Duncan's

New Multiple Range T e s t f o r Degenerative Pathology Frequencies
among Cultural Horizons
Mean
frequency Duncan's multiple range
o f deqenerative t e s t results
pa&oZogy LW MALW M
Females aged 15-65

L
W
MALW
M
Males aged 15-65
LW
MALW
M
~ e n o t e s i g n i f i c a n t f-value a t p < .05.

i n c r e a s e d frequency o f s e v e r e c a s e s by c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s , and
more s e r i o u s a f f l i c t i o n of males t h a n f e m a l e s .
I n sum, t h e p a t t e r n of d e g e n e r a t i v e p a t h o l o g i e s i s s i m i l a r t o
t h a t of traumatic pathologies. Degenerative p a t h o l o g i e s s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y i n c r e a s e through time and a f f e c t males more f r e q u e n t l y than
females .
Mortality
M o r t a l i t y o r age-at-death i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been p r e s e n t e d u s i n g
a wide v a r i e t y o f methods f o r p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . These
methods i n c l u d e composite l i f e t a b l e s , p r o b a b i l i t y - o f -dying c u r v e s ,
a g e - s p e c i f i c m o r t a l i t y c u r v e s , and mean age a t d e a t h - l i f e expec-
t a n c y f i g u r e s . L a l l o and c o l l e a g u e s ( L a l l o e t a l . 1978; 1980)
have p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s of m o r t a l i t y changes a t Dickson. While
t h e y u t i l i z e a v a r i e t y o f methods i n t h e i r a n a l y s i s , t h e y s t a r t e d
by c o n s t r u c t i n g l i f e t a b l e s . They argue t h a t l i f e t a b l e s , once
c o n s t r u c t e d , p r o v i d e t h e maximum amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e
m o r t a l i t y of a p o p u l a t i o n .
Life t a b l e s f o r t h e t h r e e c u l t u r a l horizons a r e presented i n
T a b l e s 11.1-11.2. The dy v a l u e s ( a g e - s p e c i f i c m o r t a l i t y ) and qn,
v a l u e s (age-specif i c p r o b a b i l i t y o f dying) c o n s i s t e n t l y i n c r e a s e
0
through t h e h o r i z o n s a t Dickson w h i l e t h e l x ( s u r v i v o r s h i p ) a n d e x
( a g e - s p e c i f i c l i f e expectancy) c o n s i s t e n t l y d e c r e a s e through t h e
c u l t u r a l horizons. I n a l l a g e c l a s s e s t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a gene-
r a l t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d chance of d y i n g i n t h e MM r e l a t i v e t o
t h e LW. The s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s t r e n d was determined
u s i n g t h e Kolmogorov-Smimov t w o - t a i l e d t e s t ( s e e S i e g e 1 1956:117-
1 3 8 ) . Kolmogorov-Smirnov i s a t e s t of d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n
Years
FIGURE 1 1 . 6 . Cumulative percentages o f mortality by age for

the Late Woodland Mississipphxn Acculturated Late Wood-
(-a-),
land (-----), and Middle Mississippian (-) populations (ages

0-65) (from L a u o e t a t . 1$80:220).
and i s u t i l i z e d t o t e s t w h e t h e r o r n o t two d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e s u f -
f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t o h a v e been drawn from t h e same p o p u l a t i o n .
Kolmoqorov-Smirnov was a p p l i e d t o t h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f
mortality (Figure 11.6). The maximum d i f f e r e n c e between t h e L W
and t h e MALW was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . However, t h e maximum d i f f e r -
e n c e s between t h e LW and t h e MM, a n d between t h e MALW and t h e MM,
were s i g n i f i c a n t ( p <. 0 5 ) ( L a l l o e t a l . 1980:219-220).
I n summary, t h e L W and MALW d e m o n s t r a t e s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o r t a l i t y , w h i l e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h o s e p a t -
t e r n s a n d t h a t o f t h e MM i s s i g n i f i c a n t . The maximum d i f f e r e n c e s
o c c u r d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d . I n comparison o f t h e L W and t h e MM, t h e
maximum d i f f e r e n c e i s 1 6 . 1 % a n d o c c u r s i n t h e 2-5-year a g e c l a s s
(21.8-37.9% d e a d ) . I n comparison o f t h e MALW and MM, t h e maximum
d i f f e r e n c e i s 1 4 . 5 % a n d o c c u r s i n t h e 10-15-year a g e c l a s s ( 3 8 . 8 -
5 0 . 3 % ) . S i n c e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n by a g e c l a s s o f m o r t a l i t y i n p r e -
h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be r e l a t i v e l y
homogeneous ( s e e Weiss 1 9 7 3 ) , e v i d e n c e f o r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i q n i f i -
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e m p o r a l l y d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s from t h e same
site is notable.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Changing P a t t e r n s o f S t r e s s
We have p r e s e n t e d e v i d e n c e f o r an i n c r e a s e d l e v e l o f g e n e r a l
s t r e s s t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson. This p a t t e r n i s evidenced i n 8
o f 10 i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 7 ) . I n c r e a s e s i n s t r e s s a r e
i n d i c a t e d by (1) d e c r e a s e d a g e - s p e c i f i c a t t a i n e d l o n g bone l e n g t h
a n d c i r c u m f e r e n c e , ( 2 ) i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a s ,
( 3 ) i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f Wilson b a n d s , ( 4 ) i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y
o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , ( 5 ) i n c r e a s e d frequency of i n f e c t i o u s
l e s i o n s , (6) increased frequency of degenerative l e s i o n s , (7) in-
c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n s , and ( 8 ) i n c r e a s e d cumu-
l a t i v e m o r t a l i t y . No d i f f e r e n c e s a r e found f o r t h e f r e q u e n c y o f
H a r r i s l i n e s and t h e d e g r e e o f s e x u a l dimorphism. Independent
o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n s i d e r H a r r i s l i n e s a n d s e x u a l dimorphism t o b e
weak a n d / o r l o w - v a l i d i t y i n d i c a t o r s o f stress ( B u i k s t r a and
Cook, 1980; Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e r e s u l t s
a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e m u l t i p l e conÂi r m a t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a l
h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson.
T h e r e seems t o b e more t h a n o n e c r i t i c a l s t r e s s o r o r c u l t u r a l
dimension l e a d i n g t o i n c r e a s e d stress. Growth i n d i c a t o r s ( l o n g
bone l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e , enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , and Wilson
b a n d s ) a r e c o n s i s t e n t i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g a d e c r e a s e i n growth
v e l o c i t y and a n i n c r e a s e i n g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n a r o u n d t h e a g e s o f
2-4 y e a r s . Based on e t h n o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n s on w e a n l i n g t i m e
and p r a c t i c e among g e r i n d i a n s (Cook 1 9 7 1 ) , t h e s e d a t a may
i m p l i c a t e t h e d i e t o f t h e w e a n l i n g and, s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e i n c r e a s e d
u s e o f maize i n t h i s d i e t . These d a t a , i n c o n s o r t with an i n c r e a s e
i n t h e f r e q u e n c y and s e v e r i t y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , p o i n t t o t h e
i n c r e a s e d a d o p t i o n o f a maize d i e t , e s p e c i a l l y among w e a n l i n g s , a s
a c a u s e o f p o o r n u t r i t i o n and an i n c r e a s e i n n u t r i t i o n - r e l a t e d
s t r e s s indicators.
O t h e r stress i n d i c a t o r s may i m p l i c a t e o t h e r c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s .
The i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o n may b e bound s y n e r g i c a l l y t o
n u t r i t i o n a l problems r e s u l t i n g from u b i q u i t o u s p a t h o g e n s t h a t
were becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y v i r u l e n t u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f d e -
c r e a s e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e due t o u n d e r - n u t r i t i o n (Dubos 1965 ;
Scrimshaw 1 9 6 4 ) . D e c r e a s e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t o
have b e e n one c a u s e of t h e i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s , a s t h e r e
i s evidence f o r a s s o c i a t i o n of i n f e c t i o u s and n u t r i t i o n a l ( p o r o t i c
h y p e r o s t o s i s ) l e s i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( s e e Mensforth e t
a l . 1978) . However, it i s u n l i k e l y t h a t d e c r e a s e d q u a l i t y o f d i e t
i s t h e o n l y c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y and s e v e r i t y of i n -
fection. Changing s e t t l e m e n t p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n
d e n s i t y and s e d e n t i s m , combined w i t h t h e u s e o f v i r g i n a g r i c u l t u -
r a l s o i l s , a l e s s complex e c o s y s t e m , and i n c r e a s e d t r a d e , a f f o r d s
ample c h a n c e f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n o v e l p a t h o g e n s and t h e i r
m a i n t e n a n c e w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I n sum, i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e may b e due t o a v a r i e t y o f c a u s e s t h a t p e r h a p s worked t o -
gether i n synergetic fashion.
TABLE 11 .17 Summary o f S t r e s s Indicators
Subgroup
Patterns affected
Indicator of s t r e s s a (age i n years) Differences observed Genera l comment
hJ
w
00 Long bone + 1-7 Attained growth i s l e s s for Decreased growth v e l o c i t y
growth t i b i a and femur i n the a t 2-5 y r . : chronic
.
5-20-yr group^ (nutrition-related) stress
i n infancy and childhood.
Some catch-up occurs.
Sexual 0 None ( p e l v i c and femoral Weak i n d i c a t o r - t e s t of
d'imorphism measures) s t r e s s -for methodological
and theoretical reasons.
Harris l i n e s 0 None ( d i s t a l and proximal Weak Â¥indicato based on ex-
tibia) perimental evidence
Enamel -t 2-4 Frequency and l i n e s i n MM i s Good seasonal ( n u t r i t i o n -
hypop lasia
c
twice t h a t o LW. MALW i s
intermediate
r e latedl s t r e s s indicator.
Wilson bands + 2-4 Approximately 70%increase Nutritionrelated. Strong

from MALW t o MM. predictor of age a t death.
Porotic ++ 0-1 5 Fourfold increase from LW t o Nutrition s t r e s s ( i r o n ) .
hyperostosis MM with increase i n severi- Modeled and wiremodeled
t y and involvement^ not distinguished.
Infectious ++ A l l ages Threefold increase from LW- Chronic i n f e c t i o n . Endemic
lesions MALW t o MM. Also, increase i n MM. Synergistic with
i n severity- porotic hyperostosis.
Good predictor of age a t
death.
Trauma + 15-65 Twofold increase from LW- Strongest difference noted

MALW t o MM for appendicular i n males. Suggests i n t e r -
fractures personal s t r i f e .
Degenerative + 15-65 65% increase from L W t o MM. Chronic wear and t e a r
lesions Increase i n s e v e r i t y (cen- (physical s t r e s s ) i s
w trum and o s t e o p h y t o s i s ) ^ greatest i n males.
^0
Mortality ++ 0-10 dy; + gx increase while Best indicator of s t r e s s
and eo decrease. Curnu- and i n a b i t i t y t o adapt.
l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s are Most severe i n subadults.
significant. b
a-, decrease through time; 0, no change through time; +, increase through time; ++, strong increase
through time.
bobserved d i f f e r e n c e s were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL. I
I
The frequency of d e g e n e r a t i v e and t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s i n -
c r e a s e d over time i n a d u l t s and e s p e c i a l l y a d u l t males. Degener-
a t i v e patholoqy i s i n f e r r e d t o be due t o i n c r e a s e d physical-work
s t r e s s . Traumatic patholoqy may b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e r e s u l t of
physical-work s t r e s s o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l s t r i f e . The l a t t e r explana-
t i o n i s n o t u n l i k e l y given t h e evidence f o r f o r t i f i c a t i o n a t t h e
Larson s i t e . These d a t a p o i n t t o an i n c r e a s e d degree o f competi-
tion. I
Toward a Regional Model of p r e h i s t o r i c Health
The Dickson Mounds c a s e i s one i n which i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n

d e n s i t y and sedentism occur roughly contemporaneously w i t h i n t e n -
s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r e and i n c r e a s e d evidence f o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l
disruption. However, it i s d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n t h e extreme degree
t o which s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s based o n l y on t h e s e o r o t h e r l o c a l ecolo-
gical factors. Harn (l98O:l, 7-81 documents t h e unusually w e l l -
balanced n a t u r a l environment o f t h e Dickson a r e a (Fulton County)
and b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a r e a i s g r e a t
enough throughout Dickson's p r e h i s t o r y t o s u s t a i n even t h e l a r g e r
MM population ( a l s o s e e Caldwell 1 9 5 8 ) . Furthermore, t h e r e i s
abundant evidence from a r t i f a c t a n a l y s e s t h a t hunting and g a t h e r i n g
a r e major a c t i v i t i e s throughout t h e MM (Harn 1980:81-82). Local
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l e a d s one t o b e l i e v e
t h a t t h i s i s an e x c e l l e n t environment f o r a p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n
and t h a t abundant use was made of t h e l o c a l r e s o u r c e s throughout
t h e p e r i o d of occupation. One would p r e d i c t t h a t n u t r i t i o n would
be adequate. L e f t t o i t s own, a s a c l o s e d c u l t u r a l - e c o l o g i c a l
system, Dickson would seem t o be a b l e t o do w e l l . However, it i s
n o t a c l o s e d system and t h e evidence i s t h a t it does n o t do w e l l .
The model we propose f o r Dickson i s one of i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s
through time r e s u l t i n g p r i m a r i l y from i t s occupying e x p l o i t a b l e
p o s i t i o n i n a r e g i o n a l system o f i d e o l o g i c a l and economic exchange.
I n c r e a s e s i n p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and sedentism and i n c r e a s e d use of
a g r i c u l t u r e may be o f secondary importance to t h e p o s s e s s i o n of an
e x p l o i t a b l e p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a l a r g e r system. I n c r e a s e d population
d e n s i t y and sedentism and i n c r e a s e d use of a g r i c u l t u r e may become
important only when l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e poor and/or
a r e r e l a t e d t o a r e g i o n a l system of e x p l o i t a t i o n . A t Dickson i t
appears t h a t t h e s t r e s s e s of a g r i c u l t u r e a r e absorbed l o c a l l y b u t
t h e b e n e f i t s a r e enjoyed a t a p l a c e o u t s i d e of t h e l o c a l ecosystem.
The b i o c u l t u r a l systems o f t h e Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s may have been
a b l e t o a d j u s t t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of l o c a l changes such a s an i n -
c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of maize a g r i c u l t u r e .
However, p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r e g i o n a l M i s s i s s i p p i a n systems i n t h e
I l l i n o i s Valley placed a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e l o c a l popula-
t i o n s . The i n t e r a c t i o n of l o c a l and r e g i o n a l changes, e s p e c i a l l y
those revolving around a p o s s i b l y unbalanced flow of economic r e -
s o u r c e s , may have imposed a s t r e s s load t h a t could no longer be
buffered by t h e s u b o r d i n a t e p o p u l a t i o n s such a s Dickson.
In conclusion, we have p r e s e n t e d Dickson a s a case study of

h e a l t h change a t a s i n g l e s i t e . Our d a t a have provided m u l t i p l e
confirmations t h a t s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d through time. This i s e v i -
denced i n measures of growth d i s r u p t i o n and r e t a r d a t i o n , d i s e a s e ,
and m o r t a l i t y . Our conclusions about t h e causes of increased
s t r e s s a r e based on an examination of both l o c a l and l a r g e r r e -
g i o n a l processes. J u s t a s i t would be ill advised t o explain
p a t t e r n s o f d i s e a s e i n contemporary s o c i e t i e s without r e f e r e n c e
t o t h e i r involvement i n t h e modern world system, s o a l s o would i t
be ill advised t o explain h e a l t h a t t h i s p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e without
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p r e c a p i t a l i s t systems of which t h e Mississippian
c u l t u r e i s an example. The bones and t e e t h from Dickson t e l l a
t a l e of i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s which may be due t o t h e e x p l o i t a b l e po-
s i t i o n o f t h e Dickson population w i t h i n a r e g i o n a l system. T e s t i n g
t h i s model i s p o s s i b l e by comparison of t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of ag-
r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and
increased sedentism on populations t h a t vary i n t h e i r involvement
i n l a r g e r systems and i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n within t h e s e systems.
Information f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t i n g of t h i s model may be pro-
vided w i t h i n t h i s volume.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish t o acknowledge t h e work o f Mark Cohen, S t a t e University

of New York C o l l e g ~a t P l a t t s b u r g h , i n providing t h e opportunity
f o r summarizing t h e paleoepidemiological d a t a . G r e a t e s t apprecia-
t i o n i s accorded t o Alan Ham, Dickson Mound Museum, Lewistown,
I l l i n o i s , f o r h i s p a t i e n c e and kind s p i r i t i n c l a r i f y i n g archaeolo-
g i c a l d a t a and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The f i n a l w r i t i n g o f t h i s chapter
was supported i n p a r t by N I D R Grant No. DE07047-07.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J. L.
1962 The human skeleton: A manual for areheologists. National
Museum of Canada, Toronto.
Armelagos, G. J .
1967 Future work i n paleopathology. In Miscellaneous papers i n
paleopathology, e d i t e d by W . D . Wade, pp. 1-8. hfuseum of
Northern Arizona Technical Series No. 7.
Armelagos, G. J . , A. H. Goodman, and S . Bickerton
1980 Determining n u t r i t i o n a l and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s t r e s s i n
p r e h i s t o r i c populations ( A b s t r a c t ) . American Journal o f
Physical Anthropology 5 2 :201.
302 ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL
A s c a d i , G., a n d J. Nemeskeri
1971 History o f human l i f e span and m o r t a l i t y . Akademia,
Budapest.
B i c k e r t o n , S.
1979 P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c Amerindian p o p u l a t i o n
from Dickson Mound. P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n
A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , H e n n i k e r , New Hampshire.
B u i k s t r a , J . , and D. Cook
1980 P a l e o p a t h o l o g y : An American a c c o u n t . Annual Review of
C a l d w e l l , J . R.
1 9 5 8 Trend and t r a d i t i o n i n t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e e a s t e r n United
S t a t e s . I Z l i n o i s S t a t e Museum Sc-ientif-ic Papers 1 0 .
C a r l s o n , D . S . , G. J. Armelagos, and D. P . Van Gerven
1974 F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e e t i o l o g y o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i n
p r e h i s t o r i c Nubia. J o u d of Human Evolution 3:405-410.
C a s s e l , J.
1976 The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l environment t o h o s t resist-
a n c e . American Journal of Epidemiology 104 (2) :107-12 3.
Cohen, J.
1974 Population d i f f e r e n c e s i n dental morphology viewed i n
terms of high and low h e r i t a b i l ' i t y . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t
t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g s o f t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n of P h y s i c a l
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , Amherst.
Conrad, L., and Alan Harn
1972 The Spoon R i v e r c u l t u r e i n t h e c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s V a l l e y .
M s . o n f i l e , Dickson Mounds S t a t e Museum, Lewistown,
Illinois.
D i t c h , L . , and J . Rose
1972 A m u t i v a r i a t e d e n t a l s e x i n g t e c h n i q u e . American J o u h
Physical Anthropology 3 7 ( 1 ) :61-64.
Dubos, R.
1965 Mankind adapting. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven.
Fowler, M. L.
1969 The Cahokia s i t e . I n I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n Cahokia a r c h e o l o g y ,
e d i t e d by M. Fowler. I l z i n o i s Archeology Survey B u l l e t i n
No. 7 .
1978 Cahokia i n t h e American Bottom: Settlement archeology.
I n Mississippian settlement patterns, e d i t e d by B . S m i t h ,
pp. 455-477. Academic P r e s s , N e w York.
G a m , S. M., F . N . S i l v e r m a n , K . P . H e r t z o q , and C. G. Rohman
1968 L i n e s and b a n d s of i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y : T h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n
t o growth and development. ~ e d i e a lRadiography and
Photography 44:58-89.
Goodman, A .
1980 P o l y n o m i a l r e g r e s s i o n s o f d e n t a l a g e w i t h l o n g bone l e n g t h
f o r Dickson Mounds s u b a d u l t s . M s . on f i l e , Department of
A n t h r o p o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst.
Goodman, A. H . , and G . R . C l a r k
1981 H a r r i s l i n e s a s i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s i n p r e h i s t o r i c 1 l l i n o i s
populations. I n Biocultural adaptation: Comprehensive

a p p r o a c h e s t o s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s , e d i t e d by D . L. M a r t i n
and M. P . Bumstead, p p . 35-46. Department of Anthropology
University of Massachusetts Amherst Research Reports
No. 20.
Gustav, B.
1972 Sexual dimorphism i n the adult bony p e l i v i s of a prehis-
t o r i c human p o w a t i o n from I l l i n o i s . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s ,
Amherst.
Harn, A.
1971 The prehistory o f Diokson Mounds: A preliminary report.
I l l i n o i s S t a t e Museum, S p r i n g f i e l d .
1978 M i s s i s s i p p i a n s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n t h e c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s
River Valley. I n Mississippian settlement patterns,
e d i t e d by B. Smith, pp. 233-268. Academic P r e s s , New York.
1980 The p r e h i s t o r y o f Dickson Mounds: The Dickson e x c a v a t i o n .
I l l i n o i s S t a t e Museum Report No. 36.
n.d. The a r c h e o l o g y o f Dickson Mounds. M s . on f i l e , Dickson
Mounds Museum, Lewistown, I l l i n o i s .
H i n k l e , L. E .
1974 The e f f e c t o f e x p o s u r e t o c u l t u r a l change, s o c i a l change
and c h a n g e s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s on h e a l t h . In
S t r e s s f u l l i f e events: Their nature and e f f e c t s , e d i t e d
by B. S. Dohrenwend and B. P . Dohrenwend, p p . 9-44. Wiley,
New York.
Huss-Ashmore, R . , A. H. Goodman, and G . J. Armelagos
1982 N u t r i t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e from p a l e o p a t h o l o g y . I n Advances i n
archeological method and theory, ~ o l .5 , e d i t e d by M.
S c h i f f e r , p p . 395-474. Academic P r e s s , New York.
K r e s h o v e r , S.
1960 M e t a b o l i c d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t o o t h f o r m a t i o n . Annals of the
New York Academy of Science 85:161-167.
Krogman, W.
1962 The human skeleton i n forensic medicine. Thomas,
Springfield.
L a l l o , J.
1973 The s k e l e t a l biology o f three prehistoric American Indian
s o c i e t i e s from Dickson Mounds. P ~ . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s ,
Amherst.
L a l l o , J . , G. J. Armelagos, and R . P. M e n s f o r t h
1977 The r o l e o f d i e t , d i s e a s e and p h y s i o l o g y i n t h e o r i g i n of
p o r o t i c hyperostosis. Human biology 4 9 ( 3 ) :471-483.
L a l l o , J . , G . J. Armelagos, and J . C. Rose
1978 P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n t h e Dickson
Mounds p o p u l a t i o n . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly
1 4 ( 1 ) :17-23.
L a l l o , J . , J . C . Rose, a n d G . J . Armelagos
1980 An e c o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of v a r i a t i o n i n m o r t a l i t y
w i t h i n t h r e e p r e h i s t o r i c American I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s from
Dickson Mounds. I n P r e h i s t o r i c North Americans, e d i t e d

by D. Bowman, pp. 203-238. Moulton, The Hague.
McHenry, H.
1968 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n l o n g b o n e s i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a
Indians . American J o u r m l of Physical Anthropology 29:
1-17.
McKern, T. W . , a n d T. D. S t e w a r t
1957 S k e l e t a l a g e c h a n g e s i n young American m a l e s . The t e c h n i -
cal report. The Q u a r t e r m a s t e r R e s e a r c h and Development
Command, N a t i c k , M a s s a c h u s e t t s .
M e n s f o r t h , R. P . , C. 0. Lovejoy, J. W. L a l l o , and G. J. Armelagos
1978 The r o l e o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s , d i e t , a n d i n f e c t i o u s
p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n .
Medical Anthropology 2 :1-59.
Nichens, P .
1975 P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y o f Mesa Verde Anasazi p o p u l a t i o n s :
L i n e s of i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y . M s . on f i l e , Department o f
Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , Boulder.
P a r k , E . A.
1964 The i m p r i n t i n g of n u t r i t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s on t h e growing
b o n e . Pediatrics 33 ( S u p p l . ) :815-862.
Rose, J . C . , G. J . Armelagos, a n d J. W. L a l l o
1978 H i s t o l o g i c a l enamel i n d i c a t o r s o f c h i l d h o o d stress i n p r e -
h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l s a m p l e s . American J o u d of Physical
Anthropology 4 9 : 511-516.
S a r n a t , B. G . , a n d I . S c h o u r
1941 Enamel h y p o p l a s i a ( c h r o n i c enamel a p l a s i a ) i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
t o s y s t e m i c d i s e a s e s : A c h r o n o l o g i c a l , morphologic and
e t i o l o g i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Journal of the American Dental
Association 28:1989-2000.
Schour, I . , and M. M a s s l e r
1944 Development o f t h e human d e n t i t i o n . The American D e n t a l
A s s o c i a t i o n , Chicago.
1945 The e f f e c t s o f d i e t a r y d e f i c i e n c i e s upon o r a l s t r u c t u r e s .
Journal of tine. American Dental Association 32:871-879.
Scrimshaw, N .
1964 E c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n n u t r i t i o n a l d i s e a s e . American
Journal of C l i n i c a l Nutrition 14:112-122.
Selye, H.
1976 S t r e s s i n health and disease. B u t t e r s w o r t h , Boston.
S i e g e l , S.
1956 Nonparametrio s t a t i s t i c s for the behavioral sciences.
McGraw-Hill , New York.
S t i n i , W . A.
1969 N u t r i t i o n a l stress and growth: Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d a p t i v e
r e s p o n s e . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 31:
417-426.
Todd, T. W.
1937 Atlas of s k e l e t a l maturation. Mosby, S t . L o u i s .
Van Gerven, D.
1972 Skeletal dimorphism i n t h e adult femur. ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst.
Weiss, K.
1973 Demographic models f o r anthropology. Soczkty for American
Archeology Memoirs NO. 2 7.
Wells, C .
1967 A new approach t o p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : Harris lines. In
Disease i n a n t i q u i t y , e d i t e d by D . R . Brothwell and
A . T. Sandison, pp. 390-404. Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d .
woodall, J.
1968 Growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n long bones o f t h e Cases Grandes
population. Plains Anthropology 13 :152-160.
I
CHAPTER 1;
[
I
SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE ADAPTATION
I N THE CENTRAL O H I O RIVER#zVALLEY
Claire Monod Cassidy

I
D i v i s i o n o f Behavioral and S o c i a l S c i e n c e s
U n i v e r s i t y o f Maryland
The c e n t r a l Ohio River Valley i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s

, of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h
because t h e a r e a i s e c o l o g i c a l l y r i c h and was s t e a d i l y u t i l i z e d
I i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , because it seems t o have been t h e p o i n t of
o r i g i n f o r t h e e a r l i e s t p r a c t i c e of a g r i c u l t u r e i n e a s t e r n North
America, and because a l a r g e number o f s i t e s have been dug and a t
l e a s t p a r t i a l l y analyzed
I n t h i s c h a p t e r I c o n s i d e r s k e l e t a l and d i e t a r y evidence from
three archaeological c u l t u r e periods: t h e Arehxie (about 7500-
2250 B P ) ; Adena ( e a r l y t o middle Woodland, a b o u t 3800-1750 B P ) ;
and Fort Ancient ( M i s s i s s i p p i a n , about 1250-275 B P 1 Geograph-
i c a l l y t h e a n a l y s i s i s l i m i t e d t o s e l e c t e d sites in Kentucky and
contiguous o r c u l t u r a l l y r e l a t e d a r e a s o f w e s t e r n Tennessee and
southeastern Ohio ( F i g u r e 12 1)
Because t h e developmental q u e s t i o n s w e p o s e cannot be a n a l y z e d
, i n s i t u a t any one s i t e i n t h e r e g i o n , c o n c l u s i o n s a r e drawn from
cross-comparisons among s i t e s This procedure is r e l i a b l e because
; the r e g i o n i s environmentally homogeneous and because p o p u l a t i o n s
a r e g e n e t i c a l l y a l s o q u i t e homogeneous Thus observed h e a l t h
changes can a p p r o p r i a t e l y be e x p l a i n e d p r i m a r i l y in terms o f
I changing c u l t u r a l - s u b s i s t e n c e v a r i a b l e s . Existing d a t a permit
t h i s a n a l y s i s t o cover n e a r l y 6000 y e a r s
s Kentucky s - ~ t e swere excavated before 1950; the s i t e

reports o f t e n lack quantitative and population perspectives or
analytic i n t e r e s t i n skeletal pathology or subsistence mode,
limiting t h e i r u t i l i t y for the present analysis Brose (2973)
and S c h a r t z (1967 discuss the historical development of archae-
ological method relevant t o the central Ohio River Valley
BE AGRICULTURE 307 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0-12-179080-0
CLAIRE MONOD CASSiu I'
e a l sites by county
OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CULTURES, FOOD
The p h y s i c a l environment o f t h e Kentucky r e g
s l i g h t l y warmer and d r i e r c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t e d d u r i n g t h e A l t i t h e r -
ma1 (5000-2500 B C ; Rolinqson 1964) Now-extinct l a r g e food
mammals ("megafauna") d i s a p p e a r e d between a b o u t 7500 and 4000 B C
(Rolinqson 1964) Afterward, food animals i n c l u d e d d e e r , e l k ,
and black b e a r , many s m a l l e r mammals, b i r d s , t u r t l e s , f i s h , i n
s e c t s , s n a i l s , and mussels Common w i l d p l a n t foods i n c l u d e d
l a r g e v a r i e t y of f r u i t s , b e r r i e s , n u t s , and s e e d s Mesoameric
domesticates appeared i n d i v i d u a l l y o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d , w i t h gourd
and pumpkin-squash being e a r l i e s t , followed by corn and, o n l y
l a t e , by beans Indigenous d o m e s t i c a t e s such a s sunflower and
marsh e l d e r appeared a s e a r l y a s 2000 B.C , b u t may have had a
limited distribution
The Pazeoindian p e r i o d (about 13,000-76000 B P ; Rolinqson
1964) i s p r i m a r i l y known through s u r f a c e c o l l e c t i o n s o f p r o j e c t i l l
points P a l e o i n d i a n s i n h a b i t e d t h e n o r t h e r n and western a r
t h e s t a t e , near t h e major r' They hunted and g a t h e r e d ,
pending on t h e megafauna & . . .
12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY
The Archaic p e r i o d (ca. 8000-2500 B P , o v e r l a p p i n g t h e E a r l y

Woodland, b u t c e a s i n g by 4000-3000 B P i n some a r e a s ) b e g i n s
with t h e e x t i n c t i o n of t h e megafauna and e n d s , by d e f i n i t i o n , w i t h
t h e advent of p o t t e r y Archaic p e o p l e were e f f i c i e n t q a t h e r e r -
h u n t e r s , and by t h e l a t e Archaic t h e y had a food base s u f f i c i e n t
t o s u p p o r t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e i s u r e and sedentism, i n c r e a s i n g popula-
t i o n s , and i n c r e a s i n g ceremonialism (Brown 1977; Caldwell 1958,
1962; Jennings 1974; Winters 1968) They s t o r e d l a r g e amounts of
food, and t h e y may have begun t h e p r o c e s s o f d o m e s t i c a t i o n by
g a t h e r i n g and s t o r i n g w i l d g r a i n s f o r w i n t e r u s e , o r by p r o t e c t i n g
t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s of w i l d f o o d s
The best-known e x p r e s s i o n of t h e Archaic i n Kentucky i s t h e
mid- t o l a t e d a t e Green River complex, t y p i f i e d by deep s h e l l -
f i l l e d mounds a l o n g r i v e r banks i n t h e western p a r t of Kentucky
(Table 12 1) Winters (1969) argued c o n v i n c i n g l y f o r a s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n c o n s i s t i n g of r e p e a t e d l y used l a r g e w i n t e r " s e t t l e m e n t s "
and summer "basecamps" and b r i e f l y used s p e c i a l purpose camps
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s f o r Archaic
groups e i t h e r r e g i o n a l l y o r w i t h i n s i t e s , a l t h o u g h s i t e frequen-
c i e s i n c r e a s e over time and t h e r e a r e l a r g e numbers of f l e x e d p i t
b u r i a l s i n middens Winters ' (1969) s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s y i e l d s
an e s t i m a t e o f 100 p e r s o n s i n w i n t e r s e t t l e m e n t s Based on
exhaustive a n a l y s i s of t r a d e and l o c a l a r t i f a c t s i n b u r i a l s ,
Winters (1968) a r g u e s f o r an e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y
The q u a n t i t i e s o f mussel s h e l l a t l a r g e r s i t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t
b i v a l v e s were an i m p o r t a n t food S p e c i a l i s t s a r e divided a s t o
whether mussels were a valued and h i g h - q u a l i t y food p i v o t a l f o r
s u p p o r t i n g sedentism (Webb 1946; Webb and Haag 1940; Winters 1 9 6 9 ) ,
o r a food used mainly i n times o f hunger (Lewis and Kneberg-Lewis
1961; P e r z i g i a n 1977) Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t mussels were
used when a v a i l a b l e b u t t h a t changes i n r i v e r l e v e l s p e r i o d i c a l l y
drowned t h e beds, f o r c i n g r e l i a n c e on o t h e r r e s o u r c e s (Lewis and
Kneberq-Lewis 1961) S h e l l Mound p e o p l e a l s o u t i l i z e d d e e r and
wild p l a n t foods; cup m o r t a r s and p e s t l e s f o r g r i n d i n g n u t s and
perhaps wild g r a i n s a r e abundant a t t h e s i t e s
A t t h e r e l a t e d Eva s i t e i n western Tennessee, s u b s i s t e n c e em-
phases appear t o have s h i f t e d from d e e r in t h e e a r l y phase t o
mussels i n t h e second phase, and t o n u t s and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e foods
i n t h e t h i r d phase Lewis and Kneberg-Lewis view t h e l a t e s h i f t
a s a response t o t h e l o s s o f mussels due t o bed f l o o d i n g , and of
d e e r due t o over-hunting However, t h i s phase v e r g e s on o r o v e r -
l a p s t h e e a r l y Woodland p e r i o d , which seems everywhere c h a r a c t e r -
i z e d by r e l i a n c e on p l a n t foods ~t o t h e r Archaic s i t e s such a s
t h o s e a t F i s h t r a p R e s e r v o i r , d e e r were p r e f e r r e d and mussels were
unimportant (Dunnell 1966)
The Woodland p e r i o d followed d ' i r e c t l y o u t o f t h e Archaic
(Brown 1977; Dragoo 1976; Jennings 1974; Morgan 1 9 5 2 ) , w i t h e a r l y
s i t e s c l o s e l y resembling Archaic s i t e s b u t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of
pottery Archaic t e n d e n c i e s towards s e d e n t i s m , p o p u l a t i o n i n -
c r e a s e , and s p e c i a l i z e d b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s c o n t i n u e d i n t h i s p e r i o d
S u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s appear t o become i n c r e a s i n g l y f o c a l
TABLE 12 1 Central Ohio River Valley Archaic S i t e s Discussed i n This Chapter
Archaeological Radiocarbon Food
culture period S i t e name Location datesa B P remains^ Human remainsc
Archaic
Green River Chiggervi l l ed Ohio County, +
f -4 skeletons; npa
C o y lex (Newton Brow) KY
+
-
LtJ
0
Cypress Creek8 McLean County,
'Indian Knoll f
KY
Ohio County, 5302 Â 300" +
Ward. 433 skeletons; npa
Kirkland 73 skeletons, npa
1234 skeletons, pa (Table 12 5 )
KY 4112 5 3 0 ( f
~ a r r e t and
t~ McLean County, f +) Barrett: 412 skeletons; npa
Butterfield KY Butterfield: 153 skeletons, npa
Carlson ~ n n i s " - Butler County, 4250 2 80" (+ 390 skeletons, not preserved, ?pa
KY 4040 2 180n
5149 Â 3 0 p
2336 Â 25lf"
7374 k 5 0 p
4900 Â 250"'
4311 Â 3 0 f l
Butler County f+ 247 skeletons, npa
KY
Hopkins County, (+ 133 skeletons, npa
KY
TABLE 12 2 Central Ohio River Valley Woodland S i t e s Discussed i n This Chapter
Archaeo logical Radiocarbon Food
J culture period S i t e name Location datesa B P remains^ Human remainsc
Adem f E d y Pooled data Ohio, Kentucky, + several hundred skeletons and

Woodland) many sites" some W Va cremations; p l
and Pa.
Caldwells ' s Ross County, f+ 2 skeletons; p i
L i t t l e ~ h f f Ohio
Daine s Athens County, 2230 Â 140' + 7 skeletons; npa
~ o u n dfs Ohio
Rock R i f f l e Athens County, + 8 skeletons, 2 cremations; p 2
Run ~ o u n d g Ohio
Roekshe l t e r Red Eye Lee County, (+) 16 skeletons, not preserved; npa
sites, Hollou, e t e h KY
attributed
t o Adena Mult-ipte Wol f e and Powe 11 + 'same I ; npa
sitesz counties, Ky
Neut Kash Menif ee 2600 2 300p + 'some1; npa
~ o t t o u ,e t c County, Ky
Mammoth Cave, Ednonson 2250 2 65k + 2 mummies, 41 fragmentary
S a l t s Cave, County, Ky skeletons, feces, pa
etc k
Darneron 2 Johnson 2070 Â 80' + 1 skeleton, p i
County, Ky 1070 Â 90'
2355 k 65l
Powell County, 1470 Â 65'"
Woodland @4 1415 t 6 ( f
1485 2 55""
1345 2 6p
1245 2 6 ( f
Late Chess er caven Athens County, 88Ot14on + None
Woodland Ohio
a ~ o o t n o t e st o s i t e dates r e f e r t o publication source for date, wherein find discussions of v a l i d i t y -

interpretation
"Key: +: Quantified food data for e i t e (+) Descriptive l i s t i n g ) food data for s i t e .
Â¡Ke pa. pathological analysis (population perspective of skeletons; pi: pathology l i s t i n g for
skeletons npa. no pathological analysis (metric analyses e x i s t for some s i t e s
^Webb and Snow 1945, Webb and Baby 1957; Dragoo 1963; Mwphg 1975 FOP s p e c i f i c Kentucb s i t e s see
Funkhouser and Webb 1935; Webb and Funkhouser 1940, Webb 1940, 1941a,b, 1942, 1943a,b; Webb and E l l i o t t
w 1942, Webb & Haag 1947b
F
w ePrufer and McKensie 1975
fMurphY 1975
SMUrphy 1975
hFunkhouser and Webb 1929
'^.~unkhouserand Webb 1930
Jwebb and. Fgnkhouser 1936, Jones 1936 For plant remains also see Goslin 1957; Y a m e l l 1964, 1965,
Streuver and Viekery 1973; Asch and Asch 1977
k ~ e l s o n1917, Watson 1974 (physical anthropology by Bobbins, Molnur and Ward; parasites by Dusseau and
Porter, Fry, food remains by Stewart, Y a m e l l ) For plant remains also see Yarnell 1964, 1965, Streuver
and Vickery 1973; Aseh and Asch 1977
^Vent0 e t a2 1980 (physical anthropology by D Dirhnaat)
mCowan 1979
nPrufer and MoKenzie 1975
OStreuver and Vickery 1973; Murphy 1975
W e b b .and Baby 1957
314 CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY
( S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973) I n t h e c e n t r a l Ohio R i v e r Valley

t h i s p e r i o d demonstrates two r e g i o n a l c u l t u r a l climaxes, t h e
Adena, focused w i t h i n a 150-mile r a d i u s o f C h i l l e c o t h e , Ohio, and
t h e ' H O ~ ~ U J ~( sZeZe P e r z i g i a n e t a l . , Chapter 13 t h i s volume)
These e x i s t e d from perhaps 1000 B C. t o A.D 600, w i t h Adena
s l i g h t l y p r e d a t i n g and p r e d e c e a s i n g Hopewell Alongside t h e s e
climaxes a s i m p l e r , much l e s s known, Woodland c u l t u r e -p e r s i s t e d
(Cowan 1979; Jennings 1974; P r u f e r and McKenzie 1975)
The Adena c u l t u r e (Dragoo 1963; Webb and Baby 1957; Webb and
Snow 1945) i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e production- o f l a r g e earthworks,
and c o n i c a l b u r i a l mounds c o n t a i n i n g b o t h cremations, and extended
b u r i a l s i n l o g , b a r k , o r c l a y tombs No complete Adena v i l l a g e
has been excavated R o c k s h e l t e r s and cave s i t e s i n Kentucky,
considered Adenan by Webb and Snow (1945) and Webb and Baby (19571,
provide t h e b e s t evidence on Adena d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s .
-
The f r e -
quency of Adena s i t e s , both mounds and r o c k s h e l t e r s ( T a b l e 12.21,
a t t e s t s t o p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h i s p e r i o d , b u t p o p u l a t i o n e s t i -
mates must a w a i t t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f undoubted Adena v i l l a g e s i t e s
Adena b u r i a l mounds y i e l d few o r no food remains Burial
a r t i f a c t s s u g g e s t v a r i o u s animals, m u s s e l s , and n u t s were
consumed The o c c a s i o n a l p r e s e n c e of hoes and spades e a r l y l e d
Webb and Funkhouser t o argue t h a t Adenans p r a c t i c e d a s i m p l e a g r i -
culture Subsequently gourd, pumpkin-squash, chenopodium, and a
s i n g l e corncob have been found a t Adena s i t e s i n Ohio (Murphy
1975; S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973; Y a r n e l l 1964)
The r o c k s h e l t e r and cave s i t e s i n Kentucky c o n t a i n w e l l -
p r e s e r v e d v e g e t a b l e f w d remains t h a t p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e f o r an
-
independent e a s t e r n North American development o f a g r i c u l t u r e

based on indigenous c u l t i g e n s (Asch and Asch 1977; G o s l i n 1957;
Jones 1936; S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973; Y a r n e l l 1964, 1965, 1974)
Sometimes c a l l e d t h e " E a s t e r n A g r i c u l t u r a l Complex," t h i s i n d e -
pendent development d a t e s t o a s e a r l y a s 700 B C and i n c l u d e s a s
d e f i n i t e c u l t i g e n s two Mesoamerican p l a n t s , gourd and squash-
pumpkin, and two "weedy" North American p l a n t s , sunflower and
marsh e l d e r Less c e r t a i n l y c u l t i v a t e d b u t p a r t o f t h e complex
a r e chenopodium , amaranth, canary g r a s s , smartweed, and g i a n t
ragweed
The use of t h e s e p l a n t s f o r food i s confirmed by t h e f i n d i n g
o f t h e i r s e e d s i n f e c e s , a s a t Mammoth and S a l t s c a v e s Many
wild p l a n t s were a l s o i n u s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y n u t s A t S a l t s Cave
I 65-80% of f e c a l bulk was p l a n t food remains, e s p e c i a l l y marsh
1 e l d e r , sunflower, and h i c k o r y n u t ( S t e w a r t 1974) Approximately
~ 77% o f t h e t o t a l was c u l t i v a t e d . Animals made o n l y a s m a l l con-
t r i b u t i o n t o d i e t . Watson (1974) concludes t h a t t h e S a l t s Cave
I people were p r i m a r i l y v e g e t a r i a n s , and t h a t c u l t i v a t e d s e e d s of
1 t h e E a s t e r n A g r i c u l t u r a l Complex, w i t h h i c k o r y n u t s , made up
most of t h e i r d i e t The seeds were e v i d e n t l y g a t h e r e d i n f a l l
and s t o r e d over t h e w i n t e r , f o r f e c e s c o n t a i n i n g both f a l l s e e d s
and remains of p e r i s h a b l e s p r i n g f r u i t s were found a t S a l t s Cave
- 12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 315
Not a l l Adena s i t e s c o n t a i n c u l t i g e n s , n o r a r e a l l s i t e s con-

t a i n i n g indigenous d o m e s t i c a t e s c u l t u r a l l y Adena For example,
Adena components a t t h e Dameron and Sparks r o c k s h e l t e r s (Vento e t
a1 1 9 8 0 ) c o n t a i n no c u l t i g e n s However, the Middle Woodland
(non-Adena) Haystack r o c k s h e l t e r s (Cowan 1979) c o n t a i n b o t h wild
p l a n t s and indigenous c u l t i g e n s , showing t h a t t h e l a t t e r c o n t i n u e d
t o be used a f t e r t h e Adena p e r i o d Corn was n o t an important c u l -
l t i g e n i n Adena and Middle Woodland t i m e s d e s p i t e i t s o c c a s i o n a l
appearance i n s i t e s ( S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973) However, by t h e
Late Woodland t h e b e t t e r adapted n o r t h e r n f l i n t v a r i e t y o f corn
( G a l i n a t 1965) was becoming widespread
The n e x t c u l t u r a l climax i n t h e c e n t r a l Ohio River V a l l e y r e -
gion i s t h e Mississippian, r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e r e g i o n a l v a r i a n t
F Fort Ancient ( a b o u t A D 950-1675) , ( G r i f f i n 1943, 1967; P r u f e r
and Shane 1 9 7 0 ) . F o r t Ancient people l i v e d i n permanent v i l l a g e s ,
o f t e n f o r t i f i e d , w i t h c e n t r a l p l a z a s and p l a t f o r m mounds Burial
was i n mounds and b e s i d e houses F o r t Ancient d i s a p p e a r s a s a
d i s t i n c t c u l t u r e a t t h e beginning o f t h e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d , a p p a r e n t -
; l y without t h e people having experienced d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h
Europeans (Hanson 1968; P r u f e r and Shane 1970)
Growing p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e F o r t Ancient
period B l a i n V i l l a g e , a small e a r l y s i t e , may have c o n t a i n e d
100-400 people ( P r u f e r and Shane 1970) ; Cassidy (1980a) e s t i m a t e s
t h a t Hardin V i l l a g e , a l a t e s i t e , i n i t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d j u s t o v e r
100 people and by abandonment 150 y e a r s l a t e r c o n t a i n e d o v e r 350
S i t e s a r e numerous along t h e r i v e r s , s o p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e range
of t e n s of thousands may have e x i s t e d
S c h o l a r s q u e s t i o n whether F o r t Ancient r e p r e s e n t s an i n f l u x o f
people c a r r y i n g Mesoamerican i d e a s , o r is a l o c a l development i n -
fluenced by t h e d i f f u s i o n of i d e a s , n o t p e o p l e , from o u t s i d e
(Murphy 1975; P r u f e r and Shane 1970; Robbins and Neumann 1972)
The weight of evidence2 seems t o f a v o r g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y and an
indigenous development f o r F o r t Ancient
There i s no s t r i c t d i v i d i n g l i n e between F o r t Ancient and
e a r l i e r p e r i o d s i n terms of f o o d s , because dependence o n corn aq-
r i c u l t u r e a p p a r e n t l y o c c u r s i n t h e l a t e Woodland. However, F o r t
Ancient people ( T a b l e 12 3 ) seem t o have i n t e n s i f i e d a bottomland
- a g r i c u l t u r e (Dunnell 1966) f o c u s i n g h e a v i l y on c o r n , beans, and
~ r u f e rand Shane (1970) argue on archaeologôal grounds t h a t

some human i n f l u x may have occurred early i n Fort Ancient times
i n t h e Seioto Valley. Bobbins and Neumann (1972) measured skele-
tons and found, i n contrast, thut indigenes of the W i n i d " type
were i n Ohio andmost of Kentucky during most of th Fort Ancient
period, and only l a t e did scutnem rfbfuskogid" peoples enter
northem Kentucky and nearby Ohio Murphy (1975), also favoring
indigenous development, noted t h a t corn arrived well before the
Mississippian period and t h a t Late Woodland v i l l a g e s shew many
typical 'Fort Ancient characteristies
TABLE 12 a Central Ohio River Valley Fort Ancient S i t e s Discussed i n Th.is Chapter
Arehaeo logical Radiocarbon Food b 0

culture period S i t e name Location datesa B P Remains Human remains
Fort Ancient Pooled data Ohio, Ky nany skeletons, npa or pi
w
(Mississippian) many s i t e s s
+
O\
Ross County, (AD 970-1225 8 skeletons, p i

v i l lagee ) Ohio
Graham Hoe king 770 Â 145f + 1 skeleton; npa
V i l lagef County, Ohio (AD 1180)
Gabriel ^ Athens 550 Â 155 g
AD 1450)
+ none
County, Ohio
MeCune Athens 630 10og + 2 skeletons, p i
County, Ohio (AD 1320)
Fis htrap Pike Cou 479 125 (+) none
Reservoir, KY f A D 1471)
Woodside
Phas q
~intz1' Campbe 11 (+) none
County, Ky
~uekner^ Bourbon +#&fc&'-&A 8 skeletons, pi
County, KY
-
-+A; TOW
^CO 0^
(0-
318 CLAIRE MONOD CASSI
Deer Heavy Medium Medium
Mussels Light Heavy Present
Nuts and Other Wild Medium Medium

Plant Foods
Sunflower, Marshelder Absent Absent

and Other Indigenous
Cu ltigens
Gourd and Squash Absent Absent
Years BP
squash A seasonal hunting p a t t e r n continued but was a p p a r e n t l y

i n e f f i c i e n t and was based q u i t e narrowly on deer and perhaps e l k
Wild p l a n t foods and mussels continued t o be used
Much of t h e evidence f o r i n t e n s i v e corn a g r i c u l t u r e i s i n d i r e
a r e united i n t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t F o r t Ancient people depended on

corn, excavations have n o t a c t u a l l y demonstrated t h e p r o p o r t i o n s
which F o r t Ancient people used t h e i r various foods
Diet
Although t h e record i s clouded by problems o f p r e s e r v a t i o n ,

recovery, and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of food remains, s e v e r a l t r e n d s can
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d (Table 14 4 ) :
12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 319
1 Although w i l d foods were used throughout t h e p r e h i s t o r i c

period, a s t i m e passed t h e r e was conversion from a broad t o n a r -
row s u b s i s t e n c e focus This s h i f t c o r r e l a t e d with increasing
population d e n s i t i e s , sedentism, and c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n , b u t 1
the c a u s a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e obscure.
2 The I n d i a n s seem t o have a l t e r e d econiches t o i n c r e a s e t h e
e x t e n t o r frequency o f d e s i r e d ones, as t o f a v o r weedy p l a n t s
(Brown 1977; Dunnell 1966; S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973) o r d e e r
("semidomestication, " Hudson 1976)
3 Hunting was p r a c t i c e d throughout t h e pe2iod; d e e r was t h e
p r e f e r r e d animal The d i e t a r y importance of a n i m a l s a p p a r e n t l y
declined a s e a r l i e r e f f i c i e n t broad-spectrum s e a s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n
slowly transformed t o a narrow ecozone f o c u s u s i n g i n e f f i c i e n t
hunting t e c h n i q u e s By l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , d e e r (and o t h e r
animals) were merely supplementary t o a c u l t i v a t e d grain-legume
diet
4 A wide v a r i e t y o f wild p l a n t foods was u t i l i z e d throughout
the p e r i o d ; t h e y made an important c o n t r i b u t i o n t o d i e t a t l e a s t
u n t i l F o r t Ancient t i m e s
I 5 Two climaxes o c c u r r e d w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e u s e o f c u l t i v a t e d
foods, w i t h an e a r l y , l a r g e l y indigenous s e t of c u l t i g e n s appear-
ing i n L a t e Archaic-Early Woodland times and b e i n g h e a v i l y
1 u t i l i z e d i n t o t h e Middle Woodland; and w i t h a well-adapted n o r t h -
I ern f l i n t corn a r r i v i n g i n Middle Woodland t i m e s , followed by
, beans, s o t h a t from t h e L a t e Woodland and c l e a r l y d u r i n g F o r t
Ancient times, s u b s i s t e n c e depended on Mesoamerican c u l t i g e n s
The l a c k o f p l a n t food e v i d e n c e from t h e Archaic may r e s u l t a s
much from t h e f a c t t h a t s i t e s were excavated b e f o r e f l o t a t i o n
technique was known a s t o a c t u a l low use of p l a n t foods by t h e s e
people Whatever t h e c a s e , t h e i r d i e t s t r a d i t i o n a l l y have been
v i s u a l i z e d a s high i n animal p r o t e i n A f t e r t h e Archaic, d i e t s
were i n c r e a s i n g l y v e g e t a r i a n , f i r s t based i n wild foods and i n -
digenous c u l t i g e n s , and l a t e r i n Mesoamerican c u l t i g e n s
6
The dietary and subsistence trends, including t h e use of cut-
, tigens, seem t o have been ut-ilised by ati of the people i n t h e
region, and n o t just by those who participated in cl;max c u l t u r e s
Although archaeological materials are. adequate t o analyze t h e re-
lationship of subsistence and health diachron'ical'Ly (as herein),
a "best t e s t " of the problem would inelude a synchron'ia analysis^
that i s , comparison of health parameters between climax and non-
climax s i t e s (= peoples) of t h e same date Such an analysis
would help c l a x i f y th speei f i e r e lationship of c u l t u r a l complexity
t o health. More non-climax regional s i t e s must be excavated before
such an analysis can be performed.
00wTOQ
% C"^ Q k-i
aCO=?OOwOOuCO 00 Q Q TO M CO O m 00 to
MC\3TOt-1 QTOTO QC^
wTOosw QQQCO
m w 'in COIN-MM S E E S S E E S E E
IN-
V-l
vl
L
ad 3 74, mid 5 6,
e a r l y 2 34
0 0
ad 0 0; mid 5 6,
early 0 0
ad 4 3, mid 0 0;
early 5 1
B'&e 'test
Table 15 5 (Continued)
Statistics 2
Indian Knoll Hardin Village Signi ficance of
Health Indicators N = 295 N = 296 S i t e Differences
-- -
Other Health Indicators

Mean number growth arrest l i n e s / t i b i u 11 3 ( R = 2 - 2 5 ) 4 1 (R= 0 - 18
Percentage w/lineal enme 2 hypoptasia,
adult C, a i l ages and degrees m 86 5; f 86 0; m 91 9, f 73 0, ns
ns, ad 93.8 ns; ad 91 3
Percentage with severe LEH only m 2.1; f 2 3; m 13 5, f 8 1, P< os
ns, ad 18 8 ns, ad 4 3
Percentage w/LEH, M3, a l l degrees m 11 5; f 7 0, n s m 13 5; f 16.2; ns ns
Percentage LEE deciduous incisors 0 0 9 1 *
Percentage LEH deciduous canines
L*J
M and molars 0 0 12.1 *
Mean value cortical index, 17-29 m 51; f 51 m 37, f 37 m p < 01,
f : p < 01
Mean value c o r t i c a l index, 30-49 m 47: f 36 m 37; f 33 m: p < 01, f ns
asource: Cassidy 1972; random sample of University of Kentucky Indian Knoll collections, e n t i r e
Hardin Village sample Key: m = male, f = female; ad = adolescent 12-16 years; mid = mid-childhood
6-11 years; early = early childhood 0-5 years, S* = S t a t i s t i c a l l y significant, see indicated footnote;
ns = not s t a t i s t i c a l l y significant; not calc = not calculated, * = indicator value zero a t one s i t e so
s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s cannot be performed.
^Snow 1948) i n the t o t a l sample of 1234 skeletons found 27 1% died i n the f i r s t 48 months
Â¡Sno 1948) divided the skeletons i n t o 'newborn and a few months ' = 6 2% and ' i n f a n t s t o 3 '
= 21.0% Johnston and S n w (1961 found 19 5% died i n the f i r s t 12 months
d~ohnstonand Snow (1961 found 9 6% of deaths i n months 12-60, Cassidy (1972 found 10 9% i n the
same i n t e r v a l
Â¥^~ohnsto and Snow (1961) found 3.3% died over age 40; Snow (1948) found 4 9% died over age 36
Differences among authors are due mainly t o differences i n aging techniques used
gin addition t o diseases l i s t e d i n table, Snow (1948) found r i c k e t s i n one 8 months i n f a n t , 3
cases of kidney/bladder stones and many external auditory exostoses Cassidy found 6 7 % of adult
males had exostoses so large as t o nea* occlude t h e meatus
"'Â¥HardiVillage females had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more caries than Indian Knoll females for upper M3, a l l
other upper t e e t h and lower molars; remaining lower t e e t h had no caries a t Indian Knoll. Hardin V i l -
lage males had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more caries than Indian Knoll males for a l l molars, C and P2, remaining
teeth had no caries a t Indian Knoll
Îndian Knoll males and females had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more molar abscesses than Hardin Village males
and females A t other tooth positions s i t e differences are not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
SIndian Knoll males had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more pulp exposures than Hardin Village males i n upper M l ,
P12; Hardin Village males had no pulp exposures o f upper M2, C, I1 and lower P I , 112; there were no
s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n remainder Hardin Village f ernales had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more pulp exposures
w than Indian Knoll females a t upper M3, lower P12, C, and no pulp exposures a t upper and lower 11, and
Indian Knoll females none a t lower 112, remaining t e e t h were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n frequency
of pulp exposures Antemortem tooth loss i s not age related a t Hardin Village, but occurs mainly i n
the elderly a t Indian Knoll Indian Knoll males l o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more t e e t h antemortern than Indian
Knoll, females Males a t Indian Knoll and Hardin Village l o s t similar numbers of t e e t h antemortern;
Hartin Village females l o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more t e e t h antemortem than Indian Knoll females Relative
tooth wear a t Indian K n o l l i s "heavy", a t Hardin Village "moderate Ir
k r r ~ o s s i b l e "cases accounted for an additional 3 1% a t Indian Knoll and 6 1% a t Hardin Village
CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY
SKELETAL PATHOLOGY
Only f o u r s i t e s i n t h e Kentucky r e g i o n have been w e l l analyzed

f o r pathology Our knowledge o f t h e Archaic i s t o o dependent on
Indian Knoll, whereas numerous s k e l e t o n s from o t h e r s i t e s , i n c l u d -
i n g Eva, have n o t been a d e q u a t e l y analyzed Hundreds o f F o r t
Ancient s k e l e t o n s e x i s t , and though measured (Robbins and Neumann
1972) a r e n o t y e t analyzed. The e x c e p t i o n i s Hardin V i l l a g e
( c a s s i d y 1972) A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s f o r Adena, which i s
a d d i t i o n a l l y handicapped by t h e complexity o f b u r i a l modes and
their interpretation
Archaic: I n d i a n Knoll S i t e
Because l i t t l e i s known o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y , a l l I n d i a n Knoll

s k e l e t o n s must be t r e a t e d a s o n e Archaic p o p u l a t i o n d e s p i t e a r t i -
f a c t u a l evidence of b r i e f E a r l y Woodland s i t e use. Social s t r a t i
f i c a t i o n does n o t seem t o have a f f e c t e d b u r i a l p a t t e r n s , s o sub-
samples can r e f l e c t t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n
Demogvaph<cs of Eealfh
Cassidy (1972; Table 12 5) found 1 3 3% o f c h i l d r e n d i e d a s

newborns, 9 5% i n t h e f o l l o w i n g 11+months, and 9 7% i n demograph
y e a r s 2-4 (months 12-48) Only 1 8% d i e d i n t h e f i f t h y e a r Th
t h e I n d i a n Knoll p o p u l a t i o n demonstrates a h i g h e r m o r t a l i t y r a t e
i n i n f a n t s t h a n i n t o d d l e r s , a p a t t e r n l i k e t h a t o f modern urban
p o p u l a t i o n s b u t u n l i k e t h a t o f many modern p e a s a n t p o p u l a t i o n s
The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e i n newborns may i n d i c a t e some
social mortality (infanticide) &out 5% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n sur-
vived p a s t t h e age o f 50 y e a r s L i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s were lower f o r
females than males a t a l l a g e s
Dental Health
Leigh (1925), Rabkin (19431, Snow (19481, Sarnas 1964) and
Cassidy (1972) , although working w i t h d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f p r e -
c i s i o n , found s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f d e n t a l h e a l t h . Briefly, caries
were r a r e t o a b s e n t i n c h i l d r e n and a d o l e s c e n t s , and a l t h o u g h t h e
were widespread i n t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n , t h e y were i n f r e q u e n t on
per-mouth b a s i s (Table 12 5 ) Tooth wear o c c u r r e d r a p i d l y and wa
t h e main cause o f p u l p exposures, a p i c a l a b s c e s s i n g , and antemort
t o o t h l o s s , a l l o f which p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t e d t h e o l d e r a d u l t s
Males and females demonstrated s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f change, although
males showed s l i g h t l y h i g h e r r a t e s o f w e a r - r e l a t e d s t r e s s Calcu
l u s was l a r g e l y l a c k i n g ; p e r i o d o n t i t i s i n f r e q u e n t Sarnas a t -
t r i b u t e d t h e h i g h wear r a t e s , coupled w i t h l a c k o f t o o t h c r a c k s o
enamel c h i p s , t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f finely ground a b r a s i v e s i n t h e
diet This s u g g e s t s much food was ground (in t h e nut-grain

mortars? ) r a t h e r than consumed unprocessed.
Bone Patho Zogies
Snow (1948) i d e n t i f i e d lumbar a r t h r i t i s i n 60% o f a d u l t s and

"collapsed" c e n t r a (Ll-2) i n 4 5% Cassidy (1972) found i n c r e a s e d
frequency and s e v e r i t y of a r t h r i t i s w i t h a g e , t h r e e c a s e s o f
healed compression f r a c t u r e s , and no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n
a r t h r i t i s r a t e s between t h e s e x e s Snow b e l i e v e d b o t h d e n t a l ab-
s c e s s i n g and a r t h r i t i s t o be i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , c a u s a t i v e l y
linked Inglemark e t a 1 (1959) found an e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a -
t i o n between v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s and d e n t a l a b s c e s s e s , b u t d e c l i n e d
t o make a c a u s a l l i n k Cassidy (1972) concluded t h a t t h e main
cause of a r t h r i t i s a t I n d i a n Knoll was d e g e n e r a t i o n , n o t i n f e c t i o n
Osteoporosis symmetrica and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , expressed r e s p e c -
t i v e l y a s r a r e f a c t i o n and o t h e r changes of t h e s k u l l v a u l t and a s
porous plaque formation i n t h e o r b i t s , a r e now c o n s i d e r e d expres-
s i o n s o f long-standing i r o n d e f i c i e n c y ( o r o t h e r ) anemia In
1948 Snow i d e n t i f i e d p i t t i n g o f v a u l t s a s "probably o s t e o p o r o s i s
symmetrical1' (p 498) and s a i d i t was f r e q u e n t and "evidence o f
some kind o f d i e t a r y d e f i c i e n c y " ( p 498) Cassidy (1972) found
mild p i t t i n g of t h e v a u l t o r ( l e s s o f t e n ) p o r o t i c changes i n t h e
o r b i t s i n 31 7% o f h e r sample She concluded t h e s e changes were
not c l a s s i c a l o s t e o p o r o s i s symmetrica, and n o t p a t h o l o g i c a l , and
t h a t anemia was n o t p r e v a l e n t a t I n d i a n Knoll Significantly,
c h i l d r e n under f i v e , t h e group most l i k e l y t o s u f f e r i r o n d e f i c i e n -
cy anemia, had t h e l o w e s t f r e q u e n c i e s of change
Cassidy c l a s s i f i e d l o c a l i z e d inflammatory changes of bones
which were n o t t h e r e s u l t o f trauma, c o n g e n i t a l malformation o r
d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e a s " i n f e c t i o n s " One-fourth of I n d i a n Knol-
l e r s showed evidence o f such i n f e c t i o n s ; o n l y c h i l d r e n under age
s i x had none
A syndrome o f d i s s e m i n a t e d p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s , f a m i l i a r t o
a l l s t u d e n t s o f Amerindian bones, a f f e c t e d 2 4 % o f s k e l e t o n s , most
a g e s , and b o t h s e x e s (Cassidy 1972) T h i s syndrome i s probably a
treponemal i n f e c t i o n , p o s s i b l y p o t e n t i a t e d by m a l n u t r i t i o n , b u t
almost c e r t a i n l y is n o t v e n e r e a l s y p h i l i s ( a l t h o u g h f r e q u e n t l y
and t o o c a s u a l l y given t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n Snow, f o r "example, iden-
t i f i e d f o u r c a s e s o f "probably s y p h i l i s " a t I n d i a n K n o l l ) A com-
p a r i s o n of t h e I n d i a n Knoll r a t e t o t h a t a t Hardin v i l l a g e shows
t h e former r a t e was q u i t e low
Other Evidence o f Health Status
The mean number o f growth a r r e s t l i n e s / t i b i a was 11 3 , s u g g e s t -

i n g growth a r r e s t i n childhood was somewhat f r e q u e n t (Cassidy 1972).
Lines were d i s t r i b u t e d p e r i o d i c a l l y , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i r cause
was a r e g u l a r l y r e c u r r i n g s t r e s s such a s an annual hunger p e r i o d .
Enamel h y p o p l a s i a of t h e a d u l t c a n i n e ( i n d i c a t i n g growth a r -
r e s t from about 4-5 months t o 6-7 y e a r s ) was f r e q u e n t b u t u s u a l l y
mild Third molars (growth a r r e s t i n mid-childhood) were less
often affected NO deciduous t e e t h showed h y p o p l a s i a . These d a t a
suggest t h a t growth a r r e s t e p i s o d e s -in u t e r o o r i n t h e f i r s t few
months o f l i f e were unusual, growth a r r e s t i n t h e l a t e r months and
e a r l y childhood was f r e q u e n t b u t s h o r t - l i v e d , and growth a r r e s t
in mid-childhood was i n f r e q u e n t and m i l d
C o r t i c a l index v a l u e s were s i m i l a r Lo t h o s e found i n modem
urban p o p u l a t i o n s f o r both younger and o l d e r $ n d i v i d u a l s ; females
l o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c o r t i c a l bone w i t h age than d i d males
(Cassidy 1972) P e r z i g i a n (1973) found t h a t bone d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n
r a t e s were h i g h e r i n Hopewell p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n a t I n d i a n Knoll
He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e Hopewell d i e t was s u p e r i o r t o t h e Archaic
d i e t , and concluded t h a t bone d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n r a t e s a r e g e n e t i c a l -
l y c o n t r o l l e d r a t h e r than environmentally r e s p o n s i v e In this
opinion he d i f f e r s from most s t u d e n t s o f t h e s u b j e c t ,
P e r z i g i a n (1977) found t h a t I n d i a n Knoll had more f l u c t u a t i n g
asymmetry t h a n s e v e r a l u n r e l a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s Ar-
guing t h a t I n d i a n Knoll a l s o demonstrated o t h e r s i g n s of poor
n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s (quoting d a t a from Cassidy 1972; Cook 1971) ,
P e r z i g i a n concluded t h a t I n d i a n K n o l l e r s were less h e a l t h y be-
cause t h e i r d i e t s were i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y more
advanced people Snow, c i t i n g h i g h r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n ( a r t h r i t i s
and d e n t a l a b s c e s s e s ) and n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y ( o s t e o p o r o s i s
symmetrica), a l s o concluded t h a t I n d i a n K n o l l e r s were n o t p a r -
t i c u l a r l y healthy
I n c o n t r a s t , o t h e r workers ( c i t e d above) h a v e tended to f i n d
I n d i a n Knollers q u i t e h e a l t h y , b o t h by w i t h i n - s i t e assessment and
by between-site assessment Their higher r a t e s o f wear-related
s t r e s s beginning a t e a r l i e r a g e s , s u g g e s t t h a t males may have been
more p h y s i c a l l y a c t i v e than females S i m i l a r i t i e s o f d i s e a s e ex-
p e r i e n c e f o r males and females p r o v i d e s u p p o r t i n g evidence f o r t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o p o s a l of an e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y .
Other Arehafa Sites
The p a r t i a l l y analyzed t e e t h and s k e l e t o n s from o t h e r Green

River complex s i t e s (Table 12.1) show many s i m i l a r i t i e s t o I n d i a n i
Knoll Among t h e s e s i t e s , Eva perhaps most o f a l l d e s e r v e s r e -
a n a l y s i s , f o r although 180 s k e l e t o n s a r e r e p o r t e d , no f u l l
a n a l y s i s was performed (Lewis a n d Kneberg-Lewis 1961) However,
t h e a u t h o r s d i d argue t h a t t h e frequency of i n f a n t - t o d d l e r d e a t h s
i n s t r a t u m I1 was s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d o v e r f r e q u e n c i e s i n
s t r a t a I and I11 They s p e c u l a t e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d dependence on
mussels i n s t r a t u m 11 may have caused l a c t a t i o n f a i l u r e , lowered
t h e age of weaning, and i n c r e a s e d t h e " i n f a n t " ( a c t u a l l y weanling) I
mortality r a t e i
12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 327 I
E a r l y Woodland: Adena
The p a t h o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from
Adena s i t e s i s complicated because (1) mound and r o c k s h e l t e r s i t e s
a r e only assumed t o c o n t a i n t h e same p h y s i c a l group, ( 2 ) Adenans
used a wide range of b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s and t h e s o c i a l and h e a l t h
implications of these a r e uncertain, (3) m o s t e a r l y s k e l e t a l
a n a l y s i s used t e c h n i q u e s t h a t probably y i e l d e d i n a c c u r a t e s e x and
age d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s , and ( 4 ) fragmentary s k e l e t o n s were d i s -
carded ( t h i s i n c l u d e s most cave m a t e r i a l ) , making r e a n a l y s i s i m -
possible
Snow (Webb and Snow 1945) found t h a t Adena mounds c o n t a i n e d
more males t h a n females and more a d u l t s t h a n c h i l d r e n , w h i l e cave
s i t e s y i e l d e d o n l y women and c h i l d r e n ( ~ u n k h o u s e rand Webb 1929,
1930; Webb and Funkhouser 1936) Webb and h i s c o l l e a g u e s pro-
posed t h a t t h e r o c k s h e l t e r s were t h e domain o f women, w h i l e mound
tombs housed t h e remains of upper c l a s s p e o p l e , n o t a b l y males
They proposed t h a t Adenans had developed a s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t y ;
cremations w i t h i n t h e mounds were t h o s e of commoners, and o n l y
t h e upper c l a s s p r a c t i c e d head deformation They argued t h a t
s i n c e knowledge o f pathology was l i m i t e d t o t h e upper c l a s s e s ,
whatever was observed n e c e s s a r i l y e r r e d toward t h e h e a l t h y Some
have tended t o u t i l i z e t h e s e a r c ~ u m e n t s ,b~u t I am i n c l i n e d t o
b e l i e v e t h a t Adenan b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s d e s e r v e thorough reexamina-
tion It should be noted t h a t , although t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a
l o g tomb i s expensive, t h e c o s t of cremation i s even g r e a t e r , f o r
t h e number of dried l o g s n e c e s s a r y t o reduce a f r e s h body t o a
l e n s e o f ashes ( d e s c r i b e d i n t h e v a r i o u s Adena s o u r c e s ) i s much
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e number of green ( c h e a p e r ) l o g s needed t o b u i l d
a l o g tomb I n much of modern Asia o n l y t h e most wealthy can a f -
f o r d t h e honor of cremation A d d i t i o n a l l y , upper c l a s s e s a r e n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y h e a l t h i e r t h a n lower c l a s s e s For t h e s e s e v e r a l
reasons, I h e r e i n t r e a t t h e Adena mound "upper c l a s s " a s repre-
s e n t a t i v e o f a l l Adenan people
To summarize p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a on mound m a t e r i a l s (pooled d a t a
from H T E Hertzberq o r C S Snow r e p o r t e d i n Webb and Snow
1945; a l s o Funkhouser and Webb 1935; Webb 1940, 1 9 4 1 a , b , 1942,
1943a,b; Webb and E l l i o t t 1942; Funkhouser 1940) : Mild a r t h r i t i s
was r e p o r t e d a t some but n o t a l l s i t e s and was r e f e r r e d t o a s
"common" (my c a l c u l a t i o n s y i e l d h i g h v a l u e s of 19 and 2 0 % )
ale skeletons have been found a t reeentZy excavated rock-

s h e l t e r s i t e s ineluding Dmeron (Vento e t a l 1980) and S a l t s
Cave (Watson 1974)
or example, Lovejoy (1975) argues t h a t two p i t b u r i a l s a t
Caldwell ' s L i t t l e B l u f f , w i t h undeformed heads, were t h e r e f o r e
commoners S e i u l l i (1978) worries t h a t h i s finding o f eompara-
t i v e l y lowr r a t e s of l i n e a r enamel hypoplasia mong Adenans may
be an a r t i f a c t of a population sample skewed toward t h e wealthy
a."
Osteoporosis symmetrica was i d e n t i f i e d a t most s i t e s ; it o c c u r r e d
a t a l l ages b u t was m o s t common i n young a d u l t males The des-
c r i p t i o n and unusual age d i s t r i b u t i o n could mean t h a t t h e s e
changes were n o t p a t h o l o g i c a l " P e r i o s t i t i s - o s t e i t i s " was a b s e n t
a t s e v e r a l s i t e s and d i s p l a y e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f 2 , 12 5, and 20%
(my c a l c u l a t i o n s ) on s m a l l samples a t o t h e r s i t e s Frequency on-""
&
t h e pooled d a t a was 3 % ; t h a t i s , t h e inflammatory changes were un-
common, although some s i t e s showed e l e v a t e d f r e q u e n c i e s (These&
changes, h e s i t a n t l y a s c r i b e d t o " s y p h i l i s " i n t h e 1940s a r e pre-jîr
sumably t h e same syndrome o f d i s s e m i n a t e d p e r - i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s
d i s c u s s e d above ) A p o s s i b l e c a s e of t u b e r c u l o s i s was recorded
%!=
a t R i c k e t t s Mound. D e n t a l c a r i e s were a b s e n t o r uncommon a t most
s i t e s ; Snow's pooled d a t a r e c o r d c a r i e s a s o c c u r r i n g only i n young
a d u l t s ( 5 3%) D e n t a l a b s c e s s e s were uncommon i n y o u t h b u t t h e ':;
pooled d a t a show 18 8% of a d u l t s up t o age 35, and 11 1%of oldeA
a d u l t s , were a f f e c t e d . viin
Ã‡
No p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e from r o c k s h e l t e r s excavated
p r i o r t o 1950 S k e l e t o n s from C a l d w e l l ' s L i t t l e Bluff (El = 2
"commoners," Lovejoy 1975) and Dameron Rockshelter (El = 1 , Ventos:
^
T h i r t e e n non- dena an
^
e t a 1 1980) have no s i g n i f i c a n t p a t h o l o g i e s
Woodland s k e l e t o n s i n t r u s i v e i n t o t h e Hartman Mound (Webb 1943a)
a r e p a t h o l o g i c a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from Adenans, p o s s i b l y im-
p l y i n g a l a c k of h e a l t h d i f f e r e n t i a l s between Adenans and non-
climax Woodland p e o p l e s
S c i u l l i compared l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a i n I n d i a n K n o l l ,
Adena, and l a t e r samples, i n deciduous (1977) and a d u l t (1978)
IbL.
teeth He found t h a t " s e v e r e l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a i s found

i n every Amerindian group and i s p r e s e n t a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r
frequency i n f o c a l [ = l a t e ] a g r i c u l t u r a l groups" (1978:193) A 4
p o s s i b l e s l i g h t d e c l i n e i n frequency o c c u r r e d i n t h e Adena corn- 1,- 1
pared t o both t h e p r e c e d i n g and succeeding p e r i o d s Adena males''
may have been more s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d than f e m a l e s .
I
The M m o t h Cave Area
S a l t s Cave y i e l d e d 2 mummies and remnants o f 41 s k e l e t o n s Ã§!

(Robbins 1974) One male mummy, about 4 5 , was unanalyzed The eJ.
o t h e r , a boy aged n i n e , may have d i e d o f an a o r t i c r u p t u r e ; he f

Â 1, '
d i e t a r y and subsistence trends, including t h e use of c u l -

t i g e n s , seem t o have been u t i l i z e d by a l l o f t h e people i n t h e
region, and n o t gust by those who participated i n climax c u l t u r e s
Although archaeological materials are adequate t o analyze t h e r e -
lationship of subsistence and h e a l t h diachronically ( a s h e r e i n ) , v-
a "best t e s t " of th problem would include a synchronic a n a l y s i s ~ '
t h a t i s , comparison of h e a l t h parameters between climax and nan-5
climax s i t e s (= peoples) of t h e same date Such an a n a l y s i s
would help c l a r i f y t h e s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p of c u l t u r a l complex^
t o health. More non-climax regional s i t e s must 'be excavated 'before
such an a n a l y s i s can be performed
12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE, CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 329
had no growth a r r e s t l i n e s and no s i g n s o f bone pathology The

4 1 s k e l e t o n s , r e p r e s e n t e d by s p l i n t e r e d and crushed bones, were
too fragmentary f o r p a t h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s Robbins suggested
t h a t t h e S a l t s p e o p l e may have p r a c t i c e d c u l i n a r y cannibalism
Molnar and Ward (1974) s t u d i e d d e n t a l remains from 14 c h i l d r e n and
a d o l e s c e n t s and concluded t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n was " r a t h e r h e a l t h y
Teeth d i s p l a y e d few enamel o r d e n t i n e i m-p e r f e c t i o n s and none had
caries Dusseau and P o r t e r (1974) found no p a r a s i t e s except one
I uncertain nonpathogenic nematode i n 1 3 f e c e s , w h i l e F r y (1974)
found p o s s i b l e evidence of A s e a r i s i n f e c t i o n i n one c a s e
I n summary, a v a i l a b l e d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t Adenans were r e l a t i v e -
ly h e a l t h y , w i t h low c a r i e s r a t e s , low i n f e c t i o n and a r t h r i t i s
r a t e s , and moderate r e p o r t e d l e v e l s of p o s s i b l e o s t e o p o r o s i s sym-
metrica There was some tendency f o r males t o e x p e r i e n c e more
p a t h o l o g i e s than females, which may b e an a r t i f a c t o f sample s i z e
or which may deserve a second l o o k s i n c e t h e same p a t t e r n seems
to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e l a t e r Hardin V i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n
Mississippian: F o r t Ancient--Hardin Village S i t e
The l a t e F o r t Ancient s i t e o f Hardin V i l l a g e e x i s t e d f o r

about 150 y e a r s and was abandoned about A D 1675 w i t h o u t c o n t a c t
with Europeans (Hanson 1966)
1 Demograph'i-es o f Health
Among i n f a n t s , 8 4% d i e d a s newborns and a n o t h e r 4 7% i n t h e

next 11+ months (Cassidy 1972; Table 12 5) From ages 2-4 y e a r s
(12-48 months) almost o n e - f i f t h o f t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n d i e d
Thus more c h i l d r e n d i e d i n t h e weaning y e a r s than i n i n f a n c y , a
p a t t e r n resembling t h a t o f some modern p e a s a n t p o p u l a t i o n s and
arguing f o r n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y ( p o s s i b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n -
f e c t i o n s ) d u r i n g t h e weaning p e r i o d Only 1%o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
( 3 females) s u r v i v e d more than 50 y e a r s L i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s were
higher f o r females than males a t a l l a g e s , a r e v e r s a l o f t h e
usual p r e i n d u s t r i a l p a t t e r n
C a r i e s were common t o rampant a t a l l a g e s a f t e r i n f a n c y

viable 12 5; f o r t o o t h by t o o t h a n a l y s i s s e e Cassidy 1972) Caries
were t h e main cause of p u l p exposures and a b s c e s s i n g , which oc-
curred even i n c h i l d r e n , and of antemortem t o o t h l o s s , which began
in adolescence P e r i o d o n t i t i s was common i n a d u l t s Tooth wear
was moderate; c a l c u l u s d e p o s i t i o n was o f t e n heavy The p a t t e r n of
wear and d i s e a s e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t seen today i n p o p u l a t i o n s
t h a t consume h i g h l y processed c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t s and do n o t p r a c -
i c e e f f e c t i v e o r a l hygiene
Bone Pathology
V e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s , a l t h o u g h i n c r e a s i n g i n frequency w i t h
age, a l s o a f f e c t e d youth i n c l u d i n g a d o l e s c e n t s aged 12-16 y e a r s
( 3 cases) These a d o l e s c e n t s showed s e v e r e a r t h r i t i c changes,
a l s o p r e s e n t i n young a d u l t s aged 17-29 y e a r s The d i s t r i b u t i o n
s u g g e s t s t h a t i n f e c t i o n was a f r e q u e n t cause of a r t h r i t i c change
i n youth, and d e g e n e r a t i o n was an added cause with a g e
Osteoporosis symmetrica and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a of c l a s s i c a l
c h a r a c t e r a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s o f a l l a g e s b u t was commonest i n
c h i l d r e n under s i x and women aged 30-39 y e a r s , age groups common-
l y a f f e c t e d by i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia, which was judged p r e s e n t
a t Hardin V i l l a g e
Bone i n f e c t i o n s a f f e c t e d o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h
males having i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y more; j u s t over 10% of c h i l d r e n were
affected
Disseminated p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s a f f e c t e d 31 4% of a l l s k e l e -
t o n s . Eight p e r s o n s had s e v e r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s w i t h l a r g e s w e l l -
i n g s , s i n u s e s , and massive long-bone malformations; two were
under age s i x A l l p o s t n a t a l ages were a f f e c t e d , and one p o s s i b l e
case occurred among 1 3 f e t u s e s There were no sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n
occurrence This syndrome was s o common a t Hardin V i l l a g e a s t o
i n d i c a t e t h e presence of a s e r i o u s h e a l t h s t r e s s o r , most l i k e l y a
treponemal i n f e c t i o n , not i d e n t i c a l w i t h v e n e r e a l s y p h i l i s , and
probably p o t e n t i a t e d by m a l n u t r i t i o n ( f o r m e t a b o l i c c a u s e argu-
ment s e e Robbins 1971)
Other Evidence o f Health Status

The mean number of growth a r r e s t l i n e s was 4 1, and t h e l i n e s
were d e p o s i t e d a t unequal i n t e r v a l s , s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r s o u r c e i n an
u n p r e d i c t a b l e h e a l t h s t r e s s o r , such a s i n f e c t i o n .
Linear enamel h y p o p l a s i a o c c u r r e d in b o t h t h e permanent and
deciduous d e n t i t i o n s . It was common i n t h e a d u l t d e n t i t i o n s and
severe i n 9 3% of a d u l t c a n i n e s S i x c h i l d r e n had h y p o p l a s i a o f
t h e milk i n c i s o r s , i n d i c a t i n g growth a r r e s t 'in utero o r p o s s i b l y
premature b i r t h E i g h t c h i l d r e n had h y p o p l a s i a of t h e milk
canine and molars, i n d i c a t i n g growth a r r e s t w i t h i n 6 months o f
birth. A conservative i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e data suggest t h a t
mothers were s e r i o u s l y undernourished d u r i n g and soon a f t e r b i r t h ,
due t o d i e t a r y m a l n u t r i t i o n , i n f e c t i o n s , o r b o t h , and were u n a b l e
t o s u s t a i n s t e a d y growth i n t h e i r i n f a n t s
C o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s a t Hardin V i l l a g e was r e l a t i v e l y low i n
young a d u l t s f o r both s e x e s ; bone l o s s w i t h age was slow f o r f e -
males and n o t apparent f o r males
I n summary, Hardin V i l l a g e r s s u f f e r e d from h i g h r a t e s of
d e n t a l d i s e a s e and numerous i n f e c t i o n s , and showed s i g n s of malnu-
t r i t i o n i n t h e e l e v a t e d t o d d l e r d e a t h r a t e s , t h e p r e s e n c e of
enamel hypoplasia i n deciduous t e e t h , t h e low v a l u e s o f t h e c o r t i -
c a l index, t h e presence o f anemia, and t h e low l i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s
12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 33 1
The o v e r a l l p i c t u r e a t Hardin V i l l a g e c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h a t com-

mon i n modem p e a s a n t v i l l a g e s i n developing c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y t h o s e dependent on a corn-beans d i e t (Cassidy 1972, 1980a)
S c i u l l i (1977, 1978) made a s i m i l a r argument f o r post-Hopewell
groups i n Ohio
Limited p a t h o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on o t h e r F o r t Ancient s i t e s
(Beckner 1926; Hooton and Willoughby 1920; M i l l s 1906; P r u f e r and
Shane 1970; Bobbins 1971; Smith 1910; Webb and Funkhouser 1928)
c l o s e l y matches t h e d a t a on Hardin V i l l a g e : high f r e q u e n c i e s o f
c a r i e s i n f e c t i o n , trauma, d i s s e m i n a t e d p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s , and
other d i s e a s e
Comparison of Hardin Village and Indian 'Knoll

That Hardin V i l l a g e r s were n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y h e a l t h y is even
more s t r o n g l y demonstrated by t h e i r comparison t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y
h e a l t h i e r I n d i a n Knoll p o p u l a t i o n (Table 12 5 )
Dental c a r i e s , i n f e c t i o u s a r t h r i t i s , s e v e r e enamel h y p o p l a s i a ,
and t h e syndrome o f disseminated p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s o c c u r r e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f t e n a t Hardin V i l l a g e Anemia was p o s i t i v e l y
i d e n t i f i e d only a t Hardin V i l l a g e Hypoplasia of t h e deciduous
d e n t i t i o n was seen o n l y a t Hardin V i l l a g e Hypoplasia o f t h e p e r -
manent d e n t i t i o n was more o f t e n s e v e r e a t Hardin V i l l a g e More
children experienced bone i n f e c t i o n s a t Hardin V i l l a g e . Cortical
bone t h i c k n e s s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower i n young a d u l t s o f both
sexes a t Hardin V i l l a g e L i f e expectancy was lower a t a l l ages
for both s e x e s , and m o r t a l i t y i n t h e t o d d l e r y e a r s was s i g n i f i -
cantly h i g h e r a t Hardin V i l l a g e , s u g g e s t i n g weaning stress
Only one h e a l t h i n d i c a t o r , t h e frequency o f growth a r r e s t
l i n e s , was h i g h e r a t I n d i a n Knoll t h a n a t Hardin V i l l a g e ' Growth
^pour non-Fort Ancient Mississippian s i t e s i n Western Kentucky

resembles Fort Ancient i n apparently displaying high frequencies
of patholo~y, although skeletons from these s i t e s have been incom-
pletely analyzed (Page-Glover s i t e , Webb and Funkhouser 1930,
Vietzen 2956, Tolu s i t e , Webb and ~unkhouser1931: Duncan s i t e ,
Funkhouser and Webb 1931, Chilton s i t e , Funkhouser and Webb 1937)
7 ~ it f proves common for growth arrest l i n e s t o occur more fre-
quentty i n hunter -gatherer populations than i n agricultural popu la-
tions (also see MeHenry 1968), and it i s also found common for
cortical thickness t o be reduced i n agricultural populations com-
pared to hunter-gatherer populations, then it w i l l 'be well t o
reconsider the meaning of high frequencies of growth a r r e s t l i n e s .
As higher rates of bone remodelinq m a y destroy growth a r r e s t
lines, the lower rates i n agricultural populations may be a r t i f a a -
tual, and not indicative of a e t u a w lower r a t e s of growth arrest
in the populations. A l t b u g h Cassidy (1972) attempted t o control
for t h i s problem i n her analysis, enamel hypoplasia nevertheless i s
probably the b e t t e r measure of t h e actual incidence of growth
arrest
TABLE 12 6 Changes i n Some Important Health Indicators from Late Archaic t o Fort Ancient Times
i n the Central Ohio River Valley
Indicator Pattern of Change Significance
L i f e expectancy Falls, both sexes, 'but possibly Overall health d i s t r e s s rose over
more for males time
Infant death r a t e Falls somewhat Since other indicators indicate an
increase i n causes of i l l n e s s , t h i s
decrease suggests that the social
practice of i n f a n t i c i d e decreased.
Toddler death,r a t e Rises sharp ~y Increased weaning s t r e s s , probably
o f complex etiology, occurred.
Vertebra l a r t h r i t i s Overall rate steady, 'but disease Suggests a change i n primary etiology
occurs a t younger ages i n l a t e from degeneration concomitant viith
group aging t o i n f e c t i o n (possibly related
t o high bone i ~ f e c t i o nand dental
decay r a t e s
Bone i n f e c t i o n s Overall r a t e steady, but more child- Greater exposwe t o i n f e c t i o n s and/or
hood i n f e c t i o n s i n l a t e group l e s s resistance t o i n f e c t i o n s i n
l a t e r group
Syndrome of disseminated Rises sharply Causative factor ( s more prevalent,
periosteal reactions probably an i n f e c t i o u s organism
aeting synmgistieaZly with malnu-
t r i t i o n i n persons in-th low r e s i s t -
once
Osteopovosis symmetr-iea Character chunges toward czassio Anemia (iron d e f ' i c i e n e y ? ) becomes
and cribra orbitazia picture, and frequency r i s e s ; more common, and i s concentrated i n
hzghest -inc-idence i n toddlers and the two most stressed age groups
young women i n late group
Cortical t h-iakness Decreases, both sexes Nutritional defici_encies, especially

for calcium and phosphorus r i s e
over time
Growth a r r e s t l i n e s Frequency f a l l s , periodicity disap- Growth arrests which are mild and
pears short-term, possibly due t o recur-
Ename l hypop lasia, Total rate steady, b~.t frequency of rent brief periods of hunger, are
adult d e n t i t i o n severe cases v i s e s i n l a t e group replaaed by more severe, longer-term
episodes of growth arrest associated
with i n f e c t i o n s or possibly crop
failure and starvation.
w
% Enamel hypoplasia, Absent t o rare early, moderate r a t e Indicates severe reproductiue s t r e s s
deciduous d e n t i t i o n i n l a t e group i n mothers, and possibly lactation
insufficiency, probably associated
with poor d i e t and high r a t e s of i n -
fections.
Caries rate Rises sharply Shows change t o s o f t , s t i c k y , hig'hly
processed d i e t from a coarse more
abrasive d i e t
Abscess r a t e Falls s l i g h t l y , o c m s a t younger In e a r l i e r populations abscesses are
ages i n l a t e group a r e s u l t of extreme tooth wear; i n
l a t e r group of extensive dental
decay.
a r r e s t l i n e s a t I n d i a n Knoll o c c u r r e d p e r i o d i c a l l y , s u g g e s t i n g
r e c u r r e n t u n d e r n u t r i t i o n e p i s o d e s such a s an annual hunger p e r i o d ,
while t h o s e a t Hardin V i l l a g e were i r r e g u l a r i n o c c u r r e n c e , sug-
gesting i n f e c t i o u s episodes a s t h e source Combining t h e s e d a t a
with t h o s e on, enamel hypoplasia, we s e e t h a t w h i l e t h e t o t a l
numbers of e p i s o d e s o f growth a r r e s t a t t h e two s i t e s w e r v n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t , e p i s o d e s o f m i l d ( s h o r t - t e r m ) growth a r -
r e s t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more f r e q u e n t a t I n d i a n Knoll Episodes
of s e v e r e growth a r r e s t were more f r e q u e n t a t Hardin V i l l a g e
Thus growth a r r e s t , w h i l e f r e q u e n t a t I n d i a n K n o l l , probably p e r -
m i t t e d complete recovery A t Hardin Village', however, growth
a r r e s t r e f l e c t e d s t r e s s o r s t h a t may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e low
l i f e expectancies
The age p a t t e r n s of s t r e s s a t t h e two s i t e s a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n t
A t I n d i a n Knoll, h e a l t h is reasonably good i n t o "old age" (over
age 30) , when degeneration of t e e t h and bones becomes f r e q u e n t
A t Hardin V i l l a g e s t r e s s was l i f e l o n g , and a f f e c t e d everyone from
t h e f e t a l p e r i o d onwards, w i t h t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e y e a r s f o r females
and t h e weaning y e a r s f o r a l l being p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r e s s f u l
DISCUSSION AND SPECULATION: DIET AND ADAPTATION

I N THE CENTRAL O H I O RIVER VALLEY
The d i a c h r o n i c h e a l t h t r e n d s d e t a i l e d above and summarized i n

Table 12 6 i n d i c a t e t h a t l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s were l e s s
h e a l t h y than e a r l i e r groups, whether h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r or a g r i c u l t u -
ral Archaic and Adena p o p u l a t i o n s a r e n o t (on c u r r e n t evidence)
r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from one a n o t h e r w i t h r e g a r d t o h e a l t h
even though t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s and d i e t s were d i f f e r e n t
I n c o n t r a s t , Adena and F o r t Ancient p o p u l a t i o n s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e
by h e a l t h i n d i c a t o r s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t b o t h groups ' d i e t s were
l a r g e l y v e g e t a r i a n and c u l t i v a t e d . E a r l y and l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l
d i e t s d i f f e r e d i n q u a l i t y ; t h e l a t e d i e t based on Mesoamerican cu
t i q e n s was i n f e r i o r , and o n l y i n l a t e p o p u l a t i o n s a r e t h e r e s i g n s
of d i e t a r y m a l n u t r i t i o n 8 Thus, i n the central Ohio River Valley
there i s an apparent lack of change i n health d w i n g a t r a n s i t i o n
from a w'holly wild t o a largely cultivated d i e t , follcmed by a
striking drop i n health during or a f t e r the adoption of a d i f f e r e
kind of cultivated d i e t .
8 ~ a l n u t r i t i o ni s f o m a l l y an. encompassinq t e r n for ati. situa-

tions i n which nutrient and energy intake are imbalanced. I n
common usage, and i n t h i s paper, hunger (absolute lack of food, o
r e l a t i v e excess of nutrients t o energy) i s distinguished from
(protein-energy ) malnutrition ( r el a t i v e excess of energy t o
nutrient i n t a k e ) Malnutrition r e s u l t s from a n u t r i t i o n a l l y h-
balanced d i e t , while hunger i s caused 'by food i n s u f f i c i e n c y
PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 335
I The occurrence of two succeeding a g r i c u l t u r a l "revolutions"

the c e n t r a l Ohio River Valley makes t h i s region somewhat unusual
a good location t o examine whether subsistence system p e r s e
ivotal in explaining change i n d i e t a r y q u a l i t y and physical
th. M y data suggest t h a t it i s n o t A l t e r n a t i v e l y , one can
us on population growth a s an explanatory f a c t o r , as Cohen
s Cohen has elsewhere (1977, 1980, Chapter 1 t h i s volume)
arized worldwide evidence t h a t shows t h a t p r i m i t i v e a g r i c u l t u -
diets a r e t y p i c a l l y of lower q u a l i t y than hunter-gatherer d i e t s
they a r e often composed of foods of low d e s i r a b i l i t y (such a s
1 seeds) requiring considerable labor i n p u t , and t h a t even when
I e know of a g r i c u l t u r e they a r e o f t e n r e l u c t a n t t o p r a c t i c e it
do they? Cohen argues t h a t population pressure (i e , t h e
solute need f o r more food) was t h e main f o r c e t h a t drove people
become c u l t i v a t o r s , f o r a g r i c u l t u r e "had no economic advantage
unting and gathering except t h a t it provided a g r e a t e r t o t a l
of c a l o r i e s f o r each u n i t of space" (1977:279)
increase'of food energy p e r u n i t of space i s not necessarily
anied by an equivalent i n c r e a s e i n n u t r i e n t value Addi-
a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s tend t o s p e c i a l i z e i n a few p l a n t s , de-
sing d i e t a r y v a r i e t y and t h e buffering e f f e c t i t provides In
of health, t h e v i r t u e of producing "more food" may be
r y i f t h e q u a l i t y of t h a t food i s reduced.
dern n o n s c i e n t i f i c peoples recognize population increase as
a t t o t h e i r precarious subsistence s t a b i l i t y , and most a t -
to control population growth, even while strongly d e s i r i n g
&en Cassidy 1980b) Common o v e r t ways include i n f a n t i c i d e
r e s t r i c t i v e marriage o r i n t e r c o u r s e r u l e s Other s o c i a l
ctices have t h e Z n d i ~ e o te f f e c t of decreasing population b u t
it i s not known whether p r a c t i t i o n e r s a r e aware of t h e s e ef-
Such s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s include those t h a t decrease t h e
i t y or q u a l i t y of foods a v a i l a b l e ("appropriate") t o reproduc-
women and weanlings, t h e two most n u t r i t i o n a l l y s e n s i t i v e
s These r u l e s e f f e c t i v e l y , i f n o t consciously, p o t e n t i a t e
in-energy malnutrition in weanlings and r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t
uction i n women Such p r a c t i c e s a r e commonplace and have
able e f f e c t s today among many peasant a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s
short of s t a r v a t i o n i s r e v e r s i b l e and has few sequelae be-
s decreased s t a t u r e , b u t protein-energy malnutrition ( r e l a t i v e
ss of energy over n u t r i e n t i n t a k e ) i s more s e r i o u s , o f t e n
&1,and has sequelae including poor growth, small s t a t u r e , and
red resistance
With these data it is p o s s i b l e t o propose a simple feedback
1 t o illuminate t h e prehistc?ric r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d i e t
health i n the c e n t r a l Ohio River Valley
CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY 1
The General Model
Because humans a r e i n e f f i c i e n t a t p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l , a p o s i -
t i v e feedback l o o p e x i s t s between p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e ( i n c r e a s i n g
i
food needs) and i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s e environmental e x p l o i t a t i o n
Population, d i e t a r y q u a l i t y , and d i e t a r y q u a n t i t y a l l can i n c r e a s e
up t o some p i v o t a l p o i n t a t which needed energy y i e l d p e r u n i t of
1
space o u t s t r i p s t h e n u t r i e n t y i e l d n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n good
health. A t t h i s point malnutrition appears It i s n o t necessary
t h a t t h i s p i v o t point be associated with a n y . p a r t i c u l a r subsistence -
system, b u t i t i s more l i k e l y t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h farming because
farming i s a d e s t a b i l i z e d system t h a t p e r m i t s p e o p l e t o r a i s e t h e i r -
production above t h e n a t u r a l c a p a c i t y of t h e l a n d , and t h e most d
s i r a b l e c u l t i g e n s (i e , h i g h energy y i e l d e r s ) t y p i c a l l y have
r e l a t i v e l y low n u t r i e n t d e n s i t i e s High-carbohydrate d i e t s a r e
c o r r e l a t e d with d e c r e a s e d b i r t h i n t e r v a l s , which c a u s e s an i n c r e a
i n t h e p o t e n t i a l r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth ( i e , an a c c e l e r a t i o n
of r a t e of flow through t h e feedback l o o p ) , and may r e s u l t i n a ,
population surge
With t h e i n c r e a s i n g need f o r c u l t i v a t e d food comes an i n c r e a s e d
need f o r c u l t i v a t o r s , f o r farming is more l a b o r i n t e n s i v e than 7
hunting-gathering A c o n f l i c t i s e x a c e r b a t e d between t h e p a r t l y -
recognized need f o r p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l and t h e f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d s i
d e s i r e f o r people ( f i e l d h a n d s ) , and I s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s exacerba-,
t i o n r e s u l t s i n a s h i f t i n t h e t i m i n g o f p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l from
b i r t h ( c o n t r o l by i n f a n t i c i d e , a f r a n k l y numerical p r a c t i c e ) t o
p r e - b i r t h (reproducing women) and weaning, which p e r m i t s some
"choice" t o be e x p r e s s e d a s t o which i n d i v i d u a l s t h r i v e ( c o n t r o l by
proscriptive feeding r u l e s ) Reproduction f a i l u r e s and weaning
d e a t h s r e p r e s e n t l o s s e s both of t h o s e p h y s i c a l l y l e s s r e s i s t a n t t o
d i e t and i n f e c t i o n s t r e s s e s and of t h o s e l e s s s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e
Children who s u r v i v e weanling m a l n u t r i t i o n a r e s m a l l e r i n s i z e ,
grow more slowly, and r e q u i r e l e s s food f o r maintenance They may
even be hunger r e s i s t a n t (Cassidy 1980b, 1983; S t i n i l 9 7 5 ) , and
a l l of t h e s e a r e advantages i n an u n s t a b l e economy such a s one
based on few c u l t i q e n s of low n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e Such a c u l t u r a l
mechanism i n e f f e c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e c r e a s e s t h e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i
growth and t h e food needs o f t h e remaining p o p u l a t i o n ( i e. ,
d e c e l e r a t e s t h e r a t e o f flow through t h e p o s i t i v e feedback l o o p ) .
I n t h e eyes of Western i n d u s t r i a l i z e d p e o p l e s this mechanism may
appear c o s t l y ; i t s commonness and p e r s i s t e n c e among p e a s a n t a g r i -
c u l t u r a l i s t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y f i n d it a d a p t i v e That i s , t h e
d e a t h s o f some t o d d l e r s and d e c r e a s e s i n h e a l t h appear t o b e ac-
c e p t a b l e t r a d e o f f s f o r t h e achievement o f d e s i r e d c u l t u r a l g o a l s
The Model Applied t o t h e C e n t r a l Ohio R i v e r V a l l e y
I n t h i s r e g i o n we know from evidence given t h a t : (1) popula-

I
t i o n i n c r e a s e was continuous o v e r t h e p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d and by
l a t e t i m e s h i g h d e n s i t i e s p r e v a i l e d , ( 2 ) a s time p a s s e d e x p l o i t i v e
REHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 337
t e r n s focused more narrowly and i n t e n s e l y on l i m i t e d ecozones

food r e s o u r c e s , and (3) h e a l t h and d i e t a r y q u a l i t y f e l l by
6 l a t e period. There were t h r e e t r a n s i t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n ; ,
from hunter t o broad-spectrum f o r e s t - e f f i c i e n t g a t h e r e r - h u n t e r q i J,
( l a t e A r c h a i c ) , from t h e l a t t e r t o t h e f a r m e r - g a t h e r e r s o f t h e
Adena, and f i n a l l y t o t h e farmers of t h e L a t e Woodland-Fort Ancient
- ,r
&"?-Adem Transition - ,
awn (1977) has s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f small s e e d s i n t h e

nuciia r e p r e s e n t e d an e f f o r t t o i n c r e a s e t h e food (energy) base by
using foods of low d e s i r a b i l i t y , and t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n of c u l t i -
vating indigenous p l a n t s was d r i v e n by hunger need However,
since t h e s k e l e t a l evidence shows t h a t t h e Adena p e o p l e were q u i t e
healthy, we must propose e i t h e r t h a t Adenans used "new" f o o d s t u f f s
and became farmers f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r than need ( e g , c u r i o s i t y ,
accident; s e e Smith 19751, or t h a t t h e i r n u t r i t i o n a l needs were
e t by t h e u s e of t h e new foods I f t h e l a t t e r , we may s a y t h a t
hey s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t e d a new r e l a t i v e e q u i l i b r i u m o f food
ncome w i t h p o p u l a t i o n , and i n t h e Archaic Adena t r a n s i t i o n s e r i -
us h e a l t h s t r e s s e s d i d n o t develop. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e Adenan
u l t i v a t o r - g a t h e r e r a d a p t a t i o n seems t o have supported, f o r some
e n t u r i e s , much c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n ; t h u s it was both b i o l o g i c a l l y
nd c u l t u r a l l y s u c c e s s f u l F i n a l l y , however, Adenans d i s a p p e a r a s
c u l t u r a l e n t i t y , and t h e i r disappearance may ( a l t h o u g h t h e a r -
a e o l o g i c a l evidence i s l a c k i n g ) r e p r e s e n t t h e p i v o t p o i n t a t
i c h t h e advantage s u p p l i e d by t h e i r new s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n was
anceled by t h e p r e s s u r e of c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n
o r t Ancient Transit'ion
A f t e r Adena comes a gap i n t h e r e g i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d ,

nd then F o r t Ancient, where s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n
o Mesoamerican c u l t i q e n s a p p a r e n t l y was n o t w e l l c o n t r o l l e d , and
11 h e a l t h was common P o p u l a t i o n probably surged when Mesoameri-
an c u l t i g e n s became d i e t a r y s t a p l e s , presumably i n L a t e Woodland
imes; p o s s i b l y such a p o p u l a t i o n s u r g e supported t h e c u l t u r a l ,
l a b o r a t i o n we recognize a s F o r t Ancient A t t h e same t i m e , i t
erhaps a l s o promoted t h e development of c u l t u r a l mechanisms t o
ocus m a l n u t r i t i o n s t r e s s among t h e most v u l n e r a b l e groups Thus
see t h e demographic p a t t e r n of d e a t h s s h i f t e d such t h a t h i g h e s t
r t a l i t y was among weanlings, and women seem t o have been unusual-
u n h e a l t h y / i l l - f e d d u r i n g pregnancy and a f t e r It w i l l be
c a l l e d t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n has t h e e f f e c t o f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y func-
oning a s a mechanism t o c o n t r o l p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and t o c o n t r o l
p u l a t i o n food needs Thus, t h e F o r t Ancient a d a p t a t i o n , w h i l e
o l o g i c a l l y comparatively l e s s s u c c e s s f u l t h a n i t s r e g i o n a l
r e d e c e s s o r s , was c u l t u r a l l y s u c c e s s f u l because it r e p r e s e n t s a
eans t o modify s t r e s s from p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e w h i l e achieving
I
other cultural goals I n t h i s p a t t e r n o f compromised h e a l t h ,

t o d d l e r m a l n u t r i t i o n , low-quality d i e t , and high p o p u l a t i o n den-
s i t y (= high r e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s ) F o r t Ancient c l o s e l y resembles
modern peasant p o p u l a t i o n s
I n summary, t h e d a t a d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e congruent
w i t h a model t h a t a c c e p t s s u b s i s t e n c e change a s m o t i v a t e d by
p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , b u t r e l a t e s h e a l t h t o t h e balance- s t r u c k
between d i e t a r y q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y , and p o p u l a t i o n s i z e The
mere p r a c t i c e o f farming does n o t "cause" poor h e a l t h , and c u l t i -
vated d i e t s a r e not necessarily i n f e r i o r d i e t s I n the region,
because p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y i n c r e a s e d , a l l p e o p l e s c o n s t a n t l y
were l i v i n g i n an u n s t a b l e ( p o s i t i v e feedback loop) s i t u a t i o n w i t
regard t o food adequacy Subsistence-cultural t r a n s i t i o n s repre-
s e n t p o i n t s a t which t h e u n s t a b l e b a l a n c e s h i f t e d r a p i d l y from
r e l a t i v e l y e x c e s s p o p u l a t i o n toward r e l a t i v e e x c e s s of a new d i e t
a r e s u l t o f i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t p e r m i t t e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of more
food The b i o l o g i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s i t i o n was t h a t i n which
t h e d i e t a r y s h i f t s t i l l y i e l d e d an adequate amount o f energy and
n u t r i e n t s (Archaic t o Adena), w h i l e t h e b i o l o g i c a l l y l e s s s u c c e s s
f u l t r a n s i t i o n was t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e u s e o f a h i g h
energy-low n u t r i e n t d i e t ( F o r t Ancient) Simultaneous c u l t u r a l
a d a p t a t i o n s presumably served t o b u f f e r t h e s u b s i s t e n c e t r a n s i t i o
t h e F o r t Ancient demographic s h i f t i s a r e c o n s t r u c t a b l e example
*-/
REFERENCES
~ s c h ,D L , and N B. Asch
1977 Chenopod a s C u l t i g e n : A r e - e v a l u a t i o n of some p r e h i s t o r i c
c o l l e c t i o n s from E a s t e r n North America Midoontinental
Journal of Archaeology 2:3-45
Beckner L.
1926 I n d i a n b u r i a l ground, F u l l e r t o n , Kentucky Kentucky
Geological Survey (6th s e r i e s ) 2 6 : 263-2 72
Brose, D
1973 The n o r t h e a s t e r n United S t a t e s I n The development of
North American archaeology, essays i n t h e history of
regi-onal tradition, e d i t e d by J E F i t t i n g , p p 84-115
Pennsylvania S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , U n i v e r s i t y Park
Brown, J A.
1977 Current d i r e c t i o n s i n Midwestern archaeology Annual
Reviews i n Anthvopology @ :161-179.
Caldwell, J
1958 Trend and t r a d i t i o n i n t h e p r e h i s t o r y of t h e e a s t e r n
United S t a t e s American AnthropoZogiet Memoirs No 88
1962 (Reprinted 1971) E a s t e r n North America I n ,?rehistoric
a g r i e u b e , e d i t e d by S S t r e u v e r , p p 361-382
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y P r e s s , Garden C i t y , New York
JBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY
Cassidy C M
1972 A comparison o f n u t r i t i o n and health i n pre-agricultural
and agricultural Amerindian s k e l e t a l populations ~h D
d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f
Wisconsin U n i v e r s i t y Microfilms, Ann Arbor (1973)
1980a N u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h i n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s and h u n t e r -
gatherers: A c a s e s t u d y o f two p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s
i n Nutritional anthropology., contemporary approaches t o
d i e t and c u l t u r e , e d i t e d by N W Jerome, R F Kandel,
and G H P e l t o , pp 117-145 Redqrave, P l e a s a n t v i l l e ,
New York
1980b Benign n e g l e c t and t o d d l e r m a l n u t r i t i o n I n Social and
biological predictors of nutritional status, physical
growth, and neurological development, e d i t e d by L s
Greene and F Johnston, pp 109-139 Academic P r e s s , New
York
1983 Commentary on 'Food: P a s t p r e s e n t and f u t u r e , ' by
N S gcrimshaw I n HOW humans adapt: A b i o m l t w a l
odyssey, e d i t e d by D J O r t n e r , p p 253-257 Smithsonian
P r e s s , Washington, D C
Cohen, M.
1977 The food e r i s i ~i n prehistory, overpopulation and the
origins of agriculture Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven
1980 Population growth and parallel trends i n soda-cultural
evolution Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 79th annual meeting of
t h e American Anthropological A s s o c i a t i o n , Washington,
D c
Cook, D S
1971 Patterns of nutritional s t r e s s i n some I l l i n o i s Woodland
populations Masters T h e s i s , Department of Anthropology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago
Cowan, C W
1979 Excavations a t t h e Haystack R o c k s h e l t e r s , Powell County,
Kentucky Midcontinental J o u d of Archaeo h g y 4 :3-33
Dragoo, D W
1963 Mounds f o r t h e dead; An a n a l y s i s o f t h e Adena c u l t u r e
Annals of the Carnegie Museum No 37
1976 Some a s p e c t s o f e a s t e r n North American p r e h i s t o r y : A
review American Antiquity 41 :3-27
Dunnell, R. C
1966 Archaeological r e c o n n a i s s a n c e s i n F i s h t r a p R e s e r v o i r ,
Kentucky Mimeo on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, Yale
University
Dusseau, E M., and R. J P o r t e r +
1974 The s e a r c h f o r animal p a r a s i t e s i n p a l e o f e c e s from Upper

S a l t s Cave i n Aroheology of t h e Mammoth Cave area,
e d i t e d by P J Watson, p 59 Academic P r e s s , New York
Fry, G. F
1974 Ovum and p a r a s i t e examination of S a l t s Cave human p a l e o -
feces I n Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by
P J Watson, p 61 Academic P r e s s , New York
340
Funkhouser, W D , and W S Webb

The s o - c a l l e d 'Ash Caves i n Lee County, Kentucky Uni-
v e r s i t y of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and
Archaeology 1( 2 )
Rock s h e l t e r s o f Wolfe and Powell Counties, Kentucky
University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and
Archaeology 1 ( 4 )
The Duncan s i t e on t h e Kentucky-Tennessee L i n e Universi-
t y o f Kentucky Publications - i n ~ n t h r o p o l oand
~~
Archaeology 1 (6 )
The R i c k e t t s s i t e , i n Montgomery County, Kentucky Univer-
s i t y of Kentucky Pubtieations i n Anthropology and
Are'haeology 3 ( 3 )
The C h i l t o n s i t e , i n Henry County, Kentucky University
of Kentucky Reports i n Archaeology and Anthropology 3 ( 5 )
Galinat, W C
1965 The e v o l u t i o n of corn and c u l t u r e i n North America
Economic Botany 19: 350-357
Goslin, R M.
1957 Food of t h e Adena people I n The Adena people ( P a r t I I ) , -
e d i t e d by W S Webb and R S Baby, p p 41-46 Ohio
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Columbus
Griffin, J B
1943 The Fort Ancient aspect U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan P r e s s I L
Ann Arbor ( r e i s s u e d 1966)
1967 E a s t e r n North American archaeology: A summary Seienee
156:175-191
Hanson, L. H , Jr
1968 The Hardin V i l l a g e s i t e University of Kentucky Studies
i n Anthropology NO. 4
Hooton, E A , and C C Willouqhby
1920 I n d i a n V i l l a g e s i t e and cemetery n e a r M a d i s o n v i l l e , Ohio
Papers of t h e Peabody Museum of A m d e a n Archaeology and
Ethnology 8 (1)
Hudson, C M.
1976 The Southeastern Indians U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee P r e s s ,
Knoxville
Inglemark, B. E , V M o l l e r - C h r i s t i a n s e n , and 0. Brinch
1959 S p i n a l j o i n t change and d e n t a l i n f e c t i o n Acta Anatmica
Suppl 36
Jennings, J D
1974 Prehistory of North America (second ed. ) McGraw-Hill,
New York
Johnston, F , and C E Snow
1961 The reassessment o f t h e age and s e x of t h e I n d i a n Knoll
s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n : Demography and methodological
aspects American ~ o u r n a lof Physical Anthropology 19:
237-244
Jones, V
1936 The v e g e t a l remains o f Newt Kash Hollow S h e l t e r In
R o c k s h e l t e r s i n Menifee County, Kentucky, e d i t e d by

. -5ftfi W S Webb and W. D Funkhouser University o f Kentucky
Reports i n Anthropology and Archaeology 3 ( 4 ) :147-165
p a t h o l o g i e s o f I n d i a n t r i b e s of v a r i e d environmental
d conditions American Journal of Physieal Anthro-
pology 8:179-199
Lewis, T M N , and M Kneberg
1959 The Archaic c u l t u r e i n t h e Middle South American Anti-
quity 25:161-183
Lewis, T M. N , and M Kneberg-Lewis
1961 Eva, an archuic s i t e U n i v e r s i t y of Tennessee P r e s s ,
Knoxville
1975C a l d w e l l ' s L i t t l e B l u f f , an unusual Adena b u r i a l s i t e . In

s i n Ohio archaeology, r e v i s e d e d i t i o n , e d i t e d by
0. H P r u f e r and D H McKenzie, pp 252-266 Kent S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohio
MacCord, H A
1953 The Bintz s i t e American Antiquity 18 ( 3 ) :239-244
Marquardt, W H , and P J Watson
1974 The Gveen R i v e r , Kentucky, Shellmound archaeologioal
project Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 73rd annual meeting o f
t h e American Anthropological A s s o c i a t i o n , Mexico C i t y
1968 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n longbones o f p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a n
s American JoumaZ o f Physical Anthropology 29:
1906 Baum p r e h i s t o r i c v i l l a g e Ohio ArehaeoZogieal and Histo-

r i c a l Quarterly 1 5 ( I ):44-136
Molnar, S , and S Ward
1974 Dental remains from S a l t s Cave v e s t i b u l e I n Archeology
of t h e Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by P. J Watson, pp
163-166 Academic P r e s s , New York
Moore, C B
1961 Some a b o r i g i n a l s i t e s on Green R i v e r , Kentucky Jou~naZ
of the Academy of Natural Sciences (2nd s e r i e s ) 16 ( 3 )
Morgan, R. G
1952 O u t l i n e o f c u l t u r e s i n t h e Ohio r e g i o n I n Archaeology
of the Eastern United S t a t e s , e d i t e d by J B G r i f f i n ,
pp 83-98 U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , Chicago
Murphy, J L.
1975 An archaeo20gica.l history of the Hock% Valley Ohio
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Columbus
Nelson, N C
1917 C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e a r c h a e o l o m o f Mammoth Cave and
v i c i n i t y , Kentucky American Museum o f flatwaz History
Anthpopological Papers Vol 2 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 7 3
Perzigian, A J
1973 0s t e o p o r o t i c bone l o s s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n popula-
tions American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 39:81-
83
1977 F l u c t u a t i n g d e n t a l asymmetry: V a r i a t i o n among s k e l e t a l
p o p u l a t i o n s . American J o u r d o f Physical Anthropology
47: 81-83
P r u f e r , 0 H , and D H. McKenzie ( e d i t o r s )
1975 S t u d i e s i n Ohio archaeology ( r e v i s e d ed ) Kent S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohio
P r u f e r , 0. H and 0. C Shane I11
"
1970 B l a i n V i l l a g e and t h e Fort Ancient t r a d i t i o n i n Ohio
Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohi
Rabkin , s
1943 Dental c o n d i t i o n s among p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n s o f Kentucky
J o w n a l o f Dental Research 2 2 : 355-366
Robbins, L. M.
1971 !?he high inoidence o f bone pathologies i n Fort Ancient
peoples o f Kentucky Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 4 0 t h a n n u a l
meeting of t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n of P h y s i c a l Anthro-
p o l o g i s t s , Boston
1974 P r e h i s t o r i c people of t h e Mammoth Cave a r e a In
Archeology o f t h e Mamnoth Cave a r e a , e d i t e d by P J
Watson, pp 137-162 Academic P r e s s , New York
Robbins , L M., and G K Neumann
1972 The p r e h i s t o r i c p e o p l e o f t h e F o r t Ancient c u l t u r e o f t h e
c e n t r a l Ohio Valley Univers-ity o f Michigan Museum o f
Anthropology Anthropo l o g i c a l Papers NO 4 7
Rolingson, M. S
1964 Paleo-Indian c u l t u r e i n Kentucky, a s t u d y based on
projectile points U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S t u d i e s i n
Anthropology NO 2
Sarnas, K V
1964 The d e n t i t i o n of I n d i a n Knoll man. Dental decay
O d o n t o ~ i s kRevy 15:424-444
Scharnbach, F F
1971 Blain V i l l a g e and t h e F o r t Ancient t r a d i t i o n i n Ohio
(review) American Anthropologist 73: 1402-1404
Schwartz, D W
1967 Conceptions o f Kentucky p r e h i s t o r y : A c a s e study i n t h e
h i s t o r y of archaeology U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S t u d i e s
i n Anthropology NO. 6
Sciulli, P W
1977 A d e s c r i p t i v e and comparative s t u d y o f t h e deciduous
d e n t i t i o n of p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio V a l l e y Amerindians
Ameriean Journal o f Physical Anthropology 48:193-198
1978 Developmental a b n o r m a l i t i e s o f t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n i n
! PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY 343
p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio V a l l e y Amerindians American J o w d of

Physical Anthropology 48:193-198
1975 Aesthetic c u r i o s i t y , t h e r o o t of invention New York

Times, August 24:Section 11, page 1, column 1
mith, H I
1910 The p r e h i s t o r i c e t h n o l o g y o f a Kentucky s i t e Anthropo-
log'iaa't Papers of the American Museum of Natural History
6 ( 2 ) :173-241
now, C E
1948 I n d i a n K n o l l , S i t e Oh 2, 0 h i o County, Kentucky, P a r t I1
~rehaeology4 ( 3 )
tewart, R B
1974 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f components i n S a l t s
Cave p a l e o f e c e s , 1970-1972 I n Archeology of t h e Mamnoth
Cave area, e d i t e d by P J Watson, pp 41-48 Academic
P r e s s , New York.
tini, W
1975 Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s o f human p o p u l a t i o n s under n u t r i t i o n a l
stress i n Biosocial -interrelations i n population adapta-
t i o n , e d i t e d by E S Watts, p p 19-41 Mouton, The
Hague
t r e u v e r , S , and K. D. Vickery
1973 The b e g i n n i n g s of c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e Midwest R i v e r i n e a r e a
o f t h e United S t a t e s Amer-Loan Anthropologist 75:1197-
1220
'ento, F , J M Adovasio, and J Donahue
1980 E x c a v a t i o n s a t Darneron R o c k s h e l t e r (15J023A), Johnson
County, Kentucky Department of Anthropology University
o f Pittsburgh Ethnology Monographs NO 4
r i e t z e n , R. C
1956 The saga of Glover's Cave L e i d i , Wahoo Nebraska
latson, P J (editor)
1974 Areheology of t h e Marmoth Cave area Academic P r e s s New
York.
;ebb, W S
1940 The Wright Mounds, s i t e s 6 & 7 , Montgomery County, Kentucky
University o f Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and
Archaeology 5 ( 1 )
1941a Mount Horeb Earthworks s i t e 7 and t h e Drake Mound s i t e 11,
F a y e t t e County, Kentucky University of Kentucky Publica-
t i o n s i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 ( 2 )
1941b The Morgan Stone Mound, s i t e 1 5 , Bath County, Kentucky
Archaeology 5 ( 3 )
1942 The C&O Mounds a t P a i n t s v i l l e , s i t e s Jo2 and Jog Johnson
County, Kentucky Univers-ity o f Kentucky Publieatione q'w
Anthr'opoZogy and Archaeology 5 (4
1943a The C r i g l e r Mounds, s i t e s Be20 and Be27, and t h e Hartman

Mound s i t e Be32, Boone County, Kentucky University of
Kentucky Pu.blications i n Anthropolocry and Archaeology 5 ( 6 )
1943b The R i l e y Mound, s i t e Be15 and t h e Landing Mound, s i t e
Bel7, Boone County, Kentucky University of Kentucky Pub-
lications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 ( 7 )
1946 I n d i a n Knoll, s i t e Oh2, Ohio County, Kentucky University
o f Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology
4(3), Part I
1950a C a r l s o n Annis Mound, s i t e 5 , B u t l e r County, Kentucky
University of Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology
7 (4)
1950b The Read S h e l l Midden, s i t e 1 0 , B u t l e r County, Kentucky
University of Kentucky Publieations i n Anthropology and
Archaeology 7 ( 5 )
1951 The P a r r i s h V i l l a g e s i t e , s i t e 45, Hopkins County, Ken-
tucky Universitg o f Kentucky Pub lications i n Anthropology
and Avohaeology 7 ( 6 )
Webb, W S , and R. S Baby
1957 The Adena people ( P a r t 11 Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
Columbus
Webb, W. S , and J B E l l i o t t
1942 The Robbins Mound, s i t e s Be3 and B e l 4 , Boone County,
Kentucky University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthro-
pology and Archaeology 5 5 )
Webb, W S , and W D Funkhouser
1928 Ancient l i f e i n Kentucky The Kentucky Geological Survey
Series 6
1930 The Page s i t e , i n Logan County, Kentucky ~ n i v e r s i t yof
Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Arc'haeology 1 ( 3 )
1931 The Tolu s i t e i n C r i t t e n d e n County, Kentucky University
of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology
1 5)
1936 R o c k s h e l t e r s i n Menifee County, Kentucky Un<versity of
Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeo logy
l(5)
1940R i c k e t t s s i t e r e v i s i t e d , s i t e 3, Montgomery County,
Kentucky University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthro-
po logy and Archaeo logy 3 ( 6
Webb, W S , and W G Haag
1939 The C h i g g e r v i l l e s i t e University of Kentucky Publica-
tions i n An-bhropo logy and Archaeology 4 (1)
1940 Cypress Creek v i l l a g e s , s i t e s 11 & 12, McLean County,
Kentucky University of Kentucky Pu'blications i n Anthro-
pology and Archaeology 4 (2)
1947a Archaic s i t e s i n McLean County, Kentucky U n i V e ~ s i t yof
Kentucky &'ublications i n Anthropology and Archaeology
7(1).
1947b U n i V e P ~ wo f
The F i s h e r s i t e , F a y e t t e County
Kentucky
Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology
Webb, W S , and C E Snow

1945 The Adena p e o p l e University of Kentucky Publications i n
Anfhropology and Archaeology No 6
Winters, H D
1968 Value systems and t r a d e c y c l e s o f t h e L a t e Archaic i n t h e
.. -
-
Midwest I n New Perspectives i n archaeology, e d i t e d by
S R Binford and L. R. B i n f o r d , pp 175-221 Aldine,
Chicago
1969 The R i v e r t o n c u l t u r e , a second Millenium o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e
c e n t r a l Wabash Valley I l l f n p i - s State Museum Reports o f
Investigations No 1 3
Yarnell, R A
1964 A b o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between c u l t u r e and p l a n t l i f e i n
3.., - == -^
'? '
t h e Upper Great Lakes Region University of Michigan De-
- partment of Anthropology Anthropo logical Papers No 2 3
1965 E a r l y Woodland p l a n t remains and t h e q u e s t i o n of c u l t i v a -
a27
f tion Flon-da AnthrapoZogist 18 :78-81
' 1 9 7 4 a I n t e s t i n a l c o n t e n t s o f t h e S a l t s Cave mummy and a n a l y s i s
o f t h e i n i t i a l S a t l s Cave f l o t a t i o n s e r i e s In
!f~_ Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by P J.
1974b P l a n t food and c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e S a l t s Caves In
Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by P J
CHAPTER 13
PREHISTORIC HEALTH I N THE O H I O R I V E R VALLEY
Anthony J., Perzigian

~ a % r - I d Aa yenchi
Donna J Braunz
Departments of Anthropology and Anatomy
University of C i n c i n n a t i
INTRODUCTIOM: TI& ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
The p r e h i s t o r y o f e a s t e r n North America i s becoming increasinef-

l y b e t t e r understood Papers by G r i f f i n (1967), Brown (19771,
Ford (1974, 1977) , Stoltman (1978), Cleland (1976) , and E s s q r e i s
(1978) review t h e p r o g r e s s , i s s u e s , and c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n s surround-
ing t h e study o f t h i s a r e a The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e d e t a i l s
t h e successive Paleoindian, Archaic, woodland, and Mississippian
c u l t u r a l systems t h a t range from t h e e a r l i e s t huH'te'r-ga-thersr
groups t o t h e much l a t e r maize h o r t i c u l t u x a l i s t s This archaeolog-
i c a l continuum p o r t r a y s t h e experiences of a s p e c i e s t h a t was n o t
e c o l o g i c a l l y dominant u n t i l r e l a t i v e l y late, when h o r t i c u l t u r a l i ~ t s
became dependent on Mesoamericm c u l t i g e n s
Populations w i l l be described t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e major c u l t u r a l
evolutionary changes in Ohio River Valley p r e h i s t o r y t h a t cul-
minated In labor-intensive maize h o r t i c u l t u r e This s t u d y w i l l
focus, f o r t h e most p a r t , an t h e d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l biology of
f o u r groups from southwest Ohio Other groups w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l
Ohio region w i l l be u t i l i z e d whenever a v a i l a b l e t o provide a more
comprehensive p i c t u r e The guiding concern throughout w i l l b e an
@ @ s e n t &ass: Department of Anthropology, Tndiana Uni-vev-

s a y , Bloamington, Indiana 47405
g ~ r e s e n taddpess: Department of Ant'hvopo'toqv, University o f
PALPQPATHOLOGY AT THE OKIGMS Copyright @ 1984 by Academic MsS, hie

ABIUCKETLJRJ5 347 All nghb of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0-12-179080-0
ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL.
a p p r a i s a l of t h e h e a l t h and w e l l b e i n g o f t h o s e a b o r i g i n a l groups
a s they underwent socioeconomic changes o v e r t h e m i l l e n n i a
The e a r l i e s t s k e l e t a l sample comes from t h e DuPont s i t e
(33Hall1, which i s l o c a t e d between t h e confluence of t h e G r e a t
Miami and Ohio r i v e r s i n southwestern Hamilton County Excavated
by t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C i n c i n n a t i , t h e DuPont s i t e y i e l d e d r a d i o -
carbon d a t e s ranging from 2535 ? 75 t o 2150 Â 65 y e a r s B C
(Dalbey 1977) Hence, occupation o f t h e s i t e was i n t h e Late
Archaic, a preceramic, p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d According t o
Caldwell (1958), a b o r i g i n a l s become i n c r e a s i n g l y more e f f i c i e n t
i n t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f deciduous f o r e s t environments o v e r t h e
span of t h e Archaic p e r i o d (8000-1000 B C ) . Deer was t h e primary
resource throughout t h e Archaic a l t h o u g h t h e food b a s e g r a d u a l l y
expanded t o i n c l u d e n u t s , a q u a t i c r e s o u r c e s , and, by L a t e Archaic
times, small seeds Cleland (1976) c h a r a c t e r i z e s Late Archaic
economies a s d i f f u s e a d a p t a t i o n s wherein t h e s e a s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n
of a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t r e s o u r c e s p e r m i t t e d t h e maintenance
of many s u b s i s t e n c e a l t e r n a t i v e s Archaic campsites were t y p i c a l l y
occupied s e a s o n a l l y i n phase w i t h r i p e n i n g n u t s , b e r r i e s , and o t h e r
wild p l a n t foods The DuPont s i t e may b e regarded a s a b a s e camp
with a c t i v i t i e s c o n c e n t r a t e d from l a t e summer t o l a t e f a l l
Analyses o f carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s i n bone samples s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e
b a s i c a l l y h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g d i e t of t h e DuPont people (van d e r
Merwe and Vogel 1978)
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of p o t t e r y s e r v e s a s a convenient demarcation
between t h e Late Archaic and E a r l y Woodland (1000-100 B.C )
periods The subsequent Middle Woodland p e r i o d (100 B.C t o A D.
400) i s t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Hopewellian f l o r e s c e n c e As
i n t h e p r e c e d i n g Late Archaic, h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , and f i s h i n g
remained economically i m p o r t a n t f o r both E a r l y and Middle Woodland
populations Moreover, evidence f o r u t i l i z a t i o n of small s e e d s
does i n c r e a s e through time and s i g n a l s a g r a d u a l s h i f t i n econo-
mic a c t i v i t y T h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n of s e e d s c o n t r i b u t e d t o an
already complex food web e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e L a t e Archaic Of
note, carbon i s o t o p e s t u d i e s (Bender e t a 1 1981) s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t
t h a t Hopewellian people i n isc cons in, I l l i n o i s , and Ohio d i d n o t
make use of corn a s an important i t e m i n t h e d i e t
A Middle Woodland s k e l e t a l sample from t h e Todd's Mound s i t e
(33Bu205) was a v a i l a b l e f o r study Excavated i n 1977 by t h e mem-
b e r s o f t h e C e n t r a l Ohio V a l l e y A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e s i t e
i s l o c a t e d i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B u t l e r County on a small t r i b u t a r y of
t h e Great Miami River No h a b i t a t i o n d e b r i s was p r e s e n t ; r a t h e r ,
t h e s i t e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a mortuary-ceremonial complex ~rtifacts
and radiocarbon d a t s s of A.D 40 t o 215 2 60 c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e a
Hopewell mound Although o n l y 1 5 i n d i v i d u a l s were recovered from
t h e mound, t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n was e x c e l l e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y a r e
included, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e i n f o r m a t i o n on Ohio Middle Woodland
s k e l e t a l samples i s extremely l i m i t e d
By M i s s i s s i p p i a n - F t Ancient t i m e s (A.D 700-1600) many
a b o r i g i n a l groups became committed i n C l e l a n d ' s terms (1976) t o
f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l economies o r i e n t e d around Mesoamerican
13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY 349
cultigens Year-round, s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s e d e n t a r y v i l l a g e s de-

veloped by t h e F t Ancient p e r i o d a s p o p u l a t i o n s became concen-
t r a t e d f o r labor-intensive a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y ; f o r t i f i e d
v i l l a g e s approaching 1000 i n d i v i d u a l s a r o s e . F t Ancient
p o p u l a t i o n s d e l i b e r a t e l y promoted s i m p l i f i e d ecosystems a s
c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s , e.q , maize and b e a n s , became t h e predominant
sources of food, w i t h maize c o n s t i t u t i n g up t o 70% o f t h e d i e t
(van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978); i n d e e d , t h e food base i t s e l f be-
came more s i m p l i f i e d compared t o t h a t o f e a r l i e r groups (Ford
1974) Moreover, a high degree o f " s e l e c t i v i t y a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d
F t Ancient h u n t i n g , a s animal e x p l o i t a t i o n focused on a few
major s p e c i e s ( E s s e n p r e i s 1982)
Two F t Ancient samples were a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y The Turpin
s i t e (33HA19), excavated by t h e C i n c i n n a t i Museum o f N a t u r a l
H i s t o r y (Oehler 1 9 7 3 ) , i s l o c a t e d on t h e e a s t bank o f t h e L i t t l e
Miami River about 3 m i l e s n o r t h o f i t s confluence w i t h t h e Ohio
River A radiocarbon d a t e o f A D 1175 k 150 p l a c e s t h e Turpin
occupation i n a p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s e d h o r t i c u l t u r a l dependence and
sedentism Carbon i s o t o p e s t u d i e s on samples f rom Turpin conf i n n
the i n g e s t i o n o f t r o p i c a l (C4) c u l t i g e n s , e.g , maize (van d e r
Merwe and Vogel 1 9 7 8 ) . The o t h e r F t . Ancient group i s from t h e
S t a t e Line s i t e (33Ha58) Excavated i n 1979 i n a s a l v a g e p r o j e c t ,
the s i t e i s l o c a t e d on t h e Ohio-Indiana b o r d e r approximately
m i l e s n o r t h o f t h e Ohio River Large q u a n t i t i e s o f c h a r r e d
a i z e along w i t h dense h a b i t a t i o n d e b r i s c o v e r i n g approximately
3 4 ha i n d i c a t e a s e d e n t a r y , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n Radiocar-
on d a t e s p u t t h e o c c u p a t i o n a t A.D 1175 5 60.
With t h e f o u r aforementioned groups we have, w i t h i n a t i g h t l y
ircumscribed a r e a i n southwest Ohio, t h e s k e l e t a l remains o f
o p u l a t i o n s t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e major s t a g e s o f c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n
he model used h e r e a c c o u n t s f o r o b s e r v a b l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l changes
s a r i s i n g from l o c a l , in s i t u c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r
o m i g r a t i o n from o r g e n e t i c i n t e r c h a n g e w i t h o t h e r r e g i o n s
Essenpreis 1982; Reichs 1974) Thus, a v a l u a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o
n i t o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact of c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i s r e a d i l y a f -
orded. The d i s c u s s i o n proceeds f i r s t w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f
a r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s t h a t r e f l e c t c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g growth
nd development and second w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of paleopathology
nd p a l eodemography
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Osteometry
u s - ~ e o m e t r i cd a t a were c o l l e c t e d from t h e f o u r southwest Ohio

populations I n a d d i t i o n , l i m i t e d comparisons t o o t h e r g r o u p s
within t h e r e g i o n were made A b a t t e r y o f 12 measurements was
used in o r d e r t o e x p r e s s f u l l y t h e magnitude o f a d u l t v a r i a t i o n s
both w i t h i n and between samples The measurements can b e sub-

d i v i d e d i n t o two groups: (1) measurements o f l e n g t h , i e ,
maximum humerus l e n g t h , r a d i u s l e n g t h , b i c o n d y l a r femur l e n g t h ,
and maximum t i b i a l e n g t h , and ( 2 ) measurements o f r o b u s t i c i t y ,
i e , c l a v i c l e l e n g t h , d i a m e t e r s o f t h e humeral and femoral heads,
d i s t a l a r t i c u l a r width o f t h e humerus, a n t e r o p o s t e r i o r and medio-
l a t e r a l d i a m e t e r s of t h e m i d s h a f t o f t h e femur, b i c o n d y l a r width
of t h e femur, and t a l u s l e n g t h . The f o l l o w i n g sample s i z e s rep-
r e s e n t t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s on whom a t l e a s t one measurement
was taken: DuPont, 8 = 21; Todd, fl = 8 ; S t a t e Line, fl = 26;
Turpin, N = 114 The l a t t e r two, approximately contemporaneous
F t Ancient groups were compared f o r t h e 12 measurements No
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were observed between f e -
males; o n l y two s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e males
Thus, w i t h only two measurements y i e l d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s ,
t h e F t Ancient groups were e s s e n t i a l l y p h e n o t y p i c a l l y i n d i s t i n -
g u i s h a b l e and t h e r e f o r e were combined i n t o one sample
A simple ranking procedure was f i r s t used t o compare t h e
groups f o r t h e t o t a l b a t t e r y o f 12 measurements For t h e males
t h e summed rank f o r t h e Middle Wodland sample was t h e h i g h e s t ,
while t h a t o f t h e L a t e Archaic DuPont sample was t h e lowest; t h u s ,
g e n e r a l body s i z e o f t h e former exceeds t h a t of t h e l a t t e r Dif-
f e r e n c e s i n summed ranks were, o v e r a l l , l e s s among females t h a n
males a c r o s s samples
The p e r c e n t a g e of s e x u a l dimorphism f o r each measurement was
n e x t ranked by group The Late Archaic sample a g a i n had t h e
lowest summed r a n k , and t h e Middle Woodland, t h e h i g h e s t The
same p o p u l a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s can be observed i n Table 13 1, where
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s e x u a l dimorphism i s e s t i m a t e d by a v e r a g i n g t h e
dimorphism f o r t h e 12 measurements Of i n t e r e s t , t h e Middle
Woodland v a l u e i s n o t e a s i l y equated w i t h e i t h e r t h a t o f t h e "Late
Archaic o r t h a t of t h e F t Ancient p e r i o d s ; i n t h e same v e i n ,
Middle Woodland s u b s i s t e n c e i s a l s o d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of t h e
o t h e r two p e r i o d s The d a t a do i n d i c a t e t h a t F t Ancient p e o p l e
were more s e x u a l l y dimorphic t h a n Late Archaic p e o p l e T h i s ob-
s e r v a t i o n appears c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t o f Wolfe and Gray (1982)
They r e p o r t t h a t e x t a n t groups w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e t e n d t o e x h i b i t
g r e a t e r s e x u a l dimorphism in s t a t u r e t h a n h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r qroups
An a n a l y s i s of s t a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n was a l s o performed Mean
s t a t u r e o f t h e groups was e s t i m a t e d from measurements o f t h e femur
f o l l o w i n g Genoves's (1967) formulas and i s provided i n T a b l e 1 3 2
The Madisonville sample, a n o t h e r F t Ancient s i t e from Hamilton
County (Hooton 1 9 2 0 ) , and an a d d i t i o n a l Ohio Hopewell sample
(Webb and Snow 1974) a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d A similar pattern of
s t a t u r a l change through t i m e emerges f o r b o t h males and females:
an a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e from L a t e Archaic t o Middle Woodland followed
by an a p p a r e n t d e c r e a s e t o L a t e Archaic Levels o r lower by F t
Ancient t i m e s For males, t h e c h r o n o l o g i c sequence i s 169 5 t o
171 3 t o 168 7 cm; f o r females, 159 9 t o 1 6 1 4 t o 157 6 cm. Thus,
r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s among qroups a r e suggested by t h e s e
d a t a and t h e abovementioned summed r a n k s
TABLE 1 3 1 Mean Sexual Dimorphism i n Postcranial Ske letona
Dimorphism
Total 1 2 ) Length ( 4 ) Robusticity ( 8 )
% % %
F t . Ancient 1 0 47 8 44 1 1 49
Middle Woodland 1 2 16 9 15 1 3 66
Late Archaic 8 33 7 74 8 63
Q-Numberof measurements i s given -in parentheses Sexual

dimorphism equals 1 - (x? + xo+) x 100
TABLE 1 3 2 Mean Stature (CM) and Percentage of Sexual

Dimorphism Estimated from tb Femur
Males Females Sexual

Stature Stature Dimorphism
Period Group (em) N (em) El f%)
Late Archah DuPont 1695 5 1599 5 5 9
Middle woodland Ohio Hope-well 168 1 20 160 2 13 4 7
TodfsMound 1745 3 162 7 4 6 8
Woodland mean 171 3 161 4 5 8
Mad-isonv-iIle 167 6 29 155 9 18 7 0
Tuwn-State
Line 169 8 44 159 2 30 6 u
F t . Ancient
Mean 168 7 157 6 6 7
One should n o t o v e r i n t e r p r e t t h e s e o s t e o m e t r i c d a t a , e s p e c i a l -
l y w i t h l i m i t e d sample s i z e s f o r t h e Archaic and Woodland groups
Moreover, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between and among a d u l t body s i z e ,
n u t r i t i o n , and g e n e t i c s a r e n e i t h e r p e r f e c t l y c l e a r nor w e l l un-
derstood. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i f we can t a k e t h e d a t a prima f a c i e , a
modest improvement i n n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h a p p e a r s on t h e o n e hand
concomitant w i t h t h e Late Archaic t o Woodland continuum On t h e
o t h e r hand, no enhancements o f growth a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e
with t h e growing commitment t o sedentism and maize a g r i c u l t u r e
along w i t h t h e correspondingly l e s s d i v e r s i f i e d d i e t o f F t
Ancient people Any a c t u a l o s t e o m e t r i c changes o b s e r v a b l e a c r o s s
time i n t h i s r e g i o n can be viewed most parsimoniously a s (1)
b a s i c a l l y s e c u l a r i n n a t u r e , ( 2 ) o c c u r r i n g i n s i t u , and ( 3 ) w e l l
within a range o f v a r i a t i o n a t t r i b u t a b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a l growth,
n u t r i t i o n , and a c t i v i t y l e v e l s That economic and n u t r i t i o n a l
352 ANTHONY J. PERZIGIAN ET AL.
changes took p l a c e can be s a f e l y assumed. That changes i n a c t i v i t y

l e v e l took p l a c e can be i l l u s t r a t e d by comparisons o f t h e femoral
midshaft index (ML/AP x 100) Assuming t h a t g r e a t e r d e g r e e s o f
m e d i o l a t e r a l f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e femur, l i k e t h a t of t h e t i b i a
(Lovejoy and Trinkhaus 1980) , r e f l e c t g r e a t e r p h y s i c a l demands,
then lower i n d i c e s should r e f l e c t a more biomechanically s t r e s s f u l
existence For males t h e mean index i s 89 8% f o r t h e two F t
Ancient and 83 1% f o r combined L a t e Archaic-Woodland samples;
s i m i l a r l y , f o r females t h e F t Ancient mean of 92 6%exceeds t h e
e a r l i e r group mean o f 90 1% I n s h o r t , a sopewhat l e s s p h y s i c a l l y
demanding way o f l i f e seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e F t . Ancient p e o p l e
v i s - a - v i s e a r l i e r Archaic and Woodland groups
H a r r i s Lines o f Growth A r r e s t
Data on H a r r i s l i n e s o f growth a r r e s t i n t h e r a d i u s a r e a v a i l -
a b l e f o r t h e southwest Ohio groups When o b s e r v a t i o n s from an
e a r l i e r s t u d y by Pape (1977) a r e combined w i t h t h o s e o f t h e
a u t h o r s , t h e f o l l o w i n g samples r e s u l t : L a t e Archaic (N = 1 5 ) ,
Middle Woodland ( N = 6 ) , F t Ancient ( N = 44) Although t h e femur
and t i b i a a r e more commonly s t u d i e d , t h e r a d i u s was s e l e c t e d f o r
reasons of b e t t e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r e s e r v a t i o n O f n o t e , when
well-defined s c a r s do form i n t h e femur and t i b i a , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y
a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e r a d i a l s h a f t Dreizen e t
a 1 (1964) r e p o r t e d from a l o n g i t u d i n a l d a t a s e t t h a t t h e frequency
of bone s c a r s i n t h e r a d i u s is g r e a t e s t i n i n f a n c y and e a r l y c h i l d -
hood T h i s heightened p e r i o d o f s e n s i t i v i t y , i . e , t h e f i r s t 4-5
y e a r s of l i f e i s coterminous w i t h t h e p e r i o d s of g r e a t e s t r a t e of
i n c r e a s e i n t h e l e n g t h o f t h e r a d i u s and g r e a t e s t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y
t o exanthematous d i s e a s e s . Unfortunately, a d e a r t h of subadults i
whom l i n e s a r e most l i k e l y t o b e p r e s e n t was a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y .
Though 1i n e s can p e r s i s t i n t o adulthood, t h e frequency o f s c a r r i n g
i s expected t o v a r y i n v e r s e l y w i t h c h r o n o l o g i c age due t o r e s o r p -
t i o n and remodeling Nine i n d i v i d u a l s o r 69% o f t h e Late Archaic
sample e x h i b i t e d H a r r i s l i n e s w i t h a r a n g e from 0 t o 12 and mean
of 3 l e s i o n s I n c o n t r a s t , c o n s p i c u o u s l y lower p r o p o r t i o n s o f
d i v i d u a l s w i t h l i n e s were observed i n t h e l a t e r groups: 33% o f
Todd, 29% of Turpin, and 2 2 % o f S t a t e Line Lower means and mo
r e s t r i c t e d ranges a l s o n o t a b l y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e l a t e r groups:
Todd (X = 1 3 , 0-7) ; Turpin (X = 1, 0-5) ; S t a t e Line (X = 0 5,
0-3) Of n o t e , t h e g r e a t e r p r e d e l i c t i o n f o r H a r r i s l i n e s i n t h e
L a t e Archaic sample cannot b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n
of s u b a d u l t s when compared t o t h e - s a m p l e s from t h e l a t e r popula-
tions Indeed, j u s t under one-sixth o f t h e L a t e Archaic sample
and j u s t over one-f i f t h o f t h e F t Ancient samples were comprised
of s u b a d u l t s Hence, t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f o b s e r v i n g l i n e s might be
considered, i f anything, g r e a t e r in t h e l a t e r groups when compared
t o t h e e a r l i e r L a t e Archaic sample These r e s u l t s a r e q u i t e
reminiscent o f Cassidy ' s (1980) ; s h e compared s i m i l a r groups f r o
I,
Kentucky and n o t e d t h e r e l a t i v e i n f r e q u e n c y o f l i n e s i n a l a t e
farming group when compared t o an e a r l i e r h u n t i n g group.
Although d i f f e r e n c e s between groups a r e q u i t e s t r i k i n g , no
simple e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e The p r e v a l e n c e and frequency
of l i n e s i n t h e Late Archaic sample could s u g g e s t e p i s o d i c b o u t s
of food s h o r t a g e e x a c e r b a t e d by o r s y n e r g i s t i c w i t h i n f e c t i o u s
diseases Anmerman (1975) h a s shown t h a t extreme s t o c h a s t i c
f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e s i z e of h u n t i n g p o p u l a t i o n s a r e n o t u n l i k e l y ;
thereby, groups might o c c a s i o n a l l y exceed t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t i e s
of t h e i r environments Regular o r s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e s i n food
supply may c o n t r i b u t e a s w e l l t o t h e e t i o l o g y o f H a r r i s l i n e s
A l l of t h i s c o n j e c t u r e , however, i s markedly tempered by observa-
t i o n s such a s t h o s e of Mensforth (1981) who, i n a c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s of growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n t h e Libben s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n ,
demonstrated t h e i r v e r y l i m i t e d r e l i a b i l i t y a s demographically
sensitive indicators
Nevertheless, t h e conspicuously lower mean and range i n t h e
F t Ancient groups could s u g g e s t a more c o n s i s t e n t supply o f food
vis-a-vis t h a t of t h e L a t e Archaic p e o p l e O r , one could j u s t a s
reasonably argue t h a t t h e lower frequency of t h e F t Ancient
samples r e f l e c t s more c h r o n i c , l e s s a c u t e e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h n u t r i -
t i o n a l i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s when compared t o t h e L a t e Archaic Thus,
a c h r o n i c a l l y deprived p o p u l a t i o n would produce fewer l i n e s than
one with s e a s o n a l p e r i o d s o f want I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, one
views t h e l i n e s a s r e f l e c t i n g a r e s t o r a t i o n of normal growth,
then t h e F t Ancient p e o p l e d i s p l a y f a r fewer l i n e s o f recovery
following bouts o f u n d e r n u t r i t i o n and i l l n e s s Indeed, t h e
s e v e r i t y and d u r a t i o n of growth d i s r u p t i o n s may a c t u a l l y have been
g r e a t e r f o r F t Ancient people a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r o v e r a l l
lower frequency o f l i n e s T h i s view must b e q u a l i f i e d because of
(1) an u n f o r t u n a t e l y low p r o p o r t i o n o f s u b a d u l t s i n t h e two
samples, ( 2 ) t h e l a c k of c o n t r o l o f age i n t h e samples and
(3) t h e seeming demographic i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f H a r r i s l i n e s a s il-
l u s t r a t e d by Mensforth (1981)
L i n e a r Enamel Hypoplasia
Data on l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a (LEH) a r e r e p o r t e d i n

Table 13 3 f o r t h e -permanent d e n t i t i o n o f t h e southwest Ohio
groups Only c a s e s judged a s moderate t o s e v e r e a r e t a b u l a t e d .
The moderate t o s e v e r e c a t e g o r y was r e s e r v e d f o r prominent r e l a -
t i v e l y deep h o r i z o n t a l grooves, d e p r e s s e d l i n e s , o r s e r i e s of
p i t s on t h e buccal s u r f a c e LEH was 'recorded f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
tooth c l a s s e s : i n c i s o r s , c a n i n e s and molars Thus, a r e c o r d of
development from b i r t h t o about 5 y e a r s of age i s a v a i l a b l e .
Extreme d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n compromised s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n s of
the Late Archaic and Middle Woodland samples; consequently, o n l y
1 57 and 40 t e e t h , r e s p e c t i v e l y , were s c o r a b l e From Table 1 3 3 ,
it would appear t h a t r i s k o f exposure t o p a t h o g e n i c f a c t o r s asso-
c i a t e d w i t h LEH was t h r e e times g r e a t e r f o r F t Ancient c h i l d r e n
354 ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL.
TABLE 13 3 Percentage of Teeth with Moderate/Severe Linear

Ename l Hypop Zas-La
Late Middle
Ft b
Arehuia Woodland -.Ancient
^ % N % El %
.-
Maxilla
RI1 6 33 3 2 0 50 54 0
LI1 7 28 6 3 0 37- 51 4
RC 7 28 6 5 20 0 57 57 9
LC 6 16 6 5 20 0 $5 62 2
RM1 6 16 6 4 25 0 49 57 1
LM1 6 16 6 5 20 0 46 63 0
M a d b Ze
RC 5 20 0 5 20 0 5 8 7 9 3
LC 5 20 0 4 25 0 49 571
RM1 4 25 0 4 25 0 48 54 2
LM1 5 0 3 33.3 49 46 6
- - - - - -
57 210 40 20 0 494 60 3
aN = Number of t e e t h examined
b~epresentsTurpin s i t e
when compared t o e i t h e r t h e Middle Woodland o r t h e L a t e Archaic

Heterogeneity among t h e samples was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( X = 71 8 ,
p < 005) About 60% o f t h e F o r t Ancient t e e t h d i s p l a y e d a-b
l e a s t one lesion A r a t e of o n l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h a t seems t o
c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e two e a r l i e r groups
The group comparisons a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e p o r t e d by
S c i u l l i (1978) f o r o t h e r Ohio V a l l e y groups H e reports a 52%
i n c i d e n c e o f s e v e r e , g e n e r a l h y p o p l a s i a o f t h e permanent t e e t h f o r
l a t e f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l groups, whereas t h a t o f e a r l i e r groups
w i t h d i f f u s e economies was o n l y 30% I n an e a r l i e r s t u d y (1977)
S c i u l l i r e p o r t e d on t h e deciduous d e n t i t i o n of t h e same groups
When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e developmental t i m i n g o f t h e l e s i o n s h e con-
cluded t h a t t h e post-Middle Woodland f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l groups
were a f f e c t e d p r e n a t a l l y a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r frequency
than t h e e a r l i e r groups R e s u l t s , t h e n , of t h e s e s e p a r a t e i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s prompt one t o conclude . t h a t environmental p e r t u r b a t i o n s
( e g , n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s e s , i r o n d e f i c i e n c i e s , and i n f e c t i o n s )
spanning t h e p r e n a t a l and p o s t n a t a l p e r i o d s were f a r more common
t o l a t e r p r e h i s t o r i c farming groups t h a n t o e i t h e r hunting-
g a t h e r i n g o r e a r l i e r Woodland g r o u p s F i n a l l y , t h e frequency
along w i t h t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e l e s i o n s among t h e l a t e r groups
such a s F t Ancient s u g g e s t s a n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s comparable t o
t h a t of u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d and undernourished modern a g r i c u l t u r a l
13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY
p o p u l a t i o n s (Nikiforuk and F r a s e r 1981) A t l e a s t a modest d e c l i n e

i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n a p p e a r s t o a t t e n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g
commitment t o a g r i c u l t u r e among Ohio groups T h i s view, however
must be q u a l i f i e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h o s e samples d e r i v e d
from E a r l y and Middle Woodland b u r i a l c u l t groups ( e g , Adena and
Hopewell) r e p r e s e n t o n l y t h e h i g h e s t s t a t u s groups and t h e r e b y
t h e l e a s t d e p r i v e d segments of t h o s e s o c i e t i e s - .
PALEOPATHOLOGY AND PALEODEMOGRAPHY
Caries
The f o c u s o f t h i s c h a p t e r s o f a r h a s been on g e n e r a l i z e d i n d i -
c a t o r s of d i s t u r b a n c e d u r i n g growth and development Concern now
s h i f t s t o d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l f e a t u r e s o f a more p a t h o l o g i c a l na-
ture T h i s s e c t i o n commences w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f d e n t a l c a r i e s
Indeed, a r e l a t i v e l y e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e now e x i s t s and s u p p o r t s
t h e g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n of i n c r e a s e d c a r i o g e n i c i t y a s a consequence
of t h e t r a n s i t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g commitment t o a g r i c u l t u r e The
g r e a t e r frequency o f c a r i e s among f a n n i n g p o p u l a t i o n s when com-
pared t o h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r groups i s t y p i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f d i e t a r y c a r b o h y d r a t e o f t h e former Table 13 4
c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h e dichotomy between s u b s i s t e n c e groups Of 159
unworn permanent t e e t h from t h e L a t e Archaic samples, o n l y 4 t e e t h
o r 2 5% of t h e t o t a l e x h i b i t e d one o r more c a r i e s For t h e Middle
Woodland, when consumption o f s t a r c h y seed r e s o u r c e s i n c r e a s e d ,
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r i o u s t e e t h i s more t h a n f i v e t i m e s t h a t o f
t h e L a t e Archaic F i n a l l y , f o r F t Ancient 24 8% o f t h e t e e t h , o r
almost t w i c e t h a t of t h e Middle Woodland, were c a r i o u s Hetero-
g e n e i t y a c r o s s samples i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (x2 = 49 47,
p < 005)
With t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e l a r g e F o r t Ancient sample, a more
thorough a n a l y s i s was p e r m i t t e d Though t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , females had a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f
c a r i o u s t e e t h (27 1%) than d i d males (22 9 % ) Based on observa-
t i o n s of one-half of t h e d e n t i t i o n , t h e average i n d i v i d u a l had
four c a v i t i e s The mean number o f c a v i t i e s p e r t o o t h f o r t h e
e n t i r e sample was 0 33 The molars i n a l l samples were t h e most
commonly i m p l i c a t e d t o o t h group Of n o t e , t h e r e l a t i v e l y poor
enamel formation suggested by t h e LEH d a t a (Table 1 3 3 ) may have
predisposed F t Ancient t e e t h t o c a r i e s
The r e s u l t s g i v e n i n T a b l e 1 3 4 f u l l y c o r r o b o r a t e t h e obser-
v a t i o n s o f Addington (1973) on o t h e r Ohio V a l l e y groups He r e -
ports t h e following percentages of i n d i v i d u a l s with c a r i e s : Late
Archaic ( 0 % ) ,E a r l y Woodland (33 3 % ) , Middle Woodland (13 3 % ) ,
F t Ancient (100%) These d a t a l i k e w i s e document a t r e n d o f i n -
c r e a s i n g c a r i o u s involvement Correspondingly, S c i u l l i e t a 1
(1982) r e p o r t a c a r i e s frequency o f 3 1% f o r t h e Late Archaic
TABLE 13 4 Percentage o f Carious T e e t h by Grow
Late Middle Ft.

Archaic Woodland ~ncient~
N~ % N % N %
Maxi Z l a
I1 9
I2 8
c 9
PI 6
P2 7
Ml 8
M2 11
M3 8
Mandib Ze
I1 9
12 11
C 13
PI I3
P2 13
Ml 11
M2 12
M3 11
-
159
= Number of t e e t h examined
^Represents Turpin s i t e .
Williams s i t e sample; t h e y observed 1597 t e e t h . Finally, S c i u l l i

and C a r l i s l e (1977) r e p o r t e d a frequency o f 27 7% f o r t h r e e L a t e
Woodland samples from western Pennsylvania, a v a l u e s u b s t a n t i a l l y
h i g h e r than t h a t o f t y p i c a l p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l groups
I n sum, t h e c u l t u r a l and economic changes t h a t r e s u l t e d in
t h e s h i f t away from a primary dependence on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g
i n f a v o r o f a r e l i a n c e on a g r i c u l t u r e had an unmistakably patho-
l o g i c i n f l u e n c e on d e n t a l h e a l t h and o r a l b i o l o g y The evidence
i s unequivocal t h a t c a r i e s became a prominent f e a t u r e and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c burden o f t h e l a t e groups who r e l i e d more h e a v i l y
on maize a g r i c u l t u r e .
Nonspecific S k e l e t a l Lesions
Â¥
Paleopathological s t u d i e s t y p i c a l l y consider nonspecific in-
flammatory l e s i o n s o f t h e l o n g bones, e g . , o s t e o m y e l i t i s and -
periostitis References t o s u c h l e s i o n s appear i n t h e e a r l i e s t ,
TABLE 1 3 5 Percentage of Long Bones w i t h Periosteat

Inftamnatory Reactions
La be Middle Ft.
Archails Woodland Ancient {;+
br--,
Na % 217 %
--a7
7
Humerus 17 17 7 9 11 1 J 7 6 + ,
Radius 19 10.5 9 11 1 7 5 Lt;,:
Ulna 20 0 " 7 28.6 6.1 r ,
Femur 20 5 0 8 37 5 1 0 - 6 <,-
Tibia 16 18 8 8 50.0 2 4 3 > .
Fibula 19 15 8 8 37 5 28 2
- - - -
Ill 10 8 49 8 6 13.0
-
- - .-=-- --
aN = Number of bones examined
l i t e r a t u r e (Hooton 1920; Langdon 1881 on Ohio Valley groups

Table 13 5 p r o v i d e s a p r e l i m i n a r y assessment o f a d u l t l e s i o n s f o r
t h e southwest Ohio groups No e f f o r t was made e i t h e r t o d i s -
t i n g u i s h among t h e p o s s i b l e p a t h o l o g i e s o r t o r e c o r d t h e d e g r e e
of s e v e r i t y ; r a t h e r , p a t h o l o g i c a l involvement was recorded i f any
inflammatory response was e x p r e s s e d on t h e p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e
The frequency o f l e s i o n s p e r sample may b e i n f l u e n c e d h e r e by
demographic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s Indeed, more f r e q u e n t l e s i o n s may be
a n t i c i p a t e d i n a sample o f o l d e r i n d i v i d u a l s than i n a sample o f
younger i n d i v i d u a l s I n a d d i t i o n , an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h m u l t i p l e
l e s i o n s may i n f l a t e t h e t o t a l frequency i n a small sample The
Middle Woodland sample i s q u i t e s m a l l ; o n l y 49 bones were examined.
More than twice t h a t was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e L a t e Archaic, and j u s t
under 800 bones were e v a l u a t e d from t h e two F t Ancient samples.
V a r i a t i o n i n t h e frequency o f l e s i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t (X2 = 1 0 35,
p < -01) Whatever t h e e t i o l o g i c f a c t o r s were t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d
t o l o n g bone l e s i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e lower e x t r e m i t y , t h e y ap-
p e a r t o b e more i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e Middle Woodland and F t Ancient
p e r i o d s than i n t h e Late Archaic Tibia1 l e s i o n s , especially,
seem t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s of b o t h a d u l t s and
s u b a d u l t s (Mensforth e t a 1 1978)
The d a t a given in Table 1 3 5 can p r e l i m i n a r i l y s u g g e s t t h a t a t
l e a s t a modest d e c l i n e In s k e l e t a l h e a l t h followed t h e abandonment
of h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g and consequent adoption o f l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e
a g r i c u l t u r a l economies These r e s u l t s and c o n c l u s i o n s a r e i n
accord w i t h t h o s e p u b l i s h e d by L a l l o (1979) on a neighboring F t
Ancient group from t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e Working w i t h a
sample of 44 i n d i v i d u a l s r a n g i n g i n a g e from b i r t h t o 60 y e a r s , ' h e
observed osseous i n f e c t i o n s i n 36, o r 81.8%, o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s
He argued t h a t i n f e c t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o b o t h s u b a d u l t
and a d u l t m o r t a l i t y To him, t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between d i s e a s e ,

m a l n u t r i t i o n , and m o r t a l i t y was e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l l y and demographi-
cally significant A l a t e r group, t h e Eiden p o p u l a t i o n (A D
1490 5 55 y e a r s ) from n o r t h e r n Ohio, h a s a l s o been d e s c r i b e d
L a l l o and Blank (1977) recorded t h e frequency of b o t h p e r i o s t i t i s
and o s t e o m y e l i t i s i n t h i s maize a g r i c u l t u r e group; of 122 i n d i v i d -
u a l s from a g e s 0 t o 59 9 y e a r s , 84, o r 70% e x h i b i t e d some form o f
infectious manifestation I n sum, t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e s o f a r sug-
g e s t t h e p r e s e n c e of endemic i n f e c t i o n s ( e g S a w e u s ) t h a t a r e
more than c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g commitment
t o maize a g r i c u l t u r e Whatever t h e i n t e r p l a y was among n u t r i t i o n ,
p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , o c c u p a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , and m i c r o b i a l a g e n t s ,
it r e s u l t e d i n 1) c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o n s o f t h e lower e x t r e m i t y w i t h
d e b i l i t a t i n g consequences f o r many a d u l t s , and 2 ) p o s s i b l e d e a t h
i n t h e f i r s t y e a r s of l i f e a s suggested by d a t a from t h e Libben
c o l l e c t i o n (Mensforth e t a 1 1978)
Skeletal ~ u b e r c u i o s i s
The s e n i o r a u t h o r and o t h e r s (Hooton 1920; Katzenberg 1976;

Means 1925; P e r z i g i a n and Widmer 1979; Widmer and P e r z i g i a n 1981)
have suggested t h e p r e s e n c e o f a crowd i n f e c t i o n , i e t u b e r c u l o -
s i s , i n t h e F o r t Ancient p e o p l e from Hamilton County In a
roentgenologic s t u d y o f f i v e i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e Turpin s i t e ,
v e r t e b r a l f u s i o n s , kyphoses, and d e s t r u c t i o n a r e w e l l d e p i c t e d
( P e r z i g i a n and Widmer 1979) The l o c a t i o n , e x p r e s s i o n , and p a t -
t e r n of t h e s p i n a l l e s i o n s a r e s t r o n g l y p e r s u a s i v e o f t h e p r e s e n c e
of tuberculosis Klepinger (1982) h a s r e c e n t l y supported t h i s hy-
p o t h e s i s and c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b l e o r i g i n s o f a New World
mycobacterial i n f e c t i o n i n humans
B u i k s t r a (1976) has n o t e d t h a t p u r p o r t e d c a s e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c
t u b e r c u l o s i s a r e r e p o r t e d more f r e q u e n t l y f o r l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l l y
based groups t h a n f o r e a r l i e r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g groups By
i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e n , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s can become endemic a t
c e r t a i n l e v e l s of p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and s i z e such a s t h o s e
reached by F t Ancient p e o p l e The p r o b a b i l i t y o f endemicity o f
t u b e r c u l o s i s i s , t h u s , c o n v e n t i o n a l l y viewed a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the opportunity f o r transmission P r e v i o u s p a p e r s by t h e s e n i o r
a u t h o r adopt such a view concerning t h e primacy o f d e n s i t y i n un-
d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and maintenance o f crowd i n f e c t i o n s
The t h r u s t of t h i s c h a p t e r , however, may s u g g e s t y e t o t h e r
important f a c t o r s i n a d d i t i o n t o d e n s i t y and t r a n s m i s s i o n i n t h e
maintenance of crowd i n f e c t i o n s The d a t a s o f a r m a r s h a l l e d
s u g g e s t (1) some r e d u c t i o n i n g e n e r a l n u t r i t i o n and d i e t a r y
d i v e r s i t y , and ( 2 ) some o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e i n s t r e s s among t h e l a t e r
farming groups I t i s w e l l known t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n due t o d e f i -
c i e n c i e s o f p r o t e i n , c a l o r i e s , v i t a m i n s , o r t r a c e elements can
f o r e s t a l l immunological d e f e n s e mechanisms; moreover, i n t r a u t e r i n e
growth r e t a r d a t i o n due t o maternal m a l n u t r i t i o n produces ~ r o f o u n d
adverse e f f e c t s on p o s t n a t a l immunocompetence For example,
13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN TA-IE OHIO RIVER VALLEY
impaired antibody response was s e e n i n t h e Fl and F2 o f f s p r i n g o f

s t a r v e d female r a t s even though t h e l i t t e r s i n b o t h g e n e r a t i o n s
had f r e e a c c e s s t o food (Chandra 1 9 7 5 ) ; in a d d i t i o n , reduced im-
munocompetence p e r s i s t e d f o r t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r p r e g n a n t mice
were f e d a z i n c - d e f i c i e n t d i e t (Beach e t a 1 1 9 8 2 ) . Perhaps t h e n ,
depressed l e v e l s of irmnunocompetence a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o o r n u t r i t i o n
can account f o r epidemiologic p a t t e r n s
Youmans (1979) and Huels (1981) a d d r e s s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of
r e s i s t a n c e i n e x p l a i n i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t u b e r c u l o s i s i n human
groups R e s i s t a n c e t o t u b e r c u l ~ s i s (Youmans 1979) s p e c i f i c a l l y
r e s u l t s from an a c q u i r e d c e l l u l a r immunity; T lymphocytes and
macrophages a r e t h e primary a g e n t s o f d e f e n s e A s long a s acquired
c e l l u l a r immunity i s maint.ained, t h e i n f e c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l d e s p i t e f r e q u e n t exposure With a breakdown i n i m -
munity, t h e d i s e a s e p r o g r e s s e s t o a t i s s u e - d e s t r u c t i v e phase a s
s e e n , f o r example, i n t h e F t Ancient v e r t e b r a e It i s o n l y a t
t h i s phase t h a t persons with a d e q u a t e immunity w i l l n o t p a r t i c i p a t e
a s a g e n t s o f t r a n s m i s s i o n . A s n o t e d above, d e f e n s e s can b e d i s -
turbed o r suppressed by n u t r i t i o n a l imbalances Hence, r e s i s t a n c e
1 t o t u b e r c u l o s i s might be reduced v i a t h e d i e t a r y and consequent
' immunological changes t h a t accompanied t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i -
! culture Concerning t h e paleoepidemiology o f t u b e r c u l o s i s , f a c t o r s
o f t r a n s m i s s i o n may be viewed a s secondary t o f a c t o r s o f r e s i s t a n c e
A p i c t u r e emerges o f Ohio V a l l e y a b o r i g i n a l s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h
m i c r o p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s , t h e i r d e f e n s e s to which were i n c r e a s i n g l y
eroded a s t h e commitment to s e d e n t a r y maize a g r i c u l t u r e i n t e n s i f i e d .
Although no good comparative d a t a a r e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t h a t

span Ohio Valley p r e h i s t o r y , some d a t a on p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and
cribra o r b i t a l i a a r e available These l e s i o n s o f t h e v a u l t and
o r b i t a r e b e l i e v e d t o r e s u l t from d i e t a r y i r o n d e f i c i e n c i e s (Von
f- Endt and O r t n e r 1982) and v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s t a t e s . Mensforth e t a 1
(1978) r e p o r t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a s s o c i a t i o n between
p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s i n t h e 6-24-month a g e
range f o r t h e L a t e Woodland Libben p o p u l a t i o n from n o r t h e r n Ohio
L a l l o (1979) r e p o r t s on t h e F t Ancient p e o p l e r e c o v e r e d from t h e
Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e Twenty-nine of 4 4 i n d i v i d u a l s (65 9 % ) ex-
hibited porotic hyperostosis He concluded t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
between m a l n u t r i t i o n and i n Âe c t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e m o r t a l i t y of
t h i s group L a l l o e t a 1 (1977) r e p o r t v e r y s i m i l a r d a t a f o r t h e
Eiden p o p u l a t i o n ; c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ap-
peared t o g e t h e r i n 51 7% o f a s u b a d u l t sample o f 3 1 i n d i v i d u a l s
Seventy-five p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b a d u l t s d i s p l a y e d some p o s t o r b i t a l
involvement, e g , o s t e o p o r o t i c p i t t i n g , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s
These r e s u l t s a r e (1) q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e p o r t e d f o r t h e
Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n p o p u l a t i o n from Dickson Mound i n I l l i n o i s
( L a l l o e t a 1 1977), and ( 2 ) c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t l a t e r
farming groups were exposed t o more m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e t h a n
t h e i r forebearers Indeed, t h e L a t e Woodland Libben p e o p l e who

l i v e d 500 y e a r s b e f o r e t h e Eiden people have been p o r t r a y e d i n a
thorough paleodemographic a n a l y s i s by Lovejoy e t a 1 (1977) a s a
b a s i c a l l y healthy population. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , Mensforth e t a 1
(1978) c l a i m t h a t c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n t h a t might b e due t o poor
d i e t , weaning p r a c t i c e s , o r p a r a s i t i c i n f e s t a t i o n s was " b a s i c a l l y
absent a t Libben " Thus, d a t a p u b l i s h e d on p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s
and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a r e i n f o r c e t h e c l a i m t h a t d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n -
c i e s and m i c r o p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s combined t o complicate and
compromise t h e l i v e s of l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c farming p e o p l e from Ohio
t o degrees n o t r e a d i l y n o t i c e a b l e among t h e i r "p r e d e c e s s o r s i n
Archaic and Woodland t i m e s F i n a l l y , t h i s view i s n o t c o n t r a d i c t e d
by a p r e l i m i n a r y survey o f t h e F t Ancient m a t e r i a l from t h e S t a t e
Line s i t e , where b o t h c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s
were observed (Schmidt 1981)
Paleodemography
Paleodemoqraphic a n a l y s e s have been performed o n Ohio groups,

t h e most thorough o f which was conducted by Lovejoy et a 1 (1977)
A sample o f 1327 Late Woodland i n d i v i d u a l s was s t u d i e d They
r e p o r t a c l a s s 2 s u r v i v o r s h i p p a t t e r n t h a t i s t y p i c a l of p r e h i s -
t o r i c s k e l e t a l populations I n f a n t m o r t a l i t y was c o n s i d e r e d low,
which s u g g e s t s a h e a l t h y , s u c c e s s f u l p o p u l a t i o n ; l i f e expectancy
a t b i r t h was 20 y e a r s Demographic d a t a on t h e F t Ancient group
from t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e have a l s o been p u b l i s h e d by L a l l o
(1979) He c a u t i o u s l y n o t e s t h a t h i s sample of 4 4 i n d i v i d u a l s
i s q u i t e small and t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l y b i a s e d ; u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of both i n f a n t s and g e n e r a l s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y i s exceedingly
likely. For example, o n l y 1 8 18% of t h e F t . Ancient sample d i e d
by 15 y e a r s of age, a s compared t o 61 36% a t Libben Correspond-
i n g l y , l i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s a t b i r t h c o n t r a s t e d markedly between
Anderson V i l l a g e and Libben, i . e , 33 v e r s u s 20 y e a r s r e s p e c t i v e -
ly Thus demographic comparisons of t h e two groups a r e s e v e r e l y
l i m i t e d . Nonetheless, both s t u d i e s r e p o r t s u r v i v o r s h i p w e l l i n t o
t h e f i f t h and s i x t h decades I n d i v i d u a l s were c e r t a i n l y l i v i n g
long enough a t Libben t o e x p e r i e n c e a g e - p r o g r e s s i v e c o r t i c a l invo-
l u t i o n o f t h e femur (Mensforth 1978) i n amounts q u i t e s i m i l a r t o
what P e r z i g i a n (1973) observed i n a n e a r l i e r s t u d y o f o s t e o p o r o s i s
i n a Late Archaic p o p u l a t i o n .
Archaeologists a g r e e t h a t profound demographic changes o c c u r r e d
with t h e growing commitment t o maize a g r i c u l t u r e ; indeed, v i l l a g e s
a r o s e and i n c r e a s e d i n s i z e and number; p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s
reached unprecedented l e v e l s . I n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s e demog-
r a p h i c changes, t h e a u t h o r s o b s e r v e a seeming i n c r e a s e i n h o s t i l i t y
and v i o l e n t d e a t h by post-Woodland t i m e s . While Lovejoy and
Heiple (1981 contend t h a t t h e r e i s no s t r o n g evidence f o r L a t e
Woodland w a r f a r e i n t h e Libben sample, a p p r e c i a b l e evidence of
arrow wounds is r e p o r t e d f o r F t Ancient groups. Hooton (1920')
claimed t h a t 22% of t h e a d u l t males a t M a d i s o n v i l l e s u f f e r e d
c r a n i a l and p o s t c r a n i a l wounds Violent encounters a r e a l s o re--

p o r t e d f o r Blain V i l l a g e (Lovejoy and Heiple 19701, S t a t e Line , -
(Schmidt 19811, and Anderson V i l l a g e (Morgan 1946) YL I *--." - 3
3, , > i - r f Â¥,.k?.Ã !z';

5 - , .- , ,- ,-La -2; ,,c&:
i1 -. &3743.'121!;
CONCLUSIONS i -.-'I L >V.t -t-
.
y.
. ^
v
Some t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e now i n o r d e r f o r southwest

Ohio p r e h i s t o r y Evidence reviewed and compiled i n t h i s c h a p t e r
does n o t s u p p o r t a view t h a t e v e n t u a l improvements i n h e a l t h and
n u t r i t i o n r e s u l t e d from (1) t h e abandonment o f h u n t i n g and
g a t h e r i n g a s e x c l u s i v e economic p u r s u i t s , and ( 2 ) t h e subsequent
development o f f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l economies by F t Ancient t i m e s
The l i m i t e d o s t e o m e t r i c d a t a may be i n t e r p r e t e d t o show some g a i n s
i n n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h f o r t h e Middle Woodland p e o p l e o v e r t h a t
of t h e Late Archaic; n e v e r t h e l e s s , f u r t h e r advances cannot bepL-,*?~
demonstrated f o r t h e F t Ancient groups D e n t a l and s k e l e t a l " [ ' -
h e a l t h appear t o d e c l i n e n o t i c e a b l y a s evidenced by t r e n d s i n
c a r i e s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , and s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s A l l such t r e n d s
mutually r e i n f o r c e each o t h e r and probably r e f l e c t a growing
synergism among d i e t , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and d i s e a s e With a
d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d commitment t o maize a g r i c u l t u r e and a com-
mensurately d e c r e a s e d dependence on hunting and g a t h e r i n g a s
observed by F t Ancient t i m e s , f e r t i l i t y probably approached t h a t
of contemporary n o n c o n t r a c e p t i v e , p r e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s and
r e s u l t e d i n population d e n s i t i e s higher than ever before A
growing p o p u l a t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e f o c a l a g r i -
c u l t u r e , may have n o t uncommonly t a x e d i t s e c o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l
s u p p o r t systems o r s u f f e r e d an o c c a s i o n a l l y d i s a s t r o u s c r o p
failure The maize, i t s e l f , may have d e p l e t e d t h e s o i l I n such
a general context, lessened d i e t a r y v a r i a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n a l
imbalances, and d e f i c i e n c i e s were l i k e l y and would have l e d t o
reduced l e v e l s , o f immunocompetence and a l t e r e d s t a t e s of patho-
genicity For now, t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s o c i o c u l t u r a l change i s *.
pre-eminent i n e x p l a i n i n g e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l changes i n p r e h i s t o r i c
Ohio i s warranted
. ;4,Y - c :
>,;
,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
, - ; ^,"^
The C i n c i n n a t i Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y k i n d l y provided t h e

a u t h o r s w i t h a c c e s s t o t h e Turpin s i t e s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n The
a u t h o r s wish t o e x p r e s s t h e i r s i n c e r e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e Museum
f o r its cooperation Members of t h e C e n t r a l Ohio V a l l e y Archaeo-
l o g i c a l S o c i e t y worked i n d e f a t i g a b l y and c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y d u r i n g
t h e e x c a v a t i o n , p r o c e s s i n g , and a n a l y s i s o f much of t h e s k e l e t a l
material S p e c i a l and warm thanks go t o Arlene Basham, J e r r y
Alford, and Donna Neu f o r t h e i r unswerving d e d i c a t i o n and s p i r i t

F a c i l i t i e s f o r radiography were g r a c i o u s l y provided by D r P a u l
J o l l y o f t h e Hamilton County C o r o n e r ' s O f f i c e Procedures f o r
c o l l e c t i n g d e n t a l h y p o p l a s i a d a t a were recommended by D r D e l l a
Cook Completion o f t h i s s t u d y would have been i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t
generous s u p p o r t from t h e Department of Orthopaedic Surgery o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i and i t s former chairman, D r Edward H
Miller M r s Kay Klein provided e x p e r t a s s i s t a n c e i n p r e p a r a t i o n
of t h e manuscript D r Joseph F F o s t e r , chairman of t h e
Department of Anthropology, provided e x c e l l e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
assistance
REFERENCES
Addington, J E
1973 Collectors or farmers: Dental a t t r i t i o n and pathology as
related t o subsistence i n t h e Ohio Valley Paper Presented
t o t h e annual meeting o f t h e American Anthropological Asso-
c i a t i o n , New Orleans
Ammerman, A J
1975 Late P l e i s t o c e n e p o p u l a t i o n dynamics: An a l t e r n a t e view
,%man Ecology 3:219-233
Beach, R. S , M. E. Gershwin, and L S Hurley
1982 G e s t a t i o n a l z i n c d e p r i v a t i o n i n mice: P e r s i s t e n c e o f
immunodeficiency f o r t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s Science 218: 469-
471
Bender, M. M , D A. B a e r r e i s , and R. L Steventon
1981 F u r t h e r l i g h t on carbon i s o t o p e s and Hopewell a g r i c u l t u r e
Ameriean Antiquity 46: 346-353
Brown, J A
1977 Current d i r e c t i o n s i n Midwestern archaeology Annual
Review of Anthropology 6: 161-179
Buikstra, J E
1976 D i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s : An epidemiologic model Yearbook
of Physical Anthropology 20:316-328
Caldwell, J R.
1958 Trend and t r a d i t i o n i n t h e p r e h i s t o r y of t h e e a s t e r n
United S t a t e s . American Anthropological Association
Memoir No 88
Cassidy, C M
1980 N u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h i n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s and h u n t e r -
g a t h e r e r s . Nutritional anthropology , e d i t e d by N W
Jerome, R. F Kandel, and G. H. P e l t o , pp 117-145
Redgrave, New York
Chandra, R. K.
1975 Antibody formation in f i r s t and second g e n e r a t i o n o f f s p r i n g
of n u t r i t i o n a l l y d e p r i v e d r a t s Science 190:289-290.
I 13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY
Cleland, C E
1976 The f o c a l - d i f f u s e model: An e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r S p E c t i v e o n
t h e p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e e a s t e r n United
States Midcontinental Jouvnal of Archaeology 1 :59-76
Dalbey, T S
1977 Motluscan (Naiads) u t i l i z a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n a t t h e
DuPont S i t e (33Hall) i n southwestern Ohio paper p r e - -.
s e n t e d a t t h e a n n u a l meeting o f t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s ~ n t h r o ^ -
pological Society, Cincinnati
- 7
D r e i z e n , S , C N S p i r a k i s , and R. E S t o n e
1964 The i n f l u e n c e o f a g e a n d " n u t r i t i o n a 1 s t a t u s on 'bone s c a r '
American Jcuvnal o f Physical Anthropology 27:375-378
Essenpreis, P S
1978 F o r t A n c i e n t s e t t l e m e n t : D i f f e r e n t i a l response a t
M i s s i s s i p p i a n - - L a t e Woodland i n t e r f a c e I n Mississ@pian
settlement p a t t e r n s , e d i t e d by B D Smith, pp 141-167
Academic P r e s s , New York
1982 The Anderson V i t l a g e s i t e : Redefining t h e Anderson phase
o f the Fort Ancient t r a d i t i o n of t h e middle Ohio Valley
Unpublished Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology,
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
Ford, R I
1974 N o r t h e a s t e r n archaeology: P a s t and f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s
Annual Review o f Anthropology 3 :385-413
1977 E v o l u t i o n a r y e c o l o g y and t h e e v o l u t i o n of human e c o s y s t e m s :
A c a s e s t u d y from t h e Midwestern U S A I n Explanation of
.-,
Genoves, S
p r e h i s t o r i c change, e d i t e d by J N H i l l , p p 153-184 .<*
U n i v e r s i t y o f New Mexico P r e s s , Albuquerque ,-
,.,.a.
,
:,.&; .
1967 P r o p o r t i o n a l i t y o f t h e l o n g bones a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o
s t a t u r e among Mesoamericans American J o u d o f Physical
Anthropology 26:67-78
Griffin, J B
1967 E a s t e r n North American a r c h a e o l o g y : A summary Science
256: 175-191
Hooton, E A
1920 I n d i a n v i l l a g e s i t e a n d cemetery n e a r M a d i s o n v i l l e , Ohio
Papers of t h e Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology 8 ( 1 ) :83-134
Huels, B R
1981 An ecological model of t u b e r c u l o s i s Paper presented t o
t h e a n n u a l meeting o f t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s A n t h r o p o l o q i c a l
Society, Cincinnati
Katzenberq, M A
1976 An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s p i n a l d i s e a s e i n a Midwest a b o r i g i n a l
population Yearbook o f Physical Anthropology 20:349-355
Klepinger, L L
1982 T u b e r c u l o s i s i n t h e New World: More p o s s i b i l i t i e s ,
p r o b a b i l i t i e s and p r e d i c t i o n s American Journal of
Physieal Anthropobgy 57:203 ( A b s t r
Lallo, J W
1979 Disease and m o r t a l i t y a t t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e Ohio
Journal of Science 79: 256-261
L a l l o , J W , and J E Blank
1977 Ancient d i s e a s e i n Ohio: The Eiden p o p u l a t i o n Ohio
Journal of Science 77:55-62
L a l l o , J W , G . J Armelagos, and R P Mensforth
1977 The r o l e of d i e t , d i s e a s e , and physiology i n t h e o r i g i n o f
p o r o t i c hyperostosis. Hman Biology 49:471-483
Langdon, F W
1881 The Madisonville p r e h i s t o r i c cemetery: A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
notes J o u d of the Cincinnati Society o f Natural
History 4:237-257
Lovejoy , C 0 , and K G . Heiple
1970 The B l a i n Mound I n Blain Village and the Fort Ancient
t r a d i t i o n i n Ohio, e d i t e d by 0 H P r u f e r and 0 C Shane
111, pp 151-184 Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Kent, Ohio
1981 The a n a l y s i s o f f r a c t u r e s i n s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h
an example from t h e Libben S i t e , Ottawa County, Ohio
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 55 :529-541
Lovejoy, C 0 , and E Trinkhaus
1980 S t r e n g t h and r o b u s t i c i t y o f Neanderthal t i b i a American
Journal of Physical Anthropology 53: 465-470
Lovejoy, C O . , R S. Meindl, T R. Pryzbeck, T S Barton, K G
H e i p l e , and D K o t t i n g
1977 Paleodemography of t h e Libben s i t e , Ottawa County, Ohio
Science 198:291-293.
Means, H J
1925 A r o e n t g e n o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains of t h e
p r e h i s t o r i c Mound B u i l d e r I n d i a n s o f Ohio American
J o u d of Roentgenology 13:359-367.
Mensforth, R P
1978 Femoral c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n i n a L a t e Woodland s k e l e t a l
p o p u l a t i o n : Epidemiologic and biomechanical o b s e r v a t i o n s
American Journal of Physical Anthroploqy 48: 419 (Abst r
1981 Growth v e l o c i t y and chondroblastic s t a b i l i t y a s major
factors influencing t h e pathogenesis and epidemiological
distribution of growth arrest l i n e s Paper p r e s e n t e d t o
t h e 50th annual meeting o f t h e ~ m e r i c a n~ s s o c i a t i o nof
Physical Anthropologists, D e t r o i t
Mensforth, R P , C 0 Lovejoy, J. W L a l l o , and G J Armelagos
1978 The r o l e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s , d i e t , and i n f e c t i o u s
p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n
Medical Anthropology 2 :1-59
Morgan, R G
1946 Fort Ancient The Ohio S t a t e Archaeological and ~ i s t o r i c a l
S o c i e t y , Columbus
Nikiforuk, G , and D F r a s e r
1981 The e t i o l o g y o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a : A u n i f y i n g concept
Journal of Pediatrics 98: 888-893
Oehler, C
1973 Turpin I n d i a n s J o u d o f the Cincinnati Museum of
Natural History 2 3 ( 2 ) :1-65
Pape, W K
1977 A comparison o f Harris l i n e s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio
Valley p o p d a t i o n s Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e annual meeting
o f t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s Anthropological S o c i e t y , C i n c i n n a t i
Perzigian, A J
1973 O s t e o p o r o t i c bone l o s s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n popula-
tions American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 39 :87-
96
P e r z i g i a n , A. J , and L Widrner
1979 Evidence f o r t u b e r c u l o s i s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n
Journal o f t h e American Medical Association 242 :2643-2646
Reichs, K J
1974 Biological v a r i a b i l i t y and t h e Hopewell phenomenon: An
i n t e r r e g i o n a l approach. Unpublished ~ h D d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Department of Anthropology, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y
Schmidt, M A
1981 Descriptive a n a l y s i s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains from t h e
S t a t e l i w s i t e (33Ha58) Unpublished Master ' s t h e s i s ,
Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i ,
Ohio
Sciulli, P W
1977 A d e s c r i p t i v e and comparative s t u d y o f t h e deciduous den-
t i t i o n o f p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio Valley Amerindians American
Journal o f Physieal Anthropology 47 :71-80
1978 Developmental a b n o r m a l i t i e s o f t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n of
p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio Valley Amerindians. A m h a n Journal o f
Physical Anthropology 48 :193-198
S c i u l l i , P W , and R C a r l i s l e
1977 Analysis o f t h e d e n t i t i o n from t h r e e western Pennsylvania
Late Woodland S i t e s I1 Wear and pathology Pennsylvania
Archaeologist 47:53-59.
S c i u l l i , P W , B W Aument, and L R P i o t r o w s k i
1982 The Williams (33W07a) Red Ocher cemetery: preliminary
d e s c r i p t i v e and comparative a n a l y s i s o f a c q u i r e d d e n t a l
pathologies Pennsy Zvania ~ r c h a e o l o g i s t53 (2) :17-24
Stoltman, J B
1978 Temporal models i n p r e h i s t o r y : An e x p l a n a t i o n from
e a s t e r n North America Current Anthropology 29 :703-746
van d e r Merwe, N J , and J C Voqel
1978 1 3 c~o n t e n t o f human c o l l a g e n a s a measure o f p r e h i s t o r i c
d i e t i n Woodland North America Nature ondo don) 276:815-
816
Von Endt, D W , and D J O r t n e r
1982 Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s o f bone from a p o s s i b l e c a s e of p r e -
h i s t o r i c i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia from t h e ~ m e r i c a nSouth-
west American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 59 :377-
385
Webb, W S , and C E Snow

1974 The Adena people The U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee P r e s s ,
Knoxville.
Widmer , L , and A J P e r z i g i a n
1981 The ecology and e t i o l o g y o f s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s i n L a t e Pre-
h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s from e a s t e r n North America In
P r e h i s t o r i c t u b e r c u l o s i s i n t h e Americas, e d i t e d by J E
Buiks t r a . Northwestern Universitg Arehaeo 'Log<eal Program
S e i e n t i f i e Papers NO 5, pp 99-113
Wolfe, L D , and J P Gray
1982 S u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s and human s e x u a l dimorphism of
stature Journal o f Human Evolution 1 2 :575-580
Youmans, G P
1979 TubereuZos<s Saunders, P h i l a d e l p h i a
CHAPTER 1 4
HEALTH AND DISEASE I N P R E H I S T O R I C GEORGIA :

THE T R A N S I T I O N T O A G R I C U L T U R E
Clark Spencer Laysen
Department of An thropol ogy

Northern I l l i n o i s University
INTRODUCTION
; P r e h i s t o r i c mortuary a c t i v i t y in Georgia has been well docu-

;'merited through an extensive s e r i e s of archaeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
i n both inland and c o a s t a l regions. With r e s p e c t t o t h e former,
,Â¥humas k e l e t a l remains r e p r e s e n t i n g hundreds o f i n d i v i d u a l s have
:; been recovered, p r i m a r i l y from l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c contexts. Unfor-
?:,tunately, with t h e exception of preliminary discussion of pathology
' o f human remains from t h e Etowah site (Blakely 1977, 1980) , t h e r e
$,are no reported d e s c r i p t i o n s o r analyses of s k e l e t a l pathology from
this rather large s e r i e s .
, :
The Georgia c o a s t has a l s o produced an abundance of human
^% . s k e l e t a l remains. Unlike t h e i n t e r i o r region of Georgia, a s i g n i f -
1;;lcant portion of t h e s e remains h a s been described in publication
!.and i n manuscript (see Larsen 1982; Larsen and Thomas 1979).
' Because t h e r e i s such a paucity of d a t a based on p r e h i s t o r i c
" ~ o ~ u l a t i o nfrom
4 s t h e Georgia i n t e r i o r , t h i s chapter will focus O n
gthe Georgia c o a s t f o r a n examination of human s k e l e t a l and patho-
l o g i c a l changes ( s e e a l s o Larsen 1980a,b, 1981a, 1982, 1983a,b,c) .
qThe following w i l l summarize a v a i l a b l e d a t a with regard t o two
of s t r e s s as they a r e e x h i b i t e d i n t h e skeleton and d e n t i -
&:;tion:
a"
'
d i s e a s e - n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s and mechanical s t r e s s . The path-
+ological c o n d i t i o n s t o be con sidered include p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s
&:and d e n t a l c a r i e s (disease-nutr i t i o n a l stress) and degenerative
^;joint d i s e a s e (mechanical s t r e s s ) . Moreover, the impact of these
on human skeletal size and morphology will be discussed.
d e t a i l e d information i s a v a i l a b l e f o r e i t h e r Harris lines or
t"
^ 4 L ~ ORIGINS
AT THE ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~t:opyngh: 0 lv84 by PfeS. h.
:)F AGRICULTURE 367 All rights of icprcdui~n<mtn
,r,,.,
form
,.s -rcscrved.
.-men ,
'
most o f t h e d e n t a l p a t h o l o g i e s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e o t h e r c o n t r i b u -
t i o n s t o t h i s volume ( i. e . , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , m i c r o d e f e c t s ,
.
a t t r i t i o n , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , and a b s c e s s i n q )
A n a l y s i s o f economic i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t
i n d i c a t e s t h a t b e f o r e c i r c a A.D. 1 1 5 0 , t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t a l sub-
s i s t e n c e economy was b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , and
f i s h i n g ; a f t e r t h a t d a t e , a g r i c u l t u r a l f o o d p r o d u c t i o n ( m a i z e , in
p a r t i c u l a r ) became a n i m p o r t a n t component o f t h e d i e t a r y regime.
T h i s l i f e w a y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n seems m o s t p l a u s i b l e b e c a u s e (1) maize
h a s b e e n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y r e c o v e r e d i n post-A.D . 1150 con t e x t s
o n l y , ( 2 ) t h e r e i s a marked i n c r e a s e i n h a b i t a t i o n s i t e d e n s i t y
and d i s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r A . D . 1 1 5 0 , a n d ( 3 ) t h e e t h n o h i s t o r i c r e c o r d
i n d i c a t e s t h a t m a i z e was a major c o n s t i t u e n t o f d i e t , p r o v i d i n g
s u p p o r t f o r l a r g e , c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d , permanent v i l l a g e s ( s e e
d i s c u s s i o n i n J o n e s 1978; L a r s e n 1 9 8 2 ) .
MATERIALS
S i n c e t h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a n a n a l y s i s o f human s k e l e t a l re-
mains from p o p u l a t i o n s d i f f e r i n g o n l y i n mode o f subsistence, t h e
cultural p e r i o d s have been d i v i d e d i n t o two g r o u p s . The e a r l i e r
pre-A. D. 1150 p e r i o d s c o n s t i t u t e a preagriouzturaz group t h a t
c o n s i s t s o f human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from f o u r p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d s ;
two l a t e r p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d s (A.D. 1150-1550) c o n s t i t u t e an
agricultural group ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 ) .
The human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s f r o m 1 9 p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d 1 4 ag-
r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d m o r t u a r y sites from t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t w e r e
u t i l i z e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p i n c l u d e
272 i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p i n c l u d e s 344 i n d i v i d -
u a l s . A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e s i t e s a n d their a s s o c i a t e d
s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s h a s been p r e s e n t e d elsewhere ( s e e Larsen 1982).
GEORGIA COASTAL PALEOPATHOLOGY
Because p e r i o s t e a l reactions, d e n t a l c a r i e s , and d e g e n e r a t i v e

j o i n t d i s e a s e a r e age p r o g r e s s i v e , any d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r f r e e
quency i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p a s compared t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a
group may, i n fact, s i m p l y r e f l e c t age s t r u c t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s
between t h e two g r o u p s . T h e r e f o r e , l e t u s examine and compare the
p o p u l a t i o n sample p r o f i l e s of t h e p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l a n d a q r i c u l t u r a l
groups.
T a b l e 1 4 . 2 shows t h e age d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r the p r e a g r i c u l t u r ^ l
and a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s . S t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s e profiles ,
vi
r e v e a l s t h a t t h e two g r o u p s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t u $
a t t h e p = .01 l e v e 1 ( ~ o l r n o g o r o v - ~ m i r n o v. ) Careful e x a m i n a t i o n of
14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA 369
TABLE 1 4 . 1 Subsistence Modes and Associated Periods from the
Subsistence modes Periods Terminal

dates
A.D. 1550
A.D. 1300
S t . Cathevines A.D. 1150

Wilmington A.D. 1 0 0 0
Dept ford A. D. 500
Refuge 400 B. C .
ssooiated: North End Mound, Shell B l u f f

, Deptford Mound, Norman Mound, Kent
B, E l , Red Knoll, Seven Mile Bend
Mound 11 (Burial 81, Irene Mound.
d a t e d : South New Gomd Mound,
Cunningham Hounds (C, D, E l , MoLeod Hound, Seaside Hounds tl, I D ,
Evelyn Plantation, Airport, Deptford, Ualthour, Cannons Point,
: Cedar Grove Mounds (A, B, C ) , Sea Island Mound, Johns Mound,
TABLE 1 4 . 2 Age Distributions of t h Georgia Coastal ~ r e a g r i -
Ppeapidturaz Agriculth
N %
0.0- 2 . 0 7 4.6 12 6.8

2.1-12.0 19 12.5 30 16.9
12.1-16.0 13 8.6 25 14.1
16.1-20.0 22 14.5 33 18.6
20.1-25.0 27 17.8 38 21.5
25.1-30.0 14 9.2 11 6.2
30.1-35.0 6 3.9 8 4.5
35.1-40.0 14 9.2 9 5.1
40.1-45.0 11 7.2 6 2.4
5 2. 8
ups shows, of course,

realistic population
nor agricultural groups -
far the p r e a d u l t s i*
3 70 CLARK SPENCER LARSEN
TABLE 1 4 . 3 Frequency 0)o f Periostea 2 Reactions i n Preagri-

cu l t u r a l and Agricuztwa l Groups : Adu l t (Femal e s , Males, Indeter-
minute Sex Combined) Comparisons
Preagrieu- Ztuva Z Agricu l t u r a l

S k e l e t a l element % # % Na % change b
Clavicle 1.9 107 4.7 274 2.8
Humerus 0.5 190 3.2 273 2.7
Ulna 0.7 147 3.7 327 3.0
Radius 0.7 136 4.5 335 3.8
Femur 2.1 193 6.8 410 4. 7
Tibia 4.5 156 15.0 374 10.5
Fibula 1.7 116 8.3 289 6.6
- -
--
-
l u m b e r of bones observed for presence-absence o f p e r i o s t e a l

reactions.
^computed by t h e fotlouing formula: % Agriou1tuval-% Preag-
r"io Zturu l .
b o t h g r o u p s i s u n d o u b t e d l y a product o f gross u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h an a g e - a t - d e a t h o f 1 5 years o r y o u n g e r . More
i m p o r t a n t l y , however, t h e m a t e r i a l s a t hand i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e pre-
a g r i c u l t u r a l s k e l e t a l s a m p l e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a d e c i d e d l y o l d e r
a g e - a t - d e a t h sample of human s k e l e t a l remains t h a n t h e a g r i c u l t u -
r a l sample.
P e r i o s t e a l Reactions
The f r e q u e n c y of p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s i n s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s of
adul.t s ( f e m a l e s , m a l e s , a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e x combined) i n t h e
p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s arid t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f
c h a n g e i n o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e l e s i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 4 . 3 -
I n g e n e r a l , t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l a d u l t s have h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s o f
b o n e s a f f e c t e d by p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s t h a n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l
a d u l t s . A l l o f t h e s e v e n s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s examined show i n -
c r e a s e s r a n g i n g from 2 . 7 (humerus) t o 1 0 . 5 % ( t i b i a ) . )'
A n a l y s i s o f t h e s e d a t a by sex shows t h a t f e m a l e s h a v e i n c r e a s e s 9,
f o r a l l s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s ( T a b l e 1 4 . 4 ) . These p e r c e n t a g e d i f f e r -
*
,$;
e n c e s between t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group a n d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p ?:
a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced for t h e lower l i m b . T h e m a l e s able 18 :,

1 4 . 5 ) show i n c r e a s e s f o r a l l s k e l e t a l . e l e m e n t s e x c e p t t h e c l a v i c l e . t'i :i
A s i n t h e females, t h e i n c r e a s e s i n percentage of bones a f f e c t e d ,i+,
by t h e p a t h o l o g y are most a p p a r e n t f o r the s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s o f the '; 4
l o w e r l i m b . Moreover, c o m p a r i s o n s o f t h e s e x e s w i t h i n t h e preagri-' 5 ';l
c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s (cf . T a b l e 1 4 . 4 with T a b l e 1 4 . 5 )
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e s i n p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s were somewhat y!
14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA 37 1
TABLE 1 4 . 4 Frequency (Percentage) of Periosteal Reactions -in

ppeagricu ltural and Agricultural Groups. Fema k Comparisons
~eagricuZtura2 Agricu Ztural

m e t a l element % N~ % i
P % change^
Clavicle 0.0 61 2.9 140 2.9

Humerus 0.0 106 3.7 190 3.7
Utna 1.2 82 3.6 167 2.4
Radius 0.0 77 4.0 173 4. 0
Femur 1.8 110 7.2 207 5.4
Tibia 2.4 84 16.0 187 13.6
Fibula 1.4 74 9.9 152 8.5
--
a~Â¥urnbe o f bones observed for presence-absence of periosteal

reactions.
^computed by the follouZng formula: % Agricultural-% Preag-
ricuZtura 2 .
TABLE 1 4 . 5 Frequency (Percentage) o f Periosteaz R e a c t - w m -in

Preagricultural and A g r i c u l k r a 2 Groups : Male Comparisons
PreagrkuZtmaZ Agricultural
b
Ske Zeta2 element % Na % % change
.- -
Clavicle 5. 6 36 5.3 114 -0.3

Humerus 2.0 51 3.6 140 1.6
Uka 0.0 42 2.3 130 2. 3
JRadius 0.0 43 2 . 9 1 4 0 2.9
Femur 8.0 49 6.4 156 4.4
Tibia 4.0 50 15.8 146 11.8
Fibula 0.0 .3 7 5.3 114 5.3
ûmber of bones observer) fop npesfmce-absenee o f pehosteal

~eactions.
^computed by the foZlouing formula: % Agricultural-% Ppeag-
~ieuZtura2,
greater for t h e females. T h a t is, the percentage increases are

larger in the femal-es than in the males.
D e n t a l Caries
The frequencies of n o n c a r i o u s and c a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s ( d e n t i -

t i o n s with a t l e a s t o n e c a r i o u s tooth) i n the p r e a g r i c u l t ~ r a land
a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s are provided i n Table 14.6. The c o m p a r i s o n s
\:
CL.ARK SPENCER LARSEN &
.$
TABLE 14.6 Frequency (Percentage ) of Dentd Caries i n Preag. -!d
i
r i c u l t u r a l and AgriculturaZ Individuals $,-.
*
Preapicu I tura2 Agridtural

'Â <
4.
(%) f %) ?Ã‡,
Total sample (N = 2O1la (N = ~ 7 5 ) ~ &

Noncarious "Ã
Carious
Female (N = 75)
Noncarious 89.3
Carious 10.7
Ma le (N = 49)
Noncarious 93.9
Cari ou s 6.1
Beaddt (N = 3 6 ) fN = 56)
Nonoari ou s 100.0 51.8
Carious 0.0 48.2
'^'Number o f individuaZs observed w i t h a t least one t o o t h

present i n the maxillary and mandibular d e n t i t i o n s combined.
o f t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e two g r o u p s c l e a r l y show a marked i n -

c r e a s e i n number o f i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d by d e n t a l c a r i e s i n t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p . To summarize, f o r a l l t o o t h c a t e g o r i e s com-
b i n e d (I1 + 1 2 + C + . . . + M3), o n l y 1 . 3 % o f t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l
g r o u p show c a r i o u s t e e t h (36/2429) . O f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p ,
however, 11.6% show c a r i o u s t e e t h (486/4189) . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a
10.3% frequency i n c r e a s e i n c a r i o u s t e e t h i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
group r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group.
Comparisons of t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l a d u l t fe-
m a l e s and m a l e s show s i m i l a r p a t t e r n i n g i n f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e of
t e e t h a f f e c t e d by c a r i o g e n e s i s . The f e m a l e s show for a l l t e e t h ,
w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e m a n d i b u l a r f i r s t i n c i s o r (no c h a n g e ) ,
an i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y o f d e n t a l c a r i e s ( T a b l e 1 4 . 7 ) .
T a b l e 1 4 . 8 p r e s e n t s t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of d e n t a l c a r i e s i n m a l e s
for t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e
a r e i n c r e a s e s i n f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e of c a r i o u s l e s i o n s f o r
a l l t e e t h excepting t h e maxillary c e n t r a l i n c i s o r (2.1% decrease) 1
t h e i n c r e a s e s a r e n o t a s g r e a t as t h o s e e x h i b i t e d i n e i t h e r t h e
combined sample o r t h e f e m a l e s .
I n sum, d e n t a l c a r i e s h a d a minimal i m p a c t o n t h e p r e a g r i c u l -
t u r a l h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g p e o p l e s on t h e p r e h i s t o r i c ~ e o r g i a
c o a s t . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be l i t t l e o r n o d i f f e r e n c e i n f r e q u e n c y
w i t h r e g a r d t o a g e o r s e x . The a g r i c u l t u r a l l i f e w a y , o n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n t s an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n ; f r e q u e n -
cy of d e n t a l c a r i e s i n c r e a s e s , b u t i n a v e r y p a t t e r n e d f a s h i o n :
c a r i o g e n e s i s affects a d u l t females more t h a n m a l e s .
^<,- ^ TABLE 14. 7 Frequency (Percentage) of Dental Caries i n Preag-
I 1,.
9 ppiff&tural and Agvicultural Females
^",;
i$ w,
&.& Preagriculturaz Agricultural
# **A,
â Too t h % Na % 11 f. changeb
$q,
#
*,<*. ..-
,. P4 0.0 61 14.4 Ill 14.4
7
r; -
:
? ,
Â¥ Ml 0.0 73 16.7 138 16.7

. . M2 0.0 77 18.3 126 18.3
5- ,
p
:* M3 0.0 73 17.4 109 17.4
4: Mandible
' Tota 2s 1.2 1016 15.6 1688 14.4
{:.
f 12.. a!fLanbey>of t e e t h observed for presence-absence of dentaZ
^
^
. . caries.
=:
^computed b y the f o l l m i n g fornula: % Agricultural-% V-reag-
ri(~~.zt~~~z.
&<: ;-
D e a e n e r a t i v e Joint Disease
' Comparisons o f e a c h a r t i c u l a r j o i n t f o r adults ( f e m a l e s , maxes ,

' and i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e x combined) i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i -
, ' c u l t u r a l groups a r e presented i n Table 14.9. These comparisons
I, i'^.
'; a marked r e d u c t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y o f a l t e r a t i o n s o f a r t i c u l a r
. j o i n t s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group r e h t i v e t o t h e n r e a g r i c u l t u r a l
6.8 group. The r e d u c t i o n s i n f r e q u e n c y o f t h e p a t h o l o g y are p
2 - ^ l a r l y marked f o r the c e r v i c a l a n d lumbar i n t e r v e r t e b r a l l o l n t
b ' With r e g a r d t o t h e s e c o m p a r i s o n s for females o n l y , s i g n i f i c a n -
k
I;",
'
4:
'Y f e w e r a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group a r e a f f e c t e d
this c o n d i t i o n ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 0 ) . A r e d u c t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y of the
d i s e a s e is shown f o r m o d a r t i c u l a r ~ o i n t s ,e s p e c i a l l y t h e ~ e r v i -
^ ' a l p l u m b a r , elbow, and k n e e j o i n t s .
S i m i l a r l y , males show a r e d u c t i o n in f r e q u e n c y of d e g e n e r a t i v- ce
;& , j o i n t d i s e a s e ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 1 ) . The g r e a t e s t d e c l i n e i n frequent
374 CLARK SPENCER LARSEN
TABLE 14.8 Frequency (Percentage) of Dental Caries i n Pre-

agricultural and A g r i c d t u r a 2 Males
--
Preagricultural AgricuZtura 2
~00th % fl 2 N0- % changeb
Maxi 1la
II
I2
c
P3
P4
Ml
M2
M3
Mandible
I1
I2
c
P3
P4
Ml
M2
Me3
Totals
l u m b e r of t e e t h observed f o r presence-absence of dental
caries.
^~ornputedb y the fottowi-ng formula: % Agricultural-% Pre-
agricultural.
j o i n t s a f f e c t e d by d e g e n e r a t i v e c h a n g e s a r e t h e cervical and 1 ~ -
bar intervertebral joints.
I n summary, a n a l y s i s and comparison o f a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s
a f f e c t e d by d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e show a t r e n d toward r e d u c -
t i o n i n frequency of t h e c o n d i t i o n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group.
While b o t h f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s a p p e a r t o show r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
d i s e a s e , f r e q u e n c y c h a n g e s a r e more pronounced i n t h e males.
Skeletal Size
A s h a s been shown i n o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , all Georgia c o a s t a l

s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s e x a m i n e d - - c l a v i c l e , humerus, r a d i u s , u l n a ,
f e m u r , t i b i a , a n d f i b u l a - - s h o w t h e same t r e n d i n s i z e change i n
comparison of t h e p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l a n d a q r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d
s k e l e t a l series ( s e e L a r s e n 1981b, 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , for t h e
TABLE 1 4 . 9 Frequency (Percentage) of Degenerative joint

Disease i n Articular Joints o f PreagricuZturuZ and A g f i e u z t u p d
~ d u l t s(females, males, indeterminate sex combined)
PreaqricuZturalAgricultural
~ r t i c u l a rjoint % Na % N~ % changeb
26.4 53 5.3 132 -21.1
50 5.3 131 -2.7
45 17.8 118 -26.6
40 3.4 87 0.7
4.0 149 1.0 289 -3.0
9.1 176 2.3 307 -6.8
4.9 142 0.4 266 -4.5
0.0 82 1.2 245 1.2
4.1 169 0.3 290 -3.8
13.7 183 6.5 291 -7.2
4.4 158 0.4 285 -4.0
0.0 81 0.4 232 0.4
ints observed for presence-absence, of

ing fovm7-iZa: % A g v z d t u r a l - % Preag-
(Percentage) of Degenerative Joint

and ~ g r i c d t u r a l
of ~rea~r-ieuZtupaZ
~rea~rieulturalAgrieultura~
b
r^ % lva % c'hange
17.2 29 1.4 73 -15.8

30 1.4 72 -5.3
32.1 28 12.5 64 -19.6
23 6.4 47 2.1
83 0.7 144 -1.7
94 0.0 167 -9.6
2.6 77 0.0 140 -2.6
0.0 50 0.8 123 0.8
4.3 93 0.0 148 -4.3
15.0 94 3.4 147 -11.6
4.5 88 0.0 139 -4.5
0.0 48 0.0 120 0.0
ints observed for presence -czbsence of

376 CLARK SPENCER LARSEN km
TABLE 1 4 . 1 1 Frequency (Percentage) o f Degenerative J o i n t Dis-
ease i n Articular Joints of P r e a g r z c u l t u ~and. Agricultural Males
~ r e ~ r i c u . Z t u r , a l Agri-ouZtural
A r t icu lar joint % i
P % N~ % changeb
Cervical 40.0 20 11.3 53 -28.7

Thoracic 12.5 16 11.8 61 -0.7
Lumbar 69.2 13 27.7 47 -41.5
Sacra 2 - Zwnbor 0.0 10 0.0 33 0.0
Shoulder 10.5 38 1.7 120 -8.8
EZ ~ O U 13.7 51 6.1 114 -7.6
WVLQt 2.6 39 0.9 106 -1.7
Hand 0.0 28 2.0 100 2. 0
Hip 0.0 51 9.1 110 9.1
Knee 18.6 59 12.6 111 -6.0
Ankle 4.1 49 9.2 109 5.1
Foot 0.0 26 1.1 93 1.1
o f articular joints observed for ~ r e s e n c e - a b s e n cof

~
degenerative joint disease.
b~omputedby the following formula: % Agricultural-% Pre-
agr icu l turu 2 .
p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , t h e s k e l e t a l s i z e c h a n g e s w i l l b e summarized
t h r o u g h p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o n l y t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e f e m u r . A con-
ci
s i d e r a t i o n o f c r a n i a l and d e n t a l changes i s p r e s e n t e d elsewhere
(see R e f e r e n c e s ) .
The summary o f t h e measurements a n d t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d
a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n s f o r t h e femur i s p r o v i d e d i n T a b l e 1 4 . 1
In a comparison o f t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p w i t h t h e a g r i c u l t u r
g r o u p , t h e s i z e c h a n g e s show a t r e n d o f r e d u c t i o n . F o r t h e fe-
m a l e s , t h e s i z e r e d u c t i o n r a n g e s from 3 . 0 (neck h o r i z o n t a l d i m -
e t e r ) t o 8.3% (subtrochanteric anterior-posterior diameter) .
F o r t h e m a l e s , t h e s i z e r e d u c t i o n s r a n g e from 0 . 2 (maximum l e n g t h
.
to 5.6% ( s u b t r o c h a n t e r i c t r a n s v e r s e d i a m e t e r ) I n summary, t h e
a v e r a g e r e d u c t i o n s o f t h e f e m o r a l d i m e n s i o n s a r e 5 . 9 a n d 3 . 4 % Â£
t h e females and males, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Comparisons o f f e m o r a l i n d e x e s i m p l y some d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o r l
i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group r e l a t i v e t o the &:; ,
p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 3 ) . I n the f e m a l e s , t h e r e is a
s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e m i d s h a f t i n d e x (0.9%) , a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e
t h e p l a t y m e r i c i n d e x ( 0 . 7 % ) , a n d a more s u b s t a n t i a l d e c r e a s e i n
t h e r o b u s t i c i t y i n d e x ( 3 - 2 % ). I n t h e males, t h e r e a r c i n c r e a s e s
in b o t h t h e m i d s h a f t a n d p l a t y m e r i c i n d e x e s ( 2 . 3 and 4.8%, r e s p e c
l i v e l y ) and a marked d e c r e a s e i n t h e r o b u s t i c i t y i n d e x ( 3 -0%)-
Similar c o m p a r i s o n s o f p r e a g n c u l t u r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l
s t a t u r e show s i z e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p ( T a b l e 14-
TABLE 14.12 Comparison of Femoral Dimensions o f P r e a g r i c u Z t u ~ a Zand A g r i c u Z t v ~ " a 2Females and Males
Female Male
P r e a g ~ z c Ztura
u 1 Agricdtura2 P y e a g r i c u Zt-orat Aqrieu Ztur~Z
Dimension Mean (mm) S Mean (mm) N % changea Mean ( m ) N Mean (rim) N % changea
Head d i a m e t e r 4 1 . 1 S l 39.0 61
fleck v e r t i c a l d i a m e t e r 27.2 29 25.8 64
Neck horizontal d i a m e t e r 22.7 31 22.0 64
Maximum l e n g t h 434 1 9 4 1 6 54
Midshaft a-p d i a m e t e r 26.7 44 25.2 86
MidshaftIvans.dzmeter 24.3 44 2 3 . 1 8 6
Midstzaft c i r c u m f e r e n c e 80 44 76 86
S u b t r o e h a n t e r i c a-p 23.9 47 21.9 91
Subtrochanteric trans. 3 1 . 7 4 5 29.3 92
TABLE 14.12 Comparison of Femoraz Indexes i n PreagricuZtupal and Agricultural Females and Males
Fede Mate
Preaqridtd Aqricu Ztura'i Preagricultural AgrIeuZtwuZ
Index Mean N MeanN % changeu Mean N MeanN % changea
Idids haft 91.3 44 92.1 86 0.9 85.7 SO 87.7 68 2.3
PZatymeptQ 75.6 45 75.1 91 -0.9 73.6 19 77.3 69 4. 8
Robus tic* 18.8 18 18.2 51 -3.2 20.0 9 19.4 46 -3.0
~ e g a t i v evalues computed by the fopowing-formula: - (1 - ? ~ ~ / 00;y positive

~ ~ values
~ ~ com-
p
puted b$ the following formula: +(1 - Xprew/XAg) 100.
TABLE 14.14 Comparison o f Stature of Preagricuztural and Agricultural Females and Males a
. . - ...
Fema l e Male
Preaaridturaz Aqriculturaz Preaqricu~tura'l Aqricultupal
Mean (am) N Mean (cm) N % chunge Mean (am) iV Mean (cm) N% changeb
Left femur 162.2 19 157.5 54 -2.9 167.3 9 167.547 -0.2
Rightfemur 160.7 21 156.452 -2. 7 168.9 12 167.1 48 -1.1
acomputed from formulas provided by G e n o v d s ( 1 9 ~ ) ;measurements are i n ern.

d the fo7Zo~ing formula: - (1 - x g A B e a g )IOU.
b ~ o m ~ u t eby
Estimation of s t a t u r e , a s based on t h e l e f t and r i g h t femora,

shows r e s p e c t i v e reduction of 2 . 9 and 2 . 7 % f o r t h e females and
0 2 and 1.1% f o r t h e males.
DISCUSS ION
A number of t r e n d s can be shown i n the comparisons of p r e h i

t o r i c Georgia c o a s t a l hunter-gatherers (pre-A. D. 1150) with the
successive a q r i c u l t u r a l i s t s (A. D. 1150-1550) :
%
&. *
VJ-
*,' -.
"*
"..
'Z
- 1. I n c r e a s e in frequency o f p e r i o s t c a l r e a c t i o n s
2. I n c r e a s e i n frequency of d e n t a l c a r i e s
3. Decrease i n frequency o f degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e
4. Decrease i n bone s i z e
5. Decrease i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y
6. Decrease i n s t a t u r e
Let us examine t h e s e t r e n d s i n some d e t a i l .
i,', d e n t i t i o n .
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s a reduction i n f u n c t i o n a l
' demand placed o n t h e p o s t c r a n i a l skeleton a s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e
decreased frequency of degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e . Both t r e n d s
I ; a r e a r e s u l t of t h e s h i f t i n economy and a s s o c i a t e d lifeway from
; , Perhaps the i n c r e a s e i n p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s was a r e s u l t of
pathology. However, a s shown above, i t is t h e

group t h a t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of an o l d e r s k e l e t a l
o p u l a t i o n s occupying t h e Georgia c o a s t , the evidence of

n f e c t i o n s would follow a more systematic p a t t e r n i n t h e
ample of post-A.D. 1150 a d u l t s . I n f a c t , p e r i o s t e a l
occur f o r t h e most p a r t on s i n g l e bones of i n d i v i d u a l s
s t l i k e l y explanation f o r t h e increase i n frequency of

g i c a l condition i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l ~ e r i o di s probably
t h t h e change i n s e t t l e m e n t o f human populations
1150. Before t h e s h i f t i n subsistence economy, t h e
380 CLARK SPENCER L-ARSEN
occupations. Concomitant with t h e change i n subsistence, there is

an a l t e r a t i o n i n settlement p a t t e r n i n g : v i l l a g e s become l a r g e
and, in a number of i n s t a n c e s , permanently occupied. I t appears
t h a t t h i s change i n settlement and t h e r e s u l t a n t increase in popu-
l a t i o n s i z e and density was conducive t o the increase i n infectious
disease i n general. Thus, the increase in p e r i o s t e a l reactions, a.
nonspecific i n f e c t i o u s pathology, is r e f l e c t i v e o f a v a r i e t y of
diseases that are associated with dense, immobile populations.
qestion of sucrose w i l l produce cariogenic-related c a v i t a t i o n of

t e e t h (Rowe 1975; Leverett 1982).
Unlike p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s and d e n t a l c a r i e s , the t h i r d
pathology observed--degenerative j o i n t disease--markedly decreased =*-
i n frequency i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group. As with t h e above patholo-
9Y changes, age f a c t o r s should be considered i n attempting t o
explain t h e marked a l t e r a t i o n of t h e samples t h a t are representa-
t i v e of the t w o groups. The p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group i s i n f a c t
comprised of an o l d e r s k e l e t a l sample than the a g r i c u l t u r a l group
and, as would be expected, has a higher incidence of degenerativ
j o i n t disease. I t i s p o s s i b l e , then, t h a t t h e d i s p a r i t y i n f r e - .:
quency of degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e between t h e two groups could "'4
account f o r these d i f f e r e n c e s i n pathology a f f e c t i n g a r t i c u l a r
j o i n t s u r f a c e s and margins. However, s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s
groups a t t h e p = - 0 5 l e v e l . Therefore, t h e f a c t o r of age compo-
coast .
While degenerative j o i n t disease can r e s u l t from a v a r i e t y of
f a c t o r s (see e s p e c i a l l y discussion by Jurmain 1977) , t h e s k e l e t a l
changes t h a t a r e associated with the condition a r e r e l a t e d i n l a r
p a r t t o t h e degree t o which t h e body i s subjected t o mechanically
r e l a t e d functional s t r e s s . A number of researchers, f o r examplet
have shown t h a t s p e c i f i c behavioral r e p e r t o i r e s and t h e c~eneral
demand of lifeway i n human groups, p r e h i s t o r i c and contemporary' ,&
'*
a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e degree and p a t t e r n i n g of degenerative joint
d i s e a s e (e. g . , Miller 1982; Ortner 1968; Ortner and putschar 1981;2yb
Angel 1966; Haney 1974). I suggest, assuming t h a t t h e l e v e l of .-f
mechanical s t r e s s i s associated with the l e v e l of d i f f i c u l t y of
lifeway ( t h a t i s , r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e i n degree of work l o a d ) ,
f ' 14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GhORGIA
38 1
i f
t o r i c Georgia c o a s t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s had
y t h a n their p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l hunter-
; if' The r e d u c t i o n i n p o s t c r a n i a l s i z e and s t a t u r e a s documented

I' in t h e a n a l y s i s of femoral .size o f p r e - and post-A.D. 1150 Georgia
. c o a s t a l Amerindians must be examined i n l i g h t of t h e t r a n s i t i o n to
' an a g r i c u l t u r a l - b a s e d s u b s i s t e n c e economy. Two v a r i a b l e s , i n p a r -
c l o s e consideration: l e v e l of f u n c t i o n a l
e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s ) and u n d e r n u t r i t i o n ( d i s e a s e - n u t r i t i o n a l
s t c r a n i a l r e d u c t i o n i n mechanically r e l a t e d s t r e s s i s i m -
by t h e changes t h a t a r e p r e s e n t f o r t h e femoral i n d i c e s :
nd r o b u s t i c i t y . Both females and males
i d s h a f t index, and t h e males show an i n -
c index. The females show v i r t u a l l y no
!'I change ( s l i g h t r e d u c t i o n ) i n t h e platyrneric index. Moreover, ro-
of both s e x e s a r c lower i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
Although low p l a t y m e r i c indexes have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s rep-
femoral s h a f t d i s t a l -1-0 t h e lesser t r o c h a n t e r l
-$platyrneric indexes appear t o be a s s o c i a t e d with a g r i c u l t u r a l and

."urban economies i n which t h e l i f e w a y s a r e presumably l e s s func-
$ , t i o n a l l y demanding (Buxton 1938 ; Pearson and B e l l 1917-1919 ;
o bone development. I n i n s t a n c e s of c o n s t a n t
n o r d e r t o r e s i s t e f f i c i e n t l y e x t e r n a l f u n c t i o n a l demands. There-
i t is p o s i t e d h e r e t h a t i n keeping with t h e g e n e r a l phenome-
I rnon t h a t bone is d e p o s i t e d i n t h e presence of f u n c t i o n a l demand
M n d is resorbed i n i t s absence ( W o l f f s l a w ) , t h e s i z e r e d u c t i o n s
i a l s k e l e t a l elelnents re-
l l y l i k e l y c a u s e o f t h e s k e l e t a l s i z e changes on
That is t o s a y , w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e
d r a t e s and a d e c r e a s e i n consumption of animal
p r o t e i n , a decrease i n s k e l e t a l s i z e and s t a t u r e r e s u l t e d . Indeed ,

a d e c r e a s e i n p r o t e i n consumption i s suggested by t h e d a t a ad-
d r e s s e d i n t h e foregoing d i s c u s s i o n of change i n c a r i o g e n e s i s on
t h e Georgia c o a s t . Rowe (1975) and o t h e r s have shown t h a t t h e
o r a l environment most s u i t a b l e f o r t h e support of o d o n t o l y t i c
organisms i n d e n t a l plaque i s c r e a t e d by a d i e t a r y regime low i n
p r o t e i n and high i n c a r b o h y d r a t e s . The marked i n c r e a s e i n d e n t a l
c a r i e s on t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia c o a s t r e f l e c t s such a d i e t a r y
reconstruction.
Garn and Frisancho (1971) , Garn and Clark (1975) , S t i n i (1969,
1 9 7 1 ) , Newman (1975), and o t h e r s have demonstrated t h a t human
p o p u l a t i o n s undergoing p r o t e i n m a l n u t r i t i o n have r e l a t i v e l y smaller
body s i z e and s t a t u r e than p o p u l a t i o n s with adequate n u t r i t i o n .
The reduced p o s t c r a n i a l s i z e and s t a t u r e i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group
on t h e Georgia c o a s t would seem t o s u g g e s t t h e l i k e l i h o o d of some
form of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s such a s p r o t e i n m a l n u t r i t i o n . Compound-
i n g t h e presumed r e d u c t i o n in animal p r o t e i n consumption i s t h e
inadequacy of maize a s a p r o t e i n s o u r c e . Moreover, i f an individual
i s experiencing an i n f e c t i o n , t h e body's response i s t o a c t i v a t e
t h e immune system, t h e r e b y i n h i b i t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a n t i b o d i e s .
T h i s s i t u a t i o n r e s u l t s i n a r e d u c t i o n of t h e amount of l a b i l e pro-
t e i n t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e growth o f t h e s k e l e t o n and o t h e r
t i s s u e s ( S t i n i 1969).
N u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e l a t e r Georgia c o a s t a l a g r i c u l t u -
r a l p o p u l a t i o n s might be examined i n l i g h t of p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e s
i n frequency o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s . For t h i s r e g i o n , however,
o n l y a few p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l c r a n i a e x h i b i t t h e
p r e s e n c e o f t h e pathology ( s e e Zahler 1976; Larscn and Thomas 198
C - S. Larsen, unpublished) . Thus, t h e r e is no i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u
cy o f t h e c o n d i t i o n . It i s s u g g e s t e d , t h e n , t h a t w h i l e p o r o t i c
h y p e r o s t o s i s h a s been shown t o be an important i n d i c a t o r o f s t r e s s
i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h ( s e e B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980; Huss-
Ash-more e t a l . 1982; Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume), i t s
p r e s e n c e o r absence w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n c e r t a i n l y should n o t be
considered i n i s o l a t i o n from o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s .
I n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h mechanical from n u t r i t i o n a l f a c t o r s ,
Ruff and co-workers (Ruff e t a l . 1983) have analyzed c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l geometric p r o p e r t i e s (bone a r e a s , a r e a moments o f
i n e r t i a ) o f Georgia c o a s t a l femora and have found s i g n i f i c a n t re-
modeling o f t h i s s k e l e t a l element t h a t appears t o b e r e l a t e d t o a
d e c r e a s e i n mechanical s t r e s s i n g o f t h e lower limb i n t h e agricul
t u r a l group. The a n a l y s i s a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t parameters t h a t
i n d i c a t e s t r e n g t h ( a r e a moments o f i n e r t i a ) d e c r e a s e r e l a t i v e l y
more than bone a r e a . These d a t a s u g g e s t , t h e n , t h a t although
c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of s k e l e t a l change may be r e l a t e d t o d i e t - -
r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l s i z e - - o t h e r f e a t u r e s can be b e s t i n t e r p r e t s
i n l i g h t , of r e l a t i v e r e d u c t i o n i n mechanical s t r e s s a s was
i m p l i c a t e d by t h e aforementioned r e d u c t i o n i n frequency of
o s t e o a r t h r i t i s and a l t e r a t i o n s i n bone s i z e and s h a p e -
In summary, although t h e mechanisms by which the t r e n d s i n
skeletal s i z e and form came about remain i m p r e c i s e , it i s pOssib
^
#'
te 14 HEALTH AND DISEASE I N PREHISTORIC GEORGIA
CHANGE IN SUBSISTENCE MODE.
CHANGE I N
PATTERN
INCREASED MUSCLE GROWTH POOR

INFECTIOUS
DISEASE
- Y QUALITY
PROTEIN
BONE GROWTH
Ã‘
I
ICRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL CHANGES :
REDUCTION IN SIZE. CHANGEIN FORM I
L
FIGURE 14.1. Proeessual model of bzocultural adaptation on

he prehistoric Georgia coast.
t t h i s j u n c t u r e t o provide a preliminary model o u t l i n i n g t h e

recesses behind t h e changes documented i n t h i s chapter. In
r t i c u l a r , i t seems most l i k e l y t h a t a combination of changes
h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n and musculoskeletal s t r e s s l e d to pro-
e s s i v e a l t e r a t i o n i n p a t t e r n of s k e l e t a l growth (see Figure
.I).
Sexual Dimorphism
One i n t r i g u i n g change with regard t o t h e t r a n s i t i o n from

n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r e t h a t w i l l be addressed i n
e following d i s c u s s i o n i s t h a t having t o do with t h e d i f f e r -
c e s seen between t h e female s k e l e t a l samples and t h e i r male
unterparts. Three d i f f e r e n c e s a r e p r e s e n t and can be summar-
ed a s follows:
1. Females show a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e in p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s
than males.
2. Females show a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n d e n t a l c a r i e s than
males.
3. Females show a qreatmr- decrease i n s k e l e t a l s i z e and
r o b u s t i c i t y and s t a t u r e than males, t h u s i n d i c a t i n g an
i n c r e a s e i n t h e percentage of sexual dimorphism i n t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l group (Table 14.15) .
hese sex d i f f e r e n c e s r e p r e s e n t a p a t t e r n and p o i n t t o an impor-
nt dichotomy i n d i e t and a s s o c i a t e d behavior.
TABLE 1 4 . 1 5 Percentage of Sexual Dimorphism i n Stczture i n P r e ~ r z e u Z t u r a land Ag-Yzcu Ztural
Groups
- - - --
P r e a g h ZturaZ Agrzeu Ztural

Skeletal Female mean Male mean % Smal Female meww Male mean % Sexual
e foment staturea staturea dimorphism statwe* staturea dimorphism
- .-- - -- -
Left femur 162.2 167.9 +3.4 157.5 167.5 +6.0
Right femur 163.7 171.4 +4. 5 168.1 167.5 +5.6
Computed from formulas provided by Genovgs ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; -in em.

^Computed by the following formula: +11 - -t- î/11'0. /
HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA
385
~ t h n o g r a p h i caccounts have demonstrated t h a t there are S t r i c t

divisions of 1abor among non-Western populations f o r the procure-
ment of food, and, although the data are scarce, the impression
one g e t s from a reading of the l i t e r a t u r e i s t h a t these divisions
r e s u l t i n inequitable d i s t r i b u t i o n s of recovered d i e t a r y items.
m n g hunter-gatherer groups, women perform most of the a c t i v i t i e s
t h a t a r e associated with p l a n t foods while men do most of the
hunting; it i s the l a t t e r sex, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t has g r e a t e r d i f -
f e r e n t i a l access t o p r o t e i n (see Bowdler 1976; Hayden 1981; Lee
1968; Meehan l977a, b) .
With regard t o the Georgia c o a s t , t h e r e a r e , of course, no
data on food sharing and d i v i s i o n of labor among t h e pre-A.D. 1150
hunter-gatherer populations, but t h e r e i s p e r t i n e n t information in
the e t h n o h i s t o r i c record f o r the southeastern United S t a t e s in
general. Swanton (1942, 1946) and Hudson (1976) have pointed out
t h a t marked sexual d i v i s i o n occurred f o r most a c t i v i t i e s : males
were responsible f o r hunting; females were responsible f o r most
a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y those r e l a t e d t o care of
crops and food preparation. I t i s suggested here t h a t the sex-
difference trends t h a t have been documented in t h e foregoing can
be explained i n a l a r g e p a r t by r o l e differences i n subsistence-
r e l a t e d behavior. On t h e one hand, females may have been exposed .
o r e t o i n f e c t i o u s conditions because they were spending more time
the v i l l a g e environment while males, because they were involved-
more a c t i v i t i e s away from t h e v i l l a g e , were not exposed as much
o pathogens responsible f o r the onset and maintenance of infec-
ion. Moreover, i f there had been d i f f e r e n t i a l access t o animal
rotein during c r i t i c a l periods of growth and development and
dulthood, then t h e sex receiving r e l a t i v e l y l e s s protein--the
emales--would show a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r reduction i n s k e l e t a l
i z e . F i n a l l y , it i s important to keep in mind t h a t female physi-
1 a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s may be more a l t e r e d with t h e s h i f t to s e d e n t
m than those of males; t h a t i s , i n reference t o t h e scenario
resented above, women may have had a l e s s mechanically demanding
havioral r e p e r t o i r e than males a f t e r A . D . 1150 and, hencel a
l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r reduction i n bone area and s k e l e t a l s i z e -
COMPARISONS WITH OTHER STUDIES
The f i r s t description of pattology i n ~ e o r g i ap r e h i s t o r i c hu-

an s k e l e t a l remains i s i n t h e work of Clarence loomf field Moore
1897) . In h i s s k e l e t a l d e s c r i p t i o n s , he noted instances of
nkylosis , healed f r a c t u r e , "inflammations" of long bones
seudarthrosis , "diseased" long bones, a l v e o l a r abscessing and
@Sorption, and d e n t a l c a r i e s .
Additional human remains recovered from the ~ e o r g i acoast
ere-studied by Wallace (1975) and Zahler (1976). These
386 CLARK SPENCER L A R S m
composed o f r e m a i n s from t h e n o r t h e r n end o f S t . Simons I s l a n d ,

a r e from l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c and p r o t o h i s t o r l c v i l l a g e a n d mound
c o n t e x t s . Employing a h e r b i v o r e c o n t r o l (.Odoe~iZeus vir$nianus),
chemical a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e r e m a i n s r e v e a l e d t h a t b u r i a l s from a
l a t e r component ( T a y l o r Mound) h a d a lower mean s t r o n t i u m c o n t e n t
than b u r i a l s from a n e a r l i e r component (Couper F i e l d ) , which was
a t t r i b u t e d t o s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t "from a m a r i n e - o r i e n t e d , f i s h i n g -
and-s h e l l f i s h i n q economy ( w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l y h i g h s t r o n t i u m r e a d -
i n g s ) t o o n e t h a t i s p r o n o u n c e d l y h o r t i c u l t u r a l " ( W a l l a c e 1975:
2 3 3 ) . ~ h e s ef i n d i n g s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d p r e l i m i n a r y s i n c e
n e i t h e r c o n t r o l w i t h t h e u s e of another element (calcium, i n par-
t i c u l a r ) n o r i n c l u s i o n of c a r n i v o r e s i n t h e c o n t r o l sample were
u s e d ( s e e S i l l e n 1981; S m i t h e t a l . , C h a p t e r 5 , t h i s volume) i n
the analysis.
I n s u p p o r t o f t h e f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d b y L a r s e n (1982, s e e
a b o v e ) , Z a h l e r (1976) r e p o r t e d a h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f d e n t a l c a r i e s ,
s u g g e s t i n g a h i g h c a r b o h y d r a t e i n t a k e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r a l s o r e -
p o r t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ; t h i s was a t t r i b u t e d
t o i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g dependence
on m a i z e a g r i c u l t u r e . I n s t a n c e s o f v e r t e b r a l d e g e n e r a t i v e ~ooijnt '
d i s e a s e and p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s were a l s o n o t e d . While none o f ,
these findings a r e contradictory t o other studies u t i l i z i n g
.
G e o r g i a c o a s t a l s k e l e t a l remains, t h e a u t h o r d i d n o t p r e s e n t a
c l e a r d i s c u s s i o n of f r e q u e n c y (percenLdqe) o f i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d
by t h e p a t h o l o g i e s . Consequently, comparisons w i t h o t h e r l o c a l i -
t i e s a r e l i m i t e d and s h o u l d b e made i n o n l y a g e n e r a l s e n s e .
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f Z a h l e r (1976) a n d L a r s e n ( s e e #:
above) , H u l s e (1941) r e p o r t e d a r a r i t y o f d e n t a l c a r i e s i n d e n t i - ;
t i o n s from t h e I r e n e Mound s i t e , a l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c h a b i t a t i o n -
c e r e m o n i a l complex o n t h e n o r t h G e o r g i a c o a s t . H u l s e (1941:60) ;:
':
s u g g e s t e d t h a t I r e n e p e o p l e s h a d s u b s i s t e d more on a d i e t c o n s i s t - :$*
i n q l a r g e l y of f o o d s " o b t a i n e d from h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g , and j

g a t h e r i n g , t h a n upon a n a g r i c u l t u r a l d i e t . " T h i s s u b s i s t e n c e mode1
i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a b r a s i v e f o o d s t u f f s , was t h o u g h t t o h a v e pre- *?
v e n t e d d e n t a l d e c a y . My r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e n t a l r e m a i n s 5;
( L a r s e n 1 9 8 2 ) , however, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e I r e n e Mound m a t e r i a l s 2
a c t u a l l y e x h i b i t a r a t h e r h i g h frequency o f d e n t a l c a r i e s , andl !;
most c e r t a i n l y , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e t h n o h i s t o r i c r e s e a r c h h a s show?. *.
t h a t t h e I r e n e Mound p e o p l e s were f u l l - f l e d g e d a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s -
H u l s e (1941) a l s o n o t e d t n e p r e s e n c e of e x t r e m e t o o t h w e a r , a $+ 2
h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s e s , t h i r d m o l a r i m p a c t i o n infec' i
I
t i o n ( o s t e o m y e l i t i s , p e r i o s t i ti s) , a n d s e v e r a l c a s e s o f v i o l e n c e - ,î
r e l a t e d c r a n i a l t r a u m a . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s were c o n f i r m e d by my ''
review o f these m a t e r i a l s . a?
Only a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of human r e m a i n s from t h e i n t e r i o r of
G e o r g i a h a s been d e s c r i b e d ( s e e ~ n t r o d u c t i o n .) Of t h e d e s c r i p t i o G
o f m a t e r i a l s , most n o t a b l e i s t h e work o f R . L. ~ l a k e l y (19771 ',.';
1 9 8 0 ) on t h e r e m a i n s from t h e Etowah s i t e , a m a l o r ~ i s s i s s i p p i5'' ~
h a b i t a t ion-ceremonia I c e n t e r i n n o r t h w e s t G e o r g i a . T h i s i n v e s t i d ,s
g a t o r r e p o r t e d o n f r e q u e n c x e s i n a d u l t s of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s "
( p e r i o s t i t i s , osteomyelitis) , g e r o n t a l osteoporosis, v e r t e b r a l -;
.1
?
,.
' Â¥ s
degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , p e r i o d o n t a l
d i s e a s e , f r a c t u r e s , and tumors (Blakely 1980) . For t h e roost p a r t ,
these c o n d i t i o n s were low i n frequency ( r e p o r t e d i n percentage of
' i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d ) , e x c e p t t h a t o v e r 50% o f a d u l t s were
by v e r t e b r a l d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e . I t is i n t e r e s t -
ing t h a t a s i n t h e Georgia c o a s t p o p u l a t i o n s a v e r y low occurrence
of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was found a t Etowah ( f o u r cases) .
~ l a k e l y (1980) a l s o found t h a t lower s t a t u s individual. s ( v i l l a g e
area) had a g r e a t e r frequency of p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e than higher
s t a t u s i n d i v i d u a l s (Mound C) . Although n o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t r a c e
elements were found between t h e s e subpopulations ( s e e Blakely and
Beck 1 9 8 1 ) , Blakely (1980) a t t r i b u t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n frequency
f p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e t o a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of maize i n t h e
e t of lower c l a s s i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s , then, p r o v i d e s p r e l i m i n a r y
i d e n c e t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e had n o t o n l y a d i f f e r -
t i a l impact by sex ( s e e Sexual Dimorphism), but a l s o by c l a s s o r
a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Etowah demo-

d i s e a s e i n f l u e n c e s , Blakely (1977) n o t e d
a s l i t t l e evidence o f t r a u m a t i c i n j u r y i n young
s no evidence that t h e r e were any
s e s t h a t could have a f f e c t e d m o r t a l i t y ;
r e n t evidence of p r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n
CONCLUS IONS
T h i s chapter has summarized a s e r i e s o f s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l

eloped in p o p u l a t i o n s o n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia
nse t o d i e t a r y and r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r a l a 1t e r a t i o n s
the s h i f t from a d i e t based o n h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g ,
a d i e t based, a t l e a s t i n p a r t , on maize a g r i c u l -
a t a p r o v i d e good e v i d e n c e f o r a d e c l i n e i n h e a l t h
t e d change i n s k e l e t a l s i z e . In addition, reduction
i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e a n d s h a f t shape modi-
and s u b t r o c h a n t e r i c r e g i o n of t h e femur
e l of m u s c u l o s k e l e t a l s t r e s s w i t h t h e
c h a n g e i n l i f e w a y . The impact of t h e s h i f t to a g r i c u l t u r e and
sedentism was probably g r e a t e r f o r the females t h a n f o r
' the males. Most of the information from the work of Moore (1897) I
d Bl-akely (1977, 1980) i s p r e l i m i n a r y and d o e s
*.anot p r o v i d e t o t a l c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e for my s t u d i e s a s sum-
a t i o n i s needed f o r a b e t t e r understanding o f hu-

i n p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia. P a t h o l o g i c t r e n d s w i t h i n
u r a l h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g s k e l e t a l sample are not
a r e a v a i l a b l e for a n a l y s i s of t h e changes i n
a s e t h a t p r e c e d e t h e transition t o a n a g r i c u l t u r a l
'"
!
-4

7 ;i
'3 ,{
s u b s i s t e n c e mode. More i m p o r t a n t , t h e g r e a t e r body o f e x t a n t c o l - ;(\I
l e c t i o n s o f human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from t h e i n t e r i o r o f G e o r g i a
need t o be s t u d i e d i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a broader b i o c u l t u r a l p i c - :;,1
t u r e of t h i s region o f t h e p r e h i s t o r i c southeastern United S t a t e s -AÃ i1f
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- 2
i;'?
F i e l d s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e s e a r c h from t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t 8
( S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d ) was p r o v i d e d by t h e Edward J o h n Noble $?
:<4 '
FoundationandTheAmericanMuseumof NaturalHistory. I thank J.
D r s . Douglas H. U b e l a k e r , N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , ,$ . :s
Washington, D.C. ; David H u r s t Thomas, The American Museum o f .I$1 ;,

N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , New York; and David J . H a l l y a n d M a r s h a l l G . :*& 1
H u r l i c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f Georgia, Athens, f o r a c c e s s t o t h e Georgia 4 ,

c o a s t a l human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s i n c l u d e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h summarized ', :
h e r e . D r . Ted A . Rathbun, U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h C a r o l i n a , Columbia, f
k i n d l y g a v e m e u n p u b l i s h e d s k e l e t a l d a t a c o l l e c t e d from t h e Lewis :, ,i
Creek mounds. A number o f i n d i v i d u a l s p r o v i d e d i m p o r t a n t a i d ,$ >
d u r i n g t h e r e s e a r c h , writing, and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s : 3. 4
D r s . David H u r s t Thomas, M i l f o r d H. Wolpoff, D a v i d S . C a r l s o n , ,'A
, '
C h r i s t o p h e r b. P e e b l e s , N a t h a n i e l H. Rowe, Douglas H . U b e l a k e r ,
C . L o r i n g B r a c e , David J . H a l l y , B r u c e D . S m i t h , T. D a l e S t e w a r t , , ,^
k 7 -1
J. Lawrence Angel, Donald J . O r t n e r , L u c i l e S t . Hoyme , C h r i s t o p h e r ''
B . R u f f , C h e s t e r B. D e P r a t t e r , Ms. Becky C a r n e s , a n d M r . F r e d C!. kg 4
Cook. M s . Margot D e m b o p r o v i d e d e d i t o r i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e 5
p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r i p t . David S. C a r l s o n (1976) h a s $,
d e v e l o p e d a c r a n i o f a c i a l - s p e c i f i c f l o w model s i m i l a r , i n p a r t , to -/$ :'.;
t h e g e n e r a l model f i g u r e d i n t h i s chapter ( r i g u i e 1 4 . 1 ) ; I have 3 '-
p r o f i t e d enormously from d j . s c u s s i o n s w i t h him. M r . A l f r e d J. -4
F e e l e y , G r a p h i c s S e r v i c e s , S o u t h e a s t e r n M a s s a c h u s e t t s u n i v e r s i t y , .& i)
,::
prepared t h e a r t w o r k f o r F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 . Â¥
<d*
The b u l k o f t h e r e s e a r c h b a s e d o n human r e m a i n s from t h e 3

,. f
1
G e o r g i a c o a s t was i n i t i a t e d a n d c o m p l e t e d i n 1978-1979 d u r i n g :9
.':
>
t e n u r e a s a F e l l o w i n R e s i d e n c e i n t h e Department o f A..thropo10gy^ ' ,

"3. :
N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , ~ m i t h s o n i a n~ n s t i t u t i o n ; , I
., - +
f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t was p r o v i d e d by a S m i t h s o n i a n ~ n s t i t u t i o n ,?2 , ;
, , "
Predoctoral Fellowship.
REFERENCES
A n g e l , J. Lawrence
1966 E a r l y s k e l e t o n s from t r a n q u i l l i t y , C a l i f o r n i a . Smith-
sonzan Contributions to Anthropology 2 (I):1-19.
i, :1.
I
14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

!lt
I 1
.;t
, *
, ' ~ e w e t t ,Kenneth A .
1; \ 1973 The I n d i a n s of P o i n t o f P i n e s , A r i z o n a : A comparative
s t u d y of t h e i r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A n t h ~ @ ~ ~ i ~ ~
Papers of the University o f Arizona N O . 2 3 .
s i t y o f Georgia P r e s s , Athens.
Fred H. S m i t h , pp. 28-38. Tennessee Anthropologied Asso-
1981 Trace elements, n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s , and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a -

t i o n a t Etowah, G e o r g i a . Annals of t h e New York Academy
of Sciences 376 :417-431.
- k 1976 Hook, l i n e and d i l l y bag: An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a n

A u s t r a l i a n s h e l l m i d d e n . Mankind 1 0 . 2 4 8 - 2 5 8 .
. Cornell University Press,

Ithaca.
unt . Annual Review of
'Buxton, L. H. Dudley
Journal of Anatomy 73 : 31-36 -
a1 v a r i a t i o n i n t h e human midface
and u p p e r face. In Factors affecting t f i e g ~ o u t hof the
midface, e d i t e d b y J . A . McNamara, pp. 277-299. C e n t e r
f o r Human Growth and Development, Ann ~ r b o r .
t , and maturation: findings
on size and s k e l e t a l development-

I n Proceedingsof a ii~orkshopon problems of assessment
and aZIevSation of malnutrition i n the ~ n i t e dStatest
e d i t e d b y R. G. Hansen and H. N. Munro, pp - 84-93-
Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D - C =
ong b o n e s and t h e i r relation to

s t a t u r e among ~ e s o a r n e r i c a n s . Amer~can~ o u r n a zof
Anthropology 2 6 : 67-77.
Haney, P a t r i c i a
1974 A t l a t l elbow i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e s . ;'a?- '.
I n Readings i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l method and t e c h n i que, e d i t e d
by R . ~ a u t z ,p p . 31-34. Center for Archaeological Research ; , &?
a t Davis PubZicatwn NO. 4. %
.,t* 1
Hayden, B r i a n $ 1
'
1 9 8 1 S u b s i s t e n c e a n d e c o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f modem hunter/ .y
gatherers. In Omnivorous primates: Gathering and hunti
i n human evolution, e d i t e d by R. S. 0. Hardinq a n d Geza
T e l e k i , pp. 344-421. Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w York.
Hudson, C h a r l e s
1976 The southeastern Indians. U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee P r e s s ,
Knoxville .
Hul s e , F r e d e r i c k S .
1941 The p e o p l e who l i v e d a t I r e n e : p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y .
I n Irene mound s i t e , J . R . C a l d w e l l and C. McCann, pp. 57-
68. U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a P r e s s , A t h e n s .
Huss-Ashmorc, Rebecca, Alan H. Goodman, a n d George J. Annelagos
1982 N u t r i t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e from p a l e o p a t h o l o g y . Advances i n
Arehaeologicul Metbd and T h e o q 5:395-474.
J o n e s , G r a n t D.
1978 The e t h n o h i s t o r y o f t h e G u a l e c o a s t t h r o u g h 1684. I n The
a n t h r o p o l o g y o f S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d . 1. N a t u r a l a n d
c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y , David Hurs t Thomas, G r a n t D . J o n e s ,
Roger S. Durham, a n d C l a r k S p e n c e r L a r s e n . ~nthropolog'ica~
Papers of t h e American Museum of Natural History 55:178-
210.
J u r m a i n , R o b e r t D.
1977 S t r e s s a n d t h e e t i o l o g y o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s . American
JoumaZ of Physical Anthropology 4 6 : 3 5 3 - 3 6 5 .
Larsen, Clark Spencer
1980a D e n t a l c a r i e s : E x p e r i m e n t a l and b i o c u l t u r a l e v i d e n c e .
I n The s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y o f a b o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e
s o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s , e d i t e d by P. W i l l e y and F r e
H . S m i t h , p p . 75-00. Tennessee AnthropoloqicaZ A S S O ~ ~ U ~
Miscellaneous Paper NO. 5.
1980b Human s k e l e t a l a n d d e n t a l h e a l t h c h a n g e s i n t h e p r e h i s t
Georgia c o a s t . i n Excursions i n southeastern geology:
archaeology -geology of the Georgia coast, e d i t e d by Jame
D. Howard, C h e s t e r B. D e P r a t t e r , a n d R o b e r t W. F r e y , PP-
192-201. G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f America, A t l a n t a .
1981a S k e l e t a l a n d d e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t
on t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t . Current Anthropology 22 :422-423.
1981b F u n c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p o s t c r a n i a l s i z e r e d u c t i o n 0
t h e p r e h i s t o r i c G e o r g i a c o a s t . Journal of Hmm E V O ~ ^
IO:489-502.
1982 The a n t h r o p o l o g y of S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d . 3 . p r e h i s t o r i
human b i o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n . Anthropological Papers o f
t h e American Museum of Natural History 5 7 ~ 1 5 5 - 2 7 0 .
14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA
39 1
7,
A"
v I,,'
. 19 83a Behavioral i m p l i c a t i o n s o f temporal change i n cariogenesi s.

:. ..: Journa 2 of Arehaeo l o g i c a 2 Science 10 f 1 ) :1- 8.
1983b S u b s i s t e n c e r o l e behavior and t h e infectious disease ex-
/: &;. p e r i e n c e on t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia c o a s t . American
I ' ?'- Journal of P h y s i c a l Anthropology 60 (2) :216.
1983c Deciduous t o o t h s i z e and s u b s i s t e n c e change i n p r e h i s t o r i c
Georgia c o a s t p o p u l a t i o n s . Current Anthropology 22:422-
Lee, Richard Borshay

1968 What hunters do f o r a l i v i n g ; o r , how t o make o u t on s c a r c e
resources. I n Man t h e Hunter, e d i t e d by R. B. Lee and
I . DeVore, pp. 30-48. Aldine, Chicago.
anging prevalence of d e n t a l c a r i e s .
Science 2 1 7 : 2 6 - 3 0 .
c a l o r i e s alone: The r o l e o f s h e l l -
fish i n a c o a s t a l c u i s i n e . I n Sun& and S a m , p r s h z ~ t u r i ~
s t u d i e s i n S. E. A s i a , Melanesia and ~ u s t r a l i a ,e d i t e d by
J . Allen, J. Golson, and R . J o n e s , p p . 493-531. Acadf3mlc
P r e s s , New York and London.
1977b Hunters by t h e s e a s h o r e . J o u r n a l of Timan ~ v o l u t i o n6:
363-370.
Certain a b o r i g i n a l mounds of t h e Georgia c o a s t . J ~ U V ~

of t h e Academy of Natural S c i e n c e s of P h i l a d e l p h i a 11 :4-
138.
Marshall T .
N u t r i t i o n a l a d a p t a t i o n i n man. I n ~ h y s i o l o g aAnthro-
p ~ l o g i j ,e d i t e d by A l b e r t Damon, pp. 210-259. oxford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New York -
Donald J.
D e s c r i p t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of degenerative bone
changes i n t h e d i s t a l j o i n t s u r f a c e s of t h e humerus.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 28 :139-156.
Donald J . , and Walter G. J. P u t s c h a r
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of pathological conditions in human s k e l e t a l
remains. Srm,ths&n . 28 -
Contributions to ~ n t h r ~ p o l o mNO.
Pearson, K . , a n d J . A. B e l l
1917-1919 A stud9 o f the long-bones o f the English skeleton.
D r a p e r ' s Co. , London.
Rowe, N a t h a n i e l H.
1 9 7 5 D e n t a l c a r i e s . I n Dimensions of Dental Hygiene ( s e c o n d
e d . ) , e d i t e d b y P a u l i n e F. S t e e l e , p p . 198-222. Lea &
Febiger, P h i l a d e l p h i a .
R u f f , C h r i s t o p h e r B . , a n d W i l s o n C. Hayes
1 9 8 3 a C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l g e o m e t r y of P e c o s P u e b l o f e m o r a a n d
T i b i a e - - A b i o m c c h a n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A. Method a n d
g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s o f v a r i a t i o n . American J o u d of
Physical Anthropology 60 : 359-381.
1983b C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l geometry o f Pecos Pueblo femora and
t i b i a e - - A b i o m e c h a n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . B. Sex, a g e , a n d
s i d e d i f f e r e n c e s . American Jouma 1 of Physical Anthro-
~ O Z O ~ 6Y 0 : 383-400.
R u f f , C. B . , W. C. H a y e s , a n d C. S . L a r s e n
1983 Changes i n f e m o r a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o
a g r i c u l t u r e o n t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t . American J o m a l of
Physical Anthropology 6 0 ( 2 ) : 2 4 7 - 2 4 8 .
S i l l e n , Andrew
1 9 8 1 S t r o n t i u m and d i e t a t Hayonim Cave. American Journal of
Stini, William A.
1 9 6 9 N u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a n d g r o w t h : Sex d i f f e r e n c e i n
a d a p t i v e response. American Journal o f Phy s w hth~o-
mocjtj 32 :417-426.
1971 Evolutionary i m p l i c a t i o n s o f changing n u t r i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s
i n human p o p u l a t i o n s . American Anthropologist 73 :1019-
1030.
Swanton, John R.
1942 S o u r c e m a t e r i a l o n t h e h i s t o r y a n d e t h n o l o g y of the Caddo
I n d i a n s . Bureau of American Ethology Bulletin 1 3 2 .
1 9 4 6 I n d i a n s o f the s o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . Bureau of
American Ethnology Bulletin 1 3 7 . t
Townsley, W .
1 9 4 6 P l d t y m e r i a . Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 5 8 : 85- a
88. ,?
W a l l a c e , R o n a l d Lynn
I
,
1975 An archaeo Zoqicul, ethnohisto'ri.~,and bioohemieat i n v e s t i - ;:
gat-ion of the GuaZe Aborigines of the Georgia coastal ?
strand. P h . D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y 1 1'
', '
U n i v e r s ~ . t yof F l o r i d a , G a i n e s v i l l e -
Z a h l e r , J a m e s W. , Jr.
~y
:!
^
1 9 7 6 A morphological amZysis of a protohzstoric-hiRtoria a i/
ske Zetu I population from S t . Simans I s land, ~ e o r g i a . - ;+
M . A . t h e s i s , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t ~ h r o p o l o g y , ~ n i v e r s i t y ~ f i'
Florida, Gainesville. L.,
.ft
4
I? .
,Â¥*
,'?Â
'3
west.
An e x t e n s i v e , b u t by no means e x h a u s t i v e , s e a r c h of t h e
a r c h d e o l c ~ q i c a land o s t e o l o q i c a l l i t e r a t u r e was conduct.ed for t h c
purpose o f l o c a t i n g o s t e o l o q i c a l a n a l y s e s from t h e t h r e e
archacoloqical areas. The b i o a r c h a e o l o y i c a l d a t a used i n this
chamba c tes (Table 15.1)
ROSE ET AL
r residential
i s t e n c e data
e s t continued
Males Fema l es
Culture and s h e Diameter (em) II 3iuine'cer (err., PI Sexual limorphism (W
JEROME C . ROSE E T A / . .
JEROME C. ROSE E T V .
A p a r t i a l a n s w e r can be f o u n d i n t h e C e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i
V a l l e y d a t a , however. The s l i c i h t d e c l i n e i n a d u l t i n f e c t i o n
t h e Oklahoma. AnthpopoZo~eal S
B u i k s t r a , J . E., and D. Fowler
1975 An o s t e o l o q i c a l s t u d y o f t h e human s k e l e t a l m a t - e r i a l f r o n
. 25-65.
No. 1.
K., and R. E . Larson
Archaeoloyi c a l r e s e a r c h a t t h e proposed Cooper L a k e ,
4
CHAPTER 16
AGRICULTURE, MARGINAL ENVIRONMENTS, AND NUTRITIONAL STRESS - .

I N THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST
-$
-&
Ann M. Palkovieh I
.1
Anthropology Program
George Mason U n i v e r s i t y
The impact o f t h e adoption of a g r i c u l t u r e on human h e a l t h

presumably d i f f e r e d from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n The n a t u r e o f human
n u t r i t i o n a l and d i s e a s e response t o a g r i c u l t u r e must be d e s c r i b e d
i n terms of e a c h l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l b a s e i f t h e dynamics of this
t r a n s i t i o n a r e t o be f u l l y understood I t h a s been suggested
(Euler e t a 1 1979; J o r d e 1977; Wetterstrom 1976) t h a t t h e ade-
quacy and r e l i a b i l i t y o f s u b s i s t e n c e regimes a r e i n t i m a t e l y
i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h e s t a b i l i t y o f l o c a l environments Marginal,
u n s t a b l e ecosystems t h r e a t e n t h e v i a b i l i t y of a g r i c u l t u r e a s a
subsistence strategy The advent o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e p r e h i s -
t o r i c American Southwest is an example of t h i s economic t r a n s i t i o n
& such a marginal environment
BACKGROUND: THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST
The e a r l i e s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e
American Southwest was t h e Paleoindian-Clovis h o r i z o n , which 4
d a t e s t o roughly 9500 B C (Lipe 1978:332) The term "Paleoin-
d i a n " u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o e a r l y P l a i n s - o r i e n t e d , big-game h u n t e r s f,
e v i d e n t i n major p o r t i o n s o f Colorado and New Mexico d u r i n g t h i s .
e
period However, throughout t h e e a r l y Paleoindian-Archaic

p e r i o d s o f o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Southwest, h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ex-
h i b i t e d diverse subsistence s t r a t e g i e s t i e d t o regional variations
i n r e s o u r c e s (Lipe 1978) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , l a c k o f human s k e l e t a l
remains from t h e s e e a r l y p e r i o d s p r e c l u d e s s k e l e t a l assessment of
t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s of t h e s e groups
PALEOPATHOLOBY AT THE OMGINS Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc

OF AGRICULTUte 425 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0-12-179080-0
ANN M. PALKOVICH
By approximately 2000 B. C , p o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e develop-

ment of r e g i o n a l l y d i s t i n c t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s were accompanied by
i n c i p i e n t c u l t i v a t i o n (Lipe 1978:341) Of t h e f i v e major r e g i o n a l
t r a d i t i o n s t h a t developed ( h a s a z i , Fremont, Hayataya, Hohokam,
and Mogollon) , t h e Anasazi o f n o r t h e r n Arizona, n o r t h e r n New
Mexico, and southwestern Colorado i s t h e b e s t known w i t h r e s p e c t
t o human b i o l o g i c a l dynamics
The s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t u r a l economies among t h e Anasazi encom-
p a s s e s two broad c u l t u r a l phases--Basketmaker and Pueblo The
Basketmaker p e r i o d (beginning i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y A D ) i s
g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by semipermanent v i l l a g e s and a mixed sub-
s i s t e n c e economy s t i l l dependent l a r g e l y on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g
with some i n c i p i e n t food production A slow s h i f t o c c u r r e d
-toward g r e a t e r dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and t h e con-
-. s t r u c t i o n of more permanent s e t t l e m e n t s n e a r t h e end o f t h e p e r i o d
(roughly A D 700-750) There i s widespread homogeneity i n t h e
m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e throughout t h e Anasazi r e g i o n d u r i n g Basketmaker
- times, b u t c u l t u r a l experimentation and l o c a l environmental d i f -
5 - ferences a r e manifest i n a g r e a t d i v e r s i t y of a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t y l e s ,
.- - ceramic t y p e s , b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s , and t h e l i k e d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g
Pueblo phase
f .- Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n s r e f l e c t l a r g e r v i l l a g e s e t t l e m e n t s ( t h u s
1
fi-f'.-; a l s o a n o t a b l e i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n ) , r e g i o n a l c u l t u r a l d i v e r -
.s' ?,- $ s i t y , and f u l l - f l e d g e d dependence on a g r i c u l t u r e (Lipe 1978;
at-
^-.^.
,
<
Martin and Plog 1973)
-
r r-
Environmental S t a b i l i t y and C u l t u r e Change
C y c l i c a l environmental c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e d e s e r t Southwest have

been considered a primary cause of s h i f t i n g p r e h i s t o r i c s e t t l e m e n t
,
- - p a t t e r n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e Basketmaker and Pueblo p e r i o d s
(Euler e t a 1 , 1979) The h i s t o r y o f occupation i n t h e r e g i o n can
be read a s a s e r i e s o f s t r a t e g i e s designed t o a d a p t t o such con-
d i t i o n s , each s t r a t e g y p r o v i d i n g , however, o n l y a t e m p o r a r i l y
s u c c e s s f u l , and u s u a l l y s t i l l m a r g i n a l , e x i s t e n c e f o r human groups
Throughout t h e sequence, f l u c t u a t i o n s i n d i e t a r y adequacy ap-
p e a r t o have been i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c y c l i c a l s h o r t - t e r m
and long-term drought c o n d i t i o n s (Wetterstrom 1976) The produc-
t i v i t y of both n a t u r a l and c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s was dependent
on, and h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o , r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s Short-term drought
c o n d i t i o n s reduced t h e p r o d u c t i y i t y of s p e c i e s a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c i n g
t h e l i m i t s o f marginal growing c o n d i t i o n s , and long-term d r o u g h t s
could s i g n i f i c a n t l y damage s o i l s and s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r t h e com-
p o s i t i o n of p l a n t communities (Rose e t a 1 1981; Wet-berstrom 1976)
Small h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r groups t h a t were p r i m a r i l y dependent on
w i l d food r e s o u r c e s c o u l d b u f f e r t h e e f f e c t s o f u n p r e d i c t a b l e r e -
s o u r c e s by remaining h i g h l y mobile, although even t h e d i v e r s i f i e d
d i e t s of t h e s e groups may have been n u t r i t i o n a l l y marginal i n t h i s
region The s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t u r e seems t o have involved t h e
growth and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n s accompanied by d e c r e a s i n g
16 THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST
m o b i l i t y and t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y c a r e f u l l y scheduled use, manipula-

t i o n , and p r o t e c t i o n of s e l e c t e d s p e c i e s (Glassow 1972; I r w i n -
Williams and Haynes 1970; Lipe 1978; Plog 1974) But even
a l t e r e d s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s such a s t h e u s e o f l e s s d e s i r a b l e
foods and t h e adoption o f i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e t o b u f f e r t h e
d i e t met w i t h o n l y l i m i t e d s u c c e s s (Wetterstrom 1976) Large-
s c a l e p o p u l a t i o n movements throughout t h e Basketmaker and Pueblo
p e r i o d s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e environment f r e q u e n t l y
upset e s t a b l i s h e d s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s Apparently, continued
p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e and a s h i f t t o a primary dependence on pro-
duced food s e r v e d o n l y t o h e i g h t e n t h e e f f e c t s o f environmental
i n s t a b i l i t y and t o reduce r e s o u r c e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y
The P a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l Evidence
The impact o f t h i s environmental i n s t a b i l i t y on human b i o l o g y

i s complex. Not o n l y should n u t r i t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d d i s e a s e p a t -
t e r n s b e a f f e c t e d , b u t f e r t i l i t y r a t e s , m o r b i d i t y r a t e s , and
p o p u l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e a l l should show t h e e f f e c t s o f s e v e r e d i e t a r y
inadequacies on s u c c e s s i v e c o h o r t s of s u b a d u l t s Thus, t h e
b i o l o g i c a l impact on human groups should, i d e a l l y , b e a s s e s s e d
w i t h adequate, temporally c o n t r o l l e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s
e v a l u a t e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f r e l e v a n t l o c a l environmental c i r -
cumstances
However, a number of c o n s t r a i n t s l i m i t o u r a b i l i t y t o i n t e r -
p r e t the existing skeletal data F i r s t , e x i s t i n g s t u d i e s have
g e n e r a l l y emphasized d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s of p a t h o l o g i c a l mani-
f e s t a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e impact of d i s e a s e on t h e
morbidity and m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s o f a p o p l u l a t i o n Second d e s p i t e
c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o p r e h i s t o r i c Anasazi mortuary p r a c t i c e s ,
t h e human s k e l e t a l remains themselves o f t e n have n o t been system-
a t i c a l l y c o l l e c t e d o r c a r e f u l l y analyzed Thus, an o v e r r i d i n g
problem w i t h s k e l e t a l s t u d i e s o f Anasazi p o p u l a t i o n s i s t h e
p a u c i t y o f l a r g e , well-documented s e r i e s W e l l - c o n t r o l l e d and
well-documented c o l l e c t i o n s o f t e n r e p r e s e n t o n l y a h a n d f u l of
i n d i v i d u a l s ; c o n v e r s e l y , haphazard recovery of i n t e r m e n t s ( a s w e l l
a s b i a s e s i n t h e o r i g i n a l mortuary p r a c t i c e s ) d i m i n i s h t h e v a l u e
of some l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n s such a s t h e Pecos s e r i e s (Hooten 1930;
Kidder 1958) A s a r e s u l t , b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of Anasazi
groups f o r most p e r i o d s i s based l a r g e l y on a handful o f a v a i l a b l e
s k e l e t a l remains s c a t t e r e d throughout l a r g e r e g i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g
broad temporal p e r i o d s A n a l y s i s o f such m a t e r i a l t e n d s t o f o c u s
on t h e frequency o f i n d i v i d u a l s k e l e t a l f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of p a t h o l o g i e s r a t h e r t h a n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l dynamics of archaeo-
l o g i c a l l y well-defined groups
The evidence t h a t does e x i s t shows t h e p r e s e n c e o f s k e l e t a l
i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s i n b o t h Basketmaker and Pueblo p e r i o d s El
N a j j a r and h i s a s s o c i a t e s ( E l N a j j a r 1974, 1977; E l N a j j a r e t a 1
1975, 1976) have documented t h e i n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s
f o r s e v e r a l Anazasi groups (In t h i s region, t h e condition i s
TABLE 16 1 Location, Chronology and Environment of S i t e s ~ t u d i e d ~
---
Site Location Cultural period Date ( A D ) Environment

Canyon de Chelly Northeastern Arizona Basketmaker 11-III 400- 700 Canyon s i t e
Pueblo I, 11 and III 700-1300 Canyon s i t e
Chaco Canyon Northestern New Mexico Pueblo 11-111 900-1156 Canyon s i t e
Inscription House Northeastern Arizona Pueblo 111 1250-1300 Canyon s i t e
Navajo Reservoir Northern New Mexico Pueblo 1-11 700-1100 Sage plain
Gran Quivira Central New Mexico Pueblo IV-V 1315-1673 Sage plain
aReproduced w i t h permission from El-Nag'jar e t a t .
1976:480-481
TABLE 16 2 Age and Sex Distribution of Porotio Hyperostosis (pH) i n the S i x Skeletal seriesa
--
Total Children Total adults Adult males Adult females

% with % with % with % with % with
Series N PH N pH N pH N PH N pH
Canyon de Chally
a. Basketmakers 136 49 3 50 72 0 86 36 0 34 26 5 -. 52 42 3
b Pueblos 78 55 1 17 880 61 45 9 39 41 0 22 54 5
Chaeo Canyon 32 71 8 12 83.3 20 65 0 7 57 1 13 69 2
Inscription House 24 54 2 11 63 6 13 46 2 4 50 0 9 44 4
Navajo Reservoir 92 13 0 44 15 9 48 10 4 28 10 7 20 10 0
Gran Quivira 177 15 3 66 18 2 111 13 5 47 15 0 64 12 5
'^Reproduced with permission from El-Najjar e t a2 1976 480-481

TABLE 16 3 Geographic, Age, and Sex Distribution of t h e Prevalence of Porotic Hypepostosis i n
the Tvio Ecologieaz zonesa
Number with PH/ N u m b e r with PH/

% t o t a l number % t o t a l number X P
1 Geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n
Canyon s i t e s Sage Plains s i t e s
Tota l 54 1 146/2 70 14 5 39/269 93 5b < 0 0001
Chi Zdren 76 5 68/ 90 17 3 19/110 68 4Â< 0 0001
2 Age d i s t r i b u t i o n
Chi ldren Adults
Canyon s i t e s 75 6 ',86 90 43 3 78,480 :* 25 ob < 0 0001
Sage plains 17 3 19/110 12 6 20/159 1.19 > 0 20
3 Sex d i s t r i b u t i o n
Males Fema Zes
Canyon s i t e s 36 9 31/ 84 49 0 47/ 96 265 > 0 1 0
Sage plains 13 3 10/ 75 11 9 10/ 84 0 08 > 0 90
aReprodueed with permission from El-Nazar e t a2 1976:480-481

b ~ t a t i s t i c a l lsignificant
~ findings
ANN M.PALKOVICH
considered i n d i c a t i v e o f i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia See d i s c u s s i o n

by Goodman e t a 1 , Chapter 11 t h i s volume; Von Endt and O r t n e r
1982) A high i n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was n o t e d f o r
both Basketmaker and Pueblo (Tables 16 1 and 16 2 ) b u t temporal
d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n c i d e n c e between t h e two p e r i o d s were n o t s t a t i s - J
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( E l N a j j a r e t a 1 1976:482) In s i x s k e l e t a l
s e r i e s , s u b a d u l t s (0-10 y e a r s of age a t d e a t h ) c o n s i s t e n t l y showed
a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s than a d u l t s (Table 16 2 )
A s t r i k i n g environmental e f f e c t was n o t e d i n t h e c o n t r a s t between
Canyon Bottom groups and Sage P l a i n s groups- ( T a b l e 16 3 ) Ar-
c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence shows t h a t Canyon Bottom groups were h e a v i l y
maize dependent w h i l e Sage P l a i n s groups had a v a r i e d d i e t t h a t
included beans and squash a s w e l l a s w i l d food r e s o u r c e s El
N a j j a r and h i s a s s o c i a t e s a t t r i b u t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e r a t e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e two groups t o t h e
i r o n - d e f i c i e n t d i e t s o f maize-dependent Canyon Bottom p o p u l a t i o n s
Other s k e l e t a l measures o f d i e t a r y problems ( s t a t u r e and d e n t a l
d i s e a s e ) d i d n o t evidence s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
between Basketmaker and Pueblo groups ( E l N a j j a r 1974)
Brief a n a l y s e s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains from Pueblo Bonito and
Aroyo Hondo a r e o f f e r e d below t o p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r assessment o f
t h e n a t u r e and success o f t h e l a t e r a g r a r i a n phase o f t h e Anasazi
economy
Pueblo Bonito
The development of c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g systems a s a d a p t i v e r e -

sponses t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e s and environmental s h i f t s i s a
common theme i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of Pueblo groups J o r d e (1977)
s u g g e s t s , f o r example, t h a t food s t o r a g e , i r r i g a t i o n , and s e t t l e -
ment aggregation a l o n g permanent d r a i n a g e s were c u l t u r a l means o f
b u f f e r i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e Chaco Canyon re'gion
of New Mexico He n o t e s t h a t such mechanisms, w h i l e a p p a r e n t l y
e f f e c t i v e i n damping t h e e f f e c t s o f short-term ( y e a r - t o - y e a r ) d i f -
f e r e n c e s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n , y i e l d e d o n l y a stopgap a d a p t i v e
response Expenditures of t i m e and energy i n t o such measures ap-
p a r e n t l y rendered t h e system even more s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e e f f e c t s
o f long-term f l u c t u a t i o n s Dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y
achieved through i r r i g a t i o n and s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s d u r i n g good
y e a r s e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o a c o l l a p s e of t h e system and d i s a g g r e g a t i c
o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n once r a i n f a l l diminished Thus, l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s ,
food s t o r a g e , and i r r i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s worked i n Chaco Canyon on
a year-to-year b a s i s a s l o n g a s major changes i n r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s
d i d n o t occur However, w i t h t h e o n s e t o f t h e G r e a t Drought d a t i n g
from A.D 1276 t o 1299, v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e major Pueblo s i t e s i n t h e
canyon were abandoned Long-term below average p r e c i p i t a t i o n
'
proved t o be ari unmanageable s t r e s s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s
t h a t had been adopted I
The success o f s o c i a l s t a t u s a s a c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g mechanism

among t h e Chacoan Pueblo can b e examined s k e l e t a l l y Four " b u r i a l
rooms" i n Pueblo Bonito have y i e l d e d t h e l a r g e s t known s i n g l e
I
TABLE 1 6 4 Pueblo Bonito Composite L i f e Table, Smoothed a

Age Smoothed
class 0
(yeam) ' x 'x dx lx ^x Lx Tx ex
cemetery s e r i e s of interments from t h e canyon Architectural,

s t r a t i g r a p h i c , and ceramic analyses by N Aikens (personal com- &;- A
munication) suggest t h e s e rooms were purposefully converted i n t o

mortuary f a c i l i t i e s , bodies being l a i d on t h e hardpacked f l o o r
and d i r t being brought i n t o cover t h e corpses Some i n t r u s i o n
on e a r l i e r interments by l a t e r ones i s suggested by t h e numerous
disturbed s k e l e t o n s noted a t t h e time of excavation
these excavations by Judd (1964), b u t some q u e s t i o n s remain about

the completeness of t h e c o l l e c t i o n .
Ninety-five i n d i v i d u a l s a r e represented i n t h e f o u r Pueblo
I t i s be-
l i e v e d t h a t t h e majority o f s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l was r e t a i n e d from
I
,'Â¥
-!
Bonito b u r i a l rooms This s k e l e t a l s e r i e s does n o t r e f l e c t a 4
t y p i c a l age d i s t r i b u t i o n (Table 1 6 4) There i s a c l e a r p a u c i t y J
of i n f a n t s ; only 20% of the i n d i v i d u a l s recovered were 10 y e a r s of

age o r younger a t death Despite t h e g e n e r a l l y good t o e x c e l l e n t
preservation of t h e observed s k e l e t a l remains, i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n
a r e underrepresented from a demographic standpoint (whether a s a
r e s u l t of excavation and recovery b i a s o r mortuary b i a s ) There
i s a l s o a notable d i s p a r i t y i n t h e sex distribution--females a r e
twice a s f r e q u e n t i n t h e sample a s males (42 t o 22, r e s p e c t i v e l y )
Based on t h e i r assessment cf both b i o l o g i c a l and mortuary e v i -
dence, Aikens and Schelberg (1984) suggested t h a t t h e s k e l e t a l r e -
mains represented i n t h e s e f o u r rooms r e p r e s e n t one of two s e p a r a t e
( s o c i a l ) "lineages" noted among t h e Pueblo Bonito remains
Another c l u s t e r of b u r i a l rooms was excavated by Pepper (1909)
Detailed d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e s k e l e t a l remains a r e lacking, but i t
i s c l e a r from Pepper's d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h i s b u r i a l c l u s t e r and
from t h e a n a l y s i s by Aikens and Schelberg t h a t both Pepper's and
Judd's "cemeteries" probably represented high-ranking l i n e a g e s i n
ANN M. PALKOVICH .
a s t r a t i f i e d Chacoan s o c i e t y P e p p e r ' s c l u s t e r evidences a w e a l t h

of grave goods b e f i t t i n g a high-ranking l i n e a g e ; J u d d ' s c l u s t e r ,
though a f f o r d e d a complex o f rooms a s a b u r i a l f a c i l i t y (and
t h e r e f o r e having r e c e i v e d a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t n o t found in o t h e r
i n s t a n c e s ) , has fewer grave goods and t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l y r e p r e -
s e n t s a lower r a n k i n g l i n e a g e D i f f e r e n t i a l treatment within t h e
l i n e a g e s i s a l s o e v i d e n t by t h e unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods
among i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n each room c l u s t e r The s p e c i a l s t a t u s
accorded t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a t d e a t h may have been a f a c t o r pro-
ducing t h e skewed observed age p r o f i l e n o t e d e a r l i e r
I f t h e s e were indeed ranking l i n e a g e s , and t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s
t h e r e f o r e had favored o r s p e c i a l s t a t u s , it seems l i k e l y t h a t they
would have enjoyed p r i v i l e g e d a c c e s s t o food r e s o u r c e s We would
t h e r e f o r e expect fewer c a s e s of d i e t a r y s t r e s s o r l e s s s e v e r e
s k e l e t a l involvement f o r t h e s e r i e s from t h e s e c l u s t e r s t h a n i s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of o t h e r p r e h i s t o r i c Pueblo groups
From a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s (Palkovich 19841, it i s immediate-
l y apparent t h a t a t l e a s t t h e g e n e r a l age p r o f i l e comparisons
argue t o t h e c o n t r a r y The Pueblo Bonito s e r i e s i s demographically
s i m i l a r t o t h o s e p o p u l a t i o n s l i v i n g nearby in s m a l l e r pueblos
Even more p e r s u a s i v e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y i s n o t e d among t h e
observed p a t t e r n o f g r o s s s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s Among t h e 20
j u v e n i l e s 0-10 y e a r s o f a g e a t d e a t h i n J u d d ' s c l u s t e r , 5 c a s e s
o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , 4 c a s e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and 4 c a s e s
of endocranial l e s i o n s a r e evident I n a l l , 1 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (50%-)>
a r e a f f e c t e d , a high i n c i d e n c e r a t e of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s Several
s t u d i e s s u g g e s t i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n e r a l
d i e t a r y inadequacies, n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , and s y n e r g i s t i c i n f e c -
t i o u s i n s u l t s a s t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s o f t h e pathology p a t t e r n
e x h i b i t e d i n t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s ( E l - N a j j a r 1977; E l - N a j j a r e t a 1
1975 1976)
T h i s study s u g g e s t s t h a t high s t a t u s may n o t have been enough
t o b u f f e r t h e marked b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f d i e t a r y i n a d e q u a c i e s
t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e p r e h i s t o r i c group i n t e r r e d i n t h e Pueblo Bonito
room c l u s t e r Apparently n e i t h e r s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s n o r t h e
p r i v i l e g e s o f s o c i a l s t a t u s were s u f f i c i e n t b u f f e r a g a i n s t d i e t a r y
inadequacies i n Chaco Canyon
Arroyo Hondo
I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e Great Drought d i d n o t uniformly a f f e c t

a l l a r e a s of t h e American Southwest Several dendroclimatic
a n a l y s e s ( E u l e r e t a 1 1979; Rose e t a 1 1981) show t h a t s e v e r a l
r e g i o n s , t h e Northern Rio Grande among them, d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e
s e v e r e s h o r t a g e s of r a i n f a l l c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h o s e evidenced a t
Chaco Canyon
A long h i s t o r y o f p o p u l a t i o n s h i f t s i n r e s p o n s e t o changes i n
local precipitation patterns i s reflected i n the regional s e t t l e -
ment -p a t t e r n f o r t h e Northern Rio Grande r e q i o n Dickson (1975,
1979) noted t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o s e t t l e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e v\ -
Northern Rio Grande began around (A D 600) During t h e p e r i o d
"'I I J-l ~-
. - . =. I., - :, ,
from A.D 600-900, s e t t l e m e n t s a r e l o c a t e d i n primary zones of

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n where year-round w a t e r s u p p l i e s a r e a v a i l -
able Indigenous p o p u l a t i o n growth r e f l e c t e d i n t h e number and
s i z e of s i t e s a l s o occurred during t h i s p e r i o d By A D 900-1100
( t h e Developmental p e r i o d ) , a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e s had s p r e a d i n t o
secondary and t e r t i a r y zones o f p r o d u c t i o n dependent on d r y farming
techniques; t h e p o p u l a t i o n doubled approximately every 50 y e a r s a t
t h i s time
The C o a l i t i o n p e r i o d of o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Northern Rio Grande,
which began around A D 1200, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by drought condi-
t i o n s and a g g r e g a t i o n of t h e i n t o large s i t e s located
i n primary and some secondary zones of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n ,
w i t h t e r t i a r y zones being abandoned a l t o g e t h e r There was a l s o an
accompanying s h i f t t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s A s in the
case o f t h e Chaco r e g i o n , t h i s s h i f t in s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and
s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g y l e d t o o n l y short-term s t a b i l i t y The down-
t u r n i n t h e long-term p r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e i n t h e 1420s l e d t o t h e
u l t i m a t e abandonment of l a r g e a g r i c u l t u r a l communities i n t h e
Northern Rio Grande a r e a .
! A s a major f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e
Northern Rio Grande, Arroyo Hondo p r o v i d e s a second c a s e s t u d y i n
. t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among marginal environmental c o n d i t i o n s , sub-
, s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s , and n u t r i t i o n a l adequacy
Arroyo Hondo, a C o a l i t i o n p e r i o d Pueblo oc?.upation, i s l o c a t e d
on t h e s l o p i n g piedmont immediately west o f t h e f o o t h i l l s o f t h e
Sanqre d e C r i s t o Mountains i n n o r t h c e n t r a l New Mexico Environ-
mental d i v e r s i t y e x h i b i t e d a t t h e 2150-m e l e v a t i o n o f t h i s a r e a
and t h e s i t e ' s p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n gave i t s i n h a b i t a n t s ready a c -
c e s s t o t h e p l a n t and animal r e s o u r c e s o f s e v e r a l major ecozones
w i t h i n t h e immediate a r e a The s i t e c o v e r s approximately 3 2 ha
and i s composed of o v e r 1000 rooms arranged i n 24 roomblocks around
9 plaza acres One hundred twenty b u r i a l s recovered i n 5 s e a s o n s
(if e x c a v a t i o n s , span t h e e n t i r e 125-year o c c u p a t i o n of t h e s i t e
A d e t a i l e d d e n d r o c l i m a t i c a n a l y s i s (Rose e t a 1 1981) r e v e a l s
an i n t e r e s t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n between major b u i l d i n g phases a t t h e
Pueblo and ( r a i n f a l l c o n d i t i o n s The Pueblo was e s t a b l i s h e d i n
A.D 1300, a t t h e o n s e t of a p e r i o d of i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i p i a t i o n
For t h e f i r s t 35 y e a r s of o c c u p a t i o n , l o c a l r a i n f a l l remained above
average The a g r i c u l t u r a l base of corn, beans, and squash was
l i k e l y h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e , and e t h n o b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s show t h a t l o -
c a l wild f l o r a such a s l e a f y p l a n t s , s e e d s , and n u t s s e a s o n a l l y
supplemented t h e d i e t (Wetterstrom 1976) Animal p r o t e i n was
d e r i v e d from domesticated t u r k e y and over 50 s p e c i e s of l o c a l l y
a v a i l a b l e w i l d game A r c h i t e c t u r a l a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t maximum
s e t t l e m e n t s i z e was reached about A D 1300
A s h i f t i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a t t e r n about A D 1335 r e s u l t e d
i n a highly variable r a i n f a l l Severe d r o u g h t s , followed by b r i e f
p e r i o d s o f i n c r e a s e d r a i n f a l l , o c c u r r e d e v e r y few y e a r s Under
c o n d i t i o n s o f such environmental i n s t a b i l i t y , a g r i c u l t u r a l produc-
t i o n was u n p r e d i c t a b l e During t h e same p e r i o d , a p r e c i p i t o u s
ANN M. PALKOVICH
d e c l i n e in t h e r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n a t Arroyo Hondo began, and by

1345 t h e Pueblo was v i r t u a l l y abandoned
A s m a l l e r r e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e s i t e began i n t h e e a r l y 1370s,
which c o i n c i d e s with a temporary r e t u r n t o high l o c a l p r e c i p i t a -
tion Maximum r e s e t t l e m e n t s i z e was reached i n t h e e a r l y 1400s
during a 10-year p e r i o d of c o n t i n u e d above-average p r e c i p i t a t i o n
A f t e r 1410, a second r a p i d d e c l i n e i n t h e s i t e ' s p o p u l a t i o n began
A t t h i s same t i m e , a drop in r a i n f a l l o c c u r r e d By t h e time t h e
s i t e was f i n a l l y abandoned i n 1425, t h e Santa Fe a r e a e n t e r e d t h e
most s e v e r e l o c a l drought c o n d i t i o n s documented i n t h e t r e e - r i n g '
record
An e t h n o b o t a n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Arroyo Hondo s u b s i s t e n c e
using s t a n d a r d WHO p r o t e i n and c a l o r i e requirements of c h i l d r e n
s u g g e s t s t h a t a young c h i l d ' s d i e t was l i k e l y b a r e l y adequate dur-
i n g y e a r s of average p r e c i p i t a t i o n (Wetterstrom 1976) Unstable
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n f l u c t u a t i n g annual a g r i c u l t u r a l
production s u g g e s t an u n c e r t a i n d i e t and, t h u s , c h r o n i c n u t r i -
t i o n a l inadequacy throughout t h e o c c u p a t i o n of Arroyo Hondo
C l i n i c a l and s u b c l i n i c a l c a s e s o f p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n ,
s y n e r g i s t i c i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , reduced growth r a t e s , g e n e r a l
d i s r u p t i o n of growth p a t t e r n s , and d e a t h s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o n u t r i -
t i o n a l inadequacy a r e suggested by Wetterstrom a s c o n d i t i o n s
l i k e l y t o be e x h i b i t e d by t h e Arroyo Hondo c h i l d r e n , w i t h a
heightened morbidity and m o r t a l i t y r e s p o n s e d u r i n g dry y e a r s
Analysis o f t h e 108 i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e major phase
of occupation a t Arroyo Hondo s u p p o r t s t h e s u g g e s t i o n of c h r o n i c
b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r e s u l t i n g from an i n a d e q u a t e d i e t A group of
four s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s , c l a s s i f i e d a s o s t e o l y t i c bone r e s p o n s e s ,
s t a n d s o u t i n i t s high i n c i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e 0-1 and 1-4 9-year age
classes Forty-nine of t h e 108 i n d i v i d u a l s (45%) f a l l w i t h i n t h e s e
t w o age c l a s s e s i n t h e Arroyo Hondo s k e l e t a l s e r i e s Observed i n c i
dence of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s i s c o n s e r v a t i v e s i n c e n o t a l l s k e l e t a l
p a r t s were recovered f o r each i n d i v i d u a l , t h u s r e n d e r i n g a n incqm-
p l e t e assessment of p a t h o l o g i c a l i n v o l ement f o r t h e s e r i e s
7
The p a t h o l o g i e s i n c l u d e 10 c a s e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and
e i g h t cases of endocranial l e s i o n s Both p a t h o l o g i e s o c c u r r e d ex-
c l u s i v e l y i n c h i l d r e n under t h e age of f i v e F i v e c a s e s of c r i b r a
o r b i t a l i a appear i n t h i s age c l a s s The f o u r t h pathology i n t h i s
group, g e n e r a l i z e d p o r o s i t y , c o n s i s t e d of s m a l l , c l u s t e r e d p o i n t s
of c o r t i c a l bone d e s t r u c t i o n ( u s u a l l y noted a t t h e ends of
diaphyses) i n t h e p o s t c r a n i a l s k e l e t o n Ten c a s e s o f p o r o s i t y
were noted i n t h e 0-1-year age c l a s s and two c a s e s i n t h e 1-4 9-
year age c l a s s Twenty-three o f t h e 49 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 4 7 % )under t h e
age of f i v e e x h i b i t e d one o r more o f t h e s e p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
(Palkovich 1980:166-167) Other Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n s i n t h e Northern
Rio Grande contemporaneous w i t h Arroyo Hondo a l s o evidence t h e s e
skeletal pathologies Hooten noted 2 8 c a s e s of p o r o t i c hypero-
s t o s i s i n s u b a d u l t s and young a d u l t s a t Pecos, f o r example (Hooten
1930
A composite l i f e t a b l e (Table 16 5 ) c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s e i n -
d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e major phase o f o c c u p a t i o n a t Arroyo
TABLE 16 5 Arroyo Hondo Composite Life Table, Smootheda
C o r r e c t e d S m o o t hed 0
Age class e
(Â¥ ears Dx Â¡ Â¡ lx qx =x Tx x
436 ANN M.PALKOVICH
Hondo e x h i b i t e d a m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n w i t h a high i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y
r a t e , which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important given t h e number o f c a s e s
of o s t e o l y t i c s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n t h e youngest age c l a s s e s
I t can be suggested t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n , a c t i n g s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y
with i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
t h e high l e v e l o f m o r t a l i t y among i n f a n t s and young c h i l d r e n a t
Arroyo Hondo
Apparently, a s h i f t t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and
p o p u l a t i o n a g g r e g a t i o n i n l a r g e v i l l a g e s l o c a t e d i n primary zones
o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n were i n s u f f i c i e n t ' b u f f e r s a g a i n s t t h e
v a g a r i e s of r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s a s e x h i b i t e d a t Arroyo Hondo What
were marginal p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e d i e t s i n average y e a r s were v i r t u a l l y
s t a r v a t i o n d i e t s i n drought y e a r s , which h e i g h t e n e d t h e morbidity-
m o r t a l i t y s t r e s s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n and l e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e aban-
donment of t h e v i l l a g e Thus, b u f f e r i n g mechanisms o f s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n s and a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s could n o t s o f t e n t h e b i o l o g i -
c a l impact o f poor d i e t s on t h e Arroyo Hondo p o p u l a t i o n
CONCLUSION
The a s s o c i a t i o n of d i e t a r y s h i f t s w i t h t h e o r i g i n s of a g r i c u l -
t u r e should n o t l e a d u s simply t o assume t h a t n u t r i t i o n a l inade-
quacy was experienced f o r t h e f i r s t time a s a s e r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l
s t r e s s f o r human groups d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c For t h e American
Southwest, subsistence--whether based on food c o l l e c t i o n o r food
production--was s u b j e c t t o c o i n c i d e n t short-term and long-term
environmental i n s t a b i l i t i e s , t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t s o f which were
u n p r e d i c t a b l e r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s and u n r e l i a b l e r e s o u r c e produc-
tivity The' N e o l i t h i c Revolution, i n t h i s c a s e , i s n o t a m a t t e r
of a change from a h e a l t h y d i e t t o an unhealthy o n e , o r a change
from a d i v e r s i f i e d , c o l l e c t e d f e a s t t o a l i m i t e d , produced famine
Paleoenviromnental and e t h n o b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
d i e t s of p r e h i s t o r i c Anasazi p o p u l a t i o n s were always marginal--and
w i t h t h e advent of a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact went from
Basketmaker communities were s u b j e c t t o t h e same ?'
$9.
bad t o worse - ---
v a g a r i e s i n c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a s were Pueblo groups; t h u s ,
s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a r e to be expected Once Y -
m o b i l i t y t o e x p l o i t new a r e a s f o r food r e s o u r c e s a s a b u f f e r i n g
mechanism was no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e , heightened s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o
<i
food s h o r t a g e over t h e l o n g run r e s u l t e d However, w i t h d i e t s
i n h e r e n t l y n u t r i t i o n a l l y marginci.1, s k e l e t a l p a t t e r n s of endemic
r a t h e r t h a n e p i s o d i c s t r e s s were more l i k e l y t o be e x h i b i t e d
!
While l e s s e f f e c t i v e c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g mechanisms may have
heightened t h e b i o l o g i c a l response t o marginal d i e t s i n t h e l a t e r
a g r i c u l t u r a l groups, o v e r a l l c o n d i t i o n s o f endemic n u t r i t i o n a l
inadequacy f o r b o t h Basketmaker and Pueblo p o p u l a t i o n s may have
r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s than a r e found i n
many o t h e r human groups
I
REFERENCES
Aikens, Nancy, and John Schelberg

1984 Human b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n Chaco Canyon The Kiva, i n
press
Dickson, Bruce
1975 S e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s t a b i l i t y and change i n t h e middle
n o r t h e r n Rio Grande Region, New Mexico: A t e s t o f some
hypotheses American A n t i q u i t y 40: 159-171
1979 P r e h i s t o r i c pueblo s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s : The Arroyo Hondo ,
New Mexico s u r v e y Arroyo Hondo Archaeolog&al S e r i e s
Vol 2 School o f American Research P r e s s , Santa Fe
E l - N a j j a r , Mahmoud
1974 People o f Canyon de CheZly: A s t u d y o f t h e i r biology ana
culture Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology,
Arizona S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
1977 Maize, m a l a r i a and t h e anemias i n t h e pre-Columbian New
World Yearbook o f Physical. Anthropology, 1976 20: 329-
337
JEl-Najjar, Mahmoud, B L o z o f f , and D Ryan
1975 The paleo-epidemiology o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e
American Southwest: R a d i o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r -
ations American Journal o f Roentgen0 20% , Radium Therapy
and N u e l e m Medicine 25 :918-924
E l - N a j j a r , Mahmoud, D. Ryan, C T u r n e r , and B. Lozoff
1976 The e t i o l o g y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s among t h e p r e h i s t o r i c
and h i s t o r i c Anasazi I n d i a n s o f t h e southwestern United
States American Journal o f Physical Antlvopology 44:477-
488 \
E u l e r , Robert, George Gumerman, Thor Karlstrom, J e f f r e y Dean, and
Richard Hevly
1979 The Colorado p l a t e a u s : C u l t u r a l dynamics and p a l e o e n v i r o n -
ment. Science 205:1089-1101
Glassow, Michael
1972 Changes i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n s o f Southwestern Basketmakers:
A systems p e r s p e c t i v e I n C o n t e m p o r q archaeology,
e d i t e d by Mark Leone, pp 289-302 Southern I l l i n o i s Uni-
v e r s i t y P r e s s , Carbondale
Hooton, E a r n e s t
1930 The Indians o f Peeos Pueblo Yale U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , New
Haven.
Irwin-Williams , Cynthia, and Vance Haynes
1970 C l i m a t i c change and e a r l y p o p u l a t i o n dynamics i n t h e
southwestern United S t a t e s Quaternary Research 1 :59-71
J o r d e , L. B
1977 P r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e s and c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g i n t h e p r e -
h i s t o r i c Southwest I n 'For theory b u i l d i n g i n m e h u e o l o g y ,
e d i t e d by Lewis Bin f o r d , pp 385-396 Academic P r e s s ,
New York
ANN M. PALKOVICH
Judd , N e i l
1964 The a r c h i t e c t u r e of Pueblo Bonito h i t h s o n i a n Miscel-
laneous Collections Vol 147, No. 1
:I
Kidder, Alfred
I
1958 Pecos, New Mexico: A r c h a e o l o g i c a l n o t e s Robert S
Peabody Foundatwn for Archaeology Paper NO 5
Lipe, William
1978 The Southwest. I n Ancient native Americans, e d i t e d by
J e s s e J e n n i n g s , pp 327-401 Freeman, San F r a n c i s c o
Martin, Paul S , and Fred Plog
1973 The Archaeology o f Arizona Doubl eday/Natural H i s t o r y
P r e s s , Garden C i t y , New York.
Palkovich, Ann M.
.= 1980 Pueblo p o p u l a t i o n and s o c i e t y : The Arroyo Hondo s k e l e t a l
and mortuary remains Arroyo 'Hondo Archaeolog'ioal, Series
- -S Vol 3 School o f American Research P r e s s , S a n t e Fe
7 '
1984 Disease and m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s i n t h e b u r i a l s rooms o f
Pueblo Bonito : P r e l i m i n a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m e Kiva, i n
- - press
-1:.
Pepper, George
5'
- -. -
z ,
1909 The e x p l o r a t i o n of a b u r i a l room i n Pueblo B o n i t o , New
, - :8 8
%i-r':--^ Mexico i n Putnam Anniversary Volume: Anthropological

.4l-
Ãˆ -.,'T- Essays, pp 196-252 S t e c h e r t , New York
- JL-+..- Plog, Fred
Â¥.,('
% 1
'1.a 5,. .
T-:-,# 1974 The study of prehistoric change Academic P r e s s , New
8=
I- York.
=- Rose, Martin, J e f f r e y Dean, and William Robinson
1981 The p a s t c l i m a t e o f Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico r e c o n s t r u c t e d
* ,
from t r e e r i n g s Arroyo 'Hondo Archaeo'logical, Series Vol
t-% 4 School o f American Research P r e s s , Santa Fe
, , Von Endt, David, and Donald O r t n e r
T'" 7'
, -: 1982 Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s o f bone from a p o s s i b l e c a s e o f p r e -
h i s t o r i c i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia from t h e American South-
west American ~ o u r n a lof Physical Anthropology 5 9 : 377-
385
Wetterstrom, Wilma
1976 The e f f e c t s of n u t r i t i o n on population s i z e a t Pueblo
Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department
o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan
CHAPTER 17
CENTRAL CALIFORNIA:
PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE CHANGES AND HEALTH
David N . D i a k e l
Peter D. Schulz
H e w M . MeHenry
U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis
INTRODUCTION
Although l i v i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s have i n common an e x i s t e n c e

i n s p a r s e and s c a t t e r e d environments p o o r l y s u i t e d f o r f a r m i n g ,
i n some a r e a s of t h e world d e n s e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n s o n c e
e x i s t e d i n h a b i t a t s where farming c o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d , and
w i t h i n r a n g e of p o t e n t i a l d i f f u s i o n of d o m e s t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s .
C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a i s one such r e g i o n . The major d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f C a l i f o r n i a and t h a t o f many a r e a s o f
North America i s t h a t most o f C a l i f o r n i a r e t a i n e d an A r c h a i c sub-
sistence pattern. Nevertheless, c e n t r a l California populations
were a t l e a s t s e m i s e d e n t a r y and d e n s e , and showed c u l t u r a l
e l a b o r a t i o n , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and o t h e r developments on i l e v e l
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t i e s (Meighan 1 9 5 9 ) .
C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r y shows a t r e n d toward s p e c i a l i z e d
a d a p t a t i o n s t o l o c a l environments, and l a t e r c u l t u r e s may demon-
s t r a t e increased efficiency of resource exploitation, especially
if e f f i c i e n c y i s measured i n p r o d u c t i o n p e r u n i t s p a c e and p e r
u n i t t i m e a s w e l l a s i n s e a s o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n of food i n t a k e . I t
h a s been a r g u e d t h a t l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c economies were v i r t u a l l y
p r o t o a g r i c u l t u r a l i n many i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n what
h a s been termed natural resource management (Bean and Blackburn
1976; Bean and Lawton 1973; H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 1980; Z i e g l e r
1 9 6 8 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f i r e may have been u s e d t o m a i n t a i n s u b -
c l i m a t i c v e g a t a t i o n communities, t o c o n t r o l i n s e c t i n f e s t a t i o n of
a c o r n s , and t o m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of
p r e s e n t address: Resource P r o t e c t i o n Di'vision. Departnient o f

Parks and' Recreation, Sacramento. C a l i f o r n i a 95811.
PALEOFATHOLOGY AT TXE OECGlNS Copynghi Â 1981 by Aidcm;< F%ss,
OF AGfi,C"LT"rn 439 A,, "8hS or r ~ p r d " c c x ~ 2"" my ,n"" .e.Lwcd
lSBNO~#>~t7W#O.C
440 DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL
t h e environment; and it i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e was i n a d v e r t e n t o r

p u r p o s e f u l hnma-i a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f l o c a l abundance o f f a v o r e d
m e d i c i n a l , r e c r e a t i o n a l , and condiment p l a n t s .
The s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e and u t i l i z e d by c e n t r a l
C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s c o v e r e d a v e r y broad spectrum i n a manner
t y p i c a l o f Archaic c u l t u r e s , and a l l major e c o l o q i c a l communities
were p r o d u c t i v e s o u r c e s o f h a r v e s t e d food.
Throughout most of t h e a r e a t h e s i n g l e most p r o d u c t i v e food
s o u r c e was t h e a c o r n c r o p , followed by f i s h , e s p e c i a l l y salmon
(Baumhoff 1 9 6 3 ) . While s u b s i s t e n c e economies i n t h i s r e g i o n
u t i l i z e d a broad spectrum o f r e s o u r c e s , t h e y i n c r e a s i n g l y empha-
s i z e d a few major s t a p l e s t h a t s h a r e d t h e a t t r i b u t e s of
abundance, s e a s o n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a s p e c i f i c t e r r i t o r y , a n d
c a p a b i l i t y o f s t o r a g e . During t h e w i n t e r months, when h u n t i n g
and f i s h i n g were d i f f i c u l t a n d f r e s h v e g e t a l f o o d s u n a v a i l a b l e ,
consumption o f s t o r e d a c o r n p r o d u c t s may have exceeded t h a t o f
a l l o t h e r f o o d s . Thus it i s h a r d l y an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o c a t e g o r i z e
n a t i v e economies o f t h i s a r e a a s balanophagous ( a c o r n e a t i n g ) ,
o r , i n view of t h e d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them, t o
c o n s i d e r t h i s a d a p t a t i o n a s p a r a l l e l i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e t h e develop-
ment of a g r i c u l t u r e i n o t h e r a r e a s .
Mast o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r d e a l w i t h popu-
l a t i o n s l o c a t e d i n t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y of C a l i f o r n i a , e s p e c i a l l y
t h e lower Sacramento a n d n o r t h e r n m o s t San J o a q u i n v a l l e y s . Our
c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h i s a r e a was l a r g e l y due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of
a d e q u a t e samples s p a n n i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e temporal r a n g e . R e p o r t s
o f p a t h o l o g i e s r e l a t e d t o h e a l t h from o u t s i d e this r e g i o n a r e
r a r e , o f t e n p o o r l y q u a n t i f i e d , and b a s e d on f r a q m e n t a r y r e m a i n s ,
a n d t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e on i n d i v i d u a l examples r a t h e r t h a n on
meaningful p o p u l a t i o n comparisons ( s e e Hoffman a n d Brunker 1 9 7 6 ) .
Furthermore, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t a l l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r i c
s u b s i s t e n c e economies and c u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e s a r e d i f f i c u l t . T h e r e
i s a g r e a t d e a l of microenvironmental d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d s u h s e -
q u e n t c u l t u r a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , and t h e p r e h i s t o r y of p o p u l a t i o n
r e p l a c e m e n t and movement i s complex and u n c l e a r . I f f o r no o t h e r
reason than t h e h i s t o r i c accident of t h e C e n t r a l Valley being t h e
f o c u s of most s y s t e m a t i c s t u d i e s of p r e h i s t o r i c h e a l t h , w e h a v e
c o n f i n e d o u r main d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s r e g i o n .
The p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r a l sequence f o r much of c e n t r a l C a l i f o r -
n i a was worked o u t i n t h e 1930s ( B e a r d s l e y 1 9 4 8 , 1954; H e i z e r and
Fenenqa 1939; L i l l a r d e t a l . 1 9 3 9 ) . Three s e q u e n t i a l complexes
( o r h o r i z o n s , o r p e r i o d s ) were r e c o g n i z e d , g e n e r a l l y d e s i g n a t e d
E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e , w i t h t h e L a t e complex s u b d i v i d e d i n t o
p r e h i s t o r i c Phase 1 and p r o t o h i s t o r i c Phase 2 . The term
î.nhiZZer pattern i s used t o r e c o g n i z e and d i s t i n g u i s h a l o c a l
E a r l y complex s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e l o w e r C e n t r a l V a l l e y . F i g u r e
1 7 . 1 summarizes r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e E a r l y ,
Middle, and L a t e complexes ( s e e Schulz l 9 8 1 : 5 8 ) . D e t a i l s o f t h e
C e n t r a l V a l l e y c u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e a r e a v a i l a b l e from numerous
s o u r c e s . For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r it i s n o t e d t h a t t h e r e
i s an a p p a r e n t t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y ,
7 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH 441
Late
Early
^1
100 years 6.P
FIGURE 1 7 . 1 . Temporal distr-ibution o f c e n t r a l CaZ'i.fomi.a

cultural complexes ( d a t a from SchuZs 1 9 8 1 ) .
s e d e n t i s m , i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and some changes i n

t e c h n o l o g y ( i . e . , changes i n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of s t o n e s t o o l s ,
i n t r o d u c t i o n of s m a l l p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s ) . Only i n Phase 2 of t h e
L a t e complex do European manufactured goods a p p e a r .
S p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d w i t h c u l t u r a l change i n
i n t e r i o r C a l i f o r n i a have c e n t e r e d on two ma-jor a n d n o t m u t u a l l y
e x c l u s i v e themes. One theme s u g g e s t s p a r t i a l p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e -
ment, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from E a r l y t o Middle complexes.
The g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n g u a g e f a m i l i e s i n n a t i v e
C a l i f o r n i a h a s l o n g been i n t e r p r e t e d t o i n d i c a t e p a s t p o p u l a t i o n
replacement i n t h e Central Valley. The t i m i n g i s u n c l e a r , b u t i t
i s s u g g e s t i v e t h a t t h e r e is a seemingly d r a m a t i c c u l t u r a l s h i f t
between t h e E a r l y and Middle complexes, a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s e d e v i -
dence o f w a r f a r e i n t h e Middle complex ( s e e H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r
19801. S k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r a n d a g a i n s t p a r t i a l p o p u l a t i o n r e -
placement a t t h e Early/Middle t r a n s i t i o n h a s a p p e a r e d (McHenry
1969; Newman 1957; Suchey 1 9 7 5 ) , b u t t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r d o e s n o t
p u r s u e t h i s p o i n t beyond n o t i n g t h a t f u r t h e r work would b e u s e f u l ,
a s no c l e a r c o n s e n s u s h a s emerged.
The second theme i s t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s ( e s p e c i a l l y
E a r l y Versus Middle) r e f l e c t s h i f t s i n s u b s i s t e n c e economies. A s
i n i t i a l l y f o r m u l a t e d ( H e i z e r 1 9 4 9 ) , t h e theme p o s t u l a t e d a n E a r l y
emphasis on h u n t i n g r e l a t i v e t o f i s h and v e g e t a l f o o d s , w h i l e
Middle p e o p l e adopted ( o r b r o u g h t w i t h them) a c o r n p r o c e s s i n g ,
l e a d i n g t o a L a t e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n a c o r n and a s e c o n d a r y r e l i a n c e
on f i s h ( e s p e c i a l l y s a l m o n ) , w i t h L a t e h u n t i n g b e i n g l e a s t impor-
t a n t t o c a l o r i c i n t a k e (Figure 17.2).
Lack o f a c o r n u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e E a r l y complex h a s been a
major p a r t of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme, and was s u p p o r t e d b o t h
by a l o g i c t h a t e x p e c t e d t h e L a t e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t o have a r i s e n
from a more g e n e r a l i z e d s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e , and by a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
evidence.
M o r t a r s and p e s t l e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y f o r a c o r n p r o -
c e s s i n g , and t h e i r a p p a r e n t r a r i t y i n E a r l y components seems r e a l .
Although E a r l y complex m o r t a r s a n d p e s t l e s a r e known, t h e
442
DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL
Windmiller t r a d i t i o n is d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a low r a t i o of m i l l i n g
t o o l s of any s o r t t o f l a k e d s t o n e b i f a c e s . Furthermore, f i v e of
t h e seven Windmiller components s t u d i e d have y i e l d e d no m o r t a r s
o r p e s t l e s (Schulz 1 9 8 1 ) . The e a r l i e s t d i r e c t e v i d e n c e of a c o r n
u s e i n t h e l o w e r C e n t r a l V a l l e y d a t e s t o t h e Early-Middle t r a n s i -
t i o n (Schulz a n d Johnson 1 9 8 0 ) .
S e v e r a l r e f i n e m e n t s o f t h e g e n e r a l s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme
have o c c u r r e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . When t h e Early-Middle-Late
sequence was i n i t i a l l y p r o p o s e d , E a r l y s i t e s o t h e r t h a n lower
C e n t r a l V a l l e y Windmiller components were e i t h e r unknown o r o n l y
t e n t a t i v e l y recognized. S i n c e t h e n , a n a l y s i s of components
contemporary w i t h t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n h a s y i e l d e d e v i d e n c e
o f E a r l y acorn p r o c e s s i n g i n the San F r a n c i s c o Bay r e g i o n (Gerow
and F o r c e 1 9 6 8 ) , and i n t h e North C o a s t Range n o r t h and west o f
t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y (Baumhoff and O r l i n s 1979; F r e d r i c k s o n 1 9 7 4 ) .
Thus t h e s c e n a r i o i s b e s t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y , a s
it depends on a c e n t r a l assumption t h a t E a r l y complex was p r e -
acorn. Reasons f o r t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n ' s weak o r non-
e x i s t e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f a c o r n have remained p r o b l e m a t i c . Lack
of a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o q y d o e s n o t seem v a l i d i n l i g h t of t h e
p r e s e n c e of a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l s and a c t i v e t r a d e w i t h p o s s i b l e
acorn processing regions, C u l t u r a l c o n s e r v a t i s m may have been
a f a c t o r i n t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a p r e - a c o r n economy, b u t i s d i f -
f i c u l t to a s s e s s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y .
S c h u l z (1981) h a s s u g g e s t e d an e c o l o g i c a l c a u s e f o r t h e l a c k
o f a c o r n u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . On t h e b a s i s
o f p a l e o e c o l o g i c a l d a t a , he concluded t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y
was e x p e r i e n c i n g a s e r i e s of d r y e p i s o d e s t h a t extended in t i m e
t h r o u g h t h e E a r l y complex t o j u s t b e f o r e t h e Middle complex t r a n -

s i t i o n . Schulz f e l t t h a t e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e d e c o l o g i c a l r e s t r a i n t s
on t h e r a n g e and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e oak woodland i n t h e i n t e r i o r
v a l l e y (and w e s t e r n S i e r r a Nevada f o o t h i l l s 1 . This, i n t u r n ,
i n h i b i t e d a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r p o s s i b l y even u t i l i z a t i o n .
While t h e v a l i d i t y and c a u s e o f a n a c o r n l e s s Windmiller
econoiny h a s been a r g u e d f r e q u e n t l y , few s t u d i e s h a v e a d d r e s s e d
t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e c o i n , which i s why t h e a c o r n was l a t e r
a d o p t e d . The work o f Baumhoff (1963) and o t h e r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t
a c o r n and salmon emphasis d e v e l o p e d a s a means of d e c r e a s i n g
s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e s of f o o d , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e w i n t e r b e f o r e
s p r i n g salmon r u n s and p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p l a n t f o o d s . T h e E a r l y
s u b s i s t e n c e economy was viewed a s m a i n t a i n i n g o n l y a m a r g i n a l
food s u r p l u s . Sedentism, p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and c u l t u r a l e l a b o -
r a t i o n f o l l o w e d an i n i t i a l s h i f t toward s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s
by e x p l o i t a t i o n of e a s i l y s t o r e d and p r o d u c t i v e f o o d s . While t h i s
d o e s n o t e x p l a i n why t h e E a r l y complex would e n d u r e a pre-acorn
regime f o r s o l o n g , i t does p r o v i d e a m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e change
and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t e v e n t u a l l y o c c u r r e d .
A t l e a s t t w o t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s a r o s e from t h e f o r e g o i n g
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . One i s termed h e r e t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s ,
a l t h o u g h i t i s a c t u a l l y t h e i d e a t h a t E a r l y complex s u h s u s t e n c e
emphasized meat r e s o u r c e s o v e r v e g e t a l f o o d . The o t h e r i s termed
a s e a s o w i l s t r e s s h y p a t h e s i s , which s u g g e s t s t h a t E a r l y complex
p e o p l e were more s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l m o r b i d i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y t h a n
l a t e r p e o p l e s , presumably due t o p e r i o d s o f w i n t e r h a r d s h i p i n
food procurement. The two h y p o t h e s e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d e -
p e n d e n t , a s i n i t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e theme invoked
a h u n t i n g economy a s a cause of s e a s o n a l s t r e s s .
The t r a d i t i o n a l view o f C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r y emphasizing
E a r l y complex h u n t i n g a d a p t a t i o n s was f o r m u l a t e d i n an e r a when
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ' l i f e - s t y l e s were s e e n a s p r e c a r i o u s and s u b j e c t
t o s e a s o n a l h a r d s h i p . The t r e n d toward a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was
viewed a s a p r o g r e s s i v e move s i m i l a r t o a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e
e l s e w h e r e , and d i r e c t e d toward s t a b i l i z a t i o n of food a v a i l a b i l i t y .
~ l t h o u g ht h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t and b i o l o g i c a l
h e a l t h was l o n g p o s t u l a t e d , p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n
c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a were not e x t e n s i v e l y p u r s u e d , and were
i n i t i a l l y t r e a t e d a s secondary d a t a r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y --ised f o r
hypothesis t e s t i n g .
One r e a s o n may b e t h a t , w h i l e s p e c t a c u l a r and i n t e r e s t i n g

p a t h o l o g i e s h a v e been n o t e d (Bennet 1972; Brooks and Hohenthal
1963; Hoffman 1 9 7 6 a , h , c ) g e n e r a l h e a l t h may have been good (Cook
1955; H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 19801. The a u t h o r s of t h i s c h a p t e r
have i n d e p e n d e n t l y n o t e d a g e n e r a l p a u c i t y o f g r o s s l e s i o n s , and
444 DAVID N DICKEL ET /u.,
D. D i c k e l and P. Schulz ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) have i n d e p e n d e n t l y found

t h a t c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and c r a n i a l p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a r e s o
r a r e t h a t meaningful comparisons a c r o s s a g e , s e x , and t e m p o r a l
s a m p l e s were n o t p o s s i b l e . Brues ( l 9 6 6 : 1 0 8 ) , i n a s p e c i f i c
r e f e r e n c e t o p a t h o l o g i e s i n two s e r i e s o f C a l i f o r n i a s k e l e t o n s
(Roney 1 9 6 6 ) , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y were " s o h e a l t h y it i s somewhat
d i s c o u r a g i n g t o work w i t h them." Gerow (Gerow and F o r c e 1968)
a l s o n o t e s a l a c k of p a t h o l o g y i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a s k e l e t a l
samples. However, some l i n e s of p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h h a v e
proved i n f o r m a t i v e .
Harris Lines
McHenry p u b l i s h e d t h e r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p e r i o d i c
s t r e s s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a b a s e d on t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a f a i r l y
c o m n s k e l e t a l marker o f s t r e s s , H a r r i s l i n e s (McHenry 1 9 6 8 ) .
The t y p e s o f s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h H a r r i s l i n e f o r m a t i o n a r e
e c l e c t i c , b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e major a s s o c i a t i o n h a s been w i t h H a r r i s
l i n e s and i l l n e s s o r m a l n u t r i t i o n ( f o r r e v i e w s s e e McHenry a n d
Schulz 1978; Schulz 1 9 8 1 ) . A b a s i c assumption, b a s e d i n p a r t on
t h e combined s t u d i e s o f D r e i z e n e t a l . (1956, 1 9 6 4 ) and G r e u l i c h
and P y l e ( 1 9 5 9 ) , i s t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p o o r i n d i c a t o r s o f
c h r o n i c s t r e s s b u t good i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s f o l l o w e d by r e c o v e r y .
I n McHenry ' s (1968) s t u d y H a r r i s l i n e s d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t
more r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s e x p e r i e n c e d l e s s p e r i o d i c s t r e s s t h a n t h e
o l d e r p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e s t r o n g e s t r e d u c t i o n b e i n g from E a r l y t o
Middle complexes ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 3 ) . These r e s u l t s were c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h a h y p o t h e s i s o f g r e a t e r E a r l y complex s e a s o n a l f o o d s h o r t -
a g e s , t h e l a t e r d e c r e a s e b e i n g a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e u s e of s t o r e d
a c o r n and salmon.
Schulz (1970, 1981) broadened t h e e v i d e n c e of h i g h e r s e a s o n a l
m o r b i d i t y i n t h e E a r l y complex by l o o k i n g a t t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of
Windmiller ( E a r l y complex) e x t e n d e d b u r i a l s f o r e v i d e n c e of
s e a s o n a l e l e v a t i o n of m o r t a l i t y . Windmiller b u r i a l s have l o n g
been n o t e d t o b e c o n s i s t e n t l y o r i e n t e d westward, and S c h u l z ' s
s t u d y found t h a t 80% o f t h e b u r i a l s f o r which d a t a were a v a i l a b l e
occurred i n t h e winter half of t h e year (Figure 1 7 . 4 ) . This sup-
p o r t s a h y p o t h e s i s o f Windmiller l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g s e a s o n a l
h a r d s h i p ; presumably, i n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y was due e i t h e r t o
d i r e c t s t a r v a t i o n o r , more l i k e l y , t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f poor
n u t r i t i o n and poor h e a l t h . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , comparisons w i t h Middle
and L a t e complexes a r e u n a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h i s method a s t h e i r
b u r i a l s a r e commonly f l e x e d ( i f n o t c r e m a t e d ) , and randomly
oriented.
u LATE ?=5.03
FIGURE 1 7 . 3 .
I EARLY K=11.32
Average number o f H a w i s t i n e s per femur i n

Early, Middle, and Late populations -in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a ( d a t a
from MeHenry 1 9 6 8 1 .
1
50
m
- 40
.-0
L
-1
m
+
0
30
L
a
m
g 20
z
10
0
ZooÂ 220' 240- 260' 280' 300- 320" 340'
Winter
t
Equjnox Lsurnrner
Solstice (252.5"-March Solstice
(223O-Oec 2 2 ) 21 and Sept 23) (282"-June 2 2 )
O r i e n t a t i o n i n Magnetic Degrees
FIGURE 1 7 . 4 . O r i e n t a t i o n of b u r i a l s from E a r l y Compzex (Wind-
m-iller) i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a ( d a t a from Schitlz 1 9 7 0 ) .
L i n e a r Enamel H y p o p l a s i a
McHenry and Schulz ( 1 9 7 6 ) ' i n i t i a t e d an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f

l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a (LEH) b e c a u s e it was e x p e c t e d t o provide
s u p p o r t of t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s from a s o u r c e of p a l e o -
DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL.
FIGURE 1 7 . 5 . The frequency of h y p o p t a s i u in t h e Early ( E l ,

Middle (M), and Late {Phase 1 [L:] and P h a s e 2 [ L ~J ] p o p u l a t i o n s
( r e d r a w from ScfwT.2 1 $ 8 1 : 1 2 2 , F i g u r e I S ) .
p a t h o l o g i c a l information b i o l o g i c a l l y independent of Harris l i n e s .

As with Harris l i n e s , both i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s and m a l n u t r i t i o n
have been i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e development of LEH ( f o r r e v i e w s s e e
McHenry and S c h u l z 1976, 1978; S c h u l z 19811, and LEH s h o u l d r e c o r d
periodic stress.
The p o p u l a t i o n s samples f o r LEH were t h e same a s i n McHenry's
(1968) s t u d y o f H a r r i s l i n e s , b u t t h e s u b j e c t s were d i f f e r e n t and
t h e t o t a l sample s i z e l a r g e r . The f r e q u e n c y of h y p o p l a s t i c l i n e s
d i f f e r s among E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e p o p u l a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 5 ) .
I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t w h i l e t h e d e c l i n e in f r e q u e n c y o f LEH from
E a r l y t o Middle i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s ,
t h e L a t e i n c r e a s e i s n o t . The L a t e complex s p a n s t h e t r a n s i t i o n
i n t o h i s t o r i c t i m e s , and i n t r o d u c e d d i s e a s e s c o u l d b e a f f e c t i n g
t h e o b s e r v e d r i s e i n L a t e LEH i n c i d e n c e . When t h e L a t e sample was
d i v i d e d i n t o p r e h i s t o r i c P h a s e 1 and p r o t o h i s t o r i c Phase 2 , t h e
former group d i d show a l o w e r i n c i d e n c e . However, t h e P h a s e 1
f r e q u e n c y i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e Middle complex, and LEH d a t a
f a i l e d t o support t h e seasonal s t r e s s hypothesis.
A s s o c i a t i o n of H a r r i s L i n e s and L i n e a r Enamel Hypoplasia
Of c o n c e r n was t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n of H a r r i s l i n e e v i -
dence by what was e x p e c t e d t o be c o r r o b o r a t i n g e v i d e n c e , a n d a n
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of LEH and H a r r i s l i n e s was
i n i t i a t e d . Femora a v a i l a b l e f o r 156 s u b j e c t s u s e d i n t h e LEH
s t u d y were s c o r e d f o r H a r r i s l i n e s . The new H a r r i s l i n e d a t a i n -
d i c a t e d two t h i n g s v e r y c l e a r l y . The t r e n d s e e n by McHenry f o r
a c o n s i s t e n t decrease i n H a r r i s l i n e frequency through archaeolo-

g i c a l t i m e was s u b s t a n t i a t e d by s a m p l e s n o t u s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s
s t u d y . Second, t e s t s o f c o - o c c u r r e n c e o f LEH and H a r r i s l i n e s i n
s p e c i f i c a g e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e t o t a l l y n o n s i g n i f i c a n t (McHenry and
Schulz, 1976).
S e v e r a l r e c e n t s t u d i e s have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e of
t h e s e t r a i t s w i t h mixed r e s u l t s ( s e e Hunt and Hatch 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d
t h e y may c a r r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y nonredundant i n f o r m a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y
t h e recovery phase necessary f o r H a r r i s l i n e formation (but n o t
f o r LEH) emphasizes t h a t t h e e t i o l o g i e s of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s a r e
only p a r t i a l l y overlapping.
I t is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s i s i n -
v a l i d a t e d by t h e r e s u l t s of t h e LEH s t u d y , t h e c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r
b e i n g whether it i s p o s s i b l e t o d e c i d e i f H a r r i s l i n e s o r LEH
make a b e t t e r i n d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s : the interaction
of d i s e a s e and n u t r i t i o n may make i m p o s s i b l e a g e n e r a l " r u l e of
thumb" a b o u t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t h e
development of e i t h e r . The d i s t i n c t i o n may l i e i n t h a t H a r r i s
l i n e s r e c o r d a c u t e s t r e s s f o l l o w e d by r e c o v e r y , and LEH r e c o r d s
c h r o n i c s t r e s s , a s s u g g e s t e d by Hluinberg and K e r l e y ( 1 9 6 6 ) .
However, it i s t e m p t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e a b o u t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s ,
even i f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e r i s k y . Chronic o r s h o r t - t e r m famine
and n u t r i t i o n a l imbalance seem v i r t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t in c e n t r a l
C a l i f o r n i a a t t i m e of c o n t a c t ( s e e H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 1 9 8 0 ) ,
a l t h o u g h t h e L a t e p h a s e s show t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e s of LEH.
This suq ..q e s t s t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h i s s t u d y a r e a LEH is n o t e s -
p e c i a l l y due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , b u t p r o b a b l y r e c o r d s i n c r e a s -
i n q-e p. i s o d e s of d i s e a s e and p a r a s i t e i n f e s t a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o
p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and s e d e n t i s m . Disease
and p a r a s i t i s m would have become i n c r e a s i n g l y endemic r i s k s a s
p o p u l a t i o n s grew, and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and
d i s e a s e b a s been n o t e d e l s e w h e r e ( B r o t h w e l l 1969; Cohen 1980;
L a l l o e t a l . 1978; Larson 1981; Scrimshaw e t a l . 1 9 6 8 ) .
H a r r i s l i n e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p o p u l a t i o n s may be good
markers of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Ruff (1975) found t h a t an E a r l y
San F r a n c i s c o Hay sample showed a b o u t t h e same r a t e of H a r r i s
l i n e i n c i d e n c e a s a L a t e sample. Presumably, E a r l y bay p o p u l a -
t i o n s were u t i l i z i n g a c o r n c r o p s (Gerow 1 9 7 4 a , b ; Gerow and Force
1 9 6 8 ) , a n d t h u s were s u b j e c t t o l e s s s e a s o n a l n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s
t h a n contemporary i n t e r i o r v a l l e y Windmiller p e o p l e . I f Harris
l i n e s c a r r y n u t r i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y u n b l u r r e d by
d i s e a s e s t r e s s , and i f LEH r e c o r d s an i n c r e a s e i n c h r o n i c d i s e a s e ,
t h e n t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s is s t i l l v i a b l e , b u t w i t h t h e
r e f i n e m e n t t h a t it seems p r o b a b l e t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t toward
r e l i a b l e food s o u r c e s was accompanied by a change i n t h e n a t u r e
and s o u r c e o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n a g e n e r a l abatement
of a l l s t r e s s .
448
DAVID N.DICKEL ET AL.
Stature
Adult s t a t u r e i s p o s s i b l y an i n d i c a t o r o f t o t a l h e a l t h , a l -
though g e n e t i c and o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d ( B u i k s t r a and Cook
1 9 8 0 : 4 4 9 ) . Average a d u l t f e m o r a l l e n g t h d i d d e c r e a s e s l i g h t l y
from E a r l y t o Middle t i m e s , b u t t h e r e was no a p p r e c i a b l e change
from Middle t o L a t e . A l l comparisons a c r o s s complexes ( w i t h o r
w i t h o u t c o n t r o l f o r g e n d e r ) r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
i n mean femoral l e n g t h s . (Sexual dimorphism o f f e m o r a l l e n g t h s
a l s o showed no s i g n i f i c a n t changes t h r o u g h t i m e . ) Thus t h e r e i s
some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t o t a l b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s may h a v e remained
a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t h r o u g h t i m e d e s p i t e changes i n t h e t y p e of
s t r e s s experienced.
Caries
By t h e e a r l y 1970s t h e r e seemed t o b e t a c i t agreement t h a t

B e a r d s l e y ' s (1948) and H e i z e r ' s (1949) model o f s u b s i s t e n c e i n
t h e E a r l y complex was o v e r s t a t e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , summaries of
C a l i f o r n i a a r c h a e o l o g y emphasized t h e r e l a t i v e importance o f E a r l y
h u n t i n g , and W i l l e y (1966: 369) p r o v i d e s a n example o f a common
"bottom l i n e " :
S l a b m e t a t e s and bowl m o r t a r s have been found i n t h e [ ~ a r l y
complex w i n d m i l l e r ] s i t e s , b u t t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f l a r g e ,
stemmed, c h i p p e d p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s ; bone f i s h hooks and
g o r g e s : and bone t r i d e n t f i s h s p e a r s imply t h a t game and
f i s h from t h e r i v e r were more i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d i e t t h a n
s e e d s and n u t s .
Schulz (1981) d i r e c t l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n of d i f f e r -
e n t i a l v e g e t a l c o n t e n t of t h e d i e t of E a r l y p e o p l e r e l a t i v e t o
Middle and L a t e by examining t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c a r i e s i n each
complex. Because of t h e importance of c a r b o h y d r a t e s a s a c a r i o -
g e n i c a g e n t , he assuiried t h a t t h e c a r i e s e x p e r i e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n s
s h o u l d be an e x c e l l e n t i n d i c a t o r o f t h e r e l a t i v e c a r b o h y d r a t e
c o n t e n t of t h e i r d i e t s .
Schulz was n o t t h e f i r s t t o s t u d y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a d e n t a l
pathologies. Leigh (1928) r e c o r d e d c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y , b u t k e p t no
t e m p o r a l c o n t r o l of h i s s a m p l e s . On t h e b a s i s o f l i m i t e d
sampling, o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s n o t i c e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f
c a r i e s i n t h e L a t e complex, b u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e
h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s was n o t r e c o g n i z e d (Kennedy 1960; Mewman 1 9 5 7 ) .
A l l t h e s e s t u d i e s s u f f e r e d from s h o r t c o m i n g s i n c l u d i n q s m a l l
sample s i z e s , p o o r l y d e f i n e d age of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s , and n o con-
t r o l f o r t h e e f f e c t s of postmortem t o o t h l o s s .
Schulz (1981) t h e r e f o r e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s
by s t u d y i n g d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y i n t h e lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y , u s i n g
a v e r y l a r g e sample (904 i n d i v i d u a l s ) d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r r e l a t i v e
age c l a s s e s , s t r a t i f i e d by s e x and by c u l t u r a l complex. The most
important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Schulz's r e s u l t s f o r t e s t i n g t h e
I II Ill IV
AGE CLASS
FIGURE 1 7 . 6 . Mean carious t e e t h (CTI scores by age group f o r

males and females of Early, Middle, and Late c u l t u r a l complexes.
0 , E a d y males; 0 , E a e females; 0 , Middle mates; , Middle
females; A , Late males; A , Late females. Scored f i e l d excludes
M3 (redrawn f r m Schulz 1 9 8 1 : 1 4 1 , Figure 1 7 ) .
h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i o u s t e e t h show
l i t t l e tendency t o i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t i m e ( F i g u r e
17.6). I n s e r i e s o f t e s t s of d i f f e r e n c e s between v a l u e s f o r mean
c a r i o u s t e e t h i n each complex ( w i t h i n r e l a t i v e a g e and sex
c l a s s e s ) , o n l y o n e comparison approached a r a t h e r r e l a x e d 90%
c o n f i d e n c e level. These comparisons f a i l e d t o show t h e i n c r e a s e s
t h a t would be e x p e c t e d t o r e s u l t from a d i e t a r y s h i f t from p r i -
mary r e l i a n c e on meat t o a p r i m a r y r e l i a n c e on p l a n t f o o d s h i g h
i n c a r b o h y d r a t e s . I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of e x p l o i t a t i o n o f and
450 DAVID N. DICKEL ETAL.
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w i t h a few s t a p l e c a r b o h y d r a t e s i s more l i k e l y t o
mark t h e Early-Middle-Late t r a n s i t i o n s t h a n is a s h i f t t o c a r h o -
h y d r a t e s p e r s e . While t h e E a r l y complex Windmiller t r a d i t i o n
w a s p r o b a b l y p r e - a c o r n , o t h e r c a r b o h y d r a t e s may have been u t i l i z e d
t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same e x t e n t , i n d i c a t i n g t h e c l a s s i c h u n t i n g
h y p o t h e s i s may b e i n v a l i d .
PALEODEMOGRAPHY
The s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s w a s i n i t i a l l y developed around

an assumption o f E a r l y r e l i a n c e on h u n t i n g , b u t i t d o e s n o t depend
on t h i s assumption t o remain v i a b l e . The h y p o t h e s i s i s t e n t a -
t i v e l y s u p p o r t e d on t h e b a s i s of (1) a p o s s i b l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f d e a t h s i n w i n t e r i n t h e E a r l y complex, and ( 2 ) H a r r i s l i n e
data, especially i f Harris l i n e s record periodic n u t r i t i o n a l
s t r e s s . However, t h e LEH d a t a may i n d i c a t e t h a t a s n u t r i t i o n a l
s t r e s s went i n t o a long-term d e c l i n e , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n s t o r a b l e food r e s o u r c e s w a s n o t accompanied by
a uniform i n c r e a s e in good h e a l t h b u t p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t e d a
t r a d e - o f f of p e r i o d i c a c u t e s t r e s s f o r c h r o n i c s t r e s s . The premise
t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e chancre was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a move toward t o t a l i m -
provement in h e a l t h i s u n d e r s c o r e d b y p a l e o d e n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s .
ProDonents of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme s u g- g - ested
a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e . T h i s was c o n s i d e r e d
a l o g i c a l development, a s t h e dense p o p u l a t i o n s known to have
e x i s t e d i n p r o t o h i s t o r i c t i m e s must have i n c r e a s e d from s m a l l e r ,
e a r l i e r populations. I d e a s about causes of t h e population i n -
c r e a s e were t i e d i n t o t h e h u n t i n g a s w e l l a s t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s
hypothesis: it w a s assumed t h a t s m a l l e r p o p u l a t i o n s were main-
t a i n e d due t o p o p u l a t i o n m o b i l i t y a n d l i m i t e d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f
a subsistence s t r a t e g y d i r e c t e d a t k-selected species; eventually,
a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s t a b i l i z e d s e a s o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n of food and
allowed populations t o i n c r e a s e .
P o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y were q u i t e d e n s e a t
contact. E s t i m a t e s v a r y from 2 . 0 8 ( H e i z e r a n d E l s a s s e r 1 9 8 0 1 , t o
3.36 (Cook 1976) 4 . 4 p e r s o n s / h 2 (Baumhoff 1 9 6 3 ) . Slaymaker
(1982) has i n d i c a t e d t h a t e v e n Baumhoff's f i g u r e may b e a low e s -
timate.
The e x a c t t i m i n g and s c a l e of p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s remain an
i s s u e , a l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s i s t h a t i t was most marked
i n E a r l y t o Middle t i m e s . Most o f t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h i s p o s t u l a t e d
i n c r e a s e c o n s i s t s of t h e number o f s i t e components known from
e a c h complex, a n d t h e t r e n d from a r e s t r i c t e d number of E a r l y
s i t e components to a l a r g e number l a t e r a p p e a r s t o have demo-
g r a p h i c a s w e l l a s taphonomic i m p l i c a t i o n s .
S c h u l z (1981) summarized t h e e v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r e -
covery o f remains ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 7 ) . When t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f s i t e
components r e c o v e r e d a r e weighed a g a i n s t t h e t e m p r a l d u r a t i o n
17 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH 45 1
FIGURE 17.7. Chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h e r Central

Valley s i t e s f o r Early ( E l , Middle Mi, and Late (Phase 1 [ L ? ]
and Phase 2 [ L Z ] ) c u l t u r a l complexes. Number o f k n o m components
from each complex i s p l o t t e d against i t s duration (redpawn from
Sohulz 1981: 182, Figure 2 4 ) .
o f complexes, a c o n t i n u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s i t e s i s ap-

p a r e n t and may r e p r e s p n t a long-term i n c r e a s e i n t h e ni-onber of
s e t t l e m e n t s as w e l l a s d i f f e r e n t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n of o l d e r s i t e s .
I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t i n p a r t f o r s e t t l e m e n t s i z e , Schulz
p l o t t e d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u r i a l s a g a i n s t the d u r a t i o n o f com-
p l e x e s . ~ ~ a he i nfound an i n c r e a s e w i t h t i m e , a l t h o u g h in con-
t r a s t t o t h e t r e n d i n s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e is a v i s i b l e slowing
down of t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e i n t h e Middle to L a t e p e r i o d s
( F i g u r e 1 7 . 8 ) . Schulz a l s o found a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e nun-
b e r o f r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s from younger v e r s u s o l d e r s i t e s d e s p i t e
a p r o b a b l e b i a s toward d a t i n g m a t e r i a l t h o u g h t t o b e E a r l y .
DAVID N.DICKEL E T A L
FIGURE 17.8. Chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n of Z m e ~Central from

Early (El, Middle (Ml, and Late (Phase 1 [ L ~ and ] Phase 2 [ L Z ]
cuZturaZ compZaes. lîanber o f indi-v'iduazs i n each complex i s
p l o t t e d a g a i n s t i t s d u r a t i o n (redraw, from SchuZs 1981:183,
Figure 25).
Although t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c a u s e and e f f e c t i s u n c l e a r ,

a c o r n a d a p t a t i o n presumably p l a y e d a prominent r o l e i n the i n -
c r e a s e of p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s . I n t h e North C o a s t Range,
balanophagous p o p u l a t i o n s contemporary w i t h the Windmiller t r a d i -
t i o n seem r e l a t i v e l y d e n s e (Baumhoff and O r l i n s 19791, a l t h o u g h
e v i d e n c e from t h e balanophagous E a r l y San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a i s
more ambiguous (Ruff 1 9 7 5 ) . I n t h e w e s t e r n S i e r r a Nevada f o o t h i l l s
f e w s i t e s o c c u r b e f o r e Middle t i m e s , a l t h o u g h balanophagous L a t e
p o p u l a t i o n s were q u i t e l a r g e (Johnson 1967; M o r a t t o 1972; Moratto
e t a l . 1978).
D e s p i t e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t L a t e r e l a t i v e t o Middle p o p u l a t i o n
growth ( E l s a s s e r 1978; Gould 1964) t h e e v i d e n c e b a s e d on r e c o v e r y
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e major jump i s a t t h e Early-Middle t r a n s i t i o n ,
with slower i n c r e a s e s t h e r e a f t e r .
I n the s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme i t i s assumed t h a t d e c r e a s e d
m o r b i d i t y , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , and i n c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y
were a s i n g l e package r e l a t e d t o s e a s o n a l r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n .
However, a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a s u g g e s t s t h a t
l o n g e v i t y may have d e c r e a s e d a s a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n c r e a s e d .
Brahender (1965) compared s k e l e t a l samples from t h e t h r e e
complexes f o r r e l a t i v e a g e b a s e d on d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n . She found
t h a t t h e Early populations c l e a r l y exhibited g r e a t e r longevity.
T h i s was s u r p r i s i n g , a s i n c r e a s e d s u b s i s t e n c e r e l i a b i l i t y i s o f t e n
assumed t o b e r e f l e c t e d i n g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y ( s e e Hassan 1973;
Nemeskeri 1 9 7 0 ) . Problems w i t h B r a b e n d e r ' s s t u d y i n c l u d e s m a l l
sample s i z e . Most i m p o r t a n t l y , however, t h e E a r l y sample i s from
t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y (Windmiller) s i t e s , while t h e undifferen-
t i a t e d Middle a n d L a t e sample i s from t h e San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a .
Thus t h e l a t t e r sample d o e s n o t r e f l e c t t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y a c o r n
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; it i s drawn from p o p u l a t i o n w i t h a heavy r e l i a n c e
on m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , a comparison r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e lower Sacramento
V a l l e y was u n d e r t a k e n by Schulz i n a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t s t u d i e d
o v e r 900 i n d i v i d u a l s ( f o r e x a c t methodology s e e Schulz 1981:98-
1 0 0 ) . The h i g h e s t mean d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n r a t e s (and presumably
g r e a t e r a g e ) a r e found among b o t h s e x e s i n t h e E a r l y sample a n d
among f e m a l e s i n t h e Middle sample. The l o w e s t r a t e o f a t t r i t i o n
i s found 'among m a l e s i n t h e L a t e sample, and c o n t r a s t s between t h i s
and a l l o t h e r g r o u p s were h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
g r e a t e r wear (and g r e a t e r a g e ) o f t h e E a r l y complex s a m p l e s sup-
p o r t s B r a b e n d e r ' s (1965) f i n d i n g s , and l o n g e v i t y may have d e c r e a s e d
through archaeological time d e s p i t e increasing resource s t a b i l i t y .
Schulz s u g g e s t e d t h a t c r e m a t i o n p r a c t i c e s may b i a s t h e s e r e -
s u l t s . The o b s e r v e d number o f L a t e males shows a s i g n i f i c a n t d r o p
from t h e e x p e c t e d number, whereas t h e ma1e:female r a t i o s f o r t h e
E a r l y and Middle p e r i o d s a r e n e a r l y e q u a l . The p r a c t i c e of crema-
t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t i m e , a n d t h e e f f o r t of c r a -
t i o n may have been s p e n t mainly on h i g h - s t a t u s i n d i v i d u a l s ,
e s p e c i a l l y o l d e r males. Thus t h e a p p e a r a n c e of g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y
o f E a r l y samples may he p a r t l y a n a r t i f a c t o f an i n c r e a s i n g
d i v e r s i o n o f o l d e r m a l e s from t h e L a t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d .
O t h e r demographic work i n t h e l o w e r Sacramento V a l l e y , however,
i n d i c a t e s t h a t l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s t r u l y were p r o g r e s s i v e l y younger
at death.
Doran (1980) s t u d i e d s u b a d u l t and a d u l t l i f e t a b l e s drawm from
a sample o f 1254 i n d i v i d u a l s from a l l t h r e e c u l t u r a l complexes.
d or an's l i f e t a b l e s were b a s e d o n d a t a f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s
combined, which p r o v i d e d a l a r g e r sample s i z e b u t l i m i t s t e s t i n g
o f some o f h i s c o n c l u d i n g h y p o t h e s e s .
I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h what m i g h t h e e x p e c t e d w i t h a l a t e r s h i f t
toward a c o r n s u b s i s t e n c e , Doran found o v e r a l l s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y
was g e n e r a l l y l e s s f o r Middle and L a t e samples t h a n f o r E a r l y ,
a l t h o u g h m o r t a l i t y f o r a g e s 0-2 y e a r s a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h
t i m e (Dorar. 1 9 8 0 : 9 4 ) . A marked t u r n a r o u n d a t a g e f o u r toward
l e s s e r m o r t a l i t y i n t h e l a t e r complexes was s e e n and was a t t r i b u t e d
t o g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y of f o o d procurement and d e c r e a s i n g weaning
stress. ( I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n c t e t h a t McHenry and Schulz (1978)
found p e a k s a t age f o u r f o r i n c i d e n c e of h y p o p l a s t i c d e f e c t s and
454 DAVID N.DICKEL ETAL.
H a r r i s l i n e s i n a l l t h r e e complexes.) Doran r e l a t e d t h e g r e a t e r
Middle and L a t e m o r t a l i t y a t a g e s 0-2 y e a r s t o t r e n d s s e e n i n the
adult mortality p r o f i l e .
A s i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , Doran found t h a t a d u l t s u r v i v o r s h i p
a t n e a r l y a l l a d u l t a g e s was h i g h e s t f o r t h e E a r l y sample. s u r -
v i v o r s h i p p r o g r e s s i v e l y worsened w i t h t i m e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e
20-45-year a g e b r a c k e t , which i n c l u d e s t h e p r i m e r e p r o d u c t i v e
years.
Doran u t i l i z e d a s t a t i o n a r y p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n t o incor-
p r a t e s u b a d u l t and a d u l t l i f e t a b l e d a t a i n t o a s i n g l e s o u r c e of
information. He s t a t e d t h a t "growing p o p u l a t i o n s a r e younger
p o p u l a t i o n s , " and t h a t t h r o u g h t i m e p o p u l a t i o n "growth was
o c c u r r i n g , and t h e r a t e o f growth was l o w e s t i n t h e E a r l y Horizon,
i n t e r m e d i a t e i n t h e Middle Horizon, a n d h i g h e s t i n t h e L a t e
Horizon" (Doran 198O:IO9-llO). If t h i s interpretation i s correct,
t h e n t h e r e is no c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n the e v i d e n c e o f d e c r e a s e d
l o n g e v i t y c o i n c i d e n t w i t h i n c r e a s e d r a t e of p o p u l a t i o n growth.
Doran h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h r o u g h t i m e (and presumably r e l a t e d
t o i n c r e a s i n g l y balanophagous e c o n o m i e s ) , b i r t h s p a c i n g d e c r e a s e d
a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew, and t h e r e was i n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y o f young
a d u l t females r e l a t e d t o increased exposure t o t h e r i s k s o f c h i l d -
birth. Unfortunately, t h e pooling o f sexes in h i s published l i f e
t a b l e s p r e c l u d e s a d i r e c t examination o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . Since
Schulz (1981) d o e s n o t r e p o r t u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of younger a d u l t
f e m a l e s , t h e m a t e r n a l d e a t h h y p o t h e s i s r e m a i n s an open q u e s t i o n .
Doran a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t -the h e a v i e r m o r t a l i t y i n l a t e r complexes
f o r unwearied c h i l d r e n a g e d 0-2 y e a r s i s r e l a t e d t o m a t e r n a l d e a t h ,
a s t h i s age group would b e t h e most a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d .
The paleodemographic i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y i n -
d i c a t e s t h a t o v e r a l l subadult s u r v i v o r s h i p increased through time
w h i l e a d u l t s u r v i v o r s h i p d e c r e a s e d , a l t h o u g h c r e m a t i o n may o v e r -
emphasize t h e l a t t e r t r e n d . A l l t h r e e complexes had a p o s i t i v e
and a c c e l e r a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n growth r a t e . These p a l e o d e m g r a p h i c
changes co-occurred w i t h (1) a major s h i f t from more g e n e r a l i z e d
c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t s o u r c e s to emphasis o n a few p r o d u c t i v e s t a p l e
f o o d s t h a t c o u l d b e s t o r e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e , and ( 2 ) major
changes i n t h e t y p e of m o r b i d i t y e x p e r i e n c e d by p o p u l a t i o n s . It
i s t e m p t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e on t h e n a t u r e of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e s e
trends.
Both a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and e v i d e n c e o f d e n t a l
p a t h o l o g i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r e n d i n t h e Early-Middle-Late com-
p l e x sequence i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e r i o r v a l l e y was toward a
r e f i n e m e n t o f an e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n of p l a n t and
a n i m a l s p e c i e s , r a t h e r t h a n a s h i f t from meat toward v e g e t a l foods
By t h e t i m e of Western c o n t a c t and c u l t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n , t h i s t r e n d
had c u l m i n a t e d i n an i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o n a
r e s t r i c t e d number of s t a p l e f o o d s ( e s p e c i a l l y a c o r n and s a l m o n ) ,
and i n s e d e n t i s m , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and c u l t u r a l e l a -
b o r a t i o n comparable t o t h a t o f e a r l y food-producing c u l t u r e s
u t i l i z i n g domesticated s t a p l e s .
17 CENTRAL CALIFORNlA: PREHISTORIC SUBSlSTENCE AND HEALTH
455
The i m p e t u s f o r t h i s s h i f t i s n o t c l e a r , b u t s e v e r a l f a c t o r s
may have been i n v o l v e d . One i s c l i m a t i c s h i f t from a r e l a t i v e l y
p r o l o n g e d s e r i e s of d r y p e r i o d s t h a t seems more t h a n c o i n c i d e n t a l -
l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e E a r l y Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . A g e n e r a l
s c e n a r i o can be v i s u a l i z e d : a c o r n became more p r o d u c t i v e and
r e l i a b l e enough t o w a r r a n t i n c r e a s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n , and i n c r e a s e d
s e d e n t i s m , p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , and a c o r n harvesti-ng became l o c k e d
i n t o a p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k system. The i n i t i a l s t e p i n t o t h e
feedback system may have been i n c r e a s e d s e d e n t i s m r e l a t e d t o
h a r v e s t i n g , p r o c e s s i n g , and e s p e c i a l l y s t o r a g e of a c o r n s . Seden-
t a r y l i f e may b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e
by l e a d i n g t o a d e c r e a s e i n b i r t h s p a c i n g (Bray 1976; C a v a l l i -
S f o r z a 1973; Fowler 1971; Lee 1 9 7 2 ) .
Another model e x p l a i n i n g s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t i n v o l v e s p o p u l a t i o n
p r e s s u r e s ( s e e Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . Doran (1980) s u g g e s t e d t h a t a l l t h r e e
complexes had a p o s i t i v e growth r a t e a n d t h a t p o p u l a t i o n s may
have i n c r e a s e d " j u s t b e c a u s e " t h a t i s what p o p u l a t i o n s t e n d t o d o
(Cohen 1977, 1 9 8 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t the
t e r m i n a l E a r l y p e r i o d was marked by m i g r a t i o n s i n t o c e n t r a l
C a l i f o r n i a . Thus, a s c e n a r i o a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n
p r e s s u r e o r " b o t t l e t h e o r y " (Hayden 1981:521! is p o s s i b l e ; e x t e r -
n a l a n d i n t e r n a l p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e d a s r e g i o n a l expan-
s i o n became p r o g r e s s i v e l y c o m p e t i t i v e , and l e d t o e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
p o s s i b l y l e s s d e s i r a b l e and l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e r e s o u r c e s t h a t were
h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e and d e n s e l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n a r e s t r i c t e d a r e a .
The r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth i n c r e a s e d , a g a i n p e r h a p s due t o t h e
" l o c k i n g i n " t o a feedback system i n v o l v i n g s e d e n t i s m .
A t h i r d s c e n a r i o t h a t can b e c o n s i d e r e d f o l l o w s Hayden's
(1981) r e s o u r c e s t r e s s model. The s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s i n
c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a can b e viewed a s a s p e c i a l c a s e of Hayden's
more g e n e r a l i z e d model. The r e s o u r c e s t r e s s model s u g g e s t s t h a t
p o p u l a t i o n s a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e f r e q u e n c y
w i t h which t h e y e x p e r i e n c e r e s o u r c e s t r e s s . D e v i a t i o n s from t h i s
equilibrium r e s u l t i n refinement o f e x i s t i n g s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s
w i t h i n l i m i t s o f t e c h n o l o g y , and e v e n t u a l l y i n s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t s
d i r e c t e d toward i n c r e a s i n g r e s o u r c e r e l i a b i l i t y (Hayden 1981:520!.
p o p u l a t i o n s a r e s e e n a s t r y i n g to m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e between t h e
c o s t s of morbidity-mortality r e l a t e d t o p e r i o d i c resource s t r e s s ,
and t h e c o s t of m a i n t a i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l s . The b e n e f i t s o f
r e t a i n i n g t h i s balance include s u s t a i n i n g b i o l o g i c a l f i t n e s s with
minimum r e p r o d u c t i v e waste (Hayden 1 9 8 1 : 5 2 2 ) . A s r e s o u r c e s t r e s s
decreases, population control relaxes; as population increases,
r e s o u r c e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s , and c u l t u r e s a g a i n s t r i v e e i t h e r t o
s t a b i l i z e resource r e l i a b i l i t y o r t o i n c r e a s e population c o n t r o l
u n t i l a c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e b a l a n c e of c o s t s i s a c h i e v e d . T h i s
b a l a n c e i s more o r l e s s p r e c a r i o u s a s p o p u l a t i o n s s t r i v e t o r e d u c e
one o r t h e o t h e r c o s t .
What t h e s k e l e t a l d a t a s u g g e s t may be somewhat d i f f e r e n t from
a p r e d i c t i o n o f r o u g h l y e q u a l amounts o f r e s o u r c e s t r e s s w i t h i n
populations u t i l i z i n g d i f f e r e n t subsistence s t r a t e g i e s . Harris
lines indicate t h a t periodic nutritional s t r e s s related t o
456 DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL.
r e s o u r c e r e l i a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e d through t i m e d e s p i t e p o p u l a t i o n
i n c r e a s e . LEH shows a long-term i n c r e a s e from t h e E a r l y t o t h e
L a t e complex, and t o t a l s t r e s s ( n u t r i t i o n , d i s e a s e , e t c . ) , n o t
j u s t r e s o u r c e s t r e s s , may be i n v o l v e d i-n t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l e q u i -
l i b r i u m . H a r r i s l i n e s and LEH may p r o v i d e complementary i n d i c a -
t i o n s of approximately equal t o t a l b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s through
t i m e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e t y p e s of s t r e s s
changed t h r o u g h t i m e , and a b a l a n c e o f t h e c o s t s o f m o r b i d i t y -
m o r t a l i t y and p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l may n o t b e r e l a t e d t o n u t r i t i o n a l
s t r e s s a l o n e . The d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t a c u t e s t r e s s d e c r e a s e d w h i l e
c h r o n i c s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d , and analogous s h i f t s t o h o r t i c u l t u r e
may have had much t h e same e f f e c t (Cohen 1981; Lewin 1981) .
The t y p e s o f m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y c u l t u r a l l y p e r c e i v e d a s
m a n i p u l a b l e by changing s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s may b e a f a c t o r i n
subsistence s h i f t s . While p e r i o d i c s u r g e s i n a d u l t m o r t a l i t y may
b e p e r c e i v e d a s b e i n g l e s s e n e d by improved r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n ,
o t h e r forms o f m o r t a l i t y may h e c o n s i d e r e d beyond t h e c o n t r o l of
s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s . An i n c r e a s e i n m a t e r n a l o r g e n e r a l mor-
t a l i t y r e l a t e d t o t h e complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f d e c r e a s e d b i r t h
s p a c i n g , p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y , d i s e a s e , and s u b s i s t e n c e
s t r a t e g y may n o t be " r e c o g n i z e d " a s a c o s t o f r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a -
tion.
I n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a it c a n b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t f a c t o r s of
p o p u l a t i o n growth, s e a s o n a l r e s o u r c e s t r e s s , and c l i m a t i c change
a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o a s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t l e a d i n g t o acorn u t i l i z a -
t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . P o p u l a t i o n growth and
r e s o u r c e s t r e s s may have produced a p r e s s u r e f o r change i n a
manner s i m i l a r t o Hayden's proposed " c o s t o f s t r e s s - c o s t of
p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l " e q u i l i b r i u m , and c l i m a t i c change may h a v e p r o -
v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e d u c e r e s o u r c e s t r e s s t h r o u g h e l a b o r a t i o n
of an e x i s t i n g h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g s t r a t e g y w i t h o u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
of h o r t i c u l t u r e .
REFERENCES
Baumhoff, M.
1963 E c o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of a b o r i g i n a l C a l i f o r n i a p o p u l a -
t i o n s . U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Publications i n American
Archaeology and Ethnography 49:155-236.
Baurnhoff, M. A , , and R . O r l i n s
1979 An a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a s s a y on Dry C r e e k , Sonoma County,
California. U n i v e r s i t y o f California Archaeological
Research F a c a t y Contributions 4 0 : l - 2 4 4 .
Bean, L . , and T . Blackburn
1976 Native Cal'i.fornians, a t h e o r e t i c a l r e t r o s p e c t i v e . Ballena
P r e s s , S o c o r r o , N e w Mexico.
Bean, L . , a n d H. Lawton
1973 Some e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e r i s e o f c u l t u r a l complexity i n
n a t i v e C a l i f o r n i a w i t h comments on p r o t o - a g r i c u l t u r e and
a g r i c u l t u r e . Battens Press Anthropological, Papers
1:V-XLVII.
B e a r d s l e y , R.
1948 C u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a a r c h a e o l o g y .
Amer-icon A n t i q u i t y 1 4 : l - 2 8 .
1954 Temporal and a r e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a
a r c h a e o l o g y , p a r t s I and 11. Reports o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y
o f C a l i f o r n i a Archaeoz0gica.Z Survey, Berkeley, Nos. 24-25.
Bennet, K . A .
1972 Lumbo-sacral m a l f o r m a t i o n s and s p i n a b i f i d a o c c u l a t a i n a
group o f p r o t o - h i s t o r i c Modoc I n d i a n s . American Journal
o f Physical AnthropoZog~ 36:435-439.
Blumberg, J . , and E. K e r l e y
1966 D i s c u s s i o n : A c r i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f roentgenology
and microscopy i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g y . I n Human PaZeapathoZogy,
e d i t e d by S. J a r c h o , ~ p 150-170. . Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
New Haven and London.
Brabender, I .
1965 B e i t r a s z u r p a l a o b i o l o g i s c h e n R e k o n s t r u k t i o n p r a h i s t o r i s c h e r
k a l i f o r n i s c h e r P o p u l a t i o n e n . HOMO 16 :200-230.
Bray, W.
1976 From p r e d a t i o n t o p r o d u c t i o n : The n a t u r e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
e v o l u t i o n i n Mexico a n d P e r u . I n Problems i n Economic and
Soc'LaZ Apchaeology, e d i t e d by Gale d e G . S i e v e k i n g ,
I . H. Longworth, and K. E. Wilson, p p . 73-95. Ducksworth,
London.
Brcoks, S., a n d W. Hohenthal
1963 A r c h a e o l o g i c a l d e f e c t i v e p a l a t e c r a n i a from C a l i f o r n i a .
American Journal of Physical, Anthropology 21: 25-32.
Brothwell, D .
1969 D i e t a r y v a r i a t i o n and t h e b i o l o g y of e a r l i e r human p o p u l a -
tions. 1n The Domestication and E x p l o i t a t i o n o f Plants
and Animals, e d i t e d by P. Ucko and C. nimbleby, p p . 53-545.
A l d i n e - A t h e r t o n , Chicago.
Brues, A .
1966 D i s c u s s i o n . I n Ewnan PaZeopathoZogy, e d i t e d b y S . J a r c h o .
p p . 107-112. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w Haven and London.
B u i k s t r a , J. E . , and D. C. Cook
1980 ~ a l e o p a t h o l o g y : An American a c c o u n t . AnnmZ Review o f
C a v a l l i - S f o r z a , L.
1.973 o r i g i n and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of human r a c e s . Proceedings
Royal A n t h ~ o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e 1972:15-25.
Cohen, M.
1977 The Food C r i s i s i n P r e h i s t o r y . Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
New Haven and London.
1980 S p e c u l a t i o n s on t h e e v o l u t i o n of d e n s i t y measurement and
p o p u l a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n Homo s a p i e n s . In Bio~oci~Z
Mechanisms o f Population Regulation, e d i t e d by M. Cohen,
R . Malpass, and H . K l e i n , pp. 275-304. Yale U n i v e r s i t y
458 DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL.
P r e s s , New Haven and London.

1981 Comments. C u r r e n t A n t h r o v o t o a"-
v 22: 532
Cook, S. F.
1955 The Epidemic o f 1830-1833 i n C a l i f o r n i a and Oregon.
U n i u e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b t i c a t i o n i n American
Archaeology and Ethnotogy 4 3 ( 3 ) : 303-326.
1976 The c o n f l i c t between t h e C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n and White
c i v i l i z a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y .
Doran, G .
1980 Paleodemography o f t h e P l a i n s Miwok e t h n o Z i n g u i s t i c a r e a ,
C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i f o r n i a , Davis.
D r e i z e n , S . , C. C u r r i e , E. G i l l e y , and T. S p i e s
1956 O b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n between n u t r i t i v e f a i l u r e ,
s k e l e t a l m a t u r a t i o n r a t e , and r a d i o p a q u e t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s
i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e r a d i u s i n c h i l d r e n . American
J o u r n a l o f Roentgenotoig'y, R a d i o t o g i e a t Therapy, and
Nualeor Medicine 7 6 :482-487.
D r e i z e n , S., C. S p i r a k i s , a n d R. S t o n e
1964 The i n f l u e n c e o f age and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s on bone s c a r
American, J o m n a l o f Physical- A n t h r o p o l o g y 22:295-306.
E l s a s s e r , A.
1978 Development o f r e g i o n a l p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e s . In
Handbook o f N o r t h American I n d i a n s (Vol. 81, e d i t e d by
Robert H e i z e r , pp. 37-57. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n ,
Washington, D.C.
Fowler, M.
1971 The o r i g i n of p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i
Valley: A hypothesis. I n Prehisto'rie A g r i c u l t u r e s ,
e d i t e d by S. S t r u e v e r , p p . 122-128. Nature H i s t o r y P r e s s ,
Garden C i t y , N e w York.
Fredrickson, D.
1974 C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y i n e a r l y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a : A view
from t h e North C o a s t Ranges. Journo.2 o f CaZif0'mz.a
Anthropo'logy 1:41-53.
Gerow, E.
1974a Comments on F r e d r i c k s o n ' s c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y . J o u r n a l
o f C a l i f o r n i a Archaeology 1 :239-246.
1974b C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and c o n v e r g e n t t r e n d s i n p r e h i s t o r i c
C a l i f o r n i a . S a n L u i s Obispo C o u n Q Archaeoloq'ical S o c i e t y
O c c a s i o n a l Paper 8 : 1-57.
Gerow, B . , and R . Force
1968 An A n a l y s i s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y V i l l a g e Complex.. S t a n f o r d
University Press, Palo Alto.
Gould, R.
1964 E x p l o i t a t i v e economies and c u l t u r a l change i n c e n t r a l
California. University o f California Arehaeologica~
S u r v e y R e p o r t 62:123-163.
G r e u l i c h , W., a n d S. P y l e
1959 R a d i o g r a p h i c A t l a s o f S k e l e t a l Development o f t h e Hand end
I7 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH 459
W r i s t . S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Pa10 A l t o .
n a s s a n , F. A.
1973 On mechanisms o f p p u l a t i o n growth d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c .
Current AnthropoZogy 1 4 ~ 5 3 5 - 5 4 2 .
Hayden, B.
1381 Research and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: T e c h n o l o g i c a l
t r a n s i t i o n s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . Current AntkopoZogy
22: 519-531.
Heizer, R.
1939 The a r c h a e o l o g y o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . I : he e a r l y
horizoti. U n i v e r s i t y o f CaZifornia AntkopoZogicaZ
Reports No. 1 2 .
H e i z e r , R., and A. E l s a s s e r
1980 The NaturaZ World of C a z i f o r n i a I n d i a s . u n i v e r s i t y of
C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y and Las Anqeles.
H e i z e r , R . , m d F . Fenenga
1939 A r c h a e o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . A m e r i c a
A n t k o p o Z o g i s t 41:378-339.
Hoffman, J. M .
1976a S t u d i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : C o m i n u t e d
f r a c t u r e o f a humerus w i t h pseudo a r t h r o s i s f o r m a t i o n .
Contributions o f t h e U n i u e ~ s i t yo f C a Z i f o m i a ArehaeoZcgy
Research F a c i l i t y 30:25-39.
1976b S t u d i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a paleopathology: Enlarged p a r i e t a l
f o r m i n a . C o n t ~ b u t i o n so f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f CaZifornia
ArchaeoZogy Research FaciZity 30: 42-61,
1 9 7 6 ~ s t u d i e s iP C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : An a n c h o n d r o p l a s t i c
dwarf from t h e A u q u s t i n e s i t e . Contributions o f t h e Uni-
u e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ArehaeoZogy Research F a c i l i t y 30:65-
105.
Hoffman, J . M . , and L. Brunker
1976 S t u d i e s in C a l i f o r n i a P a l m p a t h o l o g y : C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o -
pathology hiblioqraphy. Conributions o f t h h~i u e r s i t y
o f CaZifornia ArchaeoZogy Research FaciZity 30 :3-23.
Hunt, E . , Jr., and J . W. Hatch
1981 The e s t i m a t i o n o f a g e o f d e a t h and a g e s o f f o r m a t i o n of
t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s from measurements o f human l o n g b o n e s .
American JournaZ o f Physical AnthropoZogy 5 4 ~ 4 6 1 - 4 6 9 .
Johnson, J.
1367 The a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e Comanche r e s e r v o i r l o c a l i t y ,
California. Sacramento AnthropoZogicaZ S o c i e t y Papers
6:l-370.
Kennedy, K.
1360 The d e n t i t i o n o f I n d i a n c r a n i a o f t h e e a r l y and l a t e
A r c h a e o l o q i c a l h o r i z o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Reports
o f U n i u e r s i t y of CaZifornia ArchaeoZogicaZ Survey No. 50,
41-50,
L a l l o , J . , G. Annelagos, and J. Fmse
1978 Paleoepidemiology of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n Dicksan Mound
p o p u l a t i o n s . MedicaZ CoZZege of V i r g i n i a !&mterZy 14:17-
23.
460
DAVID N DICKEL ET AL
L a r s o n , C.
1981 S k e l e t a l and d e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e s h i f t t o a g r i c u l -
t u r e on t h e Georgia' c o a s t . &Trent Anth?opoZogy 22:422-
423.
Lee, R .
1972 P o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f s e d e n t a r y l i f e
among t h e !Kmg Bushman. I n PopuZation Grouth: A n t h o -
pozogieaz Impzioations, e d i t e d by B. Spooner, p p . 329-
342. M.I.T. P r e s s , Cambridge.
Leigh, R .
1928 D e n t a l p a t h o l o w o f a b a r i g i n a l C a l i f o r n i a . U n i u e r s i t y
o f CaZifornia PubZieations i n American ArehaeoZogy and
Ethnograph 23: 399-440.
Lewin, R .
1 9 8 1 D i s e a s e c l u e t o d a m o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Seienee 211:41.
L i l l a r d , J., R. H e i z e r , and E . Fenenga
1939 An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a .
Sacramento J r . CoZZege BuZZetin No. 2 .
McHenry, H.
1968 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n l o n g b n e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a
I n d i a n s . American J o m a Z o f PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 2 9 : l -
18.
1969 M u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n c r a n i a . MS.
on f i l e , Department of A n t h r o p l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i -
f o r n i a , Davis.
McHenry, H., and P. Schulz
1976 The a s s o c i a t i o n hetween H a r r i s l i n e s and enamel h y p p l a s i a
i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s . A m e ~ c a nJournaZ o f
PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 4 4 : 507-512.
1978 H a r r i s l i n e s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , a n d s u b s i s t e n c e change i n
p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . &ZZena Fress PubZica-
t i o n s i n ArohaeoZqy, Ethnography, and K i s t o q 11 : 35-49.
Meiqhan, C.
1959 C a l i f o r n i a c u l t u r e s and t h e c o n c e p t o f an a r c h a i c s t a g e .
American A n t i q u i t y 24:289-318.
M o r a t t o , M.
1972 A study o f p r e h i s t o q i n t h e southern Neuada foothiZZs,
CaZifornia. Ph .D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon,
Eugene.
M o r a t t o , M . , T. King, and W. W o l f e n d e n
1978 Archaeology and C a l i f o r n i a c l i m a t e . JournaZ o f Cazifornia
AnthropoZogy 5 ~ 1 4 7 - 1 6 2 .
Nemeskeri, J.
1970 Die palaodemosraphoscher P r o b l e m d e s Hittle-Domu-Beckens
i n d e r B r o n z e z e i t . Homo 21:80-85.
Neman, R.
1957 A comparative a n a l y s i s o f p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s
f r m t h e lower Sacramento V a l l e y . Uniuersity o f Cazifor-
n i a AreheoZogicaZ Suruey Reports No. 39.
Roney , J .
1966 P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y : An example from C a l i f o r n i a . I n Hman
I7 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH 461
P a Z e o p a t h o Z o ~ ,e d i t e d by S. J a r c h o , p p . 99-107. yde
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven and Undo".
R u f f , C.
1975 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n t h e l o n g b o n e s o f two p r e h i s t o r i c San
F r a n c i s c o Bay p o p u l a t i o n s . M s . on f i l e , Department of
Anthropoloqy, S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , Pa10 A l t o .
S c h u l z , P.
1970 S o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n and p a l e o d e m g r a p h y i n t h e c e n t r a l
C a l i f o r n i a Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . Center for ArchaeoZogi-
ea2 Reseurch a t Davis B ~ b Z i c a t i o n2:18S-198.
1 9 8 1 Osteoarchaeoloqy and subsistence change i n p r e h i s t o r i c
c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i f o r n i a , Davis.
S c h u l z , P . , and J. Johnson
1980 An e a r l y a c o r n c a c h e from c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . JoumaZ o f
C a Z i f o m i a a d Great Basin Antkropozogy 2 ( 1 1 :127-128.
Scrimshaw, N . , C . T a y l o r , a n d J. Gordon
1968 I n t e r a c t i o n s o f n u t r i t i o n and i n f e c t i o n . WorZd Health
Grqaaization Monoqrwh . . S e r i e s No. 57.
Slaymaker, C .
-
1982 A mode2 for t h e studu o f Coast Mimk E t h o q.r a p -~h y . Ph.D.
d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis.
Suchey, J.
1975 BioZogicaZ d i s t a n c e s of p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a 2 i f o m i a
popuzations derived from non-metric t r a i t s o f t h e cranium.
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e .
Willey, G.
1966 An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o American ArehaeoZogy ( v o l . 11.
P r e n t i c e - M a l l . . E n ~ l e w o o dC l i f f s .
>
Z i e q l e r , A.
1968 Q u a s i - a g r i c u l t u r e i n n o r t h c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a and i t s
e f f e c t on a b r i g i n a l s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . D o e b e r Antkro-
poZogica2 S o c i e t y Papers 38:52-67.
'
WHISTORIC SUBSISTENCB AND HEALTH STATUS OF COASTAL PEOPLES

I: )
FROM THE PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA
--
.c -
d
Lynette flow
U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s a t Urbana-Champaign
I - The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h

1.
" a r from simple I t i s complicated by numerous f a c t o r s such
e t t l e m e n t l o c a t i o n , -p o-p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , r e s o u r c e abundance
nd s e a s o n a l a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e age s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,
nd i t s s a n i t a r y h a b i t s I n a d d i t i o n , c u l t u r a l i n p u t i n t h e form
f food t a b o o s , food p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , and l i m i t e d a c c e s s
t o r e s o u r c e s can a l t e r d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
nutrients t o a population
D i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s p e c i f i c n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n -
c i e s and h e a l t h s t a t u s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o document i n any human
population because t h e biochemical f u n c t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s
of most n u t r i e n t s a r e m u l t i p l e and complex Moreover, i n v e s t i -
g a t o r s studying archaeological populations a r e faced with t h e
t a s k of reconstructing t h e subsistence base before e s t a b l i s h i n g
any r e l a t i o n s h i p i t may have w i t h t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e
population The chemical a n a l y s i s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l human and ,
animal bone f o r e i t h e r m i n e r a l composition o r i s o t o p i c compos i-' *
t i o n p r o v i d e s a means o f d i e t a r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and c o r r o b o r a t e s
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence based on f a u n a l , b o t a n i c a l and a r t i f a c -
t u a l remains Dietary reconstruction, i n conjunction with
e s t i m a t e s o f h e a l t h s t a t u s based on s k e l e t a l remains, p r o v i d e s
t h e b a s i s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e d e g r e e t o which a p o p u l a t i o n i s
e x p l o i t i n g and a d a p t i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y t o a p a r t i c u l a r environ-
mental s e t t i n g
OF AGRICULTURE All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0-12-179080 0
464 LYNETTE NO
The Panamanian Isthmus of lower C e n t r a l America has a cultu--

r a l sequence d a t i n g from a t l e a s t 10,000 B C S k e l e t a l remains
t h a t d a t e from p o s s i b l y a s e a r l y a s 5000 B C span t h e t r a n s i t i o n
i n s u b s i s t e n c e from h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g w i l d r e s o u r c e s t o t h e
dependence on seed a g r i c u l t u r e S e t t l e m e n t and s u b s i s t e n c e data
new a v a i l a b l e a r e , f o r t h e most p a r t , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r e s t r i c t e d
t o t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c c o a s t a l p l a i n and p a r t s o f western Panama
These a r e a s a r e r i c h i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and have s u p p o r t e d some
of t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s o f lower C e n t r a l America A t t h e time
o f European c o n t a c t , l a r g e n u c l e a t e d v i l l a g e s under t r i b a l
a u t h o r i t y were w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d in t h i s r e g i o n F i r s t h a n d accoun
of t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s by Europeans d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a
i n o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains of t h e e a r l s -
Panamanian c u l t u r e s
GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND SUBSISTENCE RESOURCES
Most o f t h e Isthmus o f Panama l i e s a t an e l e v a t i o n of l e s s

than 500 m, b u t i t i s d i v i d e d by c e n t r a l mountain ranges averaging
1000-2000 m above s e a l e v e l R a i n f a l l v a r i e s w i t h e l e v a t i o n an?
a i r currents--many p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y r e c e i v e 2000-2500 mm o f
r a i n f a l l annually; some P a c i f i c c o a s t a l a r e a s r e c e i v e l e s s and
some A t l a n t i c c o a s t a l a r e a s much more. The v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r i - -
most o f t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e and c o a s t a l p l a i n i s a deciduous 01
semideciduous f o r e s t , and e a s i l y converted i n t o savanna The
KEppen c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f macroclimates f o r t h i s r e g i o n i s
" t r o p i c a l wet and dry" ( A w ) , and p r o v i d e s a d i v e r s e p a t t e r n of
moist and d r y subregions w i t h i n t h e rainshadow r e g i o n s o u t h of
the divide The a r e a n o r t h of t h e Azuero p e n i n s u l a and around
t h e Bay of P a r i t a i s predominantly a " t r o p i c a l d r y f o r e s t " (Myers
1969) I n c o n t r a s t , t h e Caribbean s l o p e s a r e covered w i t h con-
t i n u o u s , nonseasonal " t r o p i c a l m o i s t f o r e s t " (Af) Evaporation
i n t h i s a r e a i s minimal due t o f r e q u e n t n i g h t t i m e r a i n f a l l s
(Bennett 1968; Holdridge and Budowski 1956; Myers 1969; P o r t e r ,
1973)
Mammals t h a t can be found i n Panama today i n c l u d e v a r i o u s
s p e c i e s of p r i m a t e s , w i l d f e l i n e and c a n i n e mammals, w e a s e l s ,
procyoniddae (such a s coatimundi and racoon) hooved mammals
( t a p i r , d e e r , and p e c c a r i e s ) , e d e n t a t e s ( s l o t h , a n t e a t e r , and
a r m a d i l l o ) , and a v a r i e t y o f r o d e n t s , m a r s u p i a l s , and b a t s
(Bennett 1968; Levy and Chonq 1977) The marine fauna of t h e
P a c i f i c c o a s t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y abutidant, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e Gulf
o f Panama and P a r i t a Bay due t o a s e a s o n a l upwelling t h a t b r i n g s
about an i n c r e a s e i n phytoplankton production and s e a s o n a l
influxes of s h e l l f i s h , crustaceans, schools of shallow water f i s h ,
and f l o c k s o f s e a b i r d s (Glynn 1972) T h i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o mud
f l a t s , mangrove swamps, and lagoon e s t u a r y systems makes t h e
f a r i t a Bay r e g i o n v e r y p r o d u c t i v e To t h e west a l o n g t h e p a c i f i c
-
-
-
-
-
<
1 Cerro Mangote
2 Aguadulce
'^
Â¥i
- 3 Cueva Ladrones
- 4 Monagrillo a b o v e 2660m
-
5 Zapotal
6 S i t i o Sierra
KM
- 100
a b o v e 1660m
7 Giron 1 0 Cerro B r u j o a b o v e 1000m
- 8 VE-7 11 S i t i o Conte
above 300m
1 2 Tonosl I
- 9 La P i t a h a y a
t . 1 ' 1
I"
1
6; ;
FIGURE 18 1 Relief map of Panama indieatfng Zoeations referred t o i n the t e x t adapted from 8 f!
Bennett 1 9 6 8 )
^f
LYNETTE NORR
c o a s t , t h e Gulf o f ~ h i r i q u iis a complex embayrnent o f e s t u a r i e s ,

w i t h calm w a t e r s r i c h i n f i s h . Mollusks and s h e l l f i s h a r e abun-
d a n t i n t h e a d j a c e n t m u d f l a t s ( L i n a r e s 1968)
On p a r t s o f t h e Caribbean c o a s t s t a n d s o f mangrove and l a r g e
f l a t s of t u r t l e g r a s s s u p p o r t g r e e n t u r t l e and manatee Coral
and rocky r e e f s a r e i n h a b i t e d by a l a r g e number o f f i s h s p e c i e s
F i s h biomass i s lower i n t h i s r e g i o n than i n a comparable environ-
ment along t h e P a c i f i c , b u t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y i s q u i t e h i g h
( L i n a r e s 1980b) O v e r a l l , t h e Isthmus o f Panama h a s e x c e l l e n t
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e d i v e r s i t y and p o t e n t i a l f o r s u b s i s t e n c e produc- 'l
tion
I {'
1
BROAD CULTURAL UNITS
The c u l t u r a l sequence f o r western and c e n t r a l Panama can be

broken down i n t o f i v e major p e r i o d s of o c c u p a t i o n based on a r t i -
f a c t assemblage, s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e , s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n , and
apparent s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
P a l e o i n d i a n (?-8000 B C )
Surface f i n d s of f l u t e d p o i n t s and s c r a p e r s demonstrate t h a t

Paleoindian p o p u l a t i o n s once i n h a b i t e d t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n of t h e
isthmus, b u t e x c a v a t i o n s i n rock s h e l t e r s and caves have n o t un-
covered a s s o c i a t e d f e a t u r e s o r s k e l e t a l remains (Bird and Cooke
1977, 1978; Cooke 1984; Sander 1964) Excavations i n p r o g r e s s i n
c e n t r a l Panama have r e c e n t l y uncovered what a p p e a r s t o b e Paleo-
Indian o c c u p a t i o n a l d e b r i s (A. J Ranere, p e r s o n a l communication)
Precerarnic-Archaic (8000-2500 B C )
To d a t e , no a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains have been d i s c o v e r e d d a t i n g

t o t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e Preceramic p e r i o d (8000-5000 B C ) The
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and s k e l e t a l d a t a f o r t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n of t h i s
p e r i o d come from rock s h e l t e r s i n c e n t r a l and western Panama
(Bird and Cooke 1978; Cooke 1978; L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971; Ranere
1972, 1980) and t h e P a r i t a Bay c o a s t a l s h e l l midden s i t e Cerro
Mangote (McGimsey 1956, 1957, 1959; McGimsey et a 1 1966;
Ranere 1979, 1981; Ranere and Hansel1 1978)
E a r l y Ceramic-Early A g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s (2500-300 B C )
The i n i t i a l p a r t of t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d (2500-1000 B C )

i s w e l l known from Monogrillo, a s h e l l midden on t h e P a r i t a Bay
c o a s t (Willey and McGimsey 1 9 5 4 ) , and from r e l a t e d f i n d s i n t h e
18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA
c e n t r a l Panama rock s h e l t e r s La Cueva de 10s Ladrones and

Aguadulce (Bird and Cooke 1978; Cooke 1978; Ranere and Hansel1
1978) These c u l t u r a l d e p o s i t s a r e a b s e n t from western Panamanian
rock s h e l t e r s ( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971)
The l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d i s n o t well known.
Only r e c e n t l y has a s i t e been found i n t h e P a r i t a Bay a r e a t h a t
demonstrates S* c u l t u r a l development from t h e e a r l i e s t
ceramic s i t e s t h r o u g h t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e E a r l y Ceramic
p e r i o d , t o t h e succeeding p e r i o d o f A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e s (Ranere
and Cooke 1982)
A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e s (300 B C -A D 500)
S e v e r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e s have been recorded and i n v e s t i -

g a t e d on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s of c e n t r a l P a c i f i c Panama (Cooke
1979, 1984; Ladd 1964; Willey and Stoddard 1954) They p r o v i d e
evidence o f t h e f i r s t ceramic and a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e o c c u p a t i o n
of t h e f e r t i l e v a l l e y s i n t h e western h i g h l a n d s ( L i n a r e s and
Ranere 1971; L i n a r e s e t a 1 1975; L i n a r e s 1977a,b; L i n a r e s and
S h e e t s 1980)
A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdoms (A.D 500-1550) , 3
V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f b u r i a l goods s u g g e s t
t h a t a rank s o c i e t y was e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c r e g i o n
by A D 400-500 (Cooke 1984; H e l m s 1976, 1979) Excavations i n -
d i c a t e t h a t a s i m i l a r l e v e l o f o r g a n i z a t i o n i s reached in t h e
western h i g h l a n d s a t a b o u t t h e same time ( L i n a r e s 1977b; L i n a r e s
and Sheet's 1980) and along t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e o f western Panama by
A D 700 However, chiefdoms n e v e r appear t o have formed along
t h e Caribbean s l o p e s o f western Panama ( L i n a r e s 1980c)
PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE, SETTLEMENT, AND POPULATION GROWTH
A s h i f t i n emphasis from h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g t o seed a g r i -

c u l t u r e can be documented along t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e of c e n t r a l and
western Panama Some form of v e g e c u l t u r e and t h e t e n d i n g of f r u i t
and palm t r e e s probably was i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e h u n t i n g and
g a t h e r i n g scheme and remained i n p r a c t i c e t h r o u g h t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
p e r i o d s , a s it does today (Cooke 1984; L i n a r e s 1977b, 1980d;
Smith 1980) Due t o c l i m a t i c and geographic v a r i a t i o n a s w e l l a s
c u l t u r a l c h o i c e s , t h e t r a n s i t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r uniformly throughout
the area
The P a r i t a Bay r e g i o n i s t h e o n l y l o c a t i o n i n a l l of lower
C e n t r a l America in which t h e r e has been a long h i s t o r y of c o a s t a l
r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n , 5000 B C - p r e s e n t (Ranere e t a 1 1980)
Although t h e rock s h e l t e r s o f western Panama were occupied f r o m ,
c i r c a 5000 B - C , p o p u l a t i o n s d i d not i n
of western Panama u n t i l approximately 1
1968) The Caribbean s l o p e s o f western
i n t h e c u l t u r a l sequence (A D 6 0 0 ) , and h e r e seed a g r i c u l t u r e .
never r e p l a c e d r o o t and t r e e c r o p s a s t h e s u b s i s t e n c e base
( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971; L i n a r e s e t a 1 1975; L i n a r e
Thus, a c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of
s i s t e n c e , and s e t t l e m e n t d a t a f o r p r e h i
p r i m a r i l y on t h e 7000-year o c c u p a t i o n a l s e
and a d j a c e n t r e g i o n s Supporting d a t a
and a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e s o f t h e P a c i f i
western Panama, w h i l e a v e r y b r i e f and d i f f e r e n t s c e n a r i o occurred
on t h e Caribbean c o a s t
P a l e o i n d i a n (?-8000 B C . )
Paleoindian p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e Chagres V a l l e y i n e a s t e r n
Panama presumably were hunting some o f t h e known L a t e ~ l e i s t o c e
fauna, i n c l u d i n g a v a r i e t y o f e x t i n c t l a r g e mammals (Cooke 1984;
Gazin 1957) a s w e l l a s peccary and d e e r A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s no
f o s s i l ev-idence f o r t e r m i n a l P l e i s t o c e n e mammals i n e a s t e r n
Panama, where P a l e o i n d i a n l i t h i c s a r e found (Cooke 1984) The
degree t o which w i l d f r u i t s and r o o t s o f t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t and
savanna were u t i l i z e d i n t h i s r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i a l i z e d h u n t i n g
scheme i s n o t known
The s u b s i s t e n c e d a t a f o r t h e Preceramic-Archaic p e r i o d (8000-

2500 B C ) come from r o c k s h e l t e r s i n western and c e n t r a l Panama
and t h e s h e l l midden s i t e of Cerro Mangote along P a r i t a Bay The
d a t a c o n s i s t o f carbonized p l a n t remains, l i t h i c t o o l assemblages
f a u n a l remains, p o l l e n , and p h y t o l i t h s
Carbonized remains o f t h r e e p l a n t s a r e common in rock
s h e l t e r s ; a t r e e legume, Algarrobo (Hymenea eourbaril) ; a cherry-
l i k e f r u i t , nanee (Byrsonima erassifolia} ; and f r u i t s of t h e
eorozo palms (Acpoeomia v i n i f e r a and S h e e l k sonensis (Ranere and
Hansel1 1978; Smith 1980) The palms p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d more t o
t h e d i e t than t h e o t h e r two p r o d u c t s B o t a n i c a l remains were not
found a t t h e c o a s t a l s h e l l midden s i t e o f Cerro Mangote, b u t
l i t h i c assemblages s u g g e s t a common technology f o r procuremen
and p r o c e s s i n g of food
The preceramic l i t h i c t o o l k i t s u g g e s t s "simple e x t r a c t i v e
technologies" (Fanere 1981) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h wild p l a n t s and pos-
s i b l y w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e based on r o o t c r o p s ( L i n a r e s 1977b) The
k i t i n c l u d e s edge-ground cobbles o r "edge g r i n d e r s " and boul
milling stones
Faunal remains from t h e rock s h e l t e r s i n c l u d e d e e r and a

v a r i e t y of medium t o small mammals Remains o f r e p t i l e s and
amphibians were r e l a t i v e l y r a r e , and f i s h m o l l u s k s , and f r e s h -
w a t e r t u r t l e s were i m p o r t a n t o n l y a t one s i t e (Cooke 1981)
P h y t o l i t h and p o l l e n s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t seed c r o p s were
p r e s e n t , b u t perhaps were n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e sub-
s i s t e n c e base P o l l e n and p h y t o l i t h s i d e n t i f i e d a s maize have'
been found i n p r e c e r a m i c l e v e l s a t La Cueva de 10s Ladrones i n
t h e highlands o f c e n t r a l Panama (Piperno 1980; Piperno and C l a r y
1982; Ranere and Cooke 1982) . P o l l e n i d e n t i f i e d a s an e a r l y
v a r i e t y o r "wild" maize a l s o has been i d e n t i f i e d from Gatun Lake
sediment c o r e s d a t i n g t o 5350-2280 B C Additional palynological
evidence f o r a g r i c u l t u r e seen i n more r e c e n t sediments i s a b s e n t
a t t h i s time ( B a r t l e t t e t a 1 1969)
Recent s u r v e y s have r e s u l t e d i n p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s of s i t e
d e n s i t y a l o n g p o r t i o n s o f t h e Santa Maria River d r a i n a g e Open
a i r preceramic s i t e s average a b o u t 25 m o r l e s s i n d i a m e t e r
Larger s i t e s , e l l i p t i c a l i n shape cover about 450 m2 Aceramic
s i t e d e n s i t y , based on a 2 5 km s u r v e y t r a n s e c t , i s e s t i m a t e d t o
be approximately 2 5 sites/km2 (Weiland 1982) Based on t h e c a r r y -
i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e a r e a , Bennett (1968: 31) h a s a t t e m p t e d a
" g r o s s approximation" o f t h e p o s s i b l e d e n s i t i e s o f human popula-
tions He s u g g e s t s an o v e r a l l d e n s i t y o f 1 3 persons/km2 f o r t h e
Isthmus, w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 1 9 and 0 6 persons/km2 on t h e P a c i f i c
and A t l a n t i c c o a s t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y
E a r l y Ceramic-Early A g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s (2500-300 B C )
During t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e E a r l y Ceramic/Early A g r i c u i t u r a l -
i s t s p e r i o d (2500-1000 B C ) , settlement continues i n the p a t t e r n
of t h e p r e v i o u s p e r i o d (Ranere and Hansell 1978) Use o f t h e
rock s h e l t e r s c o n t i n u e s , a l t h o u g h new l o c a t i o n s a r e occupied along
t h e P a r i t a Bay, Monagrillo (Willey and McGimsey 1 9 5 4 ) , and Z a p o t a l
'Ranere and Hansell 1978) I n situ t r a n s i t i o n from p r e c e r a m i c t o
:eramic o c c u p a t i o n i n rock s h e l t e r s s u g g e s t s t h a t no a p p r e c i a b l e
:hange i n r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n o r technology o c c u r r e d (Cooke 1984;
L i n a r e s 1976) P h y t o l i t h and p o l l e n a n a l y s e s from rock s h e l t e r
c o n t e x t s show t h a t maize was d e f i n i t e l y p r e s e n t i n c e n t r a l Panama
a t t h e t i m e ceramics were i n t r o d u c e d (Piperno 1980; Piperno and
Clary 1982) ; b u t t h e c o n t i n u i t y i n s u b s i s t e n c e technology i m p l i e s
t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a seed crop was no more t h a n a c a s u a l
addition t o t h e subsistence base
Preceramic and E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d food procurement systems
of c e n t r a l Panama involved transhumance among both c o a s t a l and
inland resources The annual c y c l e involved d r y season and e a r l y
wet season e x p l o i t a t i o n o f i n t e r t i d a l , m u d f l a t , mangrove, and
e s t u a r y r e s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g s a l t , and wet season c o l l e c t i o n o f
t r e e c r o p s and h u n t i n g f o r mammals
I n a d d i t i o n , d u r i n g t h e Monagrillo p h a s e maize may have been
cultivated. Occupational s i t e s a r e l o c a t e d on low h i l l s n e a r
LYNETTE NORR
streams, n o t on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s Highly mobile groups w i t h a

low p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y may have c u l t i v a t e d t h e s e h i l l s l o p e s d u r -
i n g p a r t of t h e y e a r (Ranere and Cooke 1982) To d a t e t h e r e i s
no evidence, b o t a n i c a l o r o t h e r w i s e , f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of r o o t
crops during t h i s p e r i o d
The l a s t 700 y e a r s o f t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d (1000-300 B C )
represent a period of l o c a l i n s f i u t r a n s i t i o n i n t o a g r i c u l t u r a l
villages The p r e s e n c e o f l a r q e numbers o f p o l i s h e d s t o n e t o o l s
and l a r q e l e g l e s s "breadboard" r i m m e t a t e s and c y l i n d r i c a l manos
a f t e r 1000 B C s u g g e s t s an e x t e n s i v e u s e of maize (Ranere and
Cooke 1982) P o l l e n from t h e Chagres River v a l l e y i n e a s t e r n
Panama is i n d i c a t i v e of a g r i c u l t u r e 1150 B C -A D 150 The as-
s o c i a t i o n of l a r g e g r a i n s o f maize p o l l e n w i t h t h e s c a r c i t y o f
t r e e p o l l e n , a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e of compositae and graminae p o l l e n ,
t h e p o l l e n of herbaceous weeds, and t h e p r e s e n c e of f i n e l y d i v i d e d
charcoal a l l p o i n t toward nearby a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y The
presence o f ~ a n i h o te s e u l e n t a p o l l e n and Ipomoea s p p o l l e n sup- -
p o r t s t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t manioc and p o s s i b l y sweet p o t a t o e s were

c u l t i v a t e d d u r i n g t h i s time ( B a r t l e t t e t a 1 1969)
Agricultural Villaqes (300 B C -A D 500)
By 300 B C rock s h e l t e r s and c o a s t a l s h e l l middens were

abandoned a s l i v i n g s i t e s , and n u c l e a t e d and permanent v i l l a g e s
c u l t i v a t i n g maize, beans, and a v a r i e t y o f r o o t and t r e e c r o p s
were e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s alonq t h e major r i v e r s of
t h e P a c i f i c lowlands and i n t h e v o l c a n i c v a l l e y s o f t h e western
highlands (Cooke 1979, 1984 ) Archaeological remains o f carbonized
seed c r o p s a s w e l l a s t h e s t o n e t o o l s used t o p r o c e s s them a r e
abundant The d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t by this time, maize had become a
s t a p l e crop (Cooke 1984; L i n a r e s and Cooke 1975; L i n a r e s e t a 1
1975; Linares and S h e e t s 1 9 8 0 ) .
The s i t e o f S i t i o S i e r r a alonq t h e Santa Maria River i n c e n t r a l
Panama has y i e l d e d q u a n t i t i e s o f carbonized maize from b o t h domes-
t i c and b u r i a l c o n t e x t s Numerous o t h e r i t e m s i n d i c a t i v e of a g r i -
c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s have been found on t h e f l o o r s o f s m a l l l i v i n g
s t r u c t u r e s d a t i n g 65 B.C -A.D 235, i n c l u d i n g manos and m e t a t e s
a s well a s polished stone axes Three v a r i e t i e s o f maize a r e
p r e s e n t , and a s i n g l e fragment of a bean (Phaseotus v u l g a r u s ) was
recovered from t h e s i t e (Cooke 1979, 1984)
The faunal remains a t S i t i o S i e r r a a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of spe-
c i e s from savanna and d i s t u r b e d h a b i t a t s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e land
used by t h e s e v i l l a g e r s had been c u t r e p e a t e d l y and c l e a r e d f o r
a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes (Cooke 1979, 1984) W h i t e - t a i l e d d e e r were
hunted, b u t f i s h (predominantly from f r e s h w a t e r ) r e p r e s e n t t h e
most common source of p r o t e i n (Ranere e t a 1 1980) The f a u n a l
assemblage s u g g e s t s year-round human o c c u p a t i o n Included with
t h e mammalian remains a r e a s s o r t e d b i r d s , r e p t i l e s , and amphibians
(Cooke 1979, 1981; L i n a r e s and Cooke 1975) Data c o l l e c t e d a t
s i t e s n e a r t h e c o a s t i n d i c a t e t h a t both maize and s h e l l f i s h were

a l s o i m p o r t a n t components o f t h e d i e t (Ichon 1980; Ladd 1964)
During t h i s p e r i o d , t h e f e r t i l e h i g h l a n d v a l l e y s o f western
Panama were s e t t l e d by a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t were expand-
i n g t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e base o f palm and r o o t c r o p s t o i n c l u d e maize
and beans Carbonized p l a n t remains and ground s t o n e t o o l s a r e
abundant i n t h e s e highland s i t e s Remains i n c l u d e c h a r r e d s p e c i -
mens o f beans ( P l i a s e o ~ u svutqarus) and maize ( L i n a r e s e t a l 1975;
L i n a r e s 1977b; L i n a r e s and S h e e t s 1980)
P o p u l a t i o n s grew r a p i d l y i n t h i s a r e a , a s t h e y d i d i n t h e
c e n t r a l P a c i f i c region B~ t h e end of t h i s p e r i o d , t h e formation
of a rank s o c i e t y was w e l l underway, a s evidenced by t h e beginning
of a s i t e h i e r a r c h y a s w e l l a s an unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of e l i t e
goods i n b u r i a l s A s i m i l a r t r e n d occurred i n c e n t r a l Panama
( L i n a r e s 1977b; L i n a r e s and S h e e t s 1980)
The h i g h l a n d occupation i n western Panama was i n t e r r u p t e d ap-
proximately A D 600 when Volcan Baru e r u p t e d ( L i n a r e s and S h e e t s ,
1980; S h e e t s 1 9 8 0 ) , prompting m i g r a t i o n s t o b o t h c o a s t s ( L i n a r e s
1977a, 1980a,d) I t should be noted t h a t t h e m i g r a t i o n s toward
t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t began two o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and a d e c r e a s e i n
r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y may have i n i t i a t e d t h e s e m i g r a t i o n s ( L i n a r e s
1977a, 1980a) The chiefdoms on t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t resembled con-
temporary chiefdoms i n c e n t r a l Panama The p o p u l a t i o n t h a t
migrated t o t h e A t l a n t i c c o a s t became d i s p e r s e d , and r e t a i n e d an
e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971;
L i n a r e s 1980c)
A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdoms (A. D 500-5501
Much o f what i s known "aBout d i e t and p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h i s

p e r i o d comes from r e p o r t s by European c h r o n i c l e r s of t h e s i x t e e n t h
c e n t u r y (Cooke 1979; de Andagoya 1865; de Espinosa 1873, 1892;
Fernandez de Oviedo Valdes 1853; Helms 1979; Lothrop 1937; Sauer
1966) I n c e n t r a l and p a r t s o f western Panama t h e r e e x i s t e d a
number of chiefdoms whose s i z e and l o c a t i o n provided a c c e s s t o a
wide v a r i e t y o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s I n some c a s e s , t e r r i t o r i e s
ranged from t h e s e a t o t h e mountains, u s u a l l y f o l l o w i n g a major
river valley S e t t l e m e n t s i n some a r e a s were n u c l e a t e d i n t o towns
such a s Nat5 i n c e n t r a l Panama and Darien i n e a s t e r n Panama There
were a l s o numerous s c a t t e r e d d w e l l i n g s n e a r waterways and c u l t i -
v a t e d f i e l d s i n t h e v a l l e y s and a l o n g t h e mountain s l o p e s
E s t i m a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y by Bennett (1968:37, map 6 ) f o r
t h e more populous r e g i o n s a r e 4-6 persons/km2
A g r i c u l t u r e , h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g provided t h e b a s i c sub-
s i s t e n c e foods during t h i s p e r i o d Crops i n c l u d e maize, manioc,
sweet p o t a t o e s , and o t h e r r o o t c r o p s , p e a n u t s , c h i l i p e p p e r s ,
p i n e a p p l e s , and coconuts M o s t e a r l y accounts a l s o r e p o r t an
abundance of both t e r r e s t r i a l and marine fauna
LYNETTE NORR
Archaeological knowledge o f t h i s p e r i o d comes from a number

of s i t e s i n c e n t r a l and western Panama i n c l u d i n g S i t i o Conte
(Lothrop 1937 ) , El H a t i l l o , Delgado , S i x t o P i n i l l a P l a c e (Ladd
19641, s e v e r a l s i t e s n e a r Tonosi (Ichon 19801, and S i t i o S i e r r a
(Cooke 1979, 19841, La P i t a h a y a on I s l a Palenque a l o n g t h e P a c i f i c
c o a s t ( L i n a r e s 1 9 8 0 c , e ) , and Cerro Brujo along t h e Caribbean c o a s t
(Linares 1980b, f )
An a n a l y s i s of t h e f a u n a l remains (Cooke 1981, 1984; L i n a r e s
and Cooke 1974; L i n a r e s 1976) shows a r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n i n r e s o u r c e
utilization T e r r e s t r i a l f a u n a l remains, p r i n c i p a l l y d e e r , a r e
quite scarce a t t h e P a c i f i c s i t e s The few s p e c i e s r e p r e s e n t e d
a r e those i n h a b i t i n g open savanna and a r e a s c l e a r e d f o r c u l t i v a -
tion I n c o n t r a s t , t h e abundant t e r r e s t r i a l fauna a t Caribbean
c o a s t a l s i t e s was composed p r i m a r i l y o f s o l i t a r y t r o p i c a l f o r e s t
species
CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF BONE FOR DIETARY RECONSTRUCTION
The chemical a n a l y s i s of human s k e l e t a l remains f o r m i n e r a l

composition o r s t a b l e i s o t o p i c composition can b e a v a l u a b l e t o o l
i n dietary reconstruction The r a t i o o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s
i n bone c o l l a g e n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o of s t a b l e carbon
i s o t o p e s i n t h e d i e t (De Niro and E p s t e i n 1978) Similarly t h e
r a t i o of s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e s i n bone c o l l a g e n i s d i r e c t l y r e -
l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o of s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e s in t h e d i e t (De Niro
and E p s t e i n 1981). The r a t i o s o f t h e s e i s o t o p e s v a r y p r e d i c t a b l y
i n nature Continual consumption of a food s o u r c e r i c h i n e i t h e r
1 3 o~r 1 5 w~i l l r e s u l t i n a h i g h 13c/l^c o r ~ S N / ~ ^ r aNt i o i n t h e
body
Marine fauna a r e r i c h i n both ^C and ^N comoared &. t o terres-
t r i a l organisms There i s one e x c e p t i o n , however t h e "c/^c
r a t i o of p l a n t s t h a t have a four-carbon (C4) p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p a t h -
way i s v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l to t h e ^c/^c r a t i o t h a t i s found i n
marine fauna.- Some well-known C4 p l a n t s i n c l u d e maize, sorghum
sugar cane, and m i l l e t R a t i o s of l3c/l2c and l5KI/14~, e x p r e s s e d
i n p a r t s p e r m i l (o/oo) and r e l a t i v e t o an a n a l y t i c a l s t a n d a r d ,
a r e w r i t t e n a s S^C o r s^^VS v a l u e s The 6 v a l u e s of a sample may
be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , r e l a t i v e t o t h e a n a l y t i c a l
standard The v a r i a t i o n of 13c/12c r a t i o s i n n a t u r e , e x p r e s s e d
A t h i r d variation i n photosynthetic pathways i s t h e crassula-

cean m i d metabolism (CAM) CAM plants use a metabolic process by
which they switch t h e i r photosynthetic pathways from C3-like t o
C4-like during night and day Most CAM plants are succulents and
have a S^^C value somewhere between those o f C3 and C4 plants
(Bumstead 1981 The pineapple i s a CAM plant which was eaten i n
Panama prehistorica l2y
A
PDB
FIGURE 18 2 Variations of S C values i n parts per mil
(o/oo) i n nature (see Now and Coleman 1982)
a s 613c v a l u e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e P D B ~s t a n d a r d , a r e shown i n F i g u r e
18 2 While a l l o f t h e 6^-^C v a l u e s a r e n e g a t i v e , t h e S^-^C v a l u e s
f o r marine fauna and C4 p l a n t s a r e more p o s i t i v e than o t h e r t e r -
r e s t r i a l organisms Figure 18 3 provides a s i m i l a r representation
showing t h e v a r i a t i o n o f 15N/14N r a t i o s i n n a t u r e These a r e ex-
p r e s s e d a s 615N v a l u e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t a n d a r d , atmospheric
nitrogen The 615N v a l u e s f o r marine and e s t u a r y fauna a r e more
p o s i t i v e than t h e 6 1 5 N v a l u e s f o r t e r r e s t r i a l organisms Legumes,
which u t i l i z e n i t r o g e n f i x e d by s y m b i o t i c b a c t e r i a , e x h i b i t t h e
most n e g a t i v e S^-^N v a l u e s
A p p l i c a t i o n s o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p i c a n a l y s i s o f bone c o l -
l a g e n a r e l i m i t e d t o two s i t u a t i o n s : (1) t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of C4 p l a n t s ( p r i n c i p a l l y maize i n t h e New World)
t o t h e d i e t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n i n l a n d environments, away from
marine r e s o u r c e s , and ( 2 ) t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n
of marine fauna t o t h e d i e t s o f c o a s t a l i n d i v i d u a l s who were n o t
p o t e n t i a l l y consuming C4 p l a n t s o r animals t h a t f e e d on C4 p l a n t s
( f o r a r e v i e w s e e Bumstead 1981 1982) A p i l o t study using pre-
h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l remains from c o a s t a l and i n l a n d s i t e s i n Costa
Rica r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e & v a l u e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s from c o a s t a l
s i t e s were more p o s i t i v e t h a n t h o s e from contemporary i n l a n d s i t e s
(Norr 1980, 1981a; Norr and Coleman 1982) These r e s u l t s r e f l e c t
t h e f a c t t h a t c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s presumably consumed both maize
and marine f a u n a , whereas many i n l a n d p o p u l a t i o n s a t e l i t t l e o r no
marine fauna.
1 h e PDB standard i s a carbon dioxide gas prepared from a

erateeeous belemnite, BeZemn-itella amerieana, from the Peedee
formation of South Carolina
LYNETTE NORR
10 -5 0 +5 +lo +15 +20 +25

A
ATMOSPHERIC
NITROGEN
FIGURE 18 3 Variations o f 6 15N values i n parts per m i l

(o/oo) i n nature (see Now and Coleman 1982)
The Panamanian example p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n However,

t h e Panamanian sample a l s o i n c l u d e s s i t e s such a s Cerro Mangote,
which i s a preceramic-preagricultural c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n The
s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p i c composition o f bone c o l l a g e n from p r e a g r i -
c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s would be i n d i c a t i v e of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of
marine fauna ( n o t maize) t o t h e d i e t C o r r o b o r a t i n g evidence may
be o b t a i n e d from t h e s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p i c composition o f bone
collagen from t h e same i n d i v i d u a l s (Norr 1981b; Norr and Coleman
1982; Schoeninger e t a 1 1983a,b) Although t h e s t a b l e carbon
i s o t o p e composition of bone c o l l a g e n from t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l popula-
t i o n s w i l l be i n d i c a t i v e o f some combined c o n t r i b u t i o n of maize
and marine fauna t o t h e d i e t , r e s u l t s from s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e
a n a l y s i s w i l l be s u g g e s t i v e of what p o r t i o n of t h e d i e t c o n s i s t e d
of o n l y marine fauna From t h i s , t h e maize c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e
d i e t may b e i n f e r r e d While t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s i s s t i l l i n an
experimental s t a g e and e s t i m a t e s o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of a p a r t i -
c u l a r r e s o u r c e t o t h e d i e t may be u n r e l i a b l e , s h i f t s through time
i n d i e t a r y emphasis may b e determined by a n a l y s e s now i n p r o g r e s s
(L Norr, unpublished)
SKELETAL REMAINS, PATHOLOGIES, AND STRESS INDICATORS
Human s k e l e t a l remains from t h r e e of t h e f i v e major time

p e r i o d s d i s c u s s e d a r e r e p o r t e d h e r e (Table 1 8 1) C e n t r a l and
western P a c i f i c Panama a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by approximately 87 i n -
d i v i d u a l s from a Preceramic-Archaic c o n t e x t , and 28 and 32 i n -
TABLE 18 1 Sizes of Samples of Individuals from Archaeologiaal
S i t e s i n Central and Western Panama
Slumber of
Period Li tion Site Individuate
Precerk-Archaie Ce "a2 Panama Cerro Mangote 87

(5000-2500 B C ) . --
Agricultural Central P a n a m a s % ~ Sierra 25
Villages Giron 3
( Z O O B C -A D 500) Tonosi area 38"
Agricu ltuval Central Panama S i t i o Sierra 13
Chiefdoms VE-7 1
(A D 500-1550) S i t i o Conte ?a
Tonost, area 81a
Western La Pitahaya 18
Pacific
coast
Western Cerro Bru.Jo 6
Caribbean
coast
"Â¥skeletaremains not anuZyzed i n t h i s report
d i v i d u a l s from A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e and A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom con-

texts, respectively S i x i n d i v i d u a l s were recovered from t h e
Caribbean c o a s t a l r e g i o n of western Panama. To d a t e , no s k e l e t a l
remains have been uncovered from e i t h e r t h e P a l e o i n d i a n o r t h e
Early Ceramic-Early A g r i c u l t u r a l i s t p e r i o d s . Additional s k e l e t a l
remains have been excavated from t h e s o u t h e r n Azuero Peninsula
(Ichon 1980) and from c e m e t e r i e s a t HE-1 (Ladd 1964) and S i t i o
Conte (Lothrop 1 9 3 7 ) , b o t h i n t h e C e n t r a l P a c i f i c r e g i o n of Panama
Some o f t h e L a t t e r a r e extremely fragmented and may n o t b e a v a i l -
able f o r analysis
Burials
Preceramic Archaic (5000-2500 B C )
B u r i a l s a t Cerro Mangote were p l a c e d i n t o what a p p e a r s t o have

been an a c t i v e l y accumulating s h e l l midden3 i n f l e x e d , bundle, o r
p a r t i a l l y d i s a r t i c u l a t e d p o s i t i o n s i n s i n g l e , p a i r e d , o r group
3 ~ z c a v a t i o n si n 1979 by Ranere (1979) a t Cerro Mangote revealed

the fast t h a t some of the burials were quite close t o the surface
of t h e s h e l l mound There i s some question as t o hovi ear@ i n the
p e c e m i c sequence (5000-2500 B C ) the Cerro Mangote individuals
were interred.
LYNETTE NORR
c o n t e x t s , with no c l e a r a s s o c i a t i o n s o f age o r sex Many were

d i s t u r b e d when new b u r i a l s were added t o t h e midden, and subse-
q u e n t l y f r a c t u r e d from t h e weight o f t h e overburden The bundle
b u r i a l s were i n a s t a n d a r d arrangement w i t h t h e s k u l l a t one end,
t h e p e l v i s a t t h e o p p o s i t e end, t h e long bones a l o n g t h e two
s i d e s , small bones i n t h e c e n t e r , and t h e r i b s on t o p More o f t e n
than n o t , t h e bundles i n c l u d e d remains of more t h a n one i n d i v i d -
u a l , w i t h no s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l completely r e p r e s e n t e d (McGimsey
e t a 1 1966; Banere 1 9 8 1 ) .
Agr-ural V i l l a g e s (300 B C -A D 500) "
A small cemetery d a t e d t o c i r c a 240 B C was excavated a t

S i t i o Sierra Adult and c h i l d b u r i a l s were s i n g l e , f l e x e d , and
accompanied by grave goods I n f a n t s were found e i t h e r i n a s s o -
c i a t i o n w i t h an a d u l t o r i n t h e household middens (Cooke 1977,
1979, p e r s o n a l communication) S k e l e t a l p r e s e r v a t i o n was good and
i n d i v i d u a l remains ( t o t a l N = 28, i n c l u d i n g i n d i v i d u a l s from
~ i r 6 n )were n e a r l y complete, a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y fragmented
An a d d i t i o n a l 38 i n d i v i d u a l s excavated o n t h e Azuero P e n i n s u l a
(Ichon 1980) a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s
AgricuZtwal Chiefdoms (A D 500-1500)
S k e l e t a l remains uncovered a t S i t i o S i e r r a and La P i t a h a y a

on I s l a Palenque i n western Panama a r e combined h e r e f o r a n a l y s i s
( t o t a l N = 32) The S i t i o S i e r r a b u r i a l s i n c l u d e 1 3 i n d i v i d u a l s
from s i n g l e , extended i n t e r m e n t s i n a l a r g e cemetery The small
sample i s undoubtedly b i a s e d (Cooke 1979, p e r s o n a l communication)
The I s l a Palenque b u r i a l s i n c l u d e 18 i n d i v i d u a l s , many a s s o c i a t e d
with an e l a b o r a t e l y adorned a d u l t male who probably was a high-
ranking i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e chiefdom. Other remains, o f t e n incom-
p l e t e and fragmented, were encountered throughout t h e e x c a v a t i o n s
(Linares 1980s) . A s i n g l e , contemporaneous tomb b u r i a l from
VE-7 ( C R McGimsey, p e r s o n a l communication) i s a l s o i n c l u d e d i n
t h i s analysis B u r i a l s d i s c o v e r e d a t S i t i o Conte (Lathrop 1937)
and 81 o f t h e b u r i a l s from t h e Azuexo P e n i n s u l a (Ichon 1980) d a t e
t o t h i s p e r i o d , b u t were n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s i s
Caribbean Coastal Region of Western Panama (A. D 600-900)
A s i n g l e , p a r t i a l l y d i s a r t i c u l a t e d bundle b u r i a l , i n c l u d i n g
p a r t i a l remains o f t h r e e i n d i v i d u a l s , was d i s c o v e r e d d u r i n g exca-
v a t i o n a t Cerro Brujo The remains o f t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s
were i s o l a t e d d i s c o v e r i e s s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e e x c a v a t i o n s
( L i n a r e s l98Of)
18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA 477
Methods
The p r o j e c t was i n i t i a l l y d i r e c t e d toward determining p r e h i s -

t o r i c d i e t through t h e chemical a n a l y s i s o f bone collagen Basic
demographic information was recorded as bone samples were removed
from chemical a n a l y s i s Sex and b i o l o g i c a l age a t t h e time of
death were determined by standard macroscopic morphological i n d i - -3
cators .;A
I n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s , e i t h e r p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s o r osteomyeli-
t i s , were recorded f o r each i n d i v i d u a l a s e i t h e r systemic o r
l o c a l i z e d , a c t i v e o r healed Incidence of p o r o t i c hyperostosis, t
e i t h e r of t h e c r a n i a l v a u l t o r of t h e o r b i t s , was a l s o recorded a s -
,&
a c t i v e o r healed and was graded f o r s e v e r i t y Circular c a r i e s , as

well a s cases of h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n , of deciduous t e e t h a l s o were
recorded C a r i e s , enamel hypoplasias , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , and
sexual dimorphism i n o v e r a l l r o b u s t i c i t y were noted but were n o t
systematically quantified Any u n c e r t a i n t y i n i d e n t i f y i n g a
pathology o r i n recording has been coded a s t h e absence of data
Results
Tabulations of age and sex and pathology a r e presented i n

Table 18 2 The A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e s (300 B C -A D 500) sample
was t h e only one s u f f i c i e n t l y complete t o permit an e s t i m a t e of
a d u l t ages The fragmentary information on a d u l t age a t death f o r
the o t h e r two samples l i m i t s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of m o r t a l i t y pro-
f i l e s and l i f e expectancy t a b l e s t o i n d i v i d u a l s who died before
t h e age of 20 y e a r s The samples a r e small and t h e p i c t u r e i s
f u r t h e r d i s t o r t e d by p r a c t i c e of i n t e r r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l e d t o
accompany another i n death (Helms 1979; Lothrop 1937) For
example, t h e 18 i n d i v i d u a l s from La Pitahaya include a propor- 3
$7
t i o n a l l y l a r g e number of ceremonial o r s a c r i f i c i a l b u r i a l s , p r i - -,
marily i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n , t o accompany a high-ranking i n d i v i d u a l

Children and i n f a n t s a l s o accompanied a d u l t male and female b u r i a l s
a t t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e of Cerro Mangote and may have been as-
sociated with r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e For these reasons, only informatior
on t h e age a t death i s provided i n Table 1 8 2
The a d u l t male: female r a t i o f o r t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l Cerro
Mangote sample i s n e a r l y 1:1, suggesting t h a t n e i t h e r s e x was p r e f -
e r e n t i a l l y buried i n t h e s h e l l mound The A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e
component a t S i t i o S i e r r a , however, e x h i b i t s a biased sex r a t i o of
n e a r l y two a d u l t females f o r every a d u l t male, suggesting t h a t not
a l l i n d i v i d u a l s were buried h e r e I t a l s o may be an i n d i c a t i o n of
a polygynous mating system i n which c e r t a i n males may have had
more than one female mate The b i a s e s discussed above regarding
skewed age compositions apply here a s well The small sample from
S i t i o S i e r r a and t h e b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s a t La Pitahaya may give an
a t y p i c a l sex r a t i o f o r t h a t population
Figure 18 4 shows t h e percentages of each sample a f f e c t e d by
p r o t i c hyperostosis and long bone i n f e c t i o n s Twelve p e r c e n t of
TABLE 1 8 2 Tabulations of Age, Sex, and Incidence o f Infection, Porotic Hyperostosis, and Circular Caries for t h e Preceramic/Amtiaic, Agpi.cu1.t~-
r a t ViLlages, and A g r i d t u r a l Chiefdoms Skeletal Samples
Period and Number Percentage Long bane i n f e c t i o n Porotic h ~ ~ e r o s t o s i - sCimutar dories

age group of of t o t a l Sex Systemic LocaZized No No No
(years) individuals for period Male Female 7 Active Healed Active Healed data Present data Present Arta
Preceramic-Archaic
0- 4.9
5- 9.9
10-14.9
15-19.9
Adult
AgricuZtural Villages
0- 4.9
5- 9.9
10-14.9
15-19.9
20-29.9
30-39.9
40-49.9
50-59.9 ,
Agricultural Chiefdoms
0- 4.9
5- 9.9
10-14.9
15-19.9
Adult
Caribbean Coast
0- 4 9
5- 9.9
10-14.9
15-19.9
Adult
AGRICULTURAL VILLAGES
AGRICULTURAL CH IEFDOflS
POI
AGRICULTURAL VILLAGES
AGRICULTURAL CH IEFDOtIS
0 10 20 30 40 50% --
B LONG BONE INFECTION
FIGURE 18 4 The percentage of individuals from Preceramic/
Archaic, Agricultural Villages, and Agricultural Chiefdoms that
exhibit ( a ) porotic hyperostosis, and ( b ) long bone i n f e c t i o n .
t h e Preceramic-Archaic sample, 18% of t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e

sample, and 33% o f t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom sample showed s i g n s
o f e i t h e r a c t i v e o r healed, p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s A t Cerro Brujo,
one o f f o u r n e a r l y complete i n d i v i d u a l s showed i n d i c a t i o n s o f a
s e v e r e c a s e of t h i s d e f i c i e n c y d i s e a s e
The i n c i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n i n t h e Cerro Manqote p r e a q r i c u l t u -
r a l sample i s r a t h e r h i g h ( 2 6 % ) , and h a s been commented on by
McGimsey e t a 1 (1966) The frequency o f a c t i v e , c h r o n i c , and
systemic i n f e c t i o n i n c h i l d r e n under 10 y e a r s o f age i s p a x t i c u -
l a r l y h i g h , whereas l o c a l i z e d p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s , u s u a l l y i n
t h e t i b i a and f i b u l a , a r e more common i n a d u l t s Infection is
somewhat r a r e r among t h e e a r l y a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s from S i t i o S i e r r a ,
a f f e c t i n g o n l y two i n f a n t s and one o l d e r a d u l t male (15%) The
a d u l t male had a systemic o s t e o m y e l i t i c i n f e c t i o n w i t h numerous
l e s i o n s a f f e c t i n g p r i n c i p a l l y t h e t i b i a e , femora, u l n a e and
clavicles The fragmented and p a r t i a l c r a n i a l v a u l t e x h i b i t e d
similar lesions The d i s t r i b u t i o n , e x t e n t , and n a t u r e of t h e s e
l e s i o n s a r e s u g g e s t i v e of a treponemal i n f e c t i o n o r of c h r o n i c
and p e r s i s t e n t o s t e o m y e l i t i s of staphyloccocal o r i g i n The higher
incidence of i n f e c t i o n among t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom sample
( 4 2 % ) i s c o n s i s t e n t with a decrease i n h e a l t h a s s o c i a t e d with
sedentary l i f e and a g r i c u l t u r a l systems However, t h i s p a t t e r n
was not observed among e q u a l l y sedentary Early A g r i c u l t u r a l period
populations
Circular c a r i e s and incidences of h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n were found
frequently i n t h e deciduous t e e t h of t h e c h i l d r e n from t h e Agricul-
t u r a l Village and A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p e r i o d s I n a process t h a t
was probably i n i t i a l l y r e l a t e d t o p r e n a t a l l y formed enamel hypo-
p l a s i a s , t h e t e e t h became carious when exposed t o s t a r c h y and
s t i c k y weaning g r u e l s This c a r i o u s v a r i a t i o n of enamel hypoplasia
i s n o t seen i n c h i l d r e n of t h e preceramic, p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample
DISCUSSION
Given t h e abundant n a t u r a l resources of t h e Isthmus of Panama

p r e h i s t o r i c populations would b e expected to have e x h i b i t e d s e v e r a l
d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s of resource u t i l i z a t i o n t h a t could provide an
adequate and well-balanced d i e t Two major d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s can
be i d e n t i f i e d .
The f i r s t subsistence p a t t e r n i s p r i m a r i l y a hunter-gatherer-
archaic scheme involving a g e n e r a l i z e d , wide-ranging p a t t e r n of
resource u t i l i z a t i o n Low population d e n s i t y and high m o b i l i t y
allowed f o r resource e x p l o i t a t i o n over a l a r g e a r e a Scheduling
made optimal use of seasonal resources such a s marine fauna o r
fruits
The second s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n i s a more s p e c i a l i z e d one focus-
ing on an a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a p l e The high production of a r e l i a b l e
subsistence s t a p l e i s a s s o c i a t e d with an i n c r e a s e i n population
d e n s i t y and a decrease i n t h e d i v e r s i t y of t h e resource base As
a r e s u l t of t h e demand f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l production t h e environment
may be modified i n ways t h a t l i m i t t h e range of resources a v a i l a b l e
t o a population If the agricultural staple i s deficient i n
s p e c i f i c n u t r i e n t s , and t h o s e n u t r i e n t s a r e not supplied by o t h e r
complementary food sources, a d e c l i n e i n h e a l t h s t a t u s can be ex-
pected
I n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama t h e s e two s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s a r e
demonstrated f i r s t by t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l Cerro Mangote p o p u l a t i o
and second by t h e e a r l i e r and l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s from
S i t i o S i e r r a and La Pitahaya i n c e n t r a l and western P a c i f i c Panam
For t h e p r e a g y i c u l t u r a l population* t h e r e is a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evi-
dence documenting a broad-based d i e t a r y p a t t e r n and t h e consumpti
of a wide v a r i e t y of resources t h a t would have met p r o t e i n , miner
and vitamin needs Root crop vegeculture which m o s t l i k e l y was
p r a c t i c e d by t h e time of t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n of t h e Preceramic-
'
Archaic period, would have provided a good source o f c a r b o h ~ d s a t
I n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ( F i g u r e 1 8 4a) d u r i n g t h e
Preceramic-Archaic i s q u i t e low, s u g g e s t i n g moderate b i o a v a i l -
a b i l i t y of iron The i n f e c t i o n r a t e , however, i s q u i t e h i g h
( F i g u r e 1 8 4b) I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e t h i s h i g h i n c i d e n c e of
i n f e c t i o n t o s u b s i s t e n c e and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s More d e t a i l e d
information on enamel h y p o p l a s i a s might i d e n t i f y an annual o r
seasonal s t r e s s t h a t i s not y e t e v i d e n t based on t h e a v a i l a b l e
d a t a , b u t ( e x c e p t f o r perhaps a s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e i n r e s o u r c e s )
t h e r e i s no obvious d e f i c i e n c y i n t h i s p a t t e r n of s u b s i s t e n c e
t h a t might lower r e s i s t a n c e and i n c r e a s e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n f e c -
tion The a p p a r e n t l y high i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o n observed may be
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n j u r i e s o r r e l a t e d t o poor s a n i t a r y h a b i t s r e s u l t -
i n g from t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of a p a r t i a l d e g r e e o f s e d e n t i s w ~ ith
e x p l o i t a t i o n of c o a s t a l r e s o u r c e s
The a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n o f s u b s i s t e n c e a p p a r e n t l y was a t i t s
peak along t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t o f Panama d u r i n g t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l
Chiefdom p e r i o d (A.D 500-1550) Maize was undoubtedly t h e sub-
s i s t e n c e s t a p l e and provided a high-carbohydrate, high-energy food
source t h a t was s t o r a b l e f o r use d u r i n g food s h o r t a g e s Well-known
n u t r i t i o n a l problems r e s u l t from a maize-based d i e t , however
These n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a maize-based d i e t
can be o f f s e t o n l y by e i t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d food p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h -
niques (such a s t h e u s e of l i m e o r f e r m e n t a t i o n ) o r t h e a d d i t i o n
of a v e r y s p e c i f i c and n u t r i t i o n a l l y complementary s e t o f food
r e s o u r c e s (such a s beans) t o t h e d i e t
The common bean, Phaseolus v u ~ a r < s ,probably was a d i e t a r y
component o f t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a l chiefdoms and would have comple-
mented t h e amino a c i d composition o f maize Unfortunately, besides
maize and beans, many o t h e r d i e t a r y components, such a s r o o t c r o p s
and marine fauna a l s o e x h i b i t a h i g h phosphorus:calcium r a t i o , and
t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e d i e t would do l i t t l e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a
proper mineral balance Moreover much o f t h e phosphorus i s i n
t h e form o f p h y t a t e s , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g f u r t h e r t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i -
t y of iron t o these populations
E a r l y Spanish accounts r e f e r t o t h e numerous fermented maize
and f r u i t beverages ( c h i c h a s ) consumed by t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t Agri-
c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p o p u l a t i o n s (Helms 1979) According t o Derman
e t a1 (1980) , i r o n a b s o r p t i o n from a fermented beverage can be
12 times t h a t from t h e same unfermented g r u e l T h i s p r a c t i c e may
i n c r e a s e i r o n b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y b u t would be dependent on t h e d e g r e e
of f e r m e n t a t i o n a s w e l l a s on t h e assumption t h a t t h e r e were no
c u l t u r a l o r s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s t o t h e consumption of e h i e h a s
The h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e of p r o t i c h p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e s q l e from
t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p e r i o d (33%) ( F i g u r e 1 8 4a) s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h i s p o p u l a t i o n was under some s t r e s s f o r d i e t a r y i r o n
Requirements f o r vitamin C could be s a t i s f i e d by i n c l u d i n g
c n i l i peppers and t r o p i c a l f r u i t s i n t h e d i e t There i s no a r -
c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence however, f o r nanee u t i l i z a t i o n a s i n p r e -
a g r i c u l t u r a l contexts. I n a d d i t i o n , i f c h i l i p e p p e r s were d r i e d ,
they would l o s e approximately 60% of t h e vitamin C t h e y c o n t a i n
482 LYNETTE NORR
.
Manioc and squash a l s o c o n t a i n moderate amounts o f vitamin C, b u t
t h e water-soluble v i t a m i n would b e l o s t i f t h e s e were b o i l e d
I n f e c t i o n r a t e s f o r t h i s same l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample a r e
a l s o high (42%) ( F i g u r e 1 8 4b) A s y n e r g i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p betwee
i r o n d e f i c i e n c y and i n f e c t i o n h a s been suggested (Wadsworth 1975;
s e e Goodman e t a 1 , Chapter 2, t h i s volume)
While an o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e i n b o t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and i n -
f e c t i o n can be s e e n r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r l i e r a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e -
a g r i c u l t u r a l samples, a breakdown by age c a t e g o r i e s does n o t show ,
a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two ( F i g u r e 1 8 5 ) A comparison
of t h e s e samples r e v e a l s a n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n For each age
c a t e g o r y , when t h e i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n c r e a s e s , ,
t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e i n t h e i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o n , and v i c e v e r s a '
The absence of an expected p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n f e c t i o
and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s may be a f u n c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e l y smal
sample s i z e used i n t h e a n a l y s i s I f , however, t h e s e d a t a a r e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e frequency o f s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n t h e s e 3
p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s , then n o n - d i e t a r y f a c t o r s such a s poor
s a n i t a t i o n , i n j u r y , and p a r a s i t e s may have c o n t r i b u t e d s i q n i f i c a n
l y t o t h e i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s The'low i n f e c t i o n r a t
i n t h e e a r l i e r a g r i c u l t u r a l population suggests t h a t t h i s l a t e r
i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a n overdependence on a s i n g l e
food s o u r c e , maize
It i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t d u r i n g t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p e r i o
(A.D 500-1550) , human p o p u l a t i o n s were changing t h e i r environmen
more r a p i d l y t h a n new complementary r e s o u r c e s could be found t o
supplement t h e d i e t . I f t h e r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y t o complement a
maize-based d i e t were both a v a i l a b l e and u t i l i z e d , an i d e n t i f i a b
i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o n and d e f i c i e n c y d i s e a s e would not b e expect
Since we do f i n d i n d i c a t i o n s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , i t i s reason
t o conclude t h a t t h e s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e of t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s i s de-
f i c i e n t and a f f e c t i n g h e a l t h s t a t u s
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e e a r l i e r A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e (300 B C -A.D
500) sample shows l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s The
adoption of maize a s a d i e t a r y s t a p l e may have been a long proces
begun around 2500 B C Smaller amounts o f maize i n t h e d i e t , corn
plemented by abundant game and t r o p i c a l f r u i t s , probably provided
well-balanced, n u t r i t i o n a l l y adequate d i e t f o r t h e 240 B C sampl
analyzed from S i t i o S i e r r a I t was n o t maize p e r s e , t h a t c r e a t e
t h e problem, b u t t h e l a r g e - g r a i n e d South American v a r i e t i e s
were involved i n t h e s h i f t from maize a s a d i e t a r y component
mixed economy t o maize a s a s u b s i s t e n c e base (Ranere and Cook
1982)
The a g r i c u l t u r a l system t h a t was p r a c t i c e d a l o n g t h e C a r i b
c o a s t A.D 600-900 was v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h e maize a g r i c u l t u r a l
p a t t e r n along t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t , r e s u l t i n g i n a r e l i a n c e on an a1
t e r n a t i v e high-carbohydrate food s o u r c e , p r i n c i p a l l y manioc. Un-
l i k e t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n , t h i s was a swidden
system and l a r g e a r e a s o f f o r e s t were n o t d e s t r o y e d The environ
ment was changed v e r y l i t t l e , l e a v i n g t e r r e s t r i a l fauna and 0 t h
f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s u n a l t e r e d and r e l a t i v e l y abundant
; 18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA
s-
0-4 9 5-9 9 1 0 - 1 4 9 15-ADULT

AGE I N YEAR
A PRECERAMIC/ARCHAIC
0-4 9 5-9 9 10-14,9 15-ADULT

AGE I N YEARS
FIGURE 1 8 5 A comparison of the incidence of i n f e c t i o n

t o incidence of porotic hyperostosis f-----)by age
category i n ( a ) individua'ls from preaqricuZturaL contexts, and
(b) indiuiduaZs from agricu'lturaZ contexts
LYNETTE NORR
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The i n f e c t i o n r a t e and i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s f o r
p r e h i s t o r i c c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s from t h e Isthmus o f Panama show a
g e n e r a l t r e n d t o i n c r e a s e i n frequency o v e r time The i n c r e a s e
i n p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s can be r e l a t e d t o t h e g r e a t e r dependence
on a l i m i t e d number o f d i e t a r y r e s o u r c e s , p r i m a r i l y maize The
i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o n r a t e o v e r time can i n t h e two a g r i c u l t u r a l
p o p u l a t i o n s , be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r e a t e r dependence on fewer
d i e t a r y r e s o u r c e s and a r e s u l t i n g d e c r e a s e i n t h e n u t r i t i o n a l
q u a l i t y of t h e d i e t The somewhat u n u s u a l l y h i g h i n c i d e n c e of in-
f e c t i o n i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample may b e due t o i n j u r y and
unsanitary l i v i n g conditions.
An in-depth i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a g r e a t e r number o f s k e l e t a l i n -
d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i s recommended Those t h a t seem
p l a u s i b l e , g i v e n t h e f r e q u e n t l y fragmented n a t u r e o f t h e s k e l e t a l
remains, i n c l u d e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e ,
and perhaps growth a r r e s t l i n e s and a d u l t s t a t u r e An i n c r e a s e i n
sample s i z e would g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n s concerning t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between d i e t and h e a l t h s t a t u s
i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s r e s e a r c h was supported by a Tinker Foundation F i e l d

Research Grant and t h e Department of Anthropology Summer Research
Fund a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , Urbana Skeletal material
was provided f o r a n a l y s i s by Richard G Cooke, C h a r l e s R McGimsey
111, Olga P L i n a r e s , and Anthony J Ranere, w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e
and cooperation of E l Museo d e l Hombre, Panama, and t h e U n i v e r s i t y
of Arkansas Museum, F a y e t t e v i l l e Research f a c i l i t i e s were pro-
vided by t h e Smithsonian T r o p i c a l Research I n s t i t u t e , Balboa,
Panama, and J e r r y Rose, Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of
Arkansas, F a y e t t e v i l l e .
I wish t o thank b o t h Linaa J-I. Klepinger and George R Milner
f o r t h e time t h e y devoted t o d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains
I am deeply indebted t o my husband, Paul A Garber, f o r h i s h e l p f u l
REFERENCES
B a r t l e t t , A S , E S Barqhoorn, and R Berqer

1969 F o s s i l maize from Panama Science 165-389-390
Bennett, C F
1968 Human i n f l u e n c e s of t h e zoogeography of Panama Ibero-
f k e r k a No 51
Bird J , and R Cooke
1977 Los a r t i f a c t o s m a s .antiques de Panama Revista Naeional
de a u r a 6:7-31
1978 The occurrence i n Panama of two t y p e s o f Paleo-Indian pro-
j e c t i l e points I n E a r l y man i n t h e New World from a
circum-Pacific p e r s p e c t i v e , e d i t e d by A. L Bryan 1
Department o f Ant'hropology Universittf of Alberta Occasional
Papers No 1, pp 263-272
Bumstead, M. T
1981 The p o t e n t i a l o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n b i o a r c h a e o l o g i -
c a l anthropology In Biocultural adaptation: Comprehensive
approaches t o s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s , e d i t e d by D L Martin and
M. P Bumstead. Department of Anthropology University of
Massachusetts Research Reports No. 20. Amherst
1982 The p o t e n t i a l of s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n b i o a r c h a e o l o g i -
c a l anthropology MS on f i l e , Department of Anthropology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s Urbana
Cooke R G
1977 E l hachero y e l c a r p i n t e r o : DOS a r t e s a n o s d e l panama p r e -
colombino R e v b t a Panmefia de Antropologi.a No 2
1978 La cueva de 10s l a d r o n e s d a t o s p r e l i m i n a r e s s o b r e l a
ocupaci6n f o r m i t i v a Aetos Si.mposÂ¥iioNaeional de Antropo-
logia, Arqueologia, y ~ t h n o ' h i s t o r i ade Panam& 4 t h , pp 281-
304
1979 Los impactos de l a s comumidades a g r l c o l a r precolombinas e n
10s ambientes d e l t r o p i c 0 e s t a c i o n a l : Datos d e l panama
prehist6rico Aetas S z h p o s h Internaeional de Eeolog-Za
Tropical 4th1 3 : 917-973 j 2
1981 Los h a b i t o s a l i m e n t a r i o s de 10s i n d i g e n a s precolombinos dq.'/,;*

panama Academia Panarnefia de Medieina y Cirugfa 6 (1):65- -''*'=
89
1984 Archaeological r e s e a r c h i n c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n Panama: A
review o f some problems School o f American Research
Advanced Seminar on Lower Central America , i n p r e s s
de Andagoya, P
1865 Narrat$e of t h e proceedings of Pedrarias Davita Trans-
l a t e d and e d i t e d by C R. Markhan Hakluyt S o c i e t y ,
London
de Espinosa, G
1873 Relacion e proceso q u e l Licenciado Gaspur Despinosa,
Alcalde Mayor, h i z o en e l v i a j e desde e s t a Ciudad de
p a n a d a l a s p r o v i n c i a s de P a r i s e Nata e a l a s o t r a s pro-
v i n c i a s comarcanas. Doementos Ineditos de Indias v o l xx
486 LYNETTE NORR
1892 Relacion hecha p o r Gaspar de E s p i n o s a , A l c a l d e Mayor de

C a s t i l l a de Oro, dada 5 P e d r a r i a s de A v i l a , Lugar-
T e n i e n t e General d e a q u e l l a s P r o v i n c i a s , de todo l o que
s u c e d i 6 en l a e n t r a d a que h i z o en c e l l a s de o r d e n de
Pedrarias Docwnentos Inedfbos de Colombia Vol 11
De Niro, M. J , and S E p s t e i n
1978 I n f l u e n c e of d i e t on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of carbon i s o t o p e s
i n animals. Geochimica e t Cosmochimiea Acta 42: 495-506
1981 I n f l u e n c e o f d i e t on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e s
i n animals Geoch-Lmica e t Cosmochim~caActa 45 :341-351
Dennan D P , T H Brothwell, J D ~ o r r a r i c e ,W R Bezwoda,
A. P MacPhail, M C Kew, M H S a y e r s , P B D i a l e r , and
R. W C h a r l t o n
1980 I r o n a b s o r p t i o n from maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum
vukare} beer B r i t i s h Journal of NutKtion 43:271-279
Fernandez d e Oviedo y Valdes, G
1853 Historia general y n a t d de l a s Indias ( V O ~ 11, part:
Vol 111) Real Academia d e l a H i s t o r i a , Madrid
Gazin, c L
1957 E x p l o r a t i o n f o r t h e remains of g i a n t ground s l o t h s ii
Panama. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n 1955-1956, pp 341-354
Glynn, P
1972 Observations o n t h e ecology o f t h e Caribbean and P a c i f i c
c o a s t s o f Panama I n The Panamic b i o t a : Some o b s e r v a t i o n ;
p r i o r t o a s e a - l e v e l c a n a l , e d i t e d by M L J o n e s
Bulletin o f the Biological Society of Washington 2:13-33
Helms, M W
1976 Competition, power, and s u c c e s s i o n t o o f f i c e i n p r e -
Columbian Panama I n Frontier adaptations i n Z O W ~ P Central
America, e d i t e d hy M W Helms and F Q. Loveland, pp
25-35 I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Study o f Human I s s u e s , P h i l a d e l -
phia
Ancient Panama: Chiefs i n search of p o w U n i v e r s i t y of
Texas P r e s s , Austin
""ildrige, L R . , and G Budowski
1956 Report o f an e c o l o g i c a l s u r v e y o f t h e Republic o f Panama
Caribbean Forester 1 7 :92 -110
-^<hon, A
1980 ~ r c h g o l o g i edu sud de l a P g n i n s u l e d f A z u e r o , Panama
Etudes MSsoamSrieaks s g r i e 11, No 3
La'-<.!-*, J
1964 Archaeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e P a r i t a and Santa Earic
zones o f Panama Smithsugian I n s t i t u t i o n Bureau of
American Ethnology Bulletin NO 193
Levy, R , and R Chong
1977 Wildlife of Panama S p e c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n pamphlet, United
S t a t e s Southern Command, Canal Zone, Panama
L i n a r e s 0. F
1968 C u l t u r a l chronology o f t h e Gulf o f C h i r i q u i , Panama
Smithsonian Contributions i n Ant'hpopology , Vol 8
r
.* T 7I
?=F
18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA 487 4

j
1976 Garden h u n t i n g i n t h e American t r o p i c s Human 'Ecology 4:
.^
-Â
--
^
331-349 !
1977a Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s i n western Panama World Archaeology a
8 :304-31 9 d
1977b Ecology and t h e a r t s i n a n c i e n t Panama: On t h e develop-
ment o f s o c i a l rank and symbolism i n t h e c e n t r a l p r o v i n c e s
Dumbarton Oaks Studies i n Pre -Co lumbian A r t and Archaeology
No 17
1980a Conclusions I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Pana-
ma, e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere Peabody
Museum Monographs NO 5 , pp 233-249
1980b Ecology and p r e h i s t o r y of t h e Aguacate P e n i n s u l a i n ~ o c h s
d e l Toro I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, 1
e d i t e d by 0. F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum
Monographs No 5 , pp 57-66 <
1980c Ecology and p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e C h i r i q u i Gulf s i t e s In
Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by
0 F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs I
NO 5 , pp 67-77
1980d I n t r o d u c t i o n I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Pa-
nama, e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere
Museum Monographs NO 5 , pp 7-14
Peabody
1i
1980e La P i t a h a y a (IS-3) i n t h e Gulf o f C h i r i q u i : Mapping and
excavation I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama
e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum : 4
Monographs NO 5 , pp 306-315
1980f The Aguacate s i t e s i n Bocas d e l Toro: Excavations and 5
stratigraphy I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, v
e d i t e d by 0. F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum

- Monographs NO 5, pp. 292-305
L i n a r e s , 0 F , and R G Cooke
1975 Differenthi! e x f l o i t a t i o n of lagoon-estuary systems i n ^-
Panama. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XL annual meeting o f t h e
S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology, D a l l a s ,
L i n a r e s , 0 F., and A J Ranere
1971 Human a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s o f western Panama -,
Archaeology 24:346-355
L i n a r e s , 0. F , and P D S h e e t s
1980 Highland a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e s i n t h e v o l c a n ~ a r r6e g i o n
I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by
0. F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs
No. 5 p p 44-55
L i n a r e s , 0. F , P D S h e e t s , and E J. Rosenthal -^-'
1975 P r e h i s t o r i c a g r i c u l t u r e i n t r o p i c a l highlands Science
187:137-145
Lothrop, S K.
1937 C o d e An a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f c e n t r a l Panama, I
Memoirs o f the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and ~ t h n o l o ~ y ,
Vol 7
LYNETTE NORR
McGimsey, C. R.
1956 Cerro Mangote: A p r e c e r a m i c s i t e i n Panama Arneriean
Antiquity 22 ~ 1 5 1 - 1 6 1
1957 F u r t h e r d a t a and a d a t e from Cerro Manqote, Panama
American A n t q u i t y 23:434-435
1959 A s u r v e y o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y known b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s i n
panama Aetas Cong~esoInternaeioml de Amerieanistas
3 3 ~ d2: 347-356
McGimsey, C R M B C o l l h s , and T W McKern
1966 Cerro Mangote and i t s population. P?per p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
XXXVIIth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of AiiIericanistsr Mar d e l
Plata
Myers, C W
1969 The e c o l o g i c a l geography o f c l o u d f o r e s t i n Panama 1
Ameriem M u s m of Natmaz History flmita&es No 2396 i
Norrr L. g
1980 Bone chemistry m d prehistoric d i e t : I n i & i a l r e s u l t e from !
Costa Riea. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLVth annual meeting 1
o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology, P h i l a d e l p h i a
1981a Prehistoric Costa Riean d i e t as determined from stable 5
carbon isotope r a t i o s i n bone collagen. H r d l i c k a p r i z e
winning paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Lth a n n u a l meeting of t h e 1
American A s s o c i a t i o n o f P h y s i c a l A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s r D e t r o i t 6
1981b Prehistoric human d i e t i n louer C e ~ t r a ZAmerica: The !
maize vs marine fauna problm Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
I I I r d annual meeting of t h e S o c i e t y f o r A r c h a e o l o g i c a l
Sciences San D i ~ g o
Norr, L , and D D Coleman
1983 D i e t a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f 13c/12c i n p r e h i s t o r i c bone
c o l l a g e n from a t r o p i c a l c o a s t a l environment M s on f i l e ,
Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , Urbana
Piperno, D R.
19SO Phutolith evidence for maize e u ~ t i v a t i o ni n central P a m a
du>ing t h e Early C&mie p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLVth
a n n u a l meeting o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology
Philadelphia
Piperno, D R. and K H Clary
1982 Phytolyths and pollen f r m arehaeologieal s i t e s i n central
P a m a . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Congress of h e r i c a n i s t s , Manchester England
PortFr, D M
1973 The v e g e t a t i o n of Panama: A review I n vegetation and
vegetational hi&ory of norbhern Lakin Amerieac e d i t e d by
A. Graham, pp 167-201 E l s e v i e r , New Y o ~ k
Ranere, A. J
1972 EarZy human a d a p t ~ t i o n seo flew World tropical forests
Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis
U n i v e r s i t y Microfilms, Ann Arbor
1979 Cerro Manqote, 1979: P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t . M s on f i l e r
Department o f Anthropologyr Temple U n i v e r s i t y
5: 'W<,?F=2
18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMEMCA 489
1980
Preceramic s h e l t e r s i n t h e Talamancan Range I n Adaptive
r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama! e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s
and A J Ranere Peabody Museum Momgraphs NO 5 , pp
16-43
1981 The re-excavation and r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Cerro Mangote:
A preceramic s h e l l midden i n c e n t r a l Panama M S on f i l e ,
Department of Anthropology, Temple U n i v e r s i t y
Ranere, A J , and R. G Cooke
1982 The proyecto Santa MaKa: A multidisciplinary analyses of
p r e h i s t 0 r - L ~adaptations t o a t r o p i c a l watershed i n Panma
Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of
Americanists, Manchester, England
Ranere, A J , and P Hansel1
1978 E a r l y s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s along t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t of
Panama I n P r e h i s t o K c coastal adaptationst e d i t e d by
B L. S t a r k and B. Voorhies, pp. 43-59 Academic P r e s s ,
New York.
Ranere, A. J , R. G Cooker and P Hansel1
1980 Food procurement i n t h e Parita &y region o f Panama,
5000 B C -500 A D Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLVth annual
meeting of t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology, P h i l a -
delphia.
Sander, D
1964 L i t h i c m a t e r i a l from Panama: F l u t e d p o i n t s from Madden
Lake Actas y Memorias Congreso I n t e r n a c i o m l de
Amer<canistas 35th 1 ~ 1 8 3 - 1 9 2
Sauer, C 0
1966 The early Spanish Ma<%. u n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s ,
Berkeley
Schoeninger, M J , M. J DeNiro and H Tauber
1983a 1 5 N / 1 4 N r a t i o s of bone c o l l a g e n r e f l e c t marine and t e r -
r e s t r i a l components of p r e h i s t o r i c human d i e t . American
J o m a Z o f Physical An6h~opology 60:252 ( A b s t r )
1983b S t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e r a t i o s o f bone c o l l a g e n r e f l e c t
marine and t e r r e s t r i a l components o f p r e h i s t o r i c human
diet Sc<ence 220: 1381-1383
Gheets, P D.
1980 The v o l c s n ~ a r 6 r e g i o n : A s i t e survey I n Adaptive
r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c panama, e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s
and A J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs No 5, pp
267-275
Smith, c E
1980 P l a n t remains from t h e C h i r i q u i s i t e s and a n c i e n t vegeta-
tional patterns I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c
Panama, e d i t e d by 0. F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere
Peabody Nusewn Monographs NO 5 , pp 151-174
Wadsmrth, G R.
1975 N u t r i t i o n a l f a c t o r s i n anemia Worzd Revigw of N u t r i t i o n
and D i e t e t i c s 2 1 ; 75-150
r*
LYNETTE NORR
Weiland, D
1982 Settlement patterns i n t h e Santa Maria drainage: A pre- ,;
Ziminary a n a l y s i s Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r - ,
n a t i o n a l Congress o f Americanists , Manchester , England
Willey, G R . , and C R. McGimsey
1954 The Monagrillo C u l t u r e o f Panama +$Az~g
Papers
Musewri o f Archaeology and E t h m logy 49 (21 cc-+.+;5 +---y
Cfab~da
8
Willey, G. R., and T L Stoddard
1954 C u l t u r a l s t r a t i g r a p h y i n Panama : A p r e l i m ~ n a r y
.~~po$$~-?
t h e Giron s i t e American A n t i q u i t y 1 9 :332-343 -c :,
CHAPTER 19
PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR:

POSSIBLE TEMPORAL TRENDS AND CULTURAL CORRELATIONS
D. H UbeZaker
Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n
INTRODUCTION
Ecuador i s d i v i d e d by t h e north-south-running Andes mountain

c h a i n i n t o an e a s t e r n lowlands and a c o a s t a l s t r i p The s p a r s e l y
populated e a s t e r n lowland r e g i o n is l a r g e l y t r o p i c a l f o r e s t ,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by "heavy, almost year-round r a i n s and i n t e n s e h e a t ,
w i t h dense f o r e s t and v i n e cover" (Willey 1971:8) Subsistence
i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e r i v e d from f i s h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a r g e r
r i v e r s (Carneiro 1968) , h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g , and h o r t i c u l t u r e ,
w i t h manioc t h e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c t
The h i g h l a n d a r e a i n c l u d e s some of t h e h i g h e s t v o l c a n i c peaks
i n t h e hemisphere (Chimborazo, 6310 m; Cotopaxi, 5943 m) a s w e l l
a s a g r i c u l t u r a l l y r i c h mountain v a l l e y s a t lower e l e v a t i o n s
Human e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n s i s mostly r e s t r i c t e d
t o g r a z i n g , w i t h t h e sheep and c a t t l e of today r e p l a c i n g t h e
llama of e a r l i e r t i m e s A t s l i g h t l y lower e l e v a t i o n s , t h e p o t a t o
i s t h e p r i n c i p a l crop and a p p a r e n t l y d a t e s back t o p r e h i s t o r i c
times According t o Meqgers (1966:23), a b o r i g i n a l c r o p s o f t h e
highland v a l l e y s i n c l u d e maize, quinoa (Chenopodim q u i n u a ) ,
white c a r r o t (Amacacia e s d e n t a ) , squash, beans, and o t h e r
t y p e s of t u b e r s The lower v a l l e y s produced avocados, guavas,
chirimoyas, tomatoes and o t h e r f r u i t s , and agave ( f o r f i b e r )
The c o a s t a l s e c t i o n of Ecuador shows c o n s i d e r a b l e environ-
mental v a r i e t y t h a t i s l a r g e l y produced by v a r i a t i o n i n r a i n f a l l ,
which i n t u r n i s i n f l u e n c e d by p a t t e r n s of ocean c u r r e n t s The
n o r t h e r n h a l f o f t h e c o a s t a l a r e a b e n e f i t s from r e g u l a r r a i n f a l l ;
consequently, a g r i c u l t u r e f l o u r i s h e s and many of t h e s p a r s e l y
populated a r e a s resemble t r o p i c a l f o r e s t The s o u t h e r n h a l f
(Guayas Province and s o u t h e r n Manabi Province) i s s e m i a r i d much
OF AGRICULTURE 491 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN 0 12 179080 0
D. H. UBELAKER
of t h e time s i n c e r a i n f a l l i s minimal and i r r e g u l a r There i s no

doubt t h a t i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s a s w e l l a s today, marine and
brackish-water f i s h and mollusks were a major d i e t a r y component
f o r t h e c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s , i f n o t t h e p r i n c i p a l means o f sub-
s i s t e n c e i n many a r e a s A b o r i g i n a l l y , t h e a r e a supported maize
a g r i c u l t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f l o o d p l a i n s of t h e major r i v e r s
Other c r o p s probably i n c l u d e d manioc, sweet p o t a t o , a c h i r a , arrow-
r o o t , New World yam, p e a n u t s , and perhaps c o t t o n and t h e b o t t l e
gourd Deer and s m a l l e r mammals were a v a i l a b l e a s a d i e t a r y
supplement (Lathrap 1976)
CULTURAL H I STORY
Systematic a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o Ecuadorean pre-

h i s t o r y were i n i t i a t e d by J a c i n t o J i j d n y Caamafio i n t h e e a r l y
decades o f t h i s century and have continued through t h e e f f o r t s of
many i n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s Most o f t h i s work h a s focused
on t h e southern c o a s t , perhaps because t h i s a r e a o f f e r s t h e b e s t
p r e s e r v a t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s and t h e most h o s p i t a b l e
environment f o r excavation (Lathrap 1976: 1 5 )
Meggers (1966:154) summarized t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e O r i e n t e
if region a s "almost unknown " S i n c e t h a t t i m e , P o r r a s Garc6s h a s
documented more of t h e p r e h i s t o r i c chronology (1972a,b, 1975) and
r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d h i s s t a r t l i n g d i s c o v e r y of a ceremonial c e n t e r
i n t h e a r e a , w i t h radiocarbon d a t e s r a n g i n g from 270 B C t o
A D 180 ( P o r r a s Garcgs 1981) Very l i t t l e d a t a have emerged on
s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , o r temporal changes i n
subsistence More i s known of t h e c u l t u r a l chronology of t h e
highlands, b u t most of t h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g sub-
s i s t e n c e and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n t h i s a r e a a l s o remain unre-
solved The most complete a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a come from t h e
c o a s t , where most a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y has focused and impor-
t a n t r e s e a r c h problems a r e being i n v e s t i g a t e d
Most a r c h a e o l o g i s t s r e c o g n i z e f o u r developmental p e r i o d s i n
Ecuadorian p r e h i s t o r y : Preceramic ( b e f o r e 3000 B C ) ; Formative
(3000 B.C t o about 500 B C ) ; Regional Development (500 B C t o
A.D 5 0 0 ) , and I n t e g r a t i o n (A.D 500-1500) (Meggers 1966:25)
AS i s t r u e f o r a l l of t h e Western Hemisphere, t h e d a t e of t h e
f i r s t human appearance i n Ecuador is unknown The s i t e of E l
Inga 22 km e a s t of Q u i t o , i n t h e h i g h l a n d s produced l i t h i c t o o l s '
d a t e d a s e a r l y a s 9030 y e a r s B P . ( B e l l 1965) However, t h e most '
complete d a t a on s u b s i s t e n c e from t h e Preceramic p e r i o d come fromi
c o a s t a l Preceramic S i t e 80 (Veqas complex) o f t h e S t a Elena
Peninsula Radiocarbon d a t e s from t h i s s i t e s u g g e s t an a n t i q u i t y
of about 7000 B C ( S t o t h e r t 1976, 1977) Excavation produced a
f a u n a l assemblage s u g g e s t i n g t h e r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n of d e e r
fox, peccary, b i r d s , r a b b i t , r o d e n t s , s n a k e s , l i z a r d s , s m a l l and
medium-sized f i s h , c r a b , and mollusks The p r e s e n c e of t h e
19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR
brackish-water fauna s u g g e s t s t h a t mangrove environments were

nearby Excavation a l s o produced sandstone g r i n d s t o n e s (manos),
evidence of s t r u c t u r e s and a l a r g e cemetery o f both primary and
secondary i n t e r m e n t s Collectively, t h e data suggest a l a r g e ,
semipermanent s e t t l e m e n t t h a t r e l i e d on h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , and
f i s h i n g f o r s u b s i s t e n c e , and perhaps experimented w i t h h o r t i c u l -
ture
The f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d i n Ecuador i s b e s t known from t h e
V a l d i v i a complex, d e f i n e d i n d e t a i l by Meggers e t a 1 (1965)
This p e r i o d marks t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of p o t t e r y and i s t h e f o c u s o f
c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e on problems o f p o p u l a t i o n o r i g i n s and sub-
sistence Meggers e t a1 (1965) f e l t t h a t s t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s
between E a r l y V a l d i v i a p o t t e r y and t h a t o f Kyushu Jomon p e r i o d
s i t e s i n Japan s u g g e s t e d a t r a n s - P a c i f i c J a p a n e s e o r i g i n f o r
Ecuadorean p o t t e r y Although Willey (1971:2 76) c o n s i d e r s t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " a l i k e l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o be k e p t i n mind," o t h e r s
(Lathrap 1976; McEwan and Dickson 1978) have been rmre s k e p t i c a l
Bischoff and V i t e r i Gamboa (1972) r e p o r t "pre-Valdivia" t r a n s i -
t i o n a l p o t t e r y termed "San Pedro" from s i t e G-31 a t V a l d i v i a
Zevallos e t a 1 (1977) and Lathrap (1974, 1976) a l s o a r g u e f o r a
more l o c a l o r i g i n o f Ecuadorean Formative ceramics
Meggers (1966) suggested t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e i n e a r l y Formative
times was p r i m a r i l y s e a o r i e n t e d w i t h some mangrove e x p l o i t a t i o n ,
hunting and g a t h e r i n g , and p e r h a p s i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e She
noted t h a t e a r l y Formative s i t e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d n e a r t h e s e a and
along what were then mangrove swamps She f e l t t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f Chorrera s i t e s along t h e banks of t h e major r i v e r s argued
f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e (manioc and/or maize) a t t h a t
time (1500-500 B C )
Lathrap (1976) u s e s s i m i l a r arguments f o r an e a r l i e r develop-
ment of a g r i c u l t u r e on t h e c o a s t He f e e l s t h a t many e a r l y
V a l d i v i a s i t e s such a s Loma A l t a (15 km i n l a n d ) , Azucar (30 km
i n l a n d ) , Real A l t o , and o t h e r s a r e l o c a t e d away from t h e s e a a l o n g
river floodplains, locations ideal for agriculture According t o
Jorge Marcos ( p e r s o n a l communication), V a l d i v i a s i t e s have now
been found a t i n l a n d l o c a t i o n s throughout Guayas p r o v i n c e
Zevallos e t a 1 (1977) i n t r o d u c e d such o t h e r s u p p o r t i v e evidence
a s t h e following:
1 Charred o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l i n c l u d e d i n a V a l d i v i a s h e r d t h a t
appeared t o be a k e r n e l o f maize
2 Decorations o n V a l d i v i a s h e r d s i n t e r p r e t e d a s s t y l i z e d cobs
of maize
3 Impressions on V a l d i v i a s h e r d s t h a t appear t o have been
made by stamping w i t h a c t u a l c o r n k e r n e l s
4 The p r e s e n c e of hand m i l l s perhaps used t o p r o c e s s a g r i c u l -
t u r a l products
5 The p r e s e n c e o f a b r a c k i s h w a t e r s n a i l t h a t may have been
used f o r l i m e i n food p r o c e s s i n g
6. The p r e s e n c e o f b e l l - s h a p e d s t o r a g e p i t s i n ~ a l d i v i as i t e s
t h a t may have been used f o r s t o r i n g d r i e d corn
D. H. UBELAKER
7 Charred corncobs from t h e h i g h l a n d s i t e of Cerro N a r r i o

b e l i e v e d t o p r e d a t e 2000 B C
P e a r s a l l (1978) claimed t o have d i s t i n g u i s h e d maize p h y t o l i t h s
from t h e V a l d i v i a s i t e of Real A l t o and i n t e r p r e t e d them a s i n d i -
c a t o r s o f " o n - s i t e c u l t i v a t i o n of maize by a t l e a s t 2450 B.C "
( P e a r s a l l 1978:178) I n a d d i t i o n , Burleiqh and Brothwell (1978)
measured carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s in a dog s k e l e t o n found a t Real
Alto and concluded t h a t "about 63% of i t s d i e t was d e r i v e d from
maize" (Burleigh and Brothwell 1978 :359)
I n s h o r t , most a r c h a e o l o g i s t s would a r g u e t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e
was a t l e a s t " i n c i p i e n t " d u r i n g t h e E a r l y Formative and was i n -
t e n s i v e a t l e a s t by t h e L a t e Formative I n a d d i t i o n , many a g r e e
t h a t t h e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence assembled by Z e v a l l o s , L a t h r a p ,
and o t h e r s f o r i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e d u r i n g E a r l y Formative t i m e s
i s convincing C l e a r l y , a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i s e s p e c i a l l y needed
i n comparative p h y t o l i t h s t u d i e s (maize v e r s u s o t h e r n a t i v e
p l a n t s ) , t h e e f f e c t s o f marine foods on bone c o l l a g e n carbon i s o -
t o p e r a t i o s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador, and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s o f
E a r l y Formative s i t e s
The Real Alto s i t e h a s p r e s e n t e d n o t o n l y v a l u a b l e s u b s i s t e n c e
i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t a p o s s i b l e ceremonial c e n t e r a s w e l l t h a t a t -
t e s t s t o t h e advanced l e v e l of s o c i a l complexity o f E a r l y Forma-
t i v e s o c i e t y (Lathrap e t a 1 1977; Marcos 1978)
S e v e r a l s u g g e s t i o n s f o r p o p u l a t i o n movement and o u t s i d e con-
t a c t s have been o f f e r e d f o r t h e p e r i o d Through h i s a n a l y s i s o f
excavated mollusk samples, Sarma (1974) s u g g e s t e d t h a t temporal
s h i f t s i n p l u v i a l i t y due t o changes i n t h e l a r g e E l Nifio-Humboldt
ocean c u r r e n t complexes r e s u l t e d i n c o n s i d e r a b l e environmental
changes i n s o u t h c o a s t a l Ecuador t h a t i n f l u e n c e d human o c c u p a t i o n
Sarma's a n a l y s i s suggested a r i d c o n d i t i o n s on t h e p e n i n s u l a from
5000 t o 2650 B C and from 1600 t o 1000 B C
Meggers e t a 1 (1965) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e M a c h a l i l l a phase (1500-
1000 B C a c c o r d i n g t o Lathrap 1976; o r 2000-1500 B C a c c o r d i n g
t o Meggers 1966) i s c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t from t h e e a r l i e r V a l d i v i a
ceramics, and t h e y d e t e c t a p o s s i b l e n o r t h e r n i n f l u e n c e As men-
t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e y p o s t u l a t e d a Japanese o r i g i n f o r V a l d i v i a
ceramics Megqers (1966) s e e s Mesoamerican i n f l u e n c e i n t h e L a t e
Formative Chorrera ceramics
I n c o n t r a s t , Lathrap (1976) f e e l s t h a t V a l d i v i a c u l t u r e h a s a
l o c a l o r i g i n t h a t u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e s from t h e e a s t e r n lowlands
tropical forest According t o Lathrap, (1976: 43) ,
The economic p r a c t i c e s and l i f e s t y l e o f t h e e a r l y s e d e n t a r y
i n h a b i t a n t s of c o a s t a l Ecuador were an e x t e n s i o n o f T r o p i c a l
F o r e s t c u l t u r e , which i t s e l f expanded o u t of t h e Amazon
Basin, f i r s t t o t h e Guayas Basin and t h e n on west t o t h e
coast I t was a T r o p i c a l F o r e s t economy f u r t h e r e n r i c h e d
by t h e presence of developed r a c e s of corn (Lathrap 1976:
43)
Lathrap (1963, 1976) f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t M a c h a l i l l a evolved
d i r e c t l y o u t o f V a l d i v i a and s e e s M a c h a l i l l a - V a l d i v i a i n f l u e n c e i
t h e ceramics o f West Mexico He a r g u e s t h a t t h e Late Formative

Chorrera phase e x h i b i t s h i g h l a n d , Amazonian, and E a s t Asian i n -
f l u e n c e s (Lathrap 1976: 37) and i n t u r n may have i n f l u e n c e d c u l -
t u r e s i n Mesoamerica, P e r u , and Guatemala.
The Regional Development p e r i o d i n Ecuador (500 B C t o A.D
500) was a time o f well-developed i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e and
continued e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s h e l l f i s h and d e e r on t h e c o a s t The
p e r i o d shows evidence of i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and t h e de-
velopment of m e t a l l u r g y and has been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by Meggers
(1966:67) a s " t h e t i m e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r -
g a n i z a t i o n , f l o r e s c e n c e i n a r t s t y l e and e l a b o r a t i o n i n technolo-
gy " Meggers s e e s s i m i l a r i t i e s in ceramics d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d
w i t h t h o s e from A s i a , Mesoamerica, Costa Rica, and Peru Pub-
l i s h e d r e p o r t s of s k e l e t a l remains from t h i s p e r i o d a r e confined
t o small samples from t h e Guangala phase (Duckworth 1951; Van
Bork-Feltkamp 1965)
Sarma s (1974:122) mollusk a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u g g e s t
a p l u v i a l p e r i o d d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e r e g i o n a l development p e r i o d
(Guangala p h a s e )
The g e n e r a l t r e n d of p o p u l a t i o n expansion and i n c r e a s e d
r e l i a n c e on a g r i c u l t u r e continued i n t o t h e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d
when, a c c o r d i n g t o Meggers (1966: 119) , " i n c r e a s i n g l y r e l i a b l e
a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s p e r m i t t e d p o p u l a t i o n expansion and habi-
t a t i o n s i t e s a r e more numerous than a t any o t h e r time Several
a r e l a r g e enough t o b e c l a s s i f i e d a s urban c e n t r e s Occupational
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r became more e x t e n s i v e and d i f f e r e n c e s i n rank
more pronounced " Meggers (1966) s u g g e s t s g e n e r a l Mesoamerican
i n f l u e n c e i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador a t this t i m e and Columbian i n -
f l u e n c e i n t h e Cara p h a s e o f t h e Northern h i g h l a n d s Sarma
(1974:122) s u g g e s t s a r e t u r n t o g e n e r a l i z e d a r i d i t y on t h e S t a
Elena p e n i n s u l a d u r i n g t h e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d
The L a t e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d culminated i n t h e I n c a conquest
of Ecuador, which focused p r i m a r i l y i n t h e h i g h l a n d s and began
between 1463 and 1471 The S p a n i a r d s i n a u g u r a t e d t h e h i s t o r i c
period i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e s i x t e e n t h century
RELEVANT DATA FROM HUMAN SKELETAL BIOLOGY
Since 1973 I have worked c l o s e l y w i t h o f f i c i a l s of t h e Banco

C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador, a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , and o t h e r s i n a c o l l a b o r a t i v e
a t t e m p t t o assemble and a n a l y z e l a r g e samples o f human remains
from p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador The aim o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s . t o document
p r e h i s t o r i c mortuary behavior i n Ecuador and t o examine temporal
change and s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y
Much o f t h e d a t a i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l problems d i s -
cussed e a r l i e r and o f f e r s t e n t a t i v e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s between biology and c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n s examined.
The l a r g e , well-documented s k e l e t a l samples t h a t have been
APPROXIMATE SITE LOCAT ION NUMBER
OAT E OF INDIVIDUALS
I N SAMPLE
COAST
GUAYAS PROVINCE
COAST
GUAYAS PROVINCE
COAST
GUANGALA OGSE M a 172
GUAYAS PROVINCE
COAST
SAN LORENZO
GUAYAS PROVINCE
COTOCOLLAO HIGHLANDS
PICHINCHA PROVINCE
REAL ALTO COAST

VALDIVIA IU PHASE GUAYAS PROVINCE
COAST
6000 STA. ELENA OGSE 8 0 192
GUAYAS PROVINCE
FIGURE 19 1 Description o f human s k e l e t a l samples from w e -

h i s t o r i c Ecuador
assembled t o d a t e a r e l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 1 9 1 Data p u b l i s h e d on
o t h e r s k e l e t a l samples (Duckworth 1951; Munizaga 1965; Van Bork-
Feltkamp 1965) a r e n o t included s i n c e e i t h e r t h e samples a r e t o o
small f o r frequency d a t a o r t h e r e p o r t e d d a t a a r e not p r e s e n t e d i n
a manner t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s comparison The o l d e s t sample d e s c r i b e d
in F i g u r e 19 1 i s t h a t of OGSE-80 from t h e S t a Elena P e n i n s u l a ,
excavated by Karen S t o t h e r t w i t h s u p p o r t from t h e Banco C e n t r a l
d e l Ecuador i n Guayaquil S i t e 80 r e p r e s e n t s t h e Preceramic Veqas
complex, with radiocarbon d a t e s c l u s t e r i n g a t about 7000 B C
( S t o t h e r t 1977) Excavations completed by J u l y 1978, i d e n t i f i e d
65 b u r i a l f e a t u r e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a t l e a s t 192 i n d i v i d u a l s in a n
a r e a approximately 200 m2 i n s i z e B u r i a l f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e d both
primary and secondary i n t e r m e n t s One l a r g e secondary d e p o s i t
contained a t l e a s t 1 8 a d u l t s and 1 9 s u b a d u l t s A n a l y s i s was
l i m i t e d by t h e extreme fragmentation of t h e bones and. by t h e f a c t
19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR 497
t h a t s e v e r a l i n t e r m e n t s were l e f t i n s i t u f o r d i s p l a y purposes
Data on bone r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f each f e a t u r e and o f t h e t o t a l
sample, a r t i f i c i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s k e l e t o n , e s t i m a t e s o f
l i v i n g s t a t u r e , measurements and o b s e r v a t i o n s , demography, and
pathology have been p u b l i s h e d by Ubelaker (1980a)
The E a r l y Formative s i t e o f Real A l t o d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r pro-
duced a n o t h e r l a r g e sample d a t i n g from t h e V a l d i v i a 111 phase
Excavations between August 1974 and September 1975 (Lathrap e t a 1
1977) produced 72 i n d i v i d u a l s d a t e d t o t h e V a l d i v i a I11 phase
(Marcos 1978) The m a t e r i a l i s y e l l p r e s e r v e d and r e p r e s e n t s both
primary and secondary i n t e r m e n t s B i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s off t h e
sample by t h e a u t h o r i s p r e s e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s
The o n l y highland sample d e s c r i b e d i n F i g u r e 1 9 1 i s from t h e
Cotocollao s i t e , l o c a t e d j u s t northwest o f Quito Excavations
sponsored by t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador c u l m i n a t i n g i n 1978
produced a t l e a s t 199 human s k e l e t o n s d a t e d by an o v e r l y i n g l a y e r
of v o l c a n i c a s h and a s s o c i a t e d radiocarbon d a t e s a t about 540 B C
The remains were very fragmentary and r e p r e s e n t both primary and
secondary d e p o s i t s Biological analysis s i m i l a r t o t h a t of s i t e
OGSE-80 was p u b l i s h e d by Ubelaker (1980b)
Excavations by t h e a u t h o r i n 1974 a t t h e c o a s t a l town o f San
Lorenzo d e l Mate produced approximately 106 human s k e l e t o n s of t h e
J a m b e l l i phase C u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l s from t h e s i t e a r e s t i l l under
study; however, t e n t a t i v e ceramic a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s a d a t e of
about 500 B C No r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s a r e a v a i l a b l e and a n a l y s i s o f
t h e human s k e l e t o n s i s i n p r o g r e s s
Recent s a l v a g e e x c a v a t i o n s sponsored by t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l
Ecuador a t s i t e OGSE-MA-172 i n t h e modern c o a s t a l town of V a l d i v i a
produced 27 b u r i a l f e a t u r e s w i t h an e a r l y Guangala p h a s e c u l t u r a l
affiliation The human remains were analyzed by t h e a u t h o r from
December 1981 t o January 1982- i n Ecuador and a r e e s t i m a t e d t o d a t e
t o about 100 y e a r s B C (Ubelaker, 1983) Analysis revealed t h e
p r e s e n c e of a t l e a s t 30 i n d i v i d u a l s o f b o t h s e x e s ranging i n a g e
from newborn t o g r e a t e r t h a n 50 y e a r s Preservation i s excellent
with l i t t l e fragmentation
The remaining l a r g e documented human samples from p r e h i s t o r i c
Ecuador a r e from t h e c o a s t a l s i t e o f Ayalan i n Guayas p r o v i n c e
Excavations i n t h e mortuary a r e a of t h i s s i t e were i n i t i a t e d i n
1972 and continued by t h e a u t h o r i n 1973 Of t h e 8 1 recognized
f e a t u r e s , 54 were l a r g e f u n e r a r y u r n s c o n t a i n i n g both primary and
secondary s k e l e t a l remains The remaining 27 non-urn f e a t u r e s
c o n s i s t o f primary i n t e r m e n t s a s w e l l a s secondary s k e l e t a l de-
posits Radiocarbon d a t e s and o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
urn samples d a t e from between A D 730 and A D 1600 and t h a t t h e
non-urn samples d a t e from between 500 B C and A.D 1155 At
l e a s t 384 i n d i v i d u a l s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e urn sample and 5 1 i n
t h e e a r l i e r non-urn sample D e t a i l e d b i o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l i n -
formation on t h i s m a t e r i a l has been p u b l i s h e d by Ubelaker (1981)
498 D. H. UBELAKER
$7
'-'.I
^r The above-described samples f a l l s h o r t of t h o s e i d e a l l y
5.'
7T
- needed f o r a d e t a i l e d examination of temporal change and s p a t i a l

v a r i a b i l i t y o f b i o c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s i n Ecuadorean p r e h i s t o r y
-
g
.,-
r-3
-
They do, however, a l l o w a t e n t a t i v e look a t t h e emerging p a t t e r n
and o f f e r d i r e c t i o n s f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h Comparison of
b i o l o g i c a l d a t a from t h e samples i s complicated by t h e v a r i a b i l i t y
among samples i n bone p r e s e r v a t i o n and b u r i a l customs Skeletal
remains from Ayalan and t h e Guangala s i t e from V a l d i v i a a r e s o w e l l
preserved t h a t h i s t o l o g i c a l methods of age d e t e r m i n a t i o n could be
employed and o b s e r v a t i o n s could be made on d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t
d i s e a s e , s u b a d u l t l o n g bone growth, and f r e q u e n c i e s of l i n e s o f
a r r e s t e d growth Fragmentation i n t h e Cotocollao and S t a Elena
samples i s such t h a t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s cannot be made r e l i a b l y .
The manner of i n t e r m e n t p r e s e n t s s i m i l a r comparative problems
I n t h e primary s k e l e t o n s recovered a t t h e ~ y a l a nnon-urn component
Guanqala, and San Lorenzo s k e l e t a l d a t a can b e c o r r e l a t e d with i n -
formation about t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( a g e , s e x , c u l t u r a l i n c l u s i o n s )
Such c o r r e l a t i o n s o b v i o u s l y a r e n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h samples from t h e
l a r g e secondary d e p o s i t s o f t h e Ayalan urn component, S t a . Elena,
and Cotocollao. Thus, t o f a c i l i t a t e comparison, I have chosen
only t h o s e b i o l o g i c a l t r a i t s t h a t can b e t r a c e d through a l l o f t h e
samples a v a i l a b l e , and I have p r e s e n t e d t h e comparisons i n a manner
t h a t a l l o w s f r e q u e n c i e s t o b e computed from b o t h primary and
secondary i n t e r m e n t s Data from t h e Real A l t o and San Lorenzo
samples a r e n o t i n c l u d e d s i n c e r e s e a r c h on t h e s e m a t e r i a l s is s t i l l
i n progress
Stature
Living s t a t u r e h a s been e s t i m a t e d from l o n g bone l e n g t h s using

t h e formulas o f Genovgs o r T r o t t e r and G l e s e r ( s e e Ubelaker 1978:
44-45) Table 19 1 summarizes t h e s t a t u r e d a t a f o r f i v e samples
in the series Only t h o s e s t a t u r e s t h a t could be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h
sex a r e included Sex was determined from t h e s i z e o f t h e measured
bone o r , i n t h e c a s e o f primary s k e l e t o n s , from o t h e r a s s o c i a t e d
bones of t h e i n d i v i d u a l I n F i g u r e 19 2 t h e mean s t a t u r e v a l u e s
a r e p l o t t e d through time f o r b o t h males and females Figure 19 2
s u g g e s t s l i t t l e , i f any, change i n s t a t u r e through t i m e In f a c t ,
t h e p r e h i s t o r i c s t a t u r e s a r e c l o s e t o p u b l i s h e d v a l u e s f o r contem-
porary Ecuadorean Indian p o p u l a t i o n s (Ubelaker 1981:115)
Demography
Accurace demographic r e c o n s t r u c t i o n from s k e l e t a l remains de-

pends on t h e assumption t h a t t h e a c q u i r e d samples a r e r e p r e s e n t a -
t i v e o f t h e e n t i r e cemetery sample and of t h e a c t u a l d e a t h s i n t h e
p o p u l a t i o n , and t h a t e s t i m a t e d ages a t d e a t h a r e reasonably
accurate Table 19 2 summarizes r e l e v a n t demographic d a t a a v a i l -
a b l e f o r f i v e Ecuadorean samples The most r e l i a b l e d a t a a r e those
.IS PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR
TABLE 1 9 1 Mean Values for Estimated M e and Female Living

Stature
Stature
Male Fema l e
Samp Ze N am N em
AyaZdn urns 25 159 31 149

non-urns 9 159 7 149
Guangal a 3 161 1 152
CotoeoZZao 17 159 7 148
S t a . Elena 8 161 14 149
from Ayalan, s i n c e t h o s e samples were l a r g e and p r e s e r v a t i o n was

such t h a t t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e methods of age d e t e r m i n a t i o n could be
employed P r e s e r v a t i o n and age d e t e r m i n a t i o n were a l s o good f o r
t h e Guanqala m a t e r i a l ; however, t h a t sample i s v e r y s m a l l f o r
demographic a n a l y s i s and may show an u n r e a l i s t i c s h o r t a g e of
adults Sample s i z e i s adequate f o r t h e S t a Elena and Cotocollao
samples; however extreme f r a g m e n t a t i o n of much o f t h e m a t e r i a l
may have a f f e c t e d t h e accuracy o f t h e a d u l t age e s t i m a t e s Accord-
i n g l y , t h e d a t a on maximum l o n g e v i t y d e s c r i b e d i n Table 1 9 2 and
p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 1 9 3 may r e f l e c t an i n c r e a s e i n l o n g e v i t y w i t h
t h e Ayalan urn sample; however, it a l s o may be o n l y an a r t i f a c t
' 6 2 1 STA. ELENA GUANGALA
COTOCOLLAO
NON URN
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 1 9 2 Estimated i n a h 1-( and female f----) l i v i n g

s t a t u r e through time I n t h i s and a l l subsequent f i g u r e s , t h e
p l o t of years r e f e r s t o thousands o f years B P , w i t h "0" r e f e r -
ring t o t k present.
33 -
?\
1 \
31 -
29 -
27 -
25 -
2 - sTA ELENA
21 -
19 -
17-
15-
13-
12-
I I I I I I I i
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 1 9 4 L i f e expectancy through time a t b i r t h (-),
age 5 (----) and age 15 J-(
Trauma
S k e l e t a l i n d i c a t i o n s of trauma a l s o show temporal change i n

p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador Table 19 3 and Figure 1 9 5 r e l a t e t h e r z t i o
of t h e number of f r a c t u r e d bones i n each sample t o t h e number of
i n d i v i d u a l s i n each sample I d e a l l y , d a t a on trauma should be
presented i n terms o f t h e frequency of a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s ; how-
e v e r , t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e h e r e s i n c e much of t h e sample i s
derived from secondary interments The d a t a suggest a sharp
i n c r e a s e i n s k e l e t a l f r a c t u r e s during Guangala times with a
gradual decrease t h e r e a f t e r
Additional i n s i g h t i s gained by looking a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
of f r a c t u r e s on t h e skeleton through time (Table 19 4 ) In the
S t a Elena sample, f r a c t u r e s a r e confined t o hand and f o o t bones
and t o t h e mid-shaft a r e a of t h e long bones Small, c i r c u l a r
depressed f r a c t u r e s of the f r o n t a l bone appear i n t h e Cotocollao
and Guangala samples and a r e no longer apparent i n t h e Ayalsn
samples I n Ayal^n, trauma t o t h e skeleton i s expanded t o i n c l u d
C o l l e s ' s f r a c t u r e s of t h e d i s t a l ends of t h e r a d i u s and ulna t h a t
normally r e s u l t from f a l l s
D. H. UBELAK
TABLE 19 3 Ratio of t h e Number of Bones Showing Trauma t o t

Number of Individuals i n Each Sample
Number of bones Number of 'Lndividuals
Sample w i t h trauma i n sample Rat
Aya t6n
Urns 25
Son-urns 5
Guanga la 3
Cotoeo l l a o 5
Sta. EZena 11
I n f e c t i o u s Disease
Table 19 5 and F i g u r e 1 9 6 p r e s e n t t h e r a t i o of a d u l t bones

showing evidence o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e t o t h e number o f a d u l t s i
t h e v a r i o u s samples The d a t a p r e s e n t e d a r e l i m i t e d t o a d u l t s
s i n c e evidence f o r i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n s u b a d u l t s i s c o n f i n e d t
o n l y one long bone fragment from t h e ~ y a l a nurn sample Again,
d a t a on t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l
s i n c e secondary i n t e r m e n t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e samples The d a t
show a dramatic i n c r e a s e o f p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s i n t h e Guangala
sample followed by a n e q u a l l y d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n t h e Ayalan
non-urn sample and a subsequent s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e A y a l h ur
sample
URN
URN
I
I I I I I I I I
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
pi
Ã£
FIGURE 19 5 Ratio of bones showing trauma t o t h e number of
individuals i n each sample t h p o q h time
TABLE 1 9 4 Skeletal Distribution of the Different !Types of Trauma i n Each Sample
Long bones
C .s ' s
- -o l l e non-CoZles ' s Frontal Rib Fractures of Humerus
fractures fractures depressions fractures hands and feet dislocation
Sample Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Total
Ayaldn
Urns 7 28 9 36 3 12 6 24 1 20 25
Non-urns 3 60 1 20 5
Gvangal a 1 33 2 67 3
Cotoeo l Lao 1 20 2 '40 2 40 5
Sta Elena. 6 55 5 45 11
D. H. UBELAKER
TABLE 19 5 Ratio of t h e Number o f Adult Bones w i t h

Periosteal Lesions t o t h e Number of A d u l t s i n Each Sample
Number o f bones Number o f a d u l t s

Sample with lesions i n sample Ratio
Aya 'L&n
Urns 28
Non-urns 1
GuangaZa 4
Cotoeo U a o 7
Sta. Elena 9
Data a r e a v a i l a b l e from a l l f i v e samples on t y p e s o f bony

lesions usually called porotic hyperostosis Frequencies of t h i s
pathology, expressed a s t h e r a t i o of t h e number of a f f e c t e d bones
o f t h e c r a n i a l v a u l t t o t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e sample,
a r e given i n Table 19 6 The t a b l e shows t h a t such l e s i o n s a r e 1
absent i n t h e S t a Elena and Cotocollao samples, o c c u r w i t h t h e
g r e a t e s t frequency in t h e Guanqala sample and t h e n d e c r e a s e i n
frequency i n t h e ~ y a l hsamples
.45 - GUANGALA
40 -
35-
30 -
.25 -
.20 -
15-
'lo-
STA. ELENA
.05 -
COTOCOLLAO
I I I I I I I I
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 19 6 . Ratio o f a d u l t bones w i t h p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s t o

the number of a d u l t s i n each sample through time
TABLE 19 6 R a t i o o f the Number o f Bones of t h e Cranial V a u l t

Shoving Porotie Hyperostosis t o t h e Number of I n d i v i d u a l s i n Each
Sample
Number of crania1 Number o f i n d i v i d u a l s

Sample bones w i t h l e s i o n s i n sample Ratio
Ayalan
Urns 28 384 07
Non-urns 4 51 08
Guangal a 7 30 23
Cotoeo~lao 0 164 0
Sta. Elena 0 127 --I
0
J
TABLE 19 7 R a t i o o f the Number o f O r b i t s ~ 6 t C hribi 7rbi-
t a l i a t o t h e Number o f I n d i v i d u a l s i n Eac Sample
Number o f o r b i t s Number o f indivi.duak

Sample w i t h lesions Â¥i sample Ratio
Aya&
urns 7
Non-urns 0
GuangaZa 3
Cotoeo l l a o 0
Sta. Elena 0
P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s o f t h e o r b i t s ( c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a ) shows
a similar pattern The t r a i t d o e s n o t appear i n t h e S t a Elena
and C o t o c o l l a o samples I t s g r e a t e s t frequency i s i n t h e Guangala
sample, followed by a d i s a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e Ayalan non-urn sample
and a low frequency i n t h e Ayalan urn sample The temporal t r e n d
i n p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s o f b o t h t h e v a u l t and o r b i t s i s shown i n
Figure 19 7 and Table 19 7
Dental Hypoplasia
F r e q u e n c i e s o f d e n t a l h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e samples a r e p r e s e n t e d
i n Table 1 9 8 and F i g u r e 1 9 . 8 These d a t a r e f l e c t t h e frequency
o f a f f e c t e d permanent t e e t h , n o t t h e number o f d e f e c t s o r t h e num-
b e r of a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s This pathology occurs with r e l a t i v e -
l y low f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e S t a Elena and C o t o c o l l a o samples The
i n c i d e n c e i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y i n t h e Guangala sample followed by a
s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n t h e ~ y a l s nnon-urn sample and then a d r a m a t i c
i n c r e a s e a g a i n i n t h e Ayalan urn sample
D. H. UBELAKER
Â ...... GALA
NON URN
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 19 7 Ratio o f bones w i t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ( v a u l t

and o r b i t s ) t o t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n each sample t h o u g h
the
Dental Disease
Data a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e f i v e samples on t h r e e i n d i c a t o r s
of d e n t a l d i s e a s e : c a r i o u s l e s i o n s , a l v e o l a r abscesses, and
antemortem tooth l o s s Carious l e s i o n s a r e defined i n t h i s re-
search as c a v i t i e s i n t h e t e e t h t h a t show evidence of t i s s u e
necrosis with subsequent c o l l a p s e of t h e hard t i s s u e , a s opposed
t o a l t e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from developmental d e f e c t s o r from
mechanical abrasion Observed l e s i o n s were about t h e s i z e of a
pinhead o r l a r g e r Table 1 9 9 and Figure 19 9 p r e s e n t t h e per-
centage o f permanent, f u l l y formed t e e t h i n t h e sample i n which
a t l e a s t one carious l e s i o n i s found Again, d a t a a r e not a v a i l -
able on t h e percentage o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s s i n c e secondary
TABLE 19 8 Percentage o f Fully Formed Permanent T e e t h u i f h

Hypoplasia i n Each Sample
- - - - - --
\
Number o f t e e t h Number w i t h
Sample i n sampZe hypop l a s i a Percentage
-- --
Aya ldn
Urns 1966 115 5 8
Non-urns 429 6 1 4
Guangal a 73 2 2 7
Cotoco z.zao 1157 3 3
Sta. Elena 1989 7 4
URN
?
GUANGALA
.,
. ^ NON U R N
STA. E L E N A
COTOCOLLAO
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 19 8 Percentage of permanent t e e t h w i t h hypoplasia

through time.
i n t e r m e n t s and l o o s e t e e t h a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e sampl
show a low f r e q u e n c y o f c a r i o u s l e s i o n s i n t h e S t a E l e n a and
C o t o c o l l a o samples, an i n c r e a s e i n t h e Guanqala and ~ y a l a nnon-
u r n samples, and a n even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e Ayalan u r n sample
T a b l e 1 9 1 0 and F i g u r e 1 9 10 p r e s e n t t h e r a t i o of a l v e o l a r
a b s c e s s e s t o t h e number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s o n permanent t e e t h t e e t h
TABLE 19 9 Percentage of Fully Formed Permanent Teeth &th- -

a t Least One Carious Lesion
Number of t e e t h
Sample Â¥i samp2.e N u m b e r carious Percentage
A y&n
Urns 1966 208 11
K'on-urns 42 9 35 8
Guunga l a 73 6 8
Cotoeo l l a o 1157 19 3
Sta Elma 1989 55 3
D. H. UBELAKER
URN
11-
10 -
9-
GUANGALA
8-
ld NON -URN
d
a 7-
I-
z
%
0-
6-
w
5-
4-
STA. ELENA
3 Â COTOCOLLAO
I 1 I I I 1 I I
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 1 9 9 Percentage of permanent t e e t h u i t h Lt l e a s t one
carious lesion through time
p r e s e n t p l u s t e e t h a b s e n t antemortem) i n t h e samples This r a t i o

shows a temporal i n c r e a s e from S t a Elena through C o t o c o l l a o t o
Guangala and t h e n a s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n t h e Ayalsn samples
The f i n a l d a t a s e t (Table 19 1 1 , F i g u r e 1 9 11) p r e s e n t s t h e
r a t i o o f permanent t e e t h l o s t antemortem t o t h e number o f o b s e r -
v a t i o n s on permanent t e e t h ( t e e t h p r e s e n t p l u s t e e t h a b s e n t ) i n
t h e samples The r a t i o i s low i n t h e two e a r l y samples, i n c r e a s e s
t o a peak i n t h e Guangala sample, and t h e n d e c r e a s e s i n t h e Ayalan '
samples. These d a t a , a s w e l l a s t h o s e on a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s e s , a r e 7'
somewhat i n e x a c t s i n c e t e e t h were n o t always a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
corresponding m a x i l l a e and mandibles -
TABLE 19.10 Ratio of the Number of Alveolar Abscesses i n

Adults t o t h e Number of Observations (Teeth Present Plus Teeth
Absent) on Permanent Teeth i n Each Sample
Number of Number of
Sample dental observations abscesses Ratio
Aya ldn
Urns 2302 74 03
Non-urns 491 I3 03
Guanga la 122 10 08
Cotoeo~lao 1244 87 .07
Sta. Elena 1661 10 .O1
0 8 - buANfaALA
0 7 -
06 -
0 .05 -
t-
a
.04 -
URN
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 19 10 Ratio of the number of alveolar abscesses t o
t h e number of observations of permanent t e e t h through time.
\J
DISCUSSION
I t is n o t p o s s i b l e a t t h i s t i m e t o i d e n t i f y e x a c t c o r r e l a -
t i o n s between temporal chanqes i n s u b s i s t e n c e and s o c i a l o r g a n i -
z a t i o n and changes i n s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y Too l i t t l e i s known of
t h e c u l t u r a l p r e h i s t o r y o f the a r e a , and t h e s k e l e t a l samples
s t i l l a r e g r o s s l y l i m i t e d f o r such g e n e r a l i z a t i o n It i s
p o s s i b l e , however, t o s u g g e s t some t e n t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t
may be e x p l a i n e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l d a t a
TABLE 19 11 Ratio of Permanent Teeth Lost Anternortern t o

Number of Observations on Presence of Permanent Teeth (Absent
and Present)
V" '-'Sample
Number of permanent
t e e t h l o s t antemortern
Number of
observations Ratio
Ay aldn
Urns 336 2302 15
Non-urns 62 491 13
Guangala 49 122 40
Cotoco 2 Lao 87 1244 07
Sta. Elena 102 1661 06
- . , < ~ - - . . .
^
D. H. UBELAKER
40 -
35 -
30 -
2 25-
>-
a
aL 20-
'5- " -5
l o - STA. E L E N A
0 5 -' COTOCOLLAO - > ,
I I I I
8 7 6 5 4
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 19.11 Ratio o f permanent t e e t h l o s t anternortem t o t h e
number of observations of permanent t e e t h through time
C e r t a i n l y it can be s a i d t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e and s o c i a l s t r u c -
t u r e s h i f t e d markedly from t h e h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g s o c i e t y o f -
S t a Elena times t o t h e time o f C o t o c o l l a o , when i n t e n s i v e a g r i -
c u l t u r e and c o n s i d e r a b l e s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n must have been
present Yet a c u r i o u s p r o d u c t of t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t b i o l o g i c a l
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e two samples a r e c o n f i n e d t o an i n c r e a s e ;
i n alveolar abscesses The f a c t t h a t f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i e s and
t o o t h l o s s remain c o n s t a n t makes even t h a t d i f f e r e n c e p u z z l i n g
Of c o u r s e , t h e Cotocollao s i t e i s t h e o n l y h i g h l a n d sample i n the ,
s e r i e s , and t h e r a t e and t y p e o f b i o l o g i c a l change may have d i f - -
f e r e d between t h e h i g h l a n d s and t h e c o a s t Also, it i s p o s s i b l e : '
t h a t although a g r i c u l t u r e was f u l l y d
times, t h e p o p u l a t i o n may n o t have de
dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s f o r s u b s i s t e n c e u n t i l about
t h e time of t h e Guangala phase
Although t h e sample s i z e i s v e r y s m a l l , t h e Guangala d a t a show
dramatic i n c r e a s e s i n n e a r l y a l l s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s , - - -
e s p e c i a l l y d e n t a l c a r i e s , t o o t h l o s s , d e n t a l h y p o p l a s i a , trauma, + -
and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e Determination o f whether t h i s c o n d i t i o n -

i s exaggerated i n t h e Guangala sample o r r e p r e s e n t s a g e n e r a l i z e s
c o n d i t i o n i n t h e Regional Development p e r i o d p o p u l a t i o n must
await f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
The t r e n d of i n c r e a s e d m o r b i d i t y c o n t i n u e s from t h e Guangala ' ,
phase i n t o t h e Late I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d w i t h t h e A y a l h samples
showing a r e g u l a r i n c r e a s e i n t h e frequency o f d e n t a l c a r i e s
Most o t h e r s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s , however, show a d e c l i n e i n f r e -
quency between t h e Guangala and ~ y a l a nurn sample T h i s may
i n d i c a t e a p e r i o d of p o p u l a t i o n adjustment a f t e r Guangala, followfiS
by renewed problems a s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f o v e r - r e l i a n c e on few ag-

r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y c o n t i n u e t o
intensify
A more e x a c t a p p r a i s a l o f b i o c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s i n p r e -
h i s t o r i c Ecuador i s n o t p o s s i b l e a t t h i s time However, i t i s
c l e a r t h a t although t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and development of a g r i c u l t u r e
may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o p o p u l a t i o n expansion and t o i n c r e a s e d so-
c i a l complexity i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador, it a l s o may have had
d e l e t e r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s t h a t may have reduced t h e q u a l i t y
o f l i f e . More e x a c t s t a t e m e n t s on,' t h e d e t a i l s and t i m i n g of t h i s
complex r e l a t i o n s h i p must a w a i t t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e Real Alto and
San Lorenzo m a t e r i a l , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of o t h e r l a r g e , w e l l -
documented s k e l e t a l samples, and more a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h on
>
p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Stephanie Darnadio and E l i z a b e t h Beard o f t h e Depart-

ment of Anthropology, Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , f o r t h e i r
a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e survey and manuscript p r e p a r a t i o n
Valuable advice on Ecuadorean archaeology was r e c e i v e d from B e t t y
J Meggers o f t h e Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n ; J o r g e Marcos o f t h e
Escuela P o l i t e c n i c a , Guayaquil, Ecuador ; and Olaf Holm and Karen
S t o t h e r t o f t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador
REFERENCES
B e l l , Robert E.
1965 ArchaeoZogieaZ i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t t h e s i t e of E l Inga,
Ecuador. Casa de l a C u l t u r a E c u a t o r i a n a , Quito
Bischof, Henninq, and J u l i o V i t e r i Gamb a
7
1972 Pre-Valdivia o c c u p a t i o n s on t h e southwest c o a s t of
Ecuador American Antiqu* 37; 548-551
.Burleigh, R. , and D Brothwell
1978 S t u d i e s on Amerindian dogs I Carbon i s o t o p e s i n r e l a -
t i o n t o maize i n t h e d i e t of domestic dogs from e a r l y
Peru and Ecuador J o u d of Avohaeo'iogieaz S c i e n c e
5: 355-362
C a r n e i r o , Robert L
1968 The t r a n s i t i o n from h u n t i n g t o h o r t i c u l t u r e i n t h e Amazon
Basin Proceedings I n t e m a t i o n a Z Congress of AnthropoZo-
g i e a l and EthnoIdgieaZ S c i e n c e s 8 t h 3:244-248
Duckworth, W. L. H.
951 Notes on s k u l l s of t h e Guangala P e r i o d , from La L i b e r t a d
Appendix B i n t h e archaeology o f t h e Santa Elena P e n i n s u l a
D. H. UBELAKER
i n southwest Ecuador Occasional Publications of t h e

Cambridge University Museum of ArehaeoZogy and. Ethnology
No 1
Lathrap, Donald W
1963 P o s s i b l e a f f i l i a t i o n s o f t h e M a c h a l i l l a Complex o f c o a s t a l
Ecuador American Antiquity 29 :239-240
1974 The moist t r o p i c s , t h e a n d l a n d s , and t h e appearance o f
g r e a t a r t s t y l e s i n t h e New World Special Publications
o f the Museum Texas Tech Univ 7:115-158
1976 Ancient Ecuador, culture, d a y and c r e a t i v i t y , 3000-300
B C F i e l d Museum o f N a t u r a l ~ i s t o r y ' ,Chicago
Lathrap, Donald W , J o r g e G Marcos, and James A Z e i d l e r
1977- Real Alto: An a n c i e n t ceremonial c e n t e r Archaeology
30: 3-13
Marcos , J o r g e G a b r i e l
1978 The ceremonial precinct a t Real Alto: Organization of
t i m e and space i n Valdivia society Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s
Urbana-Champaign.
McEwan , Gordon F , and D Bruce Dickson
1978 V a l d i v i a , Jomon fishermen, and t h e n a t u r e of t h e North
Pacific: Some n a u t i c a l problems w i t h Meggers, Evans, and
E s t r a d a ' s (1965) t r a n s o c e a n i c c o n t a c t t h e s i s American
Antiquity 43: 362-371
Meggers, ~ e t J-t ~
1966 Ecuador. P r a e g e r , New York
Meggers, Betty J , C l i f f o r d Evans, and Emilio E s t r a d a
1965 Early Formative P e r i o d o f c o a s t a l Ecuador: The Valdivic
and M a c h a l i l l a Phases Smithsonian Contributions t o
AnthropoZogy 1 :1-234
Munizaga, Juan R.
1965 S k e l e t a l remains from s i t e s o f V a l d i v i a and M a c h a l i l l a
phases Appendix 2 i n E a r l y Formative P e r i o d o f coas1,al
Ecuador: The V a l d i v i a and M a c h a l i l l a p h a s e s Smith-
sonian Contributions t o Anthropology 2 :219-234
P e a r s a l l , Deborah M
1978 P h y t o l i t h a n a l y s i s of a r c h e o l o g i c a l s o i l s : Evidence f o r
maize c u l t i v a t i o n i n f o r m a t i v e Ecuador Science 199:177-
178
P o r r a s Garces, Pedro I
1972a Secuencia S e r i a d a de 10s a r t e f a c t o s de p i e d r a p u l i d a de
l a Fase de Cosanga en e l O r i e n t e (Cej a de Montana) d e l
Ecuador (Suramerica) A t t i Conqresso Intermzionale
Deglimerican'lsti 4 0 t h , pp. 59-63
1972b Supervivencia de tradition c e r h i c a comdn a l a s c u l t u r a s
d e l Alto amazonas y de manera e s p e c i a l a l a s de l a zona
o r i e n t a l d e l Ecuador en Suramgrica A t t i Concpesso Inter-
naz'Lonale Deglimericanisti 4 0 t h , pp 51- 57
1975 Fase P a s t a z a : E l Formativo en e l O r i e n t e ~ c u a t o r i a n o
Revista de 'La ~ n i v e r s i d a d~ a t 6 l i e aAno 111, No 1 0
1981 S i t i o Sangay A informe p r e l i m i n a r de l a primera e t a p a

flumero Monografico de H i s t o r k y Geografia de la Revista
de l a Universidad Catoliea No 29, p p 105-145
Sanna, Akkaraju V N Sarma
1974 Holocene paleoecology o f South C o a s t a l Ecuador. Proceed-
ings of th American Philosophical Society 118:93-134
S t o t h e r t , Karen E
1976 The e a r l y p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e S t a Elena P e n i n s u l a , Ecuador :
C o n t i n u i t i e s between t h e Preceramic and Ceramic c u l t u r e s
Actas del Congreso I n t e r m c i o d de Americanistas 4 1 s t ,
I'
PI
; - Vol 2 pp 88-98
1977 proy e c t o P a l e o i n d i o
u d e l Banco Central del Ecuador
-
Ubelaker, Douglas H
Pub'ioaaiones de l Museo Antropo l6g'ieo
1978 Human s k e l e t a l remains, excavat* analysis, interpreta-

t i o n . Taraxacum, Washington
1980a Human s k e l e t a l remains from S i t e OGSE-80, a Preceramic
s i t e on t h e S t a Elena P e n i n s u l a , c o a s t a l Ecuador
Jourml of t k Washington Academy of Sciences 70 (1) 3-24 -
1980b P r e h i s t o r i c human remains from t h e C o t o c o l l a o S i t e )
Pichincha Providence, Ecuador Journal of the Washington
Academy of Sciences 70 ( 2 ) :59-74
1981 The Ayalgn cemetery: A L a t e I n t e g r a t i o n P e r i o d b u r i a l
s i t e on t h e South Coast o f Ecuador Smithsonian Contribu-
t i o n s t o Anthropoloq'y No 29
1983 Human s k e l e t a l remains from OGSE-MA-172, an e a r l y Guangala
cemetery s i t e on t h e c o a s t of Ecuador. Journal of the
Washington Academy of Sciences 73 ( I ):16-26
Van Bork-Feltkamp, A J
1965 Squelettes de Pahar Nederlands Museum voor Anthropolo-
g i e , Amsterdam
Willey, Gordon R.
1971 An introduction t o American archaeologu (Vol 11)
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y
Z e v a l l o s , M C a r l o s , Walton C G a l i n a t , Donald W Lathrap, E a r l R.
Leng, J o r g e G Marcos, and Kathleen M Klmpp
1977 The San Pablo corn k e r n e l and i t s f r i e n d s Science 196:
385-389
CHAPTER 20
PALEOPATHOLOGY I N PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS
Mawin J . Allison
I n s t i t u t e de Antropologia
Universidad de Tarapaca, A r i c a , C h i l e
T h i s c h a p t e r r e p o r t s on t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g y o f 1 6 p o p u l a t i o n s
from Peru and C h i l e ( s e e T a b l e s 20.1 and 20.2) . The p o p u l a t i o n s
e x t e n d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y from Ancash ( P e r u ) i n t h e North t o Tarapaca
( C h i l e ) i n t h e s o u t h , and t h e y range i n t i m e from 6000 t o 400 B.P.
Both c o a s t a l and h i g h l a n d p o p u l a t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , b u t a l l of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l s s t u d i e d d i e d on t h e c o a s t . (We have no way of
t e l l i n g where i n d i v i d u a l s were born o r where t h e y s p e n t most of
their lives.) Both nomadic and s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s a r e des-
c r i b e d a s a r e b o t h p o l i t i c a l l y independent g r o u p s and s a t e l l i t e
communities ( o r c o l o n i a l o u t p o s t s ) of l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t s . One
g r o u p , t h e most r e c e n t , i s a c o l o n i a l p o p u l a t i o n d a t i n g from t h e
p e r i o d o f Spanish r u l e . The economies r e p r e s e n t e d i n c l u d e i n t e n -
s i v e marine h u n t i n g and f o r a g i n g economies w i t h i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l -
t u r e (perhaps p r i m a r i l y f o r producing raw m a t e r i a l s ) ; g r o u p s w i t h
mixed h e r d i n g and farming economies; and groups w i t h more i n t e n s i v e
a g r i c u l t u r a l economies. A l l groups r e p r e s e n t e d employed some
agriculture.
C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e c o a s t a l d e s e r t of Peru and C h i l e
r e s u l t i n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of mummies, o f t e n w i t h most of t h e i r
i n t e r n a l o r g a n s i n t a c t . These b o d i e s c a n b e a u t o p s i e d much a s
modern c o r p s e s a r e , w i t h s t a n d a r d l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s . A c a u s e
o f d e a t h can o f t e n b e e s t a b l i s h e d , and numerous s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s
may be i d e n t i f i e d . One r e s u l t of such d i a g n o s i s i s t h a t i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y a number o f s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s a f f e c t i n g
American I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s p r i o r t o European c o n t a c t . ( I n con-
t r a s t , s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l a l o n e g e n e r a l l y r e f l e c t s l e s s than 20%
of t h e d i s e a s e s t h a t plague human p o p u l a t i o n s . Most a c u t e
PALEOPETHOLOGY 4 T THE ORIGINS Cupynght Â 1984 by Acddemic Press, 1nc

OF AGRICULTURE ' rights of rep~oductton
I" an> form rmewed
ISBN 0-12 179080.0

516 MARVIN J. ALLISON
TABLE 20.1 General Information on Peruvian Mummies Studies
Years B. P.
Location Number (radiocarbon) Economy Comments
Huacho Fis hing- Preceramic with

Peru gatherer c o t t o n - g o d s agri-
culture for rau
materials f?)
Chongos- Fishing - A Paracas culture

Pisco agricu lture group l i v i n g i n the
Peru Piseo Valley
Ica Farmers Nazca culture group

Peru from d i f f e r e n t
valley
Toquilla Fishermen Chima-Casma culture.

Ancash Small v i l l a g e on
Peru beach, questionable
farming, 'but access
t o agrZ-cultural
products
Huayuri Farmers Small agricultural

Peru community, Wari
c u l t u r e , i n Santa
Cruz Valley
Ica Farmers Large c i t y , Ica cu2-

Peru t u r e , i n Santa Cruz
Valley
Pisco Farmers Inca c u l t u r e indiv-

Peru iduals from Pisco
Valley
Pisco Farmers Inca and l e a Cozo-

Peru (miners) n i a l individuals
from Pisco Valley
(Mwga H&)
infectious diseases rarely, i f ever, leave skeletal lesions. See

A l l i s o n 1979; A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 a , b , c ) . Since t h e skeleton i s
a l s o p r e s e n t i n such i n d i v i d u a l s , it i s p o s s i b l e , u s i n g mummified
remains, t o r e l a t e s o f t - t i s s u e f i n d i n g s t o s k e l e t a l f i n d i n g s t o
e s t a b l i s h an e t i o l o g y f o r s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s t h a t o t h e r w i s e c o u l d
n o t b e diagnosed ( A l l i s o n and G e r s z t e n 1 9 8 2 ) . Comparison of
20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS
TABLE 20.2 General Information on Chilean Mummies Studied
Years B. P .
Location Number (radiocarbon) Economy Comments
Faldas Maritime Coastal northern

de Morro incipient Chi leÃ‘nomad
Ariea agriculture
Azapa Marztime Probably r e l a t e d t o

Arica incipient W a s de Morro
agriculture people--nomads
Azapa Shepherds, Alto Romirez people--

A r i ea agriculture nomads, highlanders
Azapa Shepherds, Cabuza people--vil-

Ar i c a agvieu lture lages ? Highlanders
Azapa Shepherds, Classic Tiahuanaeo--

Arica agriculture v i l l a g e s ; highland-
ers spill-over
population.
Azapa Farmers - Maitas culture--

Arica shepherds v i l l a g e s ; high-
landers
Arica Hunters- Sun Miguel culture--

Chile fishermen- sea-oriented
farmers v ilkges
Tara- Farmers- Ataeameno--vil lages--

paea gatherers traders
Chile
s k e l e t a 1 and m m i f i ed remains o f i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e v a r i o u s c u l -

t u r e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h u s p r o v i d e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y good o p p o r t u n i t y f o r
a s s e s s i n g t h e impact of s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s
on human h e a l t h .
THE EVIDENCE OF BONES AND TEETH
One n o n s p e c i f i c measure o f t h e h e a l t h of a p o p u l a t i o n i s mor-

t a l i t y , w i t h m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e growth p h a s e p r o v i d i n g p e r h a p s
t h e most s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r of n u t r i t i o n . Table 2 0 . 3 l i s t s t h e
TABLE 20.3 Childhood M o r t a l i t y (under Age 1 5 ) from S i x

C u l t u r a l Groups
ChiIdhood
mortality
Culture (%)
Azapa 28
A l t o Ramirez 50
Cabuza 48
T i ahuanaco 49
Huari-Ica 49
Colonial Inca-Ica 45
childhood m o r t a l i t y (under 1 5 y e a r s o f age) f o r s i x s e l e c t e d c u l -

t u r a l g r o u p s spanning r o u g h l y 2300 y e a r s . The e a r l i e s t p e o p l e of
t h e Azapa c u l t u r e , w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y a marine economy, had a 2 8 %
childhood m o r t a l i t y . A l l of t h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e
c o l o n i a l group, had n e a r l y 50% m o r t a l i t y f o r c h i l d r e n under 1 5
y e a r s of age (Ashworth e t a l . 1976) . The l a t t e r f i g u r e a p p e a r s
t o be independent of c u l t u r e and of r e g i o n o f o r i g i n ( h i g h l a n d o r
coast).
Growth i s a l s o a n o n s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r o f h e a l t h , o f which
n u t r i t i o n may b e one i m p o r t a n t component. Table 20.4 shows
average s t a t u r e i n cm f o r a d u l t s from t h e same c u l t u r e s d e s c r i b e d
i n T a b l e 20.3. The C o l o n i a l p o p u l a t i o n of I n c a and I c a i n d i v i d -
u a l s i s t h e only one t o show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from t h e
o t h e r s i n t h e form of reduced s t a t u r e . T h a t such a r e d u c t i o n i n
s t a t u r e might b e of n u t r i t i o n a l o r i g i n was e v i d e n t a t t h e time of
e x c a v a t i o n , s i n c e a l l g r a v e s were poor i n f o o d s t u f f s , c l o t h e s
were worn and p a t c h e d , and numerous women were b u r i e d w i t h newborn
c h i l d r e n ( a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e i n d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s ) . The
o t h e r c u l t u r e s showed no e v i d e n c e of a s h o r t a g e of food i n t h e
e x c a v a t i o n s and t h e i r s t a t u r e seems t o s u g g e s t r e l a t i v e 1 y good
nutrition.
H a r r i s l i n e s a r e a n o t h e r n o n s p e c i f i c measure of d i s e a s e t h a t
may r e f l e c t a n u t r i t i o n a l e t i o l o g y ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 a , b , c ) .
The d a t a i n T a b l e 20.5 s u g g e s t t h a t fewer i n d i v i d u a l s from c o a s t a l
c u l t u r e s (where a g r i c u l t u r e may have been of secondary importance)
had l i n e s . Furthermore, t h e c o a s t a l p e o p l e had fewer l i n e s p e r
p e r s o n t h a n p e o p l e from t h e h i g h l a n d o r i n l a n d c u l t u r e s . I t would
appear t h a t p e o p l e i n a c o a s t a l environment had a h e a l t h i e r c h i l d -
hood t h a n p e o p l e of h i g h l a n d o r i g i n . Poor n u t r i t i o n may b e one of
t h e c a u s e s of H a r r i s 1i n e formation i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ; however,
H a r r i s l i n e s do n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h i s
sample, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n i s n o t t h e major c a u s e o f
l i n e formation h e r e .
p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was n o t common among c h i l d r e n even i n t h e
C o l o n i a l group, where e v i d e n c e from g r a v e s s u g g e s t s a s h o r t a g e of
TABLE 20.4 Average S t a t u r e o f A d u l t s Based on Methods

o f T r o t t e r and Gleser
Average
stature
Culture (ern
Azapa 166
A l t o Ramirez 166
Cabuz a 166
Tiahuanaeo 169
Huari -IOU 163
Colon-Lot Inea-Iea 156
food: o n l y 9% of t h e c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age d i s p l a y e d t h e

symptoms. Among a pre-Columbian group of Wari-Ica c h i l d r e n from
around t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e f i g u r e was 6 % . ( I n t h i s l a t t e r c a s e
t h e r e was an abundance o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n t h e g r a v e s . )
I n n o r t h e r n C h i l e , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was uncommon i n a l l o f t h e
c u l t u r e s s t u d i e d . While o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e n , it o c c u r s i n fewer
than 1% o f c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age i n a l l samples.
A review o f d a t a on o r a l p a t h o l o g y s u g g e s t s a number o f p a t -
t e r n s l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t food p r e p a r a t i o n and o r a l hygiene a s w e l l
a s n u t r i t i o n . Elzay e t a l . (1977) and Sawyer e t a l . (1978a,b)
r e v i e w i n d i v i d u a l s from c u l t u r e s e x t e n d i n g from 2600 B.P. t o t h e
C o l o n i a l p e r i o d . They found a r e d u c t i o n i n jaw s i z e i n l a t e r
cultures, a pattern often attributed to a s o f t d i e t requiring
l i t t l e mechanical f o r c e t o m a s t i c a t e food. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p a t -
t e r n i s complicated by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of gene flow i n t r o d u c e d by
t h e I n c a i n v a s i o n s s i n c e t h e mandibular body b u t n o t t h e ramus was
reduced (Sawyer e t a l . 1 9 7 8 a , b ) . The I n c a and C o l o n i a l p e r i o d
I n d i a n s have t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e o f m i s s i n g t e e t h (antemortem),
a f i n d i n g t h a t p a r a l l e l s t h e p a t t e r n of i n c i d e n c e of d e n t a l c a r i e s .
Groups w i t h h i g h c a r i e s r a t e s a l s o d i s p l a y e d h i g h r a t e s o f c a l c u -
l u s involvement. O s t e i t i s o c c u r r e d i n a l l p o p u l a t i o n s b u t was
most f r e q u e n t i n t h e Nazca and I n c a groups.
Enamel h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s seems t o b e r e l a t e d t o
an i n c r e a s e i n "urban" l i v i n g s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s , who
presumably l i v e d i n small s o c i a l u n i t s , had l e s s enamel h y p o p l a s i a
t h a n t h e l a t e r p e o p l e . T h i s may b e i n d i c a t i v e o f a l e s s s a t i s -
f a c t o r y d i e t a s c e r t a i n l y was t h e c a s e among t h e c o l o n i a l
populations.
A summary o f t h e s e n o n s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r s i n bones and t e e t h
r e v e a l s t h a t w i t h a more complete a g r i c u l t u r a l economy, childhood
m o r t a l i t y increased (although a s discussed l a t e r , t h i s i s probably
e x p l a i n a b l e on t h e b a s i s of v i l l a g e l i f e and environment r a t h e r
t h a n d i e t ) . S t a t u r e a l t e r a t i o n a s a r e s p o n s e t o poor n u t r i t i o n i s
seen o n l y i n t h e c a s e of one c o l o n i a l group. H a r r i s l i n e s r e v e a l
a p a t t e r n r e l a t e d t o geographic l o c a t i o n , which may b e r e l a t e d i n
TABLE 20.5 The Frequency o f Harris Lines i n Mummies from S i x

Coastal and Seven Inland C u l t u r e s
Negative Positive Lines/

Cemetery Culture No. No. % No. % positive
Huac ho Preceramic 21 16 76 5 24
Playa M i l l e r San Miguel 6 4 67 2 33
P h y a Millev San Migue-4 74 5 26
Playa M i l l e r T-idhuanaco 8 8 100 0
Huayuri- Wari 19 10 53 9 47
Hua yur'i- Ica 12 7 58 5 42
-
Coastal t o t a l s 85 59 69.4 26 30.6
Azapa Azapa 23
Azapa A l t o Ramirez 8
Pica Atacameno 16
Azapa Cabuza 14
Azapa T-iahuanaco 14
Azapa San Miguez 8
San Juan Maaas - 60
Chiri - .
Baya
-
Inland t o t a l s 143
turn t o d i e t (although a d i e t a r y e t i o l o g y i s questionable s i n c e

c o a s t a l c u l t u r e s spanning 2000-3000 y e a r s show s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s
o f H a r r i s l i n e s ) . The low l e v e l o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e s e
p o p u l a t i o n s would a l s o tend t o argue a g a i n s t d i e t a s a major f a c -
t o r i n t h e pathology. I n o r a l pathology a r e d u c t i o n i n mandible
s i z e b u t n o t i n t h e s i z e o f t h e mandibular ramus s u g g e s t s a p a t -
t e r n of g e n e t i c r a t h e r t h a n d i e t a r y change. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a
increased with urbanization. Tooth l o s s and i n c i d e n c e of c a r i e s
appeared t o be r e l a t e d more t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of f o o d s t u f f s t h a n
t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of foods.
THE EVIDENCE OF SOFT TISSUE
The g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s based on p a t h o l o g i c d a t a f o r bones

and t e e t h can b e expanded by r e f e r e n c e t o s o f t - t i s s u e s t u d i e s .
W e have d i s c u s s e d t h e childhood m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s and t h e
f a c t t h a t among e a r l y s e a mammal h u n t e r s - f i s h e r m e n - g a t h e r e r s ,
t h i s m o r t a l i t y r a t e was o n l y a b o u t h a l f t h a t s e e n i n l a t e r a g r i -
c u l t u r a l populations. I n b o t h g r o u p s , however, t h e major cause
521
TABLE 20.6 Acute Respiratory Disease i n Adults and Children

of S i x Cultures
Incidence f%) o f acute respiratory disease

Culture Origin Children Adults
Asapa Coastal
A l t o Rami-rez Mountain
Cabusa Mountain
Tiahuanaeo Mountain
Hu& Mountain
Inca-Ica Mountain
of d e a t h was a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e ( s t r i k i n g b o t h s e x e s
e q u a l l y ) . From T a b l e 20.6 i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y
d i s e a s e i n t h e form o f pneumonia was a major c a u s e of d e a t h i n
i n d i v i d u a l s from b o t h c o a s t a l and mountain c u l t u r e s and i n d e e d
was t h e major c a u s e of d e a t h among a l l p e o p l e from a l l time
p e r i o d s independent of d i e t , involvement, o r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .
I t would be no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t f o r t h e p a s t 8000 y e a r s
most Americans have d i e d o f t h e same c a u s e s , a c u t e and c h r o n i c
respiratory diseases. Even today i n modern L a t i n America t h e
major c a u s e s o f d e a t h a r e pneumonia and t u b e r c u l o s i s . T a b l e 20.7
g i v e s t h e pathology of a c u t e pulmonary d i s e a s e seen i n 51 p r e -
Columbian mummies of i n d i v i d u a l s who d i e d o f pneumonia. Nearly
70% of t h e mummies showed b i l a t e r a l pneumonia t h a t could be
c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d g r o s s l y a s bronchopneumonia o r l o b a r pneumonia
Microscopic examination of t h e pneumonia seen i n t h e l u n g showed
t h a t most c a s e s produced an abundant e x u d a t e c o n t a i n i n g remains
of inflammatory c e l l s and b a c t e r i a (Group I V ) o r an e x u d a t e w i t h
i n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l s and no b a c t e r i a (Group 111); l e s s t h a n 7% had
only edema f l u i d (Group I ) and l e s s t h a n 10% had edema p l u s bac-
t e r i a (Group 11). The g r o s s d i a g n o s i s o f pneumonia i s b a s e d on
finding t h e lungs i n f l a t e d a t t h e time of autopsy. This s i g n i f i e s
t h a t a t t h e t i m e o f d e a t h t h e y were f i l l e d w i t h f l u i d t h a t
e v a p o r a t e d i n t i m e , a l l o w i n g t h e l u n g t o d r y i n t h e expanded p o s i -
t i o n . The l u n g s of a normal i n d i v i d u a l who d i d n o t d i e o f pulmo-
nary d i s e a s e a r e completely d e f l a t e d and a b o u t t h e t h i c k n e s s of a
p l a y i n g c a r d . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e pneumonia a r e a r e a s o f c o l l a p s e d
lung ( a t e l e c t a s i s ) a s w e l l a s a r e a s o f hemorrhage and emphysema
( l o c a l t r a p p i n g of a i r i n b l e b s due t o d i l a t a t i o n of pulmonary a i r
v e s i c l e s ) , a l l c o m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e pneumonic p r o c e s s . A n t h r a c o s i s
was i n c l u d e d i n t h e d a t a g i v e n i n t h i s t a b l e , and i t s low f r e q u e n c y
i n d i c a t e d t h a t cooking was p r o b a b l y done o u t of d o o r s r a t h e r than
i n a house where t h e smoke w i t h i t s carbon p a r t i c l e s would be i n -
h a l e d . T h i s i s l o g i c a l s i n c e t h e c l i m a t e a l l a l o n g t h e c o a s t and
c o a s t a l v a l l e y s i n t h e a r e a s t u d i e d i s m i l d and f a v o r s o u t d o o r
l i v i n g . The 4 4 % frequency of p l e u r a l a d h e s i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t
n e a r l y h a l f o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s had had a t l e a s t one p r e v i o u s
TABLE 20.7 I n c i d e n c e o f P a t h o l o g i c F i n d i n g s i n 51 Mummies

uifh A c u t e Pulmonary D i s e a s e
Pathologic finding I n c i d e n c e f %)
Pneumonia
Gross examination
R i g h t lung 13.0
L e f t lung 17.4
Bilateral 69.6
M i c r o s c o p i c exam'ination
Group I 6.8
Group I I 9.1
Group I I I 22.7
Group IV 61.4
Pleural exudate 14.8
Atelectasis 9.3
Hemorrhage 13.0
Emphysema 41 - 0
An t h r a e o s i s 5.6
Abscess 3.7
Granulomas ( t u b e r c u l a r ? ) 3.7
Pleural adhesions 44.4
b o u t of pneumonia, b u t a b o u t h a l f of them d i e d o f t h e i r f i r s t
a t t a c k . The p r e s e n c e o f a l u n g a b s c e s s i n n e a r l y 4% o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a c h r o n i c l o c a l f o c u s of i n f e c t i o n .
The granulomas n o t e d a r e i n c i d e n t a l f i n d i n g s of a n o t h e r d i s e a s e ,
p r o b a b l y t u b e r c u l o s i s , c a s e s of which have been found i n n e a r l y
a l l o f t h e c u l t u r e s under s t u d y h e r e . Extrapulmonary c o m p l i c a t i o n s
s e e n , i n t h e o r d e r o f frequency i n t h e s e mummies, were p l e u r i s y ,
l i v e r d i s e a s e , k i d n e y d i s e a s e , p e r i c a r d i t i s , and e n d o c a r d i t i s .
Modern l a b o r a t o r y technology makes it p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e
s p e c i f i c e t i o l o g i c a g e n t of many o f t h e s e pneumonias (Dalton e t a l .
1 9 7 6 ) . I n one c a s e of bronchopneumonia, numerous s t r e p t o c o c c i
were s e e n i n t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e lung; s e r o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s r e -
v e a l e d t h i s t o be a L a n c e f i e l d group A S t r e p t o c o c c u s . A Wari man
who d i e d o f C a r r i o n ' s d i s e a s e , Verruga p h a s e , had a bronchopneu-
monia due t o B a r t o n e l k b a c i l l i f o r m i s i d e n t i f i e d by e l e c t r o n
microscopy (Martinez e t a l . 1975) on t h e b a s i s o f s i z e and f l a g e l -
l u m w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s s o c i a t e d pathology ( A l l i s o n e t a l .
1974b) . An I n c a woman w i t h an e x t e n s i v e s k i n i n f e c t i o n d i e d o f
a bronchopneumonia and b o t h l e s i o n s were shown t o have a y e a s t ,
Candid0 s p . ( T h i s i n d i v i d u a l may have been from t h e c o l o n i a l
p e r i o d s i n c e i t s age a c c o r d i n g t o carbon d a t i n g o v e r l a p p e d t h e
time of t h e Spanish conquest. Such a d i s e a s e today c o u l d b e a s s o -
c i a t e d with diabetes o r possibly a n u t r i t i o n a l deficiency, but
n e i t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y can b e proven i n h e r c a s e . ) A t l e a s t two c a s e s
of bronchopneumonia were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o s s i b l e s a l m o n e l l o s i s
group D i n f e c t i o n . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r group o f s a l m o n e l l a e i n c l u d e s
t h e a g e n t of t y p h o i d f e v e r ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1982b; Sawicki e t a l .
1976).
The e x i s t e n c e o f c h r o n i c r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e , mainly i n t h e
form of t u b e r c u l o s i s throughout most of pre-columbian America, i s
now w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . A l l i s o n e t a l . (1973) r e p o r t e d t h e f i r s t
c a s e of pre-Columbian t u b e r c u l o s i s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t i n g and
a 1% d a t e o f a b o u t A.D. 700. The d i s e a s e was d i s c o v e r e d i n an
8-year-old Huari c h i l d who d i e d a f t e r a l o n g - s t a n d i n g i l l n e s s t h a t
produced, a s i d e from t h e pulmonary d i s e a s e , l i v e r and kidney
t u b e r c u l o s i s , t u b e r c u l o u s p e r i c a r d i t i s , and a p s o a s a b s c e s s w i t h
P o t t ' s d i s e a s e i n t h e lumbar v e r t e b r a e . T h i s c a s e had a c i d - f a s t
b a c i l l i i n many d i f f e r e n t o r g a n s and t h e t e r m i n a l e v e n t was a
miliary tuberculosis. S i n c e t h e n more t h a n a dozen such c a s e s have
been recorded w i t h numerous d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h i s
d i s e a s e i n bone and s o f t t i s s u e ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 b ) . The
d i s e a s e a s n o t e d i n t h e pre-Columbian I n d i a n i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o
t h a t seen i n t h e United S t a t e s Caucasian p o p u l a t i o n and i n no way
resembles t h e r a p i d , g a l l o p i n g consumption commonly d e s c r i b e d i n
t h e modern I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e p r e - a n t i b i o t i c e r a . (This
r a p i d l y f u l m i n a t i n g pulmonary d i s e a s e i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f a complete
d i s r u p t i o n of t h e n a t i v e American's way of l i f e t h a t r e s u l t s i n
i n c r e a s e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o many d i s e a s e s , among them t u b e r c u l o s i s . )
T h a t t h e pre-Columbian I n d i a n d i d n o t r e a c t s o d i f f e r e n t l y t o
d i s e a s e t h a n t h e modern person i s seen i n a n o t h e r c h r o n i c pulmonary
i n f e c t i o n , South American b l a s t o m y c o s i s (Paracoccidioidomycosis
s e e A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) . T h i s g e n e r a l i z e d deep mycotic i n f e c t i o n
i s caused by a fungus, Paraeoee'Ldio'ides 'bvasa<ens<s and i s o f low
f r e q u e n c y , a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y seen i n t r o p i c a l o r s u b t r o p i c a l r u r a l
a r e a s of South America. The p r e s e n t pre-Columbian c a s e was i n a
56-year-old woman who d i e d around A . D . 290 with pulmonary and r e n a l
lesions. I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s was an imported d i s e a s e i n
northern Chile acquired during a trading expedition t o a t r o p i c a l
a r e a , s i n c e among t h e g r a v e goods were numerous examples o f t r o p i c a l
b i r d f e a t h e r s . The age o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e n a t u r e of t h e l e -
s i o n s a r e a l l s i m i l a r t o t h o s e seen i n modem c a s e s o f t h i s d i s e a s e .
Munizaga e t a l . (1975) r e p o r t e d on pneumoconiosis i n a group of
mummies o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y miners from C h i l e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t o n o t e t h a t t h e frequency o f c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o u s pulmonary d i s e a s e
i n t h i s group of miners was comparable t o t h a t s e e n i n a group o f
modern s a n d b l a s t e r s who a l s o had pneumoconiosis ( B a i l e y e t a l .
1 9 7 4 ) . Thus, by a l l i n d i c a t i o n s t h e r e s p o n s e s of n a t i v e Americans
from Peru o r C h i l e t o d i s e a s e a r e q u i t e comparable t o t h o s e of
modem w h i t e Americans; and we must i n f e r t h a t d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s
e s t a b l i s h e d norm may be due t o a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e n a t i v e s o c i e t i e s
with changes i n t h e economy and n u t r i t i o n a l b a s e .
I f we c o n s i d e r t h a t r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e i s t h e major c a u s e of
d e a t h i n c h i l d r e n of a l l c u l t u r e s , it should be r e l a t i v e l y easy t o
measure t h e r e l a t i v e m o r t a l i t y of d i f f e r e n t a g e g r o u p s , comparing
t h i s t o t h e m o r b i d i t y a s o b t a i n e d from H a r r i s l i n e s . T a b l e 2 0 . 8
p r e s e n t s such d a t a f o r a group of i n d i v i d u a l s belonging t o t h e
524 MARVIN J . ALLISON
TABLE 20.8 Maitas-Chiribaya Population S'howinq T o t a l

M o r t a l i t y and Morbidity
(A)
Age o f
eh-ildren
a t death
total
population
Harris
(B)
Number
o f dead (A + B = C)
(^)
Percentage
(years) lines eh; Zdren Morbidity Mortality
Maitas-Chiribaya c u l t u r e o f n o r t h e r n Chile. I t i s obvious t h a t

c h i l d r e n from b i r t h t o 1 y e a r of age have a low r e s i s t a n c e and
t h a t 70% of t h o s e who become ill w i l l d i e , while l e s s than 1%of
c h i l d r e n aged 8-12 w i l l d i e . Because among most p r i m i t i v e peoples
t h e c h i l d r e n a r e l i m i t e d t o m o t h e r ' s milk a t t h i s e a r l y a g e , it
i s probably s a n i t a t i o n r a t h e r than n u t r i t i o n t h a t causes t h i s
mortality.
This problem of poor s a n i t a t i o n a s a major cause of d i s e a s e
i s f u r t h e r emphasized when we n o t e t h e change from a nomadic o r
camp e x i s t e n c e t o t h e sedentary l i f e o f a v i l l a g e with f u l l a g r i -
c u l t u r e . Table 20.9 shows t h e e f f e c t s of a sedentary l i f e on t h e
incidence of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e s . This t a b l e i l l u s t r a t e s
c l e a r l y one problem t h a t a r o s e with a sedentary l i f e i n which con-
tamination of food and water probably occurred due t o concentra-
t i o n o f population. Such population concentration p o s s i b l y
r e s u l t e d i n t h e a b i l i t y t o f e e d more people, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s
i r r i g a t i o n was developed, b u t it r e s u l t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of
new d i s e a s e s and a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n h e a l t h . In the c u r r e n t
a n a l y s i s , g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l problems were measured b y a l t e r a t i o n s
i n t h e volume of f e c e s i n t h e l a r g e bowel o r changes in i t s
c h a r a c t e r (blood) o r consistency.
The i n c r e a s e d frequency of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e a a v a l i d
o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t t h e a c t u a l e t i o l o g y of t h e i n f e c t i o u s agents i s
not e a s i l y established. The only p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of an
agent concerns two cases of salmonella group D , one of which
r e s u l t e d i n a g e n e r a l i z e d i n f e c t i o n ; t h e i n d i v i d u a l d i e d of a
p e r i t o n i t i s with e x t e n s i v e hemorrhage i n t o t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l
t r a c t . I t i s probable t h a t o t h e r salmonellae were a l s o respon-
s i b l e f o r o t h e r c a s e s o f g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e s i n c e even today
t h i s i s one of t h e most common i n f e c t i o n s of t h e bowel i n modern
man.
TABLE 20.9 Incidence of Gastrointestinal Disease i n

Indiui(A~alsfrom Four Cultural Groups o f Northern Chile
Incidence of
gastrointestina l
Culture disease (%)
Asapa 7
Alto Ramirez 2
Cabuza 25
Maitas-C'hiribaya 18
Fouant, A l l i s o n , and Gerszten (1982) completed a p r e l i m i n a r y

survey o f i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e s of C h i l e a n and Peruvian mummies.
Although t h e o c c a s i o n a l whipworm, pinworm, and hookworm were found,
t h e y were n o t common enough t o produce a s e r i o u s h e a l t h problem.
T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e environment, which does
n o t a l l o w f o r t h e completion o f t h e n a t u r a l c y c l e o f most p a r a -
s i t e s . The s i n g l e c a s e of hookworm i s o f i n t e r e s t ( A l l i s o n e t a l .
1 9 7 4 ~ )i n t h a t t h e f i n d i n g of Ancy'Lostoma has r e c e n t l y been con-
firmed i n pre-Columbian f e c a l m a t e r i a l from B r a z i l by Gongalves de
Araujo (1980). Thus, it seems c e r t a i n t h a t a n c y l o s t o m i a s i s was a
n a t i v e American d i s e a s e and t h a t t h e o t h e r hookworm Neeator was a
l a t e r import i n t o t h e Americas, a s s u g g e s t e d by Soper ( 1 9 2 7 ) .
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND HEALTH
The a d v e n t of a g r i c u l t u r e p r o b a b l y was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e even-

t u a l l y f o r some t y p e o f c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i -
c a t i o n . D i r e c t e v i d e n c e from s t u d i e s o f t h e Maitas-Chiribaya
c u l t u r e o f n o r t h e r n C h i l e r e v e a l t h a t a t l e a s t i n one c a s e , t h i s
was t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e h e a l t h o f t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
b u t t o t h e b e n e f i t of t h e r u l i n g p r i e s t c l a s s . Table 20.10 p r e -
s e n t s d a t a on t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e from a M a i t a s
h a b i t a t i o n a l s i t e w i t h what a p p e a r s t o be a temple d a t e d around
1000 B.P. A s can b e s e e n from t h i s t a b l e , t h e shamans were a
p r i v i l e g e d group t h a t had about t h e same l i f e span a s o t h e r m a l e s ,
b u t were t a l l e r and had fewer bone l e s i o n s . The women a r e t r u l y
a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l group from t h e commoner males s i n c e w i t h t h e
advent of a g r i c u l t u r e t h e r e has been a s e p a r a t i o n of d u t i e s i n
Andean s o c i e t y , w i t h women on a lower l e v e l t h a n men. (This was
n o t t r u e i n t h e e a r l y f i s h i n g and s e a mammal h u n t i n g s o c i e t i e s o f
n o r t h e r n C h i l e , i n which women were b u r i e d w i t h harpoons, f i s h
hooks, and l i n e s and used e l a b o r a t e s t r i n g t u r b a n s t h a t sometimes
had s i l v e r o r copper ornaments, s u g g e s t i n g a s e x u a l l y e g a l i t a r i a n
s o c i e t y . ) I n t h e Maitas cemetery were numerous l a r g e b a s k e t s
TABLE 20.10 Data on Three SocialZy S t r a t i f i e d Adult Groups from a Maitas-Chiribaya Cemetery
Incidence Incidence of Incidence

of osteoarthritie of
Height fractures (%) osteitis Bone lesions
Number Age (ern) f%) Cervica 2 Lumbar (%) per person
Shamans 12 30 165 0 18 18 9 0.4

Commoner males 20 31 162 35 25 30 20 1.3
Commoner females 49 38 159 16 29 39 18 2.1
c a l l e d "capachos" t h a t were s u p p o r t e d by a tumpline t o t h e f o r e -

head; t h i s was probably r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a l
o s t e o a r t h r i t i s noted i n younger a d u l t s i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n . The
g r a v e s y i e l d e d abundant meat, f i s h , and a wide v a r i e t y of
v e g e t a b l e s , s u g g e s t i n g n u t r i t i o n was a d e q u a t e . The shamans were
s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r males on t h e b a s i s of t h e u s e of e a r o r -
naments, l o i n c l o t h s , and s p e c i a l t y p e of h a t , and g o l d h a i r c l i p s .
I n s u m , t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t farming w i t h subsequent
s t o r a g e o f p r o d u c t s improved t h e g e n e r a l h e a l t h of Andean popu-
lations. Rather, the impression is given t h a t sedentary v i l l a g e
l i f e was d e t r i m e n t a l t o h e a l t h due t o crowding and s u b s e q u e n t
s a n i t a t i o n problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v i l l a g e l i v i n g . S i m i l a r l y ,
s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n an a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y o n l y pro-
v i d e d an improvement i n h e a l t h f o r t h e m i n o r i t y e l i t e p r i e s t
group. Moreover, c o l o n i a l i s m seems t o have had a d e t r i m e n t a l e f -
f e c t on t h e h e a l t h o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e o p l e . I t would a p p e a r t h a t
t h e l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f pre-Columbian t i m e s , t h e
l a s t of which was t h e I n c a , were a b l e t o s t o r e and d i s t r i b u t e
a g r i c u l t u r a l products t o provide a l e s s than optimal d i e t t o a
l a r g e p o t e n t i a l l a b o r f o r c e , b u t a t t h e expense of i t s h e a l t h .
REFERENCES
A l l i s o n , M. J.
1979 Paleopathology i n Peru. Natural H i s t o w , Feb. I s s u e :74-82.
A l l i s o n , M. J., and G e r s z t e n , E .
1982 P a l e o p a t m o m i n South American mummies, application of
modern techniques ( t h i r d e d . ) . Medical C o l l e g e o f
V i r g i n i a , Richmond.
A l l i s o n , M. J . , D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a
1973 Documentation of a c a s e of t u b e r c u l o s i s i n Pre-Columbian
America. American Revieu of Respiratory Diseases 107:
985-991.
A l l i s o n , M. J . , A. P e z z i a , E. G e r s z t e n , R. F. G i f f l e r , and
D. Mendoza
1974a A s p i r a t i o n pneumonia due t o teeth--A r e p o r t of two
c a s e s , 950 A . D . and 1973 A.D. Southern Medical Journal
67:479-483.
A l l i s o n , M. J . , A. P e z z i a , E. G e r s z t e n , and D. Mendoza
1974b A c a s e of C a r r i o n ' s d i s e a s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h human s a c r i -
f i c e f o r t h e Huari c u l t u r e o f s o u t h e r n Peru. AmeY'Loan
Journal of Physical Anthropology 41 :295-300.
A l l i s o n , M. J . , A . P e z z i a , L. Hasegawa, and E . Gerszten
1974c A c a s e of hookworm i n f e s t a t i o n i n a Pre-Colunbian
Arneri can. American Journal of Physical Ant'hropology
41 :103-105.
A l l i s o n , M e J . , E . G e r s z t e n , H. J . Shadomy, J . Munizaga, and

M. Gonzales
1 9 7 9 P a r a c o c c i d i o d o m y c o s i s i n a mummy. B u l l e t i n of t h e New
York Academy of Medicine 55:670-683.
A l l i s o n , M. J . , E. G e r s z t e n , J . Munizaga, C . S a n t o r o , and D.
Mendoza
1981b T u b e r c u l o s i s i n Pre-Columbian Andean p o p u l p t i o n s . In
Pre'historie T u b e r c d o s i s i n the Americas e d i t e d by J a n e
B u i k s t r a , pp. 49-61. N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y Archaeolo-
q i c a l Program, E v a n s t o n , I l l i n o i s .
A l l i s o n , M. J . , E. G e r s z t e n , and M . Fouant
1982b P a l e o p a t h o l o q y , t o d a y ' s l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t e s y e s t e r -
d a y ' s d i s e a s e s . Diagnostic Medicine, S e p t . / O c t . I s s u e : 2 8 - 4 8
Ashworth, J. T . , M. J. A l l i s o n , E. G e r s z t e n , and A. P e z z i a
1976 The p u b i c s c a r s of p a r t u t i t i o n and g e s t a t i o n i n a g r o u p of
Pre-columbian and c o l o f i a l P e r u v i a n m u m m i e s . American
Journal of P h y s i c d Anthropology 45:85-89.
B a i l e y , W. C . , M. Brown, H. A. Buecher, H. W e i l l , H . I c h i n o s e , and
M. Z i s k i n d
1974 S i l i c o m y c o b a c t e r i a l d i s e a s e i n s a n d b l a s t e r s . American
Review of Respiratory Diseases 110: 115.
D a l t o n , H. P . , M . J. A l l i s o n , and A. P e z z i a
1976 The documen t a t i o n o f communicable d i s e a s e s i n P e r u v i a n
m u m m i e s . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 2 : 43-
48.
E l z a y , R. P . , M. J. A l l i s o n , a n d A. P e z z i a
1977 A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o n t h e d e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s o f f i v e
Pre-columbian P e r u v i a n c u l t u r e s . Amerkan Journal of
Goncalves d e A r a u j o , A. J.
1980 C o n t r i b u c a o ao e s t u d o d e h e l m i n t o s e n c o n t r a d o s em m a t e r i a l
a r q u e o l o g i c o no B r a s i l - T e s e d e Mestrado. Fundacao Oswaldo
Cruz, Rio d e J a n e i r o .
Lumbreras, L. G.
1974 Los origenes de civilizae'ion en e l Peru. M i l l a B a t r e s ,
Lima.
M a r t i n e z , A . J . , D. F u l t s , M. J. A l l i s o n , E. G e r s z t e n , and D. C.
Stanley
1975 E l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p i c s t u d y o f t i s s u e s from Pre-Columbian
Americans. Proceedings Electron Microscopy Society o f
America 33rd Amiw 2 Meeting Las Vegas , p p . 55-60.
Munizaga, J . , M. J. A l l i s o n , and E. G e r s z t e n
1975 Pneumoconiosis i n m i n e r s from a 1 6 t h c e n t u r y m i n i n g com-
munity. B u l l e t i n of t h e New York Academy of Medicine 51:
1281-1293.
S a n t o r o , C.
1980 E s t r a t i g r a f i a y s e c u e n c i a c u l t u r a l f u n e r a r i a f a s e s :
Azapa, A l t o Ramirez y Tiwanaku ( A r i c a , C h i l e ) . C?l.un.gco'a
6:24-45.
S a w i c k i , V. A * , M. J. A l l i s o n , H. P. D a l t o n , and A. P e z z i a
1976 P r e s e n c e o f s a l m o n e l l a a n t i g e n s i n f e c e s from a P e r u v i a n
mummy. B u l l e t i n of the flew York Academy of Medicine 5 2 :
805-813.
Sawyer, D. R . , M. J . A l l i s o n , R. P. E l z a y , D. G. Page, and
A. P e z z i a
1978a M a x i l l a r y and m a n d i b u l a r jaw s i z e i n Pre-Columbian P e r u .
Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 4 ( 2 ) :101-108.
Sawyer, D. R . , M. J. A l l i s o n , R. P. E l z a y , and A. P e z z i a
1978b The d e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s o f Pre-Columbian P e r u v i a n s : A
study o f d e n t a l c a r i e s , missing t e e t h , a t t r i t i o n ,
o s t e i t i s and c a l c u l u s a n d bone l o s s . Medical College o f
Virginia Quarterly 14 :1981-1988.
S o p e r , F. L.
1927 The r e p o r t of a n e a r l y p u r e Aney~ostomaduodenale i n f e s -
t a t i o n i n South American I n d i a n s and a d i s c u s s i o n of i t s
e t h n o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . American Journal of Hvqene 7 :
174-184.
CHAPTER 21
THE CHALLENGES AND REWARDS OF SEDENTISM:

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU
Robert A. Ben*
U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri-Columbia
INTRODUCTION
The Paloma p r o j e c t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

a n a l y s i s of a d a p t a t i o n t o s e d e n t i s m and food p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e v e r y
l a r g e preceramic ( A r c h a i c ) s i t e of Paloma, C h i l c a V a l l e y , Peru.
The s i t e a f f o r d s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e evidence concerning t h e p r e h i s t o r y
o f t h e P e r u v i a n c o a s t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d between 8000 and 4500 B.P.
when sedentism and food p r o d u c t i o n were e v o l v i n g . The a r c h a e o l o g i -
c a l and e c o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r t h e r e g i o n a r e r e p o r t e d e l s e w h e r e and
w i l l be summarized h e r e o n l y b r i e f l y ( s e e Benfer 1984a,b; Engel
1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s demographic d a t a and p r e l i m i n a r y d a t a
from p i l o t s t u d i e s on many d i f f e r e n t s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s t h a t , i n
combination, y i e l d a compelling p i c t u r e of s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t t o
t h e c h a l l e n g e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s of sedentism.
ECOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
I t i s commonly assumed t h a t e a r l y Peruvian c o a s t a l d w e l l e r s

emigrated from t h e Andean h i g h l a n d s (MacNeish e t a l . 1975; Willey
1 9 7 1 ) . Upon r e a c h i n g t h e c o a s t , they found an extreme d e s e r t whose
a r i d i t y was c h a l l e n g e d o n l y by about 50 s t r e a m s , many of which were
n o t p e r e n n i a l , and by t h e heavy w i n t e r fog o r garua. I n t h e s e a
a d j a c e n t t o t h e d e s e r t t h e y encountered one of t h e r i c h e s t biomass
PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS Copynghl '0 1984 by Academy Pres'i, 1nc
OF AGRICULTURE All nghis of repn>dui.tion in iiny form reserved
ISBN 0.12-179080.0
21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU 533
by b o t h r a d i o m e t r i c d a t e s and f l u o r i n e a n a l y s e s ( s e e Appendix and

T a b l e 21.241).
POPULATION CONTINUITY
The s i t e of Paloma i s a p l a c e , n o t a p o p u l a t i o n . A breeding

population is t h e proper u n i t of a n a l y s i s (Bennett 1969), but it
i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o know w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h e l i m i t s o f a b r e e d i n g
p o p u l a t i o n from human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s . The 2000 y e a r s o f occu-
p a t i o n a t Paloma from which most s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s were o b t a i n e d
i s l o n g enough t o a l l o w c o n s i d e r a b l e p o p u l a t i o n movement.
R e c e n t l y , C. T u r n e r ( p e r s o n a l communication) h a s found t h a t
b i o l o q i c a l d i s t a n c e s between b u r i a l s from t h e e a r l i e r l e v e l s
(#400-600) and t h e l a t e r l e v e l s , a s judged by d e n t a l t r a i t s , i s
v e r y l a r g e , p e r h a p s t o o l a r g e t o b e e x p l a i n e d by i n s f i u change.
Analysis of t h e c r a n i a l d i s c r e t e t r a i t s , s t a n d a r d anthropometric
measurements, and C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e d a t a ( B e n f e r 1 9 7 6 ) i s s t i l l
pending.
The p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f g e n e t i c d r i f t due t o i s o l a t i o n remain
t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . However, Page (1974) found e v i d e n c e o f de-
c r e a s e d v a r i a n c e i n c r a n i a l measurements i n c o a s t a l P e r u v i a n
s k e l e t o n s d u r i n g t h e t i m e p e r i o d o f Paloma, s u p p o r t i n g E r i c k s e n ' s
(1962) h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c o a s t a l v i l l a g e s e x p e r i e n c e d b r e e d i n g i s o -
l a t i o n t h a t b r o k e down w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a g r i c u l t u r e .
T u r n e r ' s d a t a may b e d e t e c t i n g t h i s breakdown i n i s o l a t i o n , s i n c e
t h e e a r l i e r , s m a l l e r samples show d e c r e a s e d v a r i a n c e i n many of
t h e 23 d e n t a l t r a i t s s t u d i e d . Unequal sample s i z e s confound t h i s
interpretation. S t a t u r e i s predicted t o decrease with inbreeding
( F a l c o n e r 1960) and contemporary human p o p u l a t i o n s s u p p o r t t h i s
p r e d i c t i o n ( s e e S c h r e i d e r 1 9 6 7 ) . An i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e d o e s t a k e
p l a c e a t Paloma, a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n , " S t a t u r e . "
SUBSISTENCE
The e a r l i e r l e v e l s ( l e v e l 400 and below) i n d i c a t e mixed h u n t i n g

and c o l l e c t i n q i n t h e tornas, n e a r b y r i v e r v a l l e y s , and w e s t e r n
Andean f l a n k s , w i t h e x p l o i t a t i o n o f m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s i m p o r t a n t .
The m i d d l e o c c u p a t i o n ( l e v e l 300, t h e t h i c k e s t d e p o s i t s ) show an
i n c r e a s e i n p l a n t remains, including p o s s i b l e c u l t i v a t i o n o r
management of s u c h p l a n t s a s t h e t u b e r o u s b e g o n i a (Begonia
g e r a n i i f o l i a ) , t h e b o t t l e g o u r d ( L a g e n a r i a s e r a r i a ) , and o t h e r
imported p l a n t s such a s lima beans (Phaseotus t u n a t u s ) , squash
( C u a u r b i t a c e a e spp. ) , and p o s s i b l y o t h e r s (Weir and D e r i n q 1984) .
By l e v e l 200, a t h i n b u t w i d e s p r e a d o c c u p a t i o n , a g r e a t e r emphasis
on m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s , and e v i d e n c e o f d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e t0rnU.s a r e
TABLE 21.1 Sex, Age, and Stratigraphic Leve l s for 201 Paloma Burials
(4600-5200 B.P. ) (5200-5500 B. P.) (5500-7000 B. P. ) Unassigned Totals by sex Totals

Age (years) M F ? M F ? M F ? M F ? M F ? byage
Fetus 0
0- 1 1
1- 4 0
5- 9 0
10-14 1
15-19 1
20-24 0
25-29 5
30-34 1
35-39 2
40-44 1
45-49 1
50-54 1
55+ 1
Individua 2s
for whom age
i s approximate
Baby (0-5) 0
Child (6-14) 0
Adult (15+) 1
-
16
21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU
A g e In Years
A g e In Y e a r s
FIGURE 21.1. L i f e expectancy a t Paloma. ( a ) Total sample
( N = 168 males and females for whom accurate age estimates are
available; includes 44 individuals looking precise stratigraphic
placement). ( b ) Sample divided by stratigraphic l e v e l ; smoothed
10-year age i n t e r v a l s . 2, l e v e l Z O O only ( N = 35); 3, l e v e l 300
only f N = 61); 4 , l e v e l 400 and 500 ( N = 4 8 ) .
year period. Sedentism and t r a n s i t i o n a l foods must have e a s e d

t h i s d i f f i c u l t t r a n s i t i o n from n u r s i n g t o a d u l t d i e t . The r e s u l t
would have been t o i n c r e a s e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e a s more c h i l d r e n
s u r v i v e d c h i l d h o o d , f o r c i n g some response i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
5. Delaying m a r r i a g e i s a s i m p l e response t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s -
s u r e . D i f f e r e n t i a l m o r t a l i t y d a t a may show such a r e s p o n s e . An
unexpected f i n d i n g , p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t i n g marriage p r a c t i c e , i s
r e v e r s a l of t h e u s u a l p a t t e r n i n which female m o r t a l i t y peaks i n
t h e 20s and male m o r t a l i t y more commonly p e a k s i n t h e 3 0 s . The
Paloma p a t t e r n i s t h e r e v e r s e , with 1 9 males and 11 females dying
i n t h e i r 2 0 s , w h i l e 11 m a l e s and 1 8 females d i e d i n t h e i r 30s
( c h i - s q u a r e = 3.8, p = .05, w i t h 1 d f ) . I have n o t p r e v i o u s l y
Jansen 1982), t h e s e d a t a suggest an i n c r e a s i n g dependency on

marine r e s o u r c e s , i n compliance w i t h P a t t e r s o n ' s (1971) model.
Other i n d i c a t o r s of d e n t a l s t r e s s , such a s l i n e a r enamel hypo-
p l a s i a , abscessing, t o o t h s i z e , and p a t h o l o g i e s a r e not y e t
s t u d i e d , although d a t a have been gathered by Edwards.
DENTAL ASYMMETRY
On t h e b a s i s of an assumed adequate and v a r i e d d i e t and a

l a c k of s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s , we p r e d i c t e d l e s s d e n t a l asymmetry
a t Paloma than i n e a r l i e r o r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s (Benfer e t a l . ,
1975). Gehlert (1979) r e p o r t e d on a p i l o t study o f t e e t h from
Paloma (N = 20) compared with a l a r g e r Inca sample from t h e
S i e r r a (N = 7 9 ) . She found 10 o u t of t h e 12 t e e t h a v a i l a b l e f o r
comparison were more asymmetrical a t Paloma ( p < . 0 2 ) . Antiinez de
Mayolo (1981) r e p o r t s t h a t Inca h e a l t h was q u i t e good o v e r a l l .
In c o n t r a s t , f o r 8 o f 1 2 a v a i l a b l e t e e t h (excluding c a n i n e s and
t h e t h i r d m o l a r ) , Palomans showed l e s s asymmetry than Indian
Knoll. I conclude from G e h l e r t ' s work t h a t t h e Paloma p o p u l a t i o n s
underwent more s t r e s s t h a n Incans but l e s s than t h e Indian Knoll
foragers.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
We p r e d i c t e d t h a t sexual dimorphism should l e s s e n over time

(Benfer e t a l . 1975) a s a consequence of l e s s e n i n g sexual d i v i s i o n
of l a b o r (Brace and Mahler 1971) . I t would be expected t o i n -
c r e a s e i f i n b r e e d i n g were reduced.
Results
Diameter of Ferncral Head
The average diameter of t h e head of t h e femur was examined by

s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l and sex. There i s no change i n observed
sexual dimorphism (males a r e about 1.1 times l a r g e r than females
i n each time p e r i o d ) . F a c t o r s t h a t might have a f f e c t e d sexual d i -
morphism, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e head of t h e femur, e i t h e r were
absent o r canceled each o t h e r .
S e l e c t i o n does not seem t o have been s t r o n q f o r t h i s measure-
ment. There i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e femoral diameter and
t h e age a t d e a t h f o r males, and a very weak i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
f o r females (r = -.32, p < . l , N = 3 3 ) . However, i f r e a l , t h i s
21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA. PERU
Bony Response t o Musculature
F i g u r e 21.2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s f o r specimens coded on a

f o u r - p i n t s c a l e i n d i c a t i n g bony r e s p o n s e t o m u s c u l a t u r e (Brock,
p e r s o n a l communication). A s can b e c l e a r l y s e e n , s e x u a l dimorphism
declines noticeably. These r e s u l t s s u b s t a n t i a t e t r e n d s n o t i c e d by
Page (1974) and S c o t t ( 1 9 7 4 ) . I t i s p l a u s i b l e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
e a r l i e s t i n h a b i t a n t s o f Paloma w e r e f o r a g e r s w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t
r o l e s f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s ; a s t h e number o f s p e c i e s and t h e num-
b e r o f n i c h e s e x p l o i t e d i n c r e a s e d , r o l e d i v i s i o n l e s s e n e d . The
o b v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , t h a t m a l e s d e c r e a s e d i n muscle
mass due t o d i e t a r y s t r e s s e s t h a t a f f e c t m a l e s more s e v e r e l y t h a n
b e t t e r - b u f f e r e d f e m a l e s , i s c o n t r a d i c t e d by o t h e r d a t a p r e s e n t e d
h e r e t h a t s u g g e s t s t e a d i l y improving d i e t and g e n e r a l h e a l t h .
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e d a t a p a r t l y c o n t r a d i c t my e a r l i e r
o b s e r v a t i o n s and t h o s e o f Brock ( B e n f e r 19811, t h a t t h e b o n e s o f
t h e e a r l i e r i n h a b i t a n t s were t h e most r u g o s e - - t h i s i s t r u e f o r t h e
males o n l y . With r e s p e c t t o s e x u a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , o n e c l e a r
d i s t i n c t i o n i s t h e amount o f swimming. Sharon Brock h a s n o t i c e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d amounts of r e a c t i o n a r e a s o n m a l e femora
( p o s s i b l y d u e t o swimming [L. F u r b e e , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ] ) , a s
well a s frequent a u d i t o r y osteomas, r e s t r i c t e d e n t i r e l y t o males
(Benfer 1 9 8 1 ) .
I n sum, s k e l e t a l s i z e i n d i c a t o r s s u c h a s s t a t u r e and d i a m e t e r
o f t h e head o f t h e femur do n o t s u p p o r t c h a n g e s i n s e x u a l d i -
m r p h i s m , a l t h o u g h o v e r a l o n g e r t i m e p e r i o d , Page o b s e r v e d s u c h
changes. S c o t t found v e r y d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n s e x u a l dimorphism
i n h e r a n a l y s i s o f a m a s t i c a t o r y f a c t o r . Here, muscle mass o f t h e
p o s t c r a n i a l s k e l e t o n s u p p o r t s S c o t t ' s f i n d i n g s ~ s e x u a ldimorphism
was d e c r e a s i n g between 8000 and 4500 y e a r s ago.
STATURE
Theory p r e d i c t s t h a t s t a t u r e w i l l d e c r e a s e i n mean s i z e and

v a r i a n c e , w i t h i n l i n e s ( F a l c o n e r 1 9 6 0 ) , which we s u g g e s t e d m i g h t
o c c u r ( B e n f e r e t a l . 1975) i f E r i c k s e n ' s (1962) h y p o t h e s i s w e r e
c o r r e c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e a breakdown o f c o a s t a l v i l l a g e b r e e d i n g
i s o l a t i o n a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . We a l s o p r e d i c t e d
s t a t u r e i n t h e t a l l r a n g e due t o a c c e s s t o m a r i n e p r o t e i n . It
f o l l o w s t h a t i f a d a p t a t i o n was t a k i n g p l a c e , s t a t u r e a l s o s h o u l d
have i n c r e a s e d a s a measure of h e a l t h ( s e e Nickens 1 9 7 6 ) .
Results
T a b l e 21.3 p r e s e n t s t h e mean s t a t u r e and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s

f o r o n l y specimens w i t h c o m p l e t e l e n g t h s o f t i b i a o r femora, a s
e s t i m a t e d by t h e s t a t u r e f o r m u l a s o f Genoves a s programmed i n
OSTEITIS AND PERIOSTITIS
P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e common a t Paloma, i n d i c a t i n g

h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s of i n f e c t i o n s . T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t change
i n t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s by s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l , where o s t e i t i s v a r i e s
between 1 0 and 1 6 % and p e r i o s t i t i s between 22 and 25%.
HISTOMORPHOMETRICS
J a c k s o n h a s s t u d i e d t h e h i s t o r n o r p h o m e t r i c s o f a s m a l l sample
o f 22 r i b specimens ( J a c k s o n 1 9 8 1 ) . Comparative s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g
t h e s e d a t a have a l s o been completed ( S t o u t 1 9 8 3 ) . Histomorpho-
m e t r i c s o f a sample o f femora and t i b i a e a t Paloma a r e i n p r o g r e s s
i n Stout's laboratory. Jackson found t h a t none o f t h e f i v e pos-
s i b l y o s t e o p e n i c s p e c i m e n s , judged by g r o s s a p p e a r a n c e , i n c l u d e d
i n h e r sample p r o d u c e d subnormal r a t e s o f bone t u r n o v e r compared
t o o t h e r Palomans e x c e p t f o r o n e i n d i v i d u a l , a 55-year-old w i t h a
below-average t u r n o v e r r a t e .
J a c k s o n a l s o p o i n t e d t o a h i g h e r r a t e o f bone t u r n o v e r i n
specimens from t h e e a r l i e r l e v e l s (400 and 500) t h a n t h e l a t e r
l e v e l s (200 and 300) , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h d e c a d e s .
These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (t = .53) f o r
t h e samples. S t o u t (1983) n o t e s t h a t Paloma r e s e m b l e s t h e Ray
and Gibson (Middle Woodland) p o p u l a t i o n s more t h a n t h e Ledders
L a t e Woodland s a m p l e .
s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a d j a c e n t s o i l sample and bone

sample. Adult f e m a l e s a r e l o w e r i n t h e l e v e l s o f b o t h z i n c
(Zn/Ca x 1 0 0 ; t = 3.11 w i t h 1 0 df, p < . 0 2 ) and s t r o n t i u m ( n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y ) t h a n a r e a d u l t m a l e s . Lambert e t a l . (1979) r e -
p o r t e d no d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e e l e m e n t s by s e x f o r t h e Gibson
Middle Woodland s i t e , b u t s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e L e d d e r s L a t e
Woodland s i t e , T h e s e a u t h o r s a r g u e t h a t i n c r e a s e d consumption o f
c a r b o h y d r a t e s i n t h e L a t e Woodland may have been measured i n
d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e x e s . S i n c e Paloma i s a s e d e n t a r y
v i l l a g e w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e of i n c r e a s e d c a r b o h y d r a t e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o v e r e a r l i e r h u n t e r - c o l l e c t o r s , p e r h a p s t h e same p a t -
t e r n i s present. When t h e l a r g e sample o f 35 femora can be added,
d i f f e r e n c e s among s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l s w i l l be e v a l u a t e d w i t h t h i s
h y p o t h e s i s i n mind.
I had r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r t h a t s t r o n t i u m was l e s s v a r i a b l e among
f e m a l e s t h a n m a l e s ( B e n f e r 1 9 8 1 ) - - f o r Sr/Ca x 100 r a t i o s , t h e
v a r i a n c e o f m a l e s ( . 2 3 8 ) i s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f f e m a l e s ( . 0 1 9 )
(F = 23.53, p < .05 w i t h 6 and 4 df). The v a r i a n c e i n Zn/Ca x 100
i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l i n m a l e s (. 1 4 ) and f e m a l e s ( - 1 3 ) . These
samples a r e q u i t e s m a l l , and s i n c e o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e n o t
r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s ( f o r a n o t h e r c o a s t a l example s e e Edward
1 9 8 4 ) , t h e y must a w a i t c o n f i r m a t i o n w i t h l a r g e r s a m p l e s . I t would
n o t seem t h a t f e m a l e bone, i f more p o r o u s , h a s merely changed
toward t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l v a l u e s . T h i s d i d n o t happen w i t h t h e s e
specimens when compared w i t h a d j a c e n t s o i l s t r o n t i u m v a l u e s . In
any c a s e , f e m a l e s t e n d t o h a v e l o w e r v a l u e s t h a n m a l e s . The r e -
duced d i v i s i o n of l a b o r a r g u e d f o r on o t h e r grounds m i g h t s u g g e s t
i n c r e a s e d s i m i l a r i t y o f d i e t f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s . The p r e s e n t
sample i s t o o s m a l l t o t e s t t h i s c o n j e c t u r e .
F i g u r e 21.3 p r e s e n t s a p l o t o f z i n c v e r s u s s t r o n t i u m a f t e r a d -
j u s t m e n t f o r c a l c i u m . The v a l u e s p r e s e n t e d a r e t h e r e s i d u a l s
a f t e r l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n w i t h c a l c i u m ; a s i m i l a r p l o t c a n be ob-
t a i n e d u s i n g t h e r a t i o o f c a l c i u m t o t h e two e l e m e n t s , b u t t h e p i c -
t u r e i s l e s s c l e a r . Calcium and z i n c show a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a -
t i o n (P = . 6 4 , p < . 0 1 ) b u t n o t c a l c i u m and s t r o n t i u m (P = .34,
p > . 0 5 ) . R a t i o s s h o u l d n o t be u s e d t o a d j u s t v a l u e s u n l e s s t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e variances, a r e s i m i l a r , s i n c e simple
r a t i o s w i l l n o t i n g e n e r a l remove a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e
numerator and denominator ( s e e A t c h l e y e t a l . 1 9 7 6 ) . From F i g u r e
2 1 . 3 it i s a p p a r e n t t h a t male and f e m a l e a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n can
b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d , s u g g e s t i n g t h e p o s s i b l e u t i l i t y of t h i s method
i n demographic s t u d i e s . The e l e v a t e d v a l u e s f o r i n f a n t s c o u l d b e
due t o t h e i r lower p r o t e i n i n t a k e on a d i e t o f m o t h e r ' s m i l k , t h e
l e s s e r r e s i s t a n c e of t h e i r r e m a i n s t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n , o r b o t h .
Edward (1981) found no s u c h c l u s t e r i n g by s e x . However, t h e male
a d u l t s do show c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r l e v e l s o f z i n c , p e r h a p s a s a
r e s u l t o f g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o l a n d mammals, s u c h a s c a m e l i d s and
d e e r . The s t r o n t i u m l e v e l s may b e l e s s i n f o r m a t i v e d u e t o e l e v a -
t i o n i n l e v e l s d u e t o s h e l l f i s h e a t i n g ( S c h o e n i n q e r and P e e b l e s
1981; a l s o s e e n S i l l e n and Kavanaqh 1 9 8 2 ) . However, an i n t e r e s t i n g
f i n d i n g i s t h a t while age a t d e a t h of a d u l t s i s n o t c o r r e l a t e d
Zinc v a l u e s were low t o normal. Elevated v a l u e s can i n d i c a t e

k w a s h i o r k o r . Chromium approached d i a b e t i c v a l u e s f o r two s p e c i -
mens, o n e o f which was a 1 7 - y e a r - o l d , s u g g e s t i n g a h i g h carbohy-
d r a t e d i e t ( s e e Wing and Brown 1 9 7 9 : 3 1 ) .
Copper was found t o change i n o u r s i n g l e modern c o n t r o l sample
d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f extreme d i e t a r y change. Changes were a l s o
d e t e c t e d among p r o x i m a l , m i d d l e , and d i s t a l segments o f t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l specimens. Copper does n o t v a r y a s a s i m p l e f u n c t i o n
of d i s t a n c e t o s c a l p , t h a t i s , t o e x p o s u r e t o c o n t a m i n a n t s , i n most
modern examples where d i e t i s unchanged. Children maintained too
long o n mother's milk have e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f copper i n h a i r .
Copper l e v e l s i n h a i r may a l s o v a r y w i t h anemia. One o t h e r r e s u l t
s h o u l d b e mentioned: s t r o n t i u m i n h a i r was found t o be o f a b o u t
t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude a s i n bone, t e n d i n g t o c o n f i r m t h e
l a c k o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f bone specimens.
The v e r y s m a l l s a m p l e s a n a l y z e d s o f a r s u g g e s t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
o f s t r o n g s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n d i e t t h a t conform t o t h e a r c h a e o -
b o t a n i c a l a n a l y s i s o f f o o d s p r e s e n t i n i n t e s t i n e s and c o p r o l i t e s .
F u r t h e r work w i t h a much l a r g e r s a m p l e , i n p r o g r e s s , w i l l b e
n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e it i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e h a i r w i t h c o n f i d e n c e a s a
b i o p s y m a t e r i a l ( B e n f e r e t a l . 1978) .
SUMMARY
The r e s u l t s a r e summarized a s f o l l o w s :
1. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were o b s e r v e d i n a g e c a t e g o r y d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s among s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l s w i t h l a t e r l e v e l s e x h i b i t i n g
l o w e r m o r t a l i t y of b o t h t h e young and t h e o l d a d u l t s .
2 . Microwear s t u d i e s of d e n t a l wear (Moore-Jansen 1982) s u p p o r t
a protoagricultural diet.
3. Macrowear s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e r a t e o f wear was i n c r e a s i n g .
4 . With r e s p e c t t o d e n t a l asymmetry, Paloma i s more asymmetri-
c a l t h a n a n I n c a s e r i e s , b u t less a s y m m e t r i c a l t h a n I n d i a n Knoll
foragers.
5. No s i z e c h a n g e s were found i n s e x u a l dimorphism, i n e i t h e r
s t a t u r e o r t h e maximum d i a m e t e r o f t h e head o f t h e femur. However,
bony r e s p o n s e t o m u s c u l a t u r e showed a r e g u l a r change toward
d i m i n i s h e d s e x u a l dimorphism o v e r time.
6 . Specimens from t h e t h r e e major s t r a t i g r a p h i c d i v i s i o n s i n -
creased regularly i n s t a t u r e .
7 . T i b i a 1 l e n g t h was found t o c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y w i t h t h e
number o f H a r r i s l i n e s o b s e r v e d ; H a r r i s l i n e s may have d e c r e a s e d
i n frequency o v e r time.
8. P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e f r e q u e n t and do n o t change i n
frequency over time.
9 . H i s t o m o r p h o m e t r i c s of r i b s d i d n o t c o n f i r m c a s e s o f what
appear t o be osteoporosis.
THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU
1983a; Benfer e t a l . 1983) . The adjustments of Paloma were not

s t u d i e d b e f o r e and a f t e r a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e usual design adopted of
n e c e s s i t y . R a t h e r , t h e s e adjustments were observed during t h e
c e n t u r i e s p l a n t s (and p o s s i b l y animals) were shaped f o r domesti-
c a t i o n i n t h i s h a b i t a t . Adjustments were s t r o n g enough t o be
d e t e c t e d by paleodemography and s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l i n d i c a t o r s of
h e a l t h and d i e t . What was t h e i r n a t u r e ?
Presumably, adjustment t o sedentism, whether dependent on a c -
t u a l c u l t i g e n s o r n o t , i s n o t q u i c k l y accomplished. The advantages
o f sedentism, such a s food s t o r a g e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , reduced s t r e s s on
i n f a n t s from t r a v e l , and i n t i m a t e knowledge of l o c a l r e s o u r c e s , a r e
o f f s e t somewhat by i n c r e a s e d p a r a s i t e loads from f e c a l contamina-
t i o n and probably by i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s . ~ l t h o u g h
warfare and competition f o r b e t t e r s e t t i n g s might be p r e d i c t e d t o
o c c u r , t h e r e i s no evidence of such v i o l e n c e a t Paloma. If
sedentism i s complete, and t h e o p t i o n of migration becomes unavail-
a b l e , o c c a s i o n a l p e r i o d s o f r e s o u r c e f a i l u r e become extremely
stressful.
The d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e argue f o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e
e a r l y i n h a b i t a n t s were more s t r e s s e d than t h e l a t e r ones. I t i s
reasonable t o assume t h a t t h e f i r s t i n h a b i t a n t s r e t a i n e d g r e a t e r
m o b i l i t y , so t h a t t h e y may have s u f f e r e d a t times from t h e s t r e s s e s
of m o b i l i t y a s w e l l a s t h e s t r e s s e s of sedentism. Living i n t h e
nearby C h i l c a Valley i n t h e summer when it h a s water ( e i t h e r run-
ning o r i n shallow w e l l s ) and i n t h e fog o a s i s of Paloma i n t h e
winter (when it blooms and g e n e r a t e s water and p l a n t s ) would be
p o s s i b l e f o r a f a i r l y l a r g e group i n t h i s a r i d s t r e t c h of t h e
c o a s t . Radiometric d a t e s from t h e Chilca I v a l l e y s i t e (Engel
1966), l e s s than 9 km away, completely o v e r l a p those of Paloma.
Mortuary p r a c t i c e s a r e n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l (Q. F. M. V i a l l e j o s A . ,
p e r s o n a l communication). D e t a i l e d comparative s t u d i e s a r e required
t o t e s t t h i s proposition.
The degradation of t h e lamas, which i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a l l y a s
monitored by twig diameter and reduction of s u i t a b l e s p e c i e s o f
bushes used f o r firewood (Weir and Dering 1 9 8 4 ) , may have pushed
t h e Palomans toward more i n t e n s i v e use of marine r e s o u r c e s a t t h e
beach 3.5 krn from Paloma, a s w e l l a s more i n t e n s i v e management of
water f o r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e Chilca Valley.
Such a p i c t u r e of why Paloma and o t h e r a l l u v i a l fan fog o a s i s
s i t e s were abandoned i n f a v o r of r i v e r i n e s i t e s does n o t e x p l a i n
t h e s t e a d i l y improving h e a l t h of t h e people. Could h e a l t h have
improved a t t h e same time t h a t people were forced t o i n t e n s i f y
t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n of both marine and c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t resources?
The answer could be yes i f t h e s e methods r e s u l t e d i n s u r p l u s e s o f
i n t e n s i v e l y e x p l o i t e d s p e c i e s t h a t could be s t o r e d a g a i n s t t h e
o c c a s i o n a l f a i l u r e s of t h e fog o r t h e r i v e r , o r a g a i n s t changes
i n t h e marine s p e c i e s a v a i l a b i l i t y , a l l of which a r e p r e d i c t a b l e
consequences of t h e c y c l i c a l f a i l u r e of t h e Peruvian C u r r e n t , o r
upwelling.
The Paloma c a s e i l l u m i n a t e s t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e l a t e t o
s t u d i e s of a d a p t a t i o n t o sedentism and food production. skeletal,
2 1 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU 55 1
s t u d e n t s i n p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y - - e s p e c i a l l y Sharon Brock, S a r a h
J. G e h l e r t , Barbara M. J a c k s o n , and D a n i e l S. Edwards. Without
t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e s e and o t h e r s t u d e n t s , t h e p r o j e c t would
n o t have a c h i e v e d i t s g o a l s .
The work o f some p a r t i c i p a n t s i s mentioned i n t h i s p a p e r - - b u t
t h e i r c r e d i t d e s e r v e s more s p a c e t h a n i s a v a i l a b l e h e r e . T h i s
m a n u s c r i p t h a s been improved by h e l p f u l comments from Glen Weir,
Louanna F u r b e e , James A. Gavan, and Mark Cohen.
APPENDIX
Space d o e s n o t p e r m i t a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c
e v i d e n c e . T a b l e 21.Al p r e s e n t s a l l t h e r a d i o m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s i t e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e e x c e p t i o n a l s t r a t i -
f i c a t i o n f o r a preceramic s i t e . L a t e r r e o c c u p a t i o n was c o n f i n e d
t o o n e s m a l l a r e a . No a n i m a l s , o t h e r t h a n i n s e c t s , had d i s t u r b e d
t h e s i t e . No r e c e n t p o t h u n t e r s had b o t h e r e d a p r e c e r a m i c s i t e .
However, l i v i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f h a b i t a t i o n s , s t o r a g e p i t s , b u r i a l s , and t h e growth o f middens
n a t u r a l l y d i s t u r b e d t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y somewhat. See E n g e l (1980)
f o r a r e v i e w o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y a s it was known up t o 1976. Cur-
r e n t l y t h e P e r u v i a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t , B e r n a r d i n o Oj eda ( s e e Oj e d a ,
l 9 8 2 ) , and t h e 1976 f i e l d s e a s o n d i r e c t o r , John W. G r e e r , and I ,
a r e working toward p r o d u c i n g a f i n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y
b a s e d o n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1976, 1979, and 1 9 8 2 .
REFERENCES
A l l i s o n , M. J . , a n d E. G e r s z t e n
1982 Paleopathology i n South American Mummies: Application of
Modem Techniques. V i r g i n i a Commonwealth U n i v e r s i t y ,
Richmond.
A l l i s o n , M. J . , D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a
1974 A r a d i o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h t o c h i l d h o o d i l l n e s s i n P r e -
Columbian i n h a b i t a n t s o f s o u t h e r n P e r u . American J o u d
of Physical Anthropology 40:409-415.
Angel, J . L.
1971 The People of Lerna. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n P r e s s ,
Washington, D.C.
~ n t f i n e zd e Mayolo R., S a n t i a g o E.
1981 La N u t r i c k en e l Antigua Peru. Banco C e n t r a l d e Reserva
d e l P e r u , Lima.
A t c h l e y , W. R . , C. T. G a s k i n g s , and D. Andersor
1976 S t a t i s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f r a t i o s . I . E r r o i r i c a l r e s u l s
Systematic Zoology 25 :l37-148.
10. N85 El20 Compositae UGa 4117 UMC 5535 Â 95 #400
HI36 UNIT I
11. N105 E65 Burned cane UGa 4121 UMC Oy'eda-#300;
HI 01 UNIT I Benfer--#230;
probably #300,
b u t s tundard
error high
IS. N80 El15 HI3 Tilandsia UGa 4211 UMC
UNIT I
13. N100 El15 H29 Vegetable Ny-242 CIZA
T I 2 UNIT I
14. N90 E40 Burnt t w i g s UGa 4204 UMC Standard e r r o r
Quebrada t e s t t o o high
trench
15. N90 E45 T l Human f e c e s 1-31 26 CIZA
LA
LA GIZA t e s t
16. N50 El15 H22 Charcoa l Bim-516 CIZA Submitted i n -
UNIT I c o r r e c t l g as
#300; #400 i n
Fig. 16 i n
E n q e I (1980)
17. N95 El15 Cordage Ny-243 CIZA
TI1 HI1
Unit I
18. N105 El15 HI03 Wood UGa 3892 UMC Submitted a s
F252 UNIT I #700
19. W120 E65 Charcoal UGa 4212 UMC Standard e r r o r
i s t o o large
'#300 was assigned by P . Dering, who i n h i s f i e l d , n o t e s wrote t h a t he used l e v e l s merely as an or-

dering d e v i c e , t h a t h i s l e v e l s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y correspond t o t h o s e i n UNIT I . I n 1982, it was
necessary t o reexamine t h e p r o b a b i l i t y squares. Accordingly, I asked B . Oy'eda t o recheck t h i s square,
w i t h o u t i n f o m i n g him of t h e radiocarbon d e t e r r n i m t I o n . His p r o f i l e shows t h e house a s l e v e l #230, w i t h
which I concur, and which Dering a l s o considered.
1981 Comment on r e s e a r c h and development i n t h e S t o n e Age:

T e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s i t i o n s among H u n t e r - G a t h e r e r s , by
B r i a n Hayden. Current Anthropology 22: 532.
D e r i n g , P . , and G. H. Weir
1979 A n a l y s i s o f p l a n t r e m a i n s from t h e P r e c e r a m i c s i t e o f
P a l o m , Peru. I n R e p o r t t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Founda-
t i o n , p p . A67-A76.
Edward, J.
1984 Analysis b y neutron a c t i v a t i o n of human bone from the
H e l l e n i s t i c cemetery i n Asine, Greece. Jowndl of Field
Archaeology 1 1 ~ 3 7 - 4 6 .
Edwards, D. S.
1984 D e n t a l a t t r i t i o n and s u b s i s t e n c e o f t h e P r e c e r a m i c s i t e
of Paloma, P e r u . Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f
Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia.
Engel, Frederic-Andre
1966 Geografia Human Prehistories y Agricultura Precolombina
de Quebrada de Chitea. U n i v e r s i d a d N a c i o n a l d e A g r a r i a ,
Lima, P e r u .
1980 Paloma: V i l l a g e 613. I n Prehistoric Andean Ecology,
e d i t e d by F r e d e r i c - A n d r e E n g e l , p p . 103-135. Humanities
P r e s s , New York.
E r i c k s e n , M. F.
1962 Undefonned Pre-Columbian c r a n i a from t h e N o r t h S i e r r a o f
P e r u . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 20:209-
222.
F a l c o n e r , D. S.
1960 Introduction t o Quantitative Genetics. Ronald P r e s s , New
York.
G e h l e r t , S. J.
1978 H a r r i s l i n e s o f Paloman t i b i a . I n Report t o t h e National
S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp . A185-A189.
1979 Dental asymmetry i n tuo Peruvian archaeolog'ical samples.
Unpublished M.A. p a p e r , Department o f Anthropology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia.
G r a f , V. B.
1978 Trace element l e v e l s i n human 'hair a t c h i l d b i r t h . Unpub-
l i s h e d M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Human N u t r i t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia.
Hayden, B.
1981 R e s e a r c h and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: Technological
t r a n s i t i o n s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . Current Anthropology
22: 519-531.
J a c k s o n , B.
1981 Histomorphometric a n a l y s i s o f r i b s from t h r e e a r c h a e o l o -
g i c a l populations. Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , Department
o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia.
Lambert, J. G . , C. B. Zpuznar, and J. E . B u i k s t r a
1979 Chemical a n a l y s e s o f e x c a v a t e d human bone from Middle and
L a t e Woodland s i t e s . Arehaeometry 21 :115-129.
t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ,
Santa Barbara.
Raymond, J . S.
1981 The m a r i t i m e f o u n d a t i o n s o f Andean c i v i l i z a t i o n : A r e c o n -
s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e . American Antiquity 46:806-821.
R e i t z , E. J .
1983 V e r t e b r a t e Fauna from Paloma, P e r u , 12B-VII-613. Manu-
s c r i p t o f t h e Paloma P r o j e c t , Department o f Anthropology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, M i s s o u r i .
1984 Informe p r e l i m i n a r i o s o b r e La Paloma. Appendix i n E l
Proyecto P a l o m d e l a Universidad d e Missouri y E l Centro
d e I n v e s t i q a c i o n e s d e Zonas A r i d a s . Zonas Aridas, i n
press.
Rostworowski d e Diez Canseco, M.
1981 Recursos naturales renovables y pesca, s i g l o s X V I y X V I I .
I n s t i t u t e d e E s t u d i o s P e r u a n o s , Lima, P e r u .
S c h o e n i n q e r , M. J . , and C. S. P e e b l e s
1981 E f f e c t of m o l l u s c e a t i n g on human bone s t r o n t i u m l e v e l s .
Journal of Archaeological Science 8 :391 -397.
S c h r e i d e r , E.
1967 Body-height and i n b r e e d i n g i n F r a n c e . Amer'kan J o u d of
S c o t t , E. C .
1974 Dental v a r i a t i o n i n Precolmbian coastal Peru. Unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y
o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia.
1979 P r i n c i p a l a x i s a n a l y s i s o f d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n . American
Journal o f Physical Anthropology 51 :203-212.
S i l l e n , A., and M . Kavanagh
1982 S t r o n t i u m and p a l e o d i e t a r y r e s e a r c h : A review. Yearbook
s t o u t , S.
1983 The c o m p a r a t i v e c o r t i c a l bone h i s t o m o r p h o m e t r i c s o f s e v e r a l
a n c i e n t human p o p u l a t i o n s . ANTHROPOS, i n p r e s s .
T o r r e s , G. , J. , and C. Lopez Ocafia
1981 P r o d u c t i v i d a d p r i m a r i a e n l a s lomas d e l a C o s t a C e n t r a l
d e l Peru. Boletin de Lima 14:2-11.
U b e l a c k e r , D. A.
1981 Human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from s i t e CGSE-80, a P r e c e r a m i c s i t e
o f S t a . E l n a P e n i n s u l a , c o a s t a l Ecuador. Journal o f
Washington Academy of Science 7 0 : 3-24.
Vehik, S . C.
1978 C l i m a t e , p o p u l a t i o n , s u b s i s t e n c e , and t h e c e n t r a l ~ e r u v i a n
Lomas between 8 , 0 0 0 and 2,500 B.P. Appendix i n Report t o
t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp. A112-A136.
Weaver, D. S.
1980 Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i l i a o f a known s e x and a g e sample
o f f e t a l and i n f a n t s k e l e t o n s . American Journal of
Physical Anthropoloqv 52 :191-195.
ROBERT A. BENFER
Weir, G. H .
1978 P r e l i m i n a r y f o s s i l p o l l e n and m a c r o f o s s i l a n a l y s e s o f
c o p r o l i t e s and s e d i m e n t s from t h e La Paloma V i l l a g e s i t e
(12b-VII-613) a r e a , C h i l c a V a l l e y D r a i n a g e , P e r u . In
R e p o r t t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp. A138-A182.
Weir, G . H . , and J . P. D e r i n g
1984 The Lomas of Paloma: Human-environment r e l a t i o n s i n a
c e n t r a l P e r u v i a n f o g oasis--Archaeobotany and p a l y n o l o g y .
I n Andean Arehaeologg, e d i t e d by R. Matos M . University
o f California Monographs i n Archaeology, i n p r e s s .
W i l l e y , G . R.
1971 An Introduction t o ~rnericanArchaeology (Vol. 11).
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y .
Wilson, D. J.
1 9 8 1 Of maize and men: A c r i t i q u e o f t h e m a r i t i m e h y p o t h e s i s
o f s t a t e o r i g i n s on t h e c o a s t o f P e r u . American Anthro-
pologist 8 3 : 93-120.
Wing, E . S . , and A. B. Brown
1979 ~ a l e o n u t r i t i o n : Methods and t h e o q i n prehistoric food-
ways. Academic P r e s s , New York.
CHAPTER 2 2
POPULATION, HEALTH, AND THE EVOLUTION OF SUBSISTENCE:

CONCLUSIONS FROM THE CONFERENCE
Anna C u r t e n h s Roosevelt
Museum o f t h e American I n d i a n
New York, New York
INTRODUCTION
The e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f human ecology h a s become a s u b j e c t

o f broad t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t H i s t o r i a n s , economists, demoq-
r a p h e r s , b i o l o g i s t s , and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have s p e c u l a t e d e x t e n -
s i v e l y about t h e c a u s e s and consequences of changes i n e a r l y human
p o p u l a t i o n , s u b s i s t e n c e , and h e a l t h , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e
has been l i t t l e d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e w i t h which t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r
theories I n t h e l a s t few decades, however t e c h n i q u e s t o c o l l e c t
and a n a l y z e r e l e v a n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a have improved Studies
o f s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, and human
o s t e o l o q y have begun t o c r e a t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f r e l e v a n t
data I n o r d e r t o b r i n g some o f t h i s new evidence t o g e t h e r and
review i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , Mark Cohen and George
Armelaqos o r g a n i z e d a Wenner-Gren-funded conference i n P l a t t s b u r g h ,
New York, i n March of 1982 A t t h a t conference, physical anthro-
p o l o g i s t s s p e c i a l i z i n g i n d i f f e r e n t world r e g i o n s summarized t h e i r
sequences T h e i r f i n d i n g s , which a r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s book, a r e
s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e o r i e s o f c u l t u r a l e c o l o g i c a l evolu-
tion
BOSERUP S POPULATION PRESSURE THEORY
One o f t h e major t h e o r i e s about t h e c a u s e s and consequences of

economic change i s t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y The b e s t -
known e a r l y s t a t e m e n t of t h i s t h e o r y i s E s t e r Boserup s s h o r t book
The CondIfkions of AgrÂ¥i.euztura Growth. The Economics of Agrarian
OF AGRICULTURE 559 All nghts of reproduction m any form reserved
ISBN 0-12-1790800
ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT
Change under Population Pressure, p u b l i s h e d i n 1965 Boserup a t -

t r i b u t e s t h e development of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e impetus
given by p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e on s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s According
t o t h e t h e o r y , a growing p o p u l a t i o n p u t s p r e s s u r e on i t s food
s o u r c e s and, i n r e s p o n s e , p e o p l e s t e p up l a b o r i n p u t s t o produce
m r e food p e r u n i t o f l a n d The i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e l a n d use
i s supposed t o l e a d t o a d r o p i n l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y due t o de-
c l i n i n g s o i l f e r t i l i t y , which i n t u r n l e a d s t o t h e u s e of methods
such a s plowing and f e r t i l i z a t i o n t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y
Boserup argues t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n would n o t have
o c c u r r e d without t h e s t i m u l u s o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , because o f
its greater labor costs She reasoned t h a t s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s
would f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l e a s t e f f o r t and choose l e s s exten-
s i v e s u b s i s t e n c e systems w i t h h i g h e r l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y Boserup
d i d n o t e x p l a i n why some p o p u l a t i o n s might grow and o t h e r s might
n o t , b u t d e n i e d t h a t environmental d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
p o t e n t i a l were r e s p o n s i b l e
POPULATION PRESSURE AND THE RISE OF AGRICULTURE
Mark Cohen has a p p l i e d Boserup's p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y

t o human p r e h i s t o r y in t h e book The Food C r i s i s i n Prehistory:
Overpopulationand the Origins of Agriculture (1977) Cohen and
o t h e r s c h o l a r s , such a s Marvin H a r r i s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , b e l i e v e t h a t human
p o p u l a t i o n growth i s a more g e n e r a l phenomenon t h a n supposed by
Boserup and t h a t i t has o c c u r r e d f r e q u e n t l y throughout human h i s -
tory According t o t h i s v e r s i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e
t h e o r y , c u l t u r a l s u b s i s t e n c e systems w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v e
toward h i g h e r and h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i n o r d e r t o accommodate
r e c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n growth. Cohen p o i n t s o u t t h a t by l a t e
P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e s , growing p o p u l a t i o n s o f Homo s@ens h a s s p r e a d
o v e r much o f t h e e a r t h and could have begun t o p u t p r e s s u r e on
l o c a l food r e s o u r c e s Cohen b e l i e v e s t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e
r e s o u r c e u s e and human s e l e c t i o n of r e s o u r c e s t o i n c r e a s e food
s u p p l i e s l e d t o t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e e a r l y
Holocene
According t o Cohen, t h e e a r l i e s t s u b s i s t e n c e economies of
modern humans would have been focused on abundant game s p e c i e s
t h a t a f f o r d e d p a l a t a b l e , e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e foods i n convenient
packages He f e e l s t h a t a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew and p u t p r e s s u r e on
food r e s o u r c e s , p e o p l e would have expanded t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e t o
i n c l u d e l e s s favored "foods o f g r e a t e r abundance, such a s p l a n t
p r o d u c t s , i n v e r t e b r a t e s , and a q u a t i c f a u n a s , a p r o c e s s t h a t h a s
been c a l l e d " t h e Broad-Spectrum r e v o l u t i o n " (Flannery 1969, 1973)
E c o l o g i c a l l o g i c s u g g e s t s t h a t h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y sub-
s i s t e n c e systems w i l l emphasize s p e c i e s w i t h "r" r e p r o d u c t i v e
s t r a t e g i e s , which a r e h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e in c a l o r i e s p e r h e c t a r e ,
and c o n c u r r e n t l y w i l l deemphasize "K" s e l e c t e d food s o u r c e s which,
22 CONCLUSIONS
a l t h o u g h more balanced n u t r i t i o n a l l y , a r e lo-wer i n p r o d u c t i v i t y

per hectare P l a n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e i n g low i n t h e t r o p h i c
pyramid, would have f u r n i s h e d s u p p o r t f o r l a r g e r numbers o f p e o p l e
than game and would have been more s t o r a b l e i n most c l i m a t e s than
flesh.
Cohen e n v i s i o n s t h e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e a s t h e r e s u l t
of i n t e n s i f i e d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e more p r o d u c t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s ,
some o f which changed g e n e t i c a l l y i n t h e p r o c e s s , a s Flannery
(1969, 1973) has p o i n t e d o u t , e l i c i t i n g f u r t h e r s e l e c t i o n by
humans f o r g r e a t e r ca-loric v a l u e , s t o r a b i l i t y , and p r o d u c t i v i t y
T h i s p r o c e s s of p o s i t i v e feedback i s supposed t o h a v e l e d t o a g r i -
c u l t u r e a s s u b s i s t e n c e systems came t o r e l y more and more on t h e
p l a n t s with t h e g r e a t e s t c a p a b i l i t y f o r i n t e n s i v e harvesting
Systems t h a t f o c u s on a few p r o d u c t i v e , h i g h l y c a l o r i c p l a n t
s p e c i e s , a l t h o u g h a b l e t o s u p p o r t more p e o p l e p e r h e c t a r e , a r e
i n h e r e n t l y l e s s s t a b l e and l e s s f a v o r a b l e n u t r i t i o n a l l y than more
b r o a d l y based o n e s and would b e more s u b j e c t t o p e r i o d i c f a i l u r e s
Cohen a r g u e s t h a t such systems would n o t have developed i n t h e
absence of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e He p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s t h e o r y
p r e d i c t s n o t o n l y a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i s t o r y of s u b s i s t e n c e economy
but also a p a r t i c u l a r history of health. Early hunter-gatherers
would b e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l n o u r i s h e d and f r e e of d i s e a s e The
b u i l d u p of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e among l a t e r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s would
have l e d t o a phase o f p o o r e r n u t r i t i o n and g r e a t e r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y
t o disease The t h e o r y a l s o p r e d i c t s , a l t h o u g h Cohen d o e s n o t
a c t u a l l y s a y s o , t h a t t h e i n s t a b i l i t y and n u t r i t i o n a l p o v e r t y of -
i n t e n s i v e , f o c a l s u b s i s t e n c e systems would c r e a t e a p a t t e r n o f
c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n and s e v e r e p e r i o d i c famines d u r i n g l a t e r p r e -
h i s t o r i c times
ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
The l o g i c o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y h a s been c h a l l e n g e d
by a v a r i e d group of competing t h e o r i e s , which have c o n t r a s t i n g
p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d (Asch e t a 1 1972;
Bin f o r d 1968; Bronson 1975; Ear l e and C h r i s t e n s o n 1980; Flannery
1969, 1973; Ford 1977; Hassan 1975, 1978, 1981; Hayden 1981;
Jochim 1976) It i s argued t h a t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e could n o t
have been an i m p o r t a n t c a u s a l f a c t o r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f s u b s i s t e n c e
because i t h a s been a b s e n t f o r much o f p r e h i s t o r y , due e i t h e r t o -
l i m i t a t i o n s o n growth through h i g h i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y and low a d u l t
l i f e expectancy, o r t o t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t r o l of p o p u l a t i o n growth
Many s c h o l a r s s e e p o p u l a t i o n growth a s a phenomenon r e s t r i c t e d t o
r e c e n t t i m e s , caused mainly by h e a l t h improvements brought by t h e
industrial revolution They argue t h a t , i n t h e absence of popula-
t i o n p r e s s u r e , a d a p t i v e e v o l u t i o n a r y change i n human s u b s i s t e n c e
i s l i k e l y t o minimize e f f o r t and maximize s u b s i s t e n c e q u a l i t y and
reliability
By t h i s argument, s u c c e s s f u l c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n i s expected
t o produce s m a l l - s c a l e , e q u i l i b r i u m s u b s i s t e n c e systems t h a t a r e
i n c r e a s i n g l y s t a b l e , c o s t e f f e c t i v e , and f a v o r a b l e t o human
health Contrary e v o l u t i o n a r y developments, such a s t h e r i s e and
expansion of a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e growth o f p o p u l a t i o n , a r e a t -
t r i b u t e d t o d i s e q u i l i b r i a caused by environmental f l u c t u a t i o n s o r
changes i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n I t i s assumed t h a t human popula-
t i o n s i z e w i l l remain i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y
u n l e s s d i s t u r b e d by f a c t o r s i n t h e environment
S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s e x p l a i n t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e
e a r l y Holocene a s t h e consequence of a p e r i o d o f unusual environ-
mental change Binford, followed by Flannery, has t h e o r i z e d t h a t
f a v o r a b l e environmental changes o c c u r r i n g a t t h e end o f t h e
P l e i s t o c e n e allowed i n c r e a s i n g s e d e n t i s m o f s e t t l e m e n t i n a r e a s
of r i c h , c o n c e n t r a t e d r e s o u r c e s Sedentary s e t t l e m e n t i s supposed
t o have l e d t o a h i g h e r b i r t h r a t e by making it e a s i e r f o r women
t o s t a y home t o c a r e f o r c l o s e l y - s p a c e d c h i l d r e n The r e s u l t i n g
p o p u l a t i o n growth p u t p r e s s u r e on s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s i n neigh-
boring marginal a r e a s , i n s p i r i n g t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e
and t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e Others h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t u n f a v o r a b l e
environmental changes made s u b s i s t e n c e u n s t a b l e , and t h e y i n t e r p r e t
t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e a s an a t t e m p t t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y
o f s u b s i s t e n c e ( e q , Ford 1977) They s u g g e s t t h a t s o c i o p o l i t i c a l
e l i t e s came i n t o being b e c a u s e of t h e g r e a t e r management needs o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l economies
These t h e o r i e s might u s e f u l l y b e grouped under t h e c a t e g o r y o f
" e q u i l i b r i u m " t h e o r i e s f o r t h e y s t r e s s human s u b s i s t e n c e systems
a s equilibrium-seeking systems C u l t u r a l change i s o f t e n viewed
a s o c c u r r i n g t o " r e g u l a t e " t h e human ecosystem, an approach t h a t
Flannery, an e a r l y e n t h u s i a s t , has i r r e v e r e n t l y c a l l e d t h e
"Serutan" h y p o t h e s i s The approach seems d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y from
two s o u r c e s : t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t ethnology and
e q u i l i b r i u m - o r i e n t e d systems t h e o r y Cohen (1977) h a s summarized
some o f t h e problems of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s , which o v e r e s G -
mate p o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e c l i m a t e change and i g n o r e t h e widespread
evidence f o r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n growth These t h e o r i e s
a l s o tend t o a t t r i b u t e i n e x p l i c a b l e goal-seeking behavior t o s y s -
tems a s wholes, and t h e y t e n d t o view c o n t r o l by e l i t e s a s benign,
even n e c e s s a r y " r e g u l a t i o n " f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e whole popula-
t i o n , d e s p i t e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y In addition, despite
t h e i r r e j e c t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n a s a prime c a u s a l f a c t o r , t h e equi-
l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s o f t e n b u i l d p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t o t h e i r
e x p l a n a t i o n s w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t l y a c c o u n t i n g f o r i t s p r e s e n c e and
effects
These t h e o r i e s have somewhat d i f f e r e n t p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d t h a n Cohen's, and it i s c l e a r t h a t t o
evaluate the empirical v a l i d i t y of t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l f o r -
m u l a t i o n s we need l o n g i t u d i n a l d a t a a b o u t p r e h i s t o r i c and e a r l y
h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth, s u b s i s t e n c e , and h e a l t h To p r o v i d e
such d a t a , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n this c o n f e r e n c e were asked t o sum-
marize t h e r e l e v a n t evidence from t h e i r r e g i o n s o f s t u d y The
22 CONCLUSIONS 563
r e g i o n s covered i n t h i s review a r e t h e West Coast, Southwest,

Midwest, and S o u t h e a s t o f t h e United S t a t e s , lower C e n t r a l
America, Northwestern South America, Western Europe, t h e E a s t e r n
Mediterranean, E a s t A s i a , and South Asia. Because o f t h e impor-
t a n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and growth in t h e o r e t i c a l arguments,
t h e o r g a n i z e r s chose p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o summarize t h e r e -
g i o n a l d a t a and asked them t o p r e s e n t i n d e t a i l t h e o s t e o l o g i c a l
evidence f o r demographic p a t t e r n s and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , an
expected c o r r e l a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e
POPULATION GROWTH AND SEDENTISM
I n most o f t h e r e g i o n s reviewed, r e g a r d l e s s o f whether

a g r i c u l t u r e was e v e r developed, p o p u l a t i o n growth seems t o
o c c u r throughout t h e sequence, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e e a r l i e s t oc-
cupations This growth m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n -period-by-period
i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s i z e s and numbers o f known a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s
and i n t h e numbers o f o s t e o l o g i c a l remains recorded. Although
t h e r e i s always a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t growth i s an a r -
t i f a c t of a g r e a t e r d e s t r u c t i o n r a t e f o r e a r l i e r remains, t h e
magnitude of t h e growth and i t s widespread occu-rrence seem un-
a r g u a b l e evidence f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e , worldwide t r e n d of p o p u l a t i o n
expansion.
Knowledge a b o u t changes in t h e numbers and s i z e s o f s i t e s i n
t h e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s i s t h e by-product of decades o f g e n e r a l
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r o d u c t o f systema-
t i c s i t e s u r v e y s , and t h e numbers o f known s i t e s i n a r e g i o n
seems to r e f l e c t maze c l o s e l y t h e amount of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work
t h a t h a s been done i n a r e g i o n t h a n t h e a b s o l u t e number o f s i t e s
occupied i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s Thus, i n o r d e r t o g e t comparative
informat ion about changing p o p u l a t i o n s i z e from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n ,
it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t planned s i t e s u r v e y s Until
t h a t i s done, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s a y whether o r n o t t h e r e were
p e r i o d s o f simultaneous r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n growth throughout t h e
world a t c e r t a i n t i m e s , such a s d u r i n g t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e
I n a few r e g i o n s , such a s t h e Midwest and Southwest i n t h e
United S t a t e s , d r o p s i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e o c c u r r e d l a t e i n p r e h i s -
t o r i c t i m e s , a p p a r e n t l y due t o environmental changes t h a t
d e c r e a s e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f r e s o u r c e s f o r human s u b s i s t e n c e
And i n one r e g i o n , P e r u , r e s o u r c e overuse and exogenous environ-
mental .change seem t o have reduced t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o r
humans over t i m e i n some biomes, s u c h a s t h e f o g meadows Such
c a s e s , however a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of growth,
a f i n d i n g t h a t s u p p o r t s t h e view o f p a s t human demography e s -
poused by Cohen and H a r r i s The re dictions o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m
view, which i n c l u d e l o n g p e r i o d s o f s t a t i c p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , a r e
n o t supported (Discussion o f t h e demographic p r o c e s s e s t h a t
caused t h e growth whether d e c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y i n c r e a s e d
f e r t i l i t y , o r a combination of b o t h , w i l l b e found i n t h e s e c t i o n
on t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l o s t e o l o g i c a l evidence, where t h e e v i d e n c e
f o r h e a l t h and a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s i s summarized
Contrary t o e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s l t h e r e seems t o b e no d e t e r -
m i n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o p u l a t i o n growth and sedentism, f o r
p o p u l a t i o n growth o c c u r s throughout t h e sequence whether o r n o t
t h e r e was s e d e n t a r y s e t t l e m e n t l and t h e r a t e of growth d u r i n g t h e
P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c l a s b e s t a s can b e determinedl seems
independent of permanence o f s e t t l e m e n t , which v a r i e s g r e a t l y from
one r e g i o n t o a n o t h e r
ARCHmOLGICAL ECONOMY
I n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n sub-
s i s t e n c e change, we need t o know i n d e t a i l how s u b s i s t e n c e a c t u a l l y
changed i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s The p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n
p r e s s u r e t h e o r y c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e opposing t h e o r i e s i n t h e changes
t h a t it e n v i s i o n s i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s p e c i e s and consumption
of d i f f e r e n t n u t r i e n t s U n f o r t u n a t e l y , period-by-period recon-
s t r u c t i o n of t h e development of p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e economies
h a s been t h e rnost d i f f i c u l t p a r t of t h i s review And y e t t h i s
e x e r c i s e i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n it y i e l d s about t h e
c a u s e s o f s u b s i s t e n c e changel a s Cohen h a s p o i r t e d o u t The prob-
lem i s t h a t , f o r most o f t h e r e g i o n s under s t u d y , t h e r e has been
no s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n o r s t u d y o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remainsl
e s p e c i a l l y a t s i t e s d a t i n g e i t h e r end o f the sequence: the
P a l e o l i t h i c and t h e l a t e ~ e o l i t h i c l The r i c h l y documented s e -
quences o f t h e Midwest and Southwest i n t h e Uniked S t a t e s , C e n t r a l
Mexicol Panama, P e r u l and West Asia a r e r a r e e x c e p t i o n s The
s m a l l a m u n t o f food remains t h a t have been r e c o v e r e d elsewhere
were f o r t h e rnost p a r t c o l l e c t e d f o r t u i t o u s 1y d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n s
aimed mainly a t recovery o f a r t i f a c t s l and t h e s e chance f i n d s do
n o t f u r n i s h a v e r y good i d e a of t h e s p e c t r m of s p e c i e s used f o r
s u b s i s t e n c e , n o t t o speak of t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n which d i f f e r e n t
foods were e a t e n Thus, f o r many o f t h e s e r e g i o n s a t p r e s e n t
t h e r e is l i t t l e r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r i n f e r r i n g p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t -
ence p a t t e r n s because a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have not p u r p o s e f u l l y c o l -
l e c t e d food remains
I n s y s t e m a t i c sampling f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, it i s
important t o c o n t r o l f o r d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s e s of m a t e r i a l If
'FOP most v r i t e r 8 , th terms P a l e o l i t h i c , M e s o l i t h i c , and Neo-

l i t h i c have come t o have a nonchronoZogicaZ, s t a g e - l i k e meaning i n
terms of s u b s i s t e n c e , as folZows: Pa l e o Z i t h i c - - e a r l y , extensive
hunting-gathering, M e s o l i t h i c - - l a t e , i n t e n s i v e hunting-gathering
and i n c i p i e n t agricuZture; and NeoZithic--effective subsistenee
aqricul t u r e
22 CONCLUSIONS
o n l y l a r g e p i e c e s o f animal bone a r e c o l l e c t e d , such a s t h o s e

t h a t can be recognized d u r i n g t r o w e l i n g o r s h o v e l i n g , a s i s t h e
common method, t h e n t h e consumption o f l a r g e animals w i l l be
g r e a t l y overestimated A t t h e same time p l a n t consumption w i l l
be g r o s s l y underestimated s i n c e carbonized p l a n t remains a r e a l -
most i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t and c o l l e c t by t r o w e l i n g and s h o v e l i n g
alone I n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t s m a l l r l i g h t remains such a s s e e d s ,
small bones, and f i s h s c a l e s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e s o i l f l o t a -
t i o n o r d r y f i n e - s c r e e n i n g o f s t a n d a r d s o i l measures s o t h a t t h e
q u a n t i t y by weight of t h e d i f f e r e n t food remains may be compared
Larger remains a r e t h e most e a s i l y r e c o v e r e d in t h e absence of
s c r e e n i n g and f l o t a t i o n , b u t t h e s e remains o f t e n a r e n o t t h e p r e -
dominant f o o d s i n t h e d i e t Payne (1972arb) h a s shown through
f l o t a t i o n and s c r e e n i n g experiments t h a t t h e s m a l l e r , m r e d i f f i -
c u l t t o r e t r i e v e remains o f t e n make up t h e b u l k o f t h e food
remains, and p r o p e r sampling changes d r a m a t i c a l l y t h e e s t i m a t e of
t h e importance of d i f f e r e n t foods i n t h e d i e t Other experjments
s u p p o r t t h i s conclusion (Ford 1979; S t r u e v e r 1968)
Even where Â £ m remains have been a s s i d u o u s l y c o l l e c t e d , t h e r e
s t i l l may be no s e c u r e b a s i s from which t o i n f e r t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n
i n t h e d i e t , because food remains o f t e n a r e n o t p r e s e r v e d i n t h e
ground i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r abundance i n t h e d i e t Most f m d
is d e s t r o y e d by being e a t e n and d i g e s t e d ; what remains i s o f t e n a
poor r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f what was e a t e n , a s B u i k s t r a p o i n t s o u t
(Chapter 9 t h i s volume) I n a d d i t i o n I some a r c h a e o l o g i c a l foods
(such a s r o o t c r o p s and d e l i c a t e f i s h hones) do n o t p r e s e r v e
r e a d i l y , w h i l e o t h e r s (such a s n u t s , seed c r o p s r and l a r g e p i e c e s
of animal bone) do, s o i t can be d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o
compare d i e t a r y importance on t h e b a s i s o f t h e food remains a l o n e
To determine l e v e l s o f consumptionI o t h e r methods a r e neces-
s a r y # such a s s t u d i e s o f bone c h e m i s t r y and o f d e n t a l c a r i e s r
c a l c u l u s I and a b r a s i o n I n c i d e n c e of gum and t o o t h d i s e a s e a n e
damage i s o f t e n r e l a t e d t o d i e t c o n t e n t and t e x t u r e and may be
used t o r e c o n s t r u c t a n c i e n t d i e t s Much h a s been done t o t r a c e
l e v e l s o f c a r b o h y d r a t e consumption through study o f c a l c u l u s and
c a r i e s I which a r e c l i n i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e consumption o f
s t i c k y r c a r b o h y d r a t e - r i c h f o o d , b u t t h e r e have been few s t u d i e s
t h a t t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n microscopic t o o t h wear (Rose e t a 1 ,
Chapter 1 5 t h i s volume, i s an e x c e p t i o n ) Chemistry has t h e po-
t e n t i a l t o r e v e a l l e v e l s of food consumption d u r i n g p r e h i s t o r y
through a n a l y s i s o f t h e element composition of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
human bone T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because some elements and t h e i r
i s o t o p e s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e body i n a d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i o n
t o t h e amounts i n food By c a l c u l a t i n g t h e amounts o f r e r t a i n
elements i n a n c i e n t human bone and comparing t h e r e s u l t s w i t h t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, o n e can sometimes d e t e r m i n e what
foods were e a t e n i n what q u a n t i t i e s ( Â £ a0 b r i e f summary of t h i s
f i e l d s e e Wing and Brown 1979)
T h i s p r o c e d u r e works w i t h s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s , which v a r y
i n d i e t and t h u s i n human bone c o l l a g e n (and p o s s i b l y i n bone
m i n e r a l a l s o ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e amounts o f d i e t a m carbon d e r i v e d
from d i f f e r e n t p l a n t groups I n many r e g i o n s , l a n d food and s e a -

food a l s o c o n t r a s t s t r o n g l y i n carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s Tauber
(19811, f o r example, found a s h i f t from h i g h t o low 13c/12c r a t i o s
i n a n c i e n t Danish s k e l e t o n s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e average Meso-
l i t h i c d i e t among c o a s t a l i n h a b i t a n t s was h e a v i l y dependent on
seafood, which has a h i g h r a t i o , whereas t h e N e o l i t h i c d i e t
depended mainly on t e r r e s t r i a l f o o d l which has a low r a t i o This
conclusion would n o t have been p o s s i b l e through s t u d y o f t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, which d i d n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t t h e
q u a n t i t a t i v e changes A s a n o t h e r examplel t h e New World food
crop maize c o n t r a s t s i n ~ ~ / c I Z Cr a t i o w i t h most o t h e r a b o r i g i n a l
f o o d s l making it p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h i s
important c e r e a l through t h e chemical a n a l y s i s of a n c i e n t human
b n e s (Bender e t a 1 1981; van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978; van d e r
Merwe e t a 1 1981) Some elements o c c u r i n c o n t r a s t i n g q u a n t i t i e s
i n p l a n t v e r s u s animal food A u s e f u l element i n t h i s r e g a r d i s
s t r o n t i u m , which i s f a r more abundant i n p l a n t s than i n l a n d a n i -
mals, making it p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s of p l a n t
and animal food i n a p e r s o n ' s d i e t from chemical a n a l y s i s of t h e
s k e l e t o n and a s s o c i a t e d animal bones (Brown 1973; Smith e t a 1
Chapter 5 , t h i s volume) Such s t u d i e s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , which p r e d i c t s
changing p r o p o r t i o n s o f animal and p l a n t food i n human d i e t s
through time
The f i e l d s of archaeobotany, archaeozoology, d e n t a l pathology,
and b n e chemistry a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n a r -
chaeology due t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l importance of q u e s t i o n s about
q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e d i e t change Money t o c a r r y o u t
r e l e v a n t t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s can b e b u i l t i n t o g r a n t p r o p s a l s l and
many l a b r a t o r i e s w i l l c a r r y o u t chemical a n a l y s e s f r e e of charge
I n t h e f u t u r e t h e s e m e t h d s can f i l l many of t h e gaps and uncer-
t a i n t i e s i n e x i s t i n g knowledge about t h e h i s t o r y o f human sub-
sistence
SUBSISTENCE CHANGE
Despite t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of p r e s e n t evidence t h e r e s u l t s o f
t h e s m v e y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e conference t e n d t o show t h a t , a s
Cohen p r e d i c t e d l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s a much b r o a d e r phenomenon
than t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e , o c c u r r i n g among mobile a s w e l l a s
s e d e n t a r y p e o p l e , i n b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l sub-
s i s t e n c e systems and i n e g a l i t a r i a n , ranked, and s t a t e s o c i e t i e s
Most r e g i o n s seem t o e x p e r i e n c e p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f .
s u b s i s t e n c e e x p l o i t a t i o n throughout p r e h i s t o r y During t h e Upper
P a l e o l i t h i c s t a g e l s u b s i s t e n c e seems focused on r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y
a v a i l a b l e foods o f high n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e l such a s l a r g e herd
animals and m i g r a t o r y f i s h . Some p l a n t foods seem t o have been
e a t e n , b u t they appear n o t t o have been q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t
22 CONCLUSIONS
i n the diet S t o r a g e o f foods a p p e a r s e a r l y i n many sequences,

even d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c , a p p a r e n t l y t o save s e a s o n a l s u r -
p l u s e s f o r consumption d u r i n g s e a s o n s o f low p r o d u c t i v i t y
A s hunting and g a t h e r i n g economies evolve d u r i n g t h e Meso-
l i t h i c f s u b s i s t e n c e i s expanded by e x p l o i t a t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g
numbers o f s p e c i e s and by i n c r e a s i n g l y heavy e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e
more abundant and p r o d u c t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s The i n c l u s i o n of
s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f p l a n t food i n p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s seems t o
c o r r e l a t e w i t h i n c r e a s e d u s e of food p r o c e s s i n g t o o l s , a p p a r e n t 1
t o improve t h e i r t a s t e and d i g e s t i b i l i t y A s Cohen s u g g e s t s ,
t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s i n g f o c u s - t h r o u g h t h e on a few s t a r c h y p l a n t s
of h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a b i l i t y T h i s p r o c e s s of s u b s i s t e n c e
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s even i n r e g i o n s where n a t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e
never developed I n C a l i f o r n i a , f o r example a s h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g
p o p u l a t i o n s grew, s u b s i s t e n c e changed from an e a r l y p a t t e r n of
r e l i a n c e on game and v a r i e d p l a n t r e s o u r c e s t o o n e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
emphasis on c o l l e c t i o n of a few s p e c i e s o f s t a r c h y s e e d s and n u t s
I n t h e Near E a s t , c e r e a l s became t h e d i e t a r y s t a p l e even b e f o r e
they were d o m e s t i c a t e d , and t h i s may prove t o have been t r u e i n
o t h e r r e g i o n s w i t h abundant s t a n d s o f w i l d s e e d s I n most 2 e g i o n s r
t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f p l a n t g a t h e r i n g l e d t o t h e development o f c
effective agriculture i n the Neolithic Most e a r l y N e o l i t h i c
economies seem t o have been mixed economies based mainly on a g r i
c u l t u r e b u t supplemented w i t h f a d from hunting and g a t h e r i n g
Late N e o l i t h i c i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t y p i c a l l y focused on a few
p r o d u c t i v e c e r e a l and legume c r o p s , and, i n some a r e a s r on s t a r c
root crops
T h i s widespread p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e
seems t o have produced changes i n c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , whether
through e x p l o i t a t i o n of wild o r domestic s p e c i e s , b u t a g r i c u l t u r a l
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r economic
growth and i s h i s t o r i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a much g r e a t e r magni-
t u d e of p o p u l a t i o n growth t h a n most h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g economies
What seems t o have happened i n many r e g i o n s i s t h a t i n t e n s i v e u s e
o f wild p l a n t s produced changes i n t h e g e n e t i c and p h y s i o l o g i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p l a n t s These changes i n t u r n e l i c i t e d
i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e p l a n t s u n t i l some s p e c i e s be-
came i r r e v o c a b l y a l t e r e d from t h e w i l d s t a t e Whether o r n o t t h
happened i n a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n seems t o depend p a r t l y on t h e
s p e c i e s p r e s e n t (Cohen 1977) and p a r t l y on t h e environmental capa-
c i t y t o support i n t e n s i v e land use I n many r e g i o n s s e e d s were
important i n t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t and t h e i n t e n s i v e u s e of
s e e d s f r e q u e n t l y l e d t o a g r i c u l t u r e , probably due i n p a r t ko t h e
r e p r o d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e ~ ~ i s t i cosf t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s The more
s u c c e s s f u l c r o p s s p r e a d r a p i d l y from r e g i o n to r e g i o n , b u t t h e r e
a l s o i s evidence t h a t some s p e c i e s were independently domesti-
c a t e d i n more t h a n one r e g i o n
Cohen's t h e s i s i s a l s o supported by evidence of c h m g e i n d i e t
c o n t e n t a s can be judged from bone c h e m i s t r y s t u d i e s and knowledge
o f t h e n u t r i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e changing s p e c t r m of
s p e c i e s used i n s u b s i s t e n c e A s he p r e d i c t s , e v o l u t i o n a r y change
i n p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e has moved i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h i g h e r
c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o o d s , n o t toward f o o d s of h i g h e r - q u a l i t y
nutrition o r greater r e l i a b i l i t y Early nonagricul t u r a l d i e t s
appear t o have been high i n m i n e r a l s ? p r o t e i n ? v i t a m i n s , and t r a c e
n u t r i e n t s , b u t r e l a t i v e l y low i n s t a r c h I n t h e development
toward a g r i c u l t u r e t h e r e is a growing emphasis on s t a r c h y , h i g h l y
c a l o r i c food o f h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a b i l i t y changes t h a t
a r e n o t f a v o r a b l e t o n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y b u t t h a t would have a c t e d
t o i n c r e a s e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y ? a s C ~ h e n ' st h e o r y s u g g e s t s
Comparing developments i n p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e w i t h t h o s e
i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e ? we s e e t h a t t h e two a r e d e f i n i t e l y c o r r e l a t e d
i n time A s p o p u l a t i o n s have grown? s u b s i s t e n c e has i n c r e a s e d i n
carrying capacity The t w o p r o c e s s e s seem t o t r a c k one a n o t h e r
The r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth seems t o be determined by t e m p r a r y
technoenvironmental l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e r a t e of economic i n t e n s i -
f ication. For example g r o w t h i s slow when based on e x p l o i t a t i o n
of w i l d s p e c i e s b u t speeds up a s domesticated s p e c i e s a r e
developed o r d i f f u s e d A p o s s i b l e mutually c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
f u r t h e r suggested by t h e tendency o f economic d e i n t e f i s i f i c a t i o n t o
f o l l o w d r a s t i c d r o p s i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y l a s i f t h e
l e v e l of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n were r e s p n s i v e t o t h e l e v e l o f popula-
tion This c o r r e l a t i o n does n o t e s t a b l i s h c a u s a l i t y by i t s e l f ,
b u t it conforms t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e
theory
The sequence appears t o r e f u t e t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e o c c u r r e d o n l y where sedentism
f o s t e r e d p p u l a t i o n growthl f o r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s pro-
ceeded whether p o p u l a t i o n s were s e d e n t a r y o r n o t And c o n t r a r y t o
t h o s e who suppose t h a t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s o n l y a r e s p n s e t o t h e
development o f s t r a t i f i e d s o c i a l systems, i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n c l e a r l y
o c c u r s i n many d i v e r s e s o c i a l c o n t e x t s I t i s a more g e n e r a l
phenomenon t h a n any p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n l occur-
r i n g i n some r e g i o n s l o n g b e f o r e chiefdoms and s t a t e s developed
T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t changes i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n d i d n o t
i n t e r a c t with t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n process I t w i l l be c l e a r fron
t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n t h a t , under s t a t e s l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n was
c a r r i d o u t w i t h l e s s r e g a r d f o r human h e a l t h t h a n it was i n popu-
l a t i o n s independent o f e l i t e c o n t r o l The p r o c e s s of p o p u l a t i o n
growth and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y a l s o had e f f e c t s o n t h e t r a -
j e c t o r y of s o c i o p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n l f o r i t was o n l y i n r e g i o n s
with t h e e c o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t y t o s u p p o r t massive p p u l a t i o n growth
through a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e development of
b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a t e s o c c u r r e d l a l t h o u g h chiefdoms came i n t o b e i n g
i n s e v e r a l r e g i o n s where t h e r e was no indigenous system of a g r i -
culture
22 CONCLUSIONS
PALEOPATHOLOGY AND POPULATION PRESSURE
Given t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth and s u b s i s t e n c e seem

t o have i n t e r a c t e d b a s i c a l l y i n concordance w i t h Cohen's v e r s i o n
o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , it i s c r u c i a l t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e i n c i d e n c e of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t h i s t i m e Without
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , we cannot t e l l whether p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n -
s p i r e d t h e economic changes o r t h e economic changes merely p e r -
m i t t e d p o p u l a t i o n growth and a r o s e independently o f p o p u l a t i o n
pressure
U n t i l now, it has been a problem t o d e t e c t t h e e x i s t e n c e of
population pressure i n archaeological populations Archaeologists
have commonly i n f e r r e d p r e s s u r e i n d i r e c t l y , from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
evidence o f p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h e form o f i n c r e a s e s i n t h e
s i z e s and numbers o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s T h i s approach i s i n -
v a l i d , however, because it i g n o r e s t h e problem o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
of p o p u l a t i o n growth t o expansion i n economy Although p o p u l a t i o n
growth may p u t p r e s s u r e on a s u b s i s t e n c e system, economic growth
may f r e e a p o p u l a t i o n from p r e s s u r e and a l l o w u n f e t t e r e d popula-
t i o n growth f o r a t i m e The s i m p l e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t growth has
o c c u r r e d does n o t i d e n t i f y which p r o c e s s h a s gone on I n other
words, changes i n t h e s i z e of a p o p u l a t i o n may o r may n o t r e f l e c t
p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , s i n c e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s d e f i n e d as an
unfavorable imbalance between a p o p u l a t i o n and i t s means o f s u p p o r t ,
i
and s o f a r knowledge of t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e
systems and t h e s i z e o f p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y
I
p r e c i s e t o t e l l u s whether a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n supported by a given
economy i n a given r e g i o n would o r would n o t have p u t p r e s s u r e on
resources
Cohen recognized t h a t d i r e c t evidence of p r e h i s t o r i c popula-
t i o n p r e s s u r e e x i s t s i n t h e d a t a of p h y s i c a l anthropology,
a l t h o u g h a r c h a e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y have n o t used it This d i r e c t
evidence i s t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l and demographic d a t a embodied
i n a n c i e n t human s k e l e t o n s from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s throughout
t h e world By r e c o r d i n g p a s t s u r v i v a l r a t e s and o s t e o l o g i c a l r e -
sponses t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , t h e s e s k e l e t o n s have t h e p o t e n t i a l
t o provide primary evidence o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , an expected
r e s u l t of s e v e r e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e Although i t i s o f t e n not
p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e c a u s e s of bone p a t h o l o g i e s , comparative,
population-level study of c e r t a i n kinds of pathologies nevertheless
may r e v e a l t h e frequency and d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a s a
g e n e r a l phenomenon Even w i t h o u t knowing e x a c t c a u s e s , it is
p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e a h i s t o r y o f s t r e s s f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a
given r e g i o n , and t h u s t o l e a r n how changes i n h e a l t h c o r r e l a t e
w i t h changes i n p o p u l a t i o n , economy, and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
The p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s have d i f f e r -
ent predictions i n t h i s regard Cohen's t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t
p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s should be r e c u r r e n t and p e r s i s t e n t , w i t h
p a r t i c u l a r l y severe s t r e s s possibly occurring during i n c i p i e n t
agriculture I n contrast, t h e equilibrium theory p r e d i c t s t h a t
p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s should occur o n l y r a r e l y and t h a t c u l t u r a l

a d a p t a t i o n should i n c r e a s i n g l y b u f f e r p e o p l e from s t r e s s In
a d d i t i o n , t h e demographic e f f e c t s o f t h e change t o s e d e n t a r y
settlement a r e interpreted d i f f e r e n t l y i n the d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s ,
s o t h a t most e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s e x p e c t a d e c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y
a t t h i s t i m e , whereas t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e proponents expect
an i n c r e a s e Study o f t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o q i c a l d a t a can shed l i g h t
on t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n -
s h i p of human h e a l t h and economic development, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n ,
can y i e l d e v o l u t i o n a r y socioeconomic i n f o r m a t i o n about h e a l t h
d i f f e r e n c e s between i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n
Among t h e p a t h o l o g i e s c o n s i d e r e d u s e f u l f o r r e c o r d i n g p h y s i o l o -
g i c a l s t r e s s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : H a r r i s l i n e s , t o o t h enamel hypo-
p l a s i a s , s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n , c o r t i c a l bone l o s s , p o r o t i c hyperosto-
s i s / c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , and bone l e s i o n s caused by t h e i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e s ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1981) Each t y p e of p a t h o l o g y y i e l d s
a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t kind of i n f o r m a t i o n . Studied together
r a t h e r t h a n i n i s o l a t i o n , t h e y t e l l more through t h e complementa-
t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n , a s Angel p o i n t s o u t (Chapter 3 t h i s volume)
A major problem, however, i s t h a t o f d e t e r m i n i n g whether p a t h o l o -
gies a r e related t o nutritional s t r e s s o r other disease s t r e s s
( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 1 0 t h i s volume
- N u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e a r e i n t e g r a l l y and s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d
w i t h one a n o t h e r , and, w h i l e m a l n u t r i t i o n can lower an i n d i v i d u a l ' s
r e s i s t a n c e t o d i s e a s e , so a l s o can d i s e a s e cause m a l n u t r i t i o n by
i n c r e a s i n g t h e body's need f o r c e r t a i n n u t r i e n t s Thus, i t i s
p o s s i b l e t h a t p a t h o l o g i e s might a r i s e i n a s k e l e t o n i n response t o
a p a r t i c u l a r d i s e a s e and n o t because of any d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e
diet However, s i n c e malnourished people a r e more s u b j e c t t o
d i s e a s e t h a n well-nourished people, t h e p a t h o l o g i e s s t i l l a r e use-
f u l i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e d e g r e e of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s I t is
commonplace i n community h e a l t h s t u d i e s t o i n f e r n u t r i t i o n a l
s t a t u s from g e n e r a l h e a l t h s t a t u s , and t h e u s e of p a l e o p a t h o l o g i -
c a l i n d i c a t o r s i s a p a r a l l e l usage
Because t h e growth r a t e of t h e young is considered a u s e f u l
i n d i c a t o r of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s o f a l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n , some
of t h e most u s e f u l p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s a r e
t h o s e t h a t r e c o r d a suspension of growth d u r i n g t h e development
of f e t u s e s , i n f a n t s , and c h i l d r e n Stress in adults is less
d e t e c t a b l e due t o t h e l e s s e n e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f t h e a d u l t body
t o both s t r e s s and bone remodeling Commonly s t u d i e d i n d i c a t o r s
of suspended growth i n c l u d e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , H a r r i s l i n e s , and
s t a t u r e reduction Hypoplasias, which a r e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a r t o o t h
enamel d e f e c t s , a r e u s e f u l d i a g n o s t i c a l l y because t h e y mark e p i -
sodes t h a t can be d a t e d q u i t e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e development of t h e
22 CONCLUSIONS 57 1
individual They a l s o c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t cause h y p o p l a s i a s a r e o f t e n
l i f e threatening Although h y p o p l a s i a s do n o t i n themselves
r e v e a l whether a s t r e s s stemmed from d i s e a s e o r from d i e t a r y
s t r e s s , t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l i n t h e f u t u r e f o r t r a c e element analy-
s i s o f t h e enamel t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e h y p o p l a s i a s c o r r e l a t e
w i t h n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s ( G i l b e r t 1975) With t h e s e , a s w i t h
o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s , it has n o t been p o s s i b l e t o t i e s t r e s s
e p i s o d e s down s e c u r e l y i n a temporal s e n s e , b u t perhaps t h i s w i l l
be p o s s i b l e i n t h e f u t u r e I t i s thought t h a t h y p o p l a s i a s r e c o r d
c h r o n i c s t r e s s o c c u r r i n g on an annual b a s i s o r more f r e q u e n t l y
H a r r i s l i n e s , which r e c o r d a suspension of growth followed by
catch-up growth a t t h e epiphyses o f long bones d u r i n g childhood,
have g i v e n problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Unlike enamel h y p o p l a s i a s ,
t h e i n c i d e n c e of H a r r i s l i n e s does n o t c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h h i g h e r
mortality r a t e s P r e v i o u s l y , s c h o l a r s have assumed t h a t i n d i -
v i d u a l s w i t h more H a r r i s l i n e s w e r e t h o s e i n p o o r e r h e a l t h , b u t
t h e l i n e s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y appear i n t h e bones of t h e p e o p l e
most s u b j e c t t o s t r e s s The l i n e s ' formation seems t o r e c o r d a
good p e r i o d o f recovery from a s t r e s s , something t h a t may n o t
b e f a l l a person who i s p o o r l y f e d o r s i c k Thus, it may b e t h a t
t h e h e a l t h i e r people i n a s t r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n a r e more s u b j e c t t o
H a r r i s l i n e s than t h e less h e a l t h y p e o p l e Another problem w i t h
H a r r i s l i n e s i s t h a t t h e y can be e f f a c e d by remodeling, u n l i k e
hypoplasias The absence o f H a r r i s l i n e s , t h e n , does n o t t e l l
whether o r n o t a person was s u b j e c t t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s b u t
t h e i r presence does mark t h e o c c u r r e n c e of some kind of p h y s i o l o -
g i c a l s t r e s s i n a person who recovered w e l l It i s thought
t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d e p i s o d i c s t r e s s , such a s famines o r
epidemics
Chronic p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s d u r i n g childhood growth c a u s e s
s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n o r s t u n t i n g ( S t i n i 1975) In addition, the
s t u n t i n g o f growth due t o n u t r i t i o n a l o r d i s e a s e s t r e s s i s known
t o a f f e c t t h e shape of t h e head and p e l v i s because p o r t i o n s of
t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s do n o t expand a s they would w i t h normal growth
(R. A Benfer, p e r s o n a l communication; Angel, Chapter 3 t h i s
volume) F o r s e c u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f such s t r e s s - r e l a t e d
changes i n a r e g i o n a l sequence, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o employ b i o -
l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e s t u d i e s t o c o n t r o l f o r p o p u l a t i o n replacement
by m i g r a t i o n , f o r gene flow could mimic t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l
changes ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 10 t h i s
volume) Our understanding o f changes i n s t a t u r e throughout pre-
h i s t o r y i s a s y e t u n c l e a r due t o t h e l a c k o f knowledge i n most
r e g i o n s about p a t t e r n s of gene flow
Severe p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s can a l s o produce l o s s o f c o r t i c a l
bone i n long bones, b o t h among c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s and s t u d y o f
t h i n s e c t i o n s by age and s e x can i l l u m i n a t e t h e p a t t e r n i n g of
s t r e s s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c population This pathology, however, has
n o t been s t u d i e d much a r c h a e o l o q i c a l l y , and it can be caused by
changes i n a p e r s o n ' s a c t i v i t y l e v e l s a s w e l l a s i n n u t r i t i o n a l
s t a t u s . Armelaqos and Martin (Martin and Annelagos 1979) have
shown how v a l u a b l e t h i s s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r can b e , and it should b e

a useful area f o r f u t u r e study
Two u s e f u l p a t h o l o g i e s reviewed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s con-
f e r e n c e a r e p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , which mark
heightened p r o d u c t i o n of r e d blood c e l l s in t h e f a c t of c h r o n i c
i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia These p a t h o l o g i e s a r e n o t a b l e i n d i c a t o r s
o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , because h i g h c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l
d i e t s a r e o f t e n low i n i r o n I f one can c o n t r o l f o r i n c i d e n c e of
g e n e t i c a l l y - o r p a r a s i t i c a l l y - c a u s e d anemias, t h e frequency o f po-
r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a can b e i n t e r p r e t e d q u i t e
s e c u r e l y , a s evidence o f t h e d e g r e e 'of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s ( B u i k s t r a ,
Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 10 this volume)
Occurrence of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i s recorded by t h e i n c i d e n c e
o f both s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l i z e d bone l e s i o n s The frequency o f
t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s i s expected t o i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e r i s e o f seden-
t a r y s e t t l e m e n t and w i t h i n c r e a s e d n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , which would
synergistically increase t h e infectious disease r a t e
A f i n a l potential indicator of population pressure i s the
o v e r a l l m o r t a l i t y r a t e , which presumably w i l l show i n c r e a s e d r a t e s
d u r i n g times of s e v e r e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e Mortality r a t e s a r e
determined by q u a n t i t a t i v e study of d i f f e r e n t age and s e x c l a s s e s
of human s k e l e t o n s w i t h i n c e m e t e r i e s I t i s complicated by t h e
problem of a s c e r t a i n i n g whether a group of a n c i e n t s k e l e t o n s
f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t t h e l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n from which t h e y came Dif-
f e r e n t i a l d i s p o s a l and p r e s e r v a t i o n of s k e l e t o n s o f c e r t a i n a g e s ,
such a s i n f a n t s o r people of v e r y h i g h s t a t u s , and d i f f i c u l t i e s
of s e x i n g i n f a n t s k e l e t o n s o r aging t h o s e o f o l d p e o p l e , may skew
the reconstructed proportions Nevertheless, determining mortali-
t y r a t e s from s k e l e t o n s i s a r o u t i n e method with which t o o b t a i n
a b a s i c i d e a o f r a t e s of s u r v i v a l i n a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s
HISTORY OF MORTALITY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS
Although t h e r e i s a r e l a t i v e l a c k of evidence f o r t h e Paleo-

l i t h i c s t a g e , enough s k e l e t o n s have been s t u d i e d t h a t it seems
c l e a r t h a t s e a s o n a l and p e r i o d i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r e g u l a r l y
,
a f f e c t e d most p r e h i s t o r i c h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , a s
evidenced by t h e p r e s e n c e o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a s and H a r r i s l i n e s
What a l s o seems c l e a r i s t h a t s e v e r e and c h r o n i c s t r e s s , w i t h high
frequency o f h y p o p l a s i a s , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e l e s i o n s , p a t h o l o g i e s
r e l a t e d t o i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia, and h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e s , i s
n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e e a r l y p o p u l a t i o n s There i s no e v i -
dence o f f r e q u e n t , s e v e r e m a l n u t r i t i o n , and s o t h e d i e t must have
been adequate i n c a l o r i e s and o t h e r n u t r i e n t s most o f t h e time
During t h e M e s o l i t h i c , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f s t a r c h i n t h e d i e t r o s e ,
t o judge from t h e i n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e . o f c e r t a i n d e n t a l d i s e a s e s ,
b u t n o t enough t o c r e a t e an impoverished d i e t A t t h i s time, d i e t s
seem t o have been made up o f a r a t h e r l a r g e number of f o o d s , so
22 CONCLUSIONS
t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of one food source would not be c a t a s t r o p h i c

There i s a p o s s i b l e s l i g h t tendency f o r P a l e o l i t h i c people t o be
h e a l t h i e r and t a l l e r than Mesolithic people, b u t t h e r e i s no ap-
p a r e n t t r e n d toward increasing p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s during t h e
Mesolithic Thus, it seems t h a t both hunter-gatherers and i n c i -
p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s r e g u l a r l y underwent population p r e s s u r e ,
but only t o a moderate degree
During t h e periods when e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e f i r s t comes i n t o
use t h e r e seems t o be a temporary upturn i n h e a l t h and s u r v i v a l
r a t e s i n a few regions: Europe, North America, and t h e Eastern
Mediterranean A t t h i s s t a g e , wild foods a r e s t i l l consumed
p e r i o d i c a l l y and a v a r i e t y of p l a n t s a r e c u l t i v a t e d , suggesting
t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of adequate amounts of d i f f e r e n t n u t r i e n t s
Based on t h e i n c r e a s i n g frequency of t o o t h d i s e a s e r e l a t e d t o
high carbohydrate consumption, it seems t h a t c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s
probably increased t h e s t o r a b l e c a l o r i e supply, removing f o r a
I time any seasonal o r p e r i o d i c problems i n food supply I n most
regions, however, t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e seems not t o
have had t h i s e f f e c t , and t h e r e seems t o have been a s l i g h t i n -
\ crease in physiological s t r e s s .
I
S t r e s s , however, does not seem t o have become common and wide-
spread u n t i l a f t e r t h e development of high degrees of sedentism,
population d e n s i t y , and r e l i a n c e on i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e At
t h i s s t a g e i n a l l regions t h e incidence of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s
i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y , and average m o r t a l i t y r a t e s i n c r e a s e appreci-
/ ably Most of t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l populations have high frequen-
\ c i e s of p o r o t i c hyperostosis and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , and t h e r e i s
a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e number and s e v e r i t y of enamel hypo-
p l a s i a s and pathologies a s s o c i a t e d with i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e
S t a t u r e i n many populations appears t o have been considerably
lower than would be expected i f genetically-determined height
maxima had been reached, which suggests t h a t t h e growth a r r e s t s
documented by p a t h o l o g i e s were causing s t u n t i n g Accompanying
t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s of poor h e a l t h and nourishment, t h e r e is a uni-
v e r s a l drop i n t h e occurrence of H a r r i s l i n e s , suggesting a poor
r a t e of f u l l recovery from t h e s t r e s s Incidence of carbohydrate-
r e l a t e d t o o t h d i s e a s e i n c r e a s e s , apparently because s u b s i s t e n c e
by t h i s time i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a heavy emphasis on a few s t a r c h y
food crops Populations seem t o have grown beyond t h e p o i n t a t
which wild food resources could be a meaningful d i e t a r y supple-
ment, and even domestic animal r e s o u r c e s were commonly reserved
f o r farm labor and t r a n s p o r t r a t h e r than f o r d i e t supplementation
I t seems t h a t a l a r g e proportion of most sedentary p r e h i s t o r i c
populations under i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e underwent chronic and
l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , e s p e c i a l l y during in-
fancy and childhood The causes of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a r e
l i k e l y t o have been t h e poverty of t h e s t a p l e crops i n most
n u t r i e n t s except c a l o r i e s , p e r i o d i c famines caused by t h e i n -
s t a b i l i t y of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l system, and chronic lack of food
due t o both population growth and economic expropriation by e l i t e s
The i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e probably r e f l e c t both a poorer
d i e t and i n c r e a s e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t i n crowded s e t t l e m e n t s ,
and i t i s , i n t u r n , l i k e l y t o have a g g r e v a t e d n u t r i t i o n a l
problems
\
Thus, it seems t h a t Cohen i s c o r r e c t i n supposing t h a t popu-
l a t i o n p r e s s u r e was p r e s e n t through most of p r e h i s t o r y e x c e p t
p o s s i b l y during t h e beginning o f e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e i n a few
regions A 1 though p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s common i n p r e a g r i c u l t u -
r a l p o p u l a t i o n s and t h u s does p r e c e d e t h e development o f a g r i c u l -
t u r e , it i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e a t t h i s t i m e , c o n t r a r y t o
Cohen's e x p e c t a t i o n s The o r i g i n of a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e n , cannot
a c c u r a t e l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f u n u s u a l l y h i g h l e v e l s
o f p r e s s u r e a t t h e time Severe p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o c c u r s o n l y
a f t e r t h e development of h i g h l y i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , when popu-
l a t i o n s a r e dense and s e d e n t a r y , and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
is stratified
I t seems s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t p o p u l a t i o n growth speeds up a t t h e
v e r y time t h a t h e a l t h and m o r t a l i t y worsen I n o r d e r f o r growth
t o occur i n such a s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e would have had t o be a sub-
s t a n t i a l simultaneous i n c r e a s e i n n a t a l i t y In part, t h i s pattern
c o n t r a d i c t s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s who
hold t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e and sedentism b r i n g a n improvement i n h e a l t h
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i n d i r e c t evidence f o r an i n c r e a s e i n
n a t a l i t y , probably through c l o s e r c h i l d s p a c i n g , i s consonant w i t h
both groups o f t h e o r i e s To b e t t e r understand t h e c a u s a l i m p l i c a -
t i o n s o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s , we need t o know more about t h e e t i o l o g y
of t h e various physiological s t r e s s e s t h a t these p r e h i s t o r i c
p o p u l a t i o n s were e x p e r i e n c i n g I t seems t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f popu-
l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s d i f f e r e n t a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and p l a c e s , a t
d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of economic and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l development, and
i n d i f f e r e n t demographic s i t u a t i o n s In addition, the rates,
t y p e s , s e v e r i t y , and c a u s e s of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e s v a r y among
t h e d i f f e r e n t age, sex, and s o c i a l c l a s s e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n , and
f u r t h e r work i s r e q u i r e d t o e l u c i d a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t
produce t h e s e p a t t e r n s
CHANGES I N ACTIVITY AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY
An important assumption i n most t h e o r i e s - i s t h a t l a b o r produc-

t i v i t y d e c l i n e s w i t h i n t e n s i v e food p r o d u c t i o n . An i n t e r e s t i n g
by-product o f t h i s review o f paleopathology i s e v i d e n c e f o r a
marked change i n human a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o
agriculture T h i s p a t t e r n o f change shows up i n many sequences,
i n c l u d i n g t h e Midwest and S o u t h e a s t i n t h e United S t a t e s , Western
Europe, t h e E a s t e r n Mediterranean, t h e Near E a s t , E a s t A s i a , and
South Asia During t h e P a l e o l i t h i c and t h e M e s o l i t h i c , both bones
and t e e t h seem t o have r e c e i v e d much g r e a t e r u s e t h a n i n l a t e r
t i m e s , and t h e r e s u l t was e x t e n s i v e t o o t h wear and t h e development
o f l a r a e . ruaaed bonv s t r u c t u r e s and c o n s i d e r a b l e o s t e o a r t h r i t i s
22 CONCLUSIONS
I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c i n t h e s e r e -
g i o n s t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e drop i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y , o s t e o a r -
t h r i t i s , and d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n I t seems t h a t t h e development of
s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r e eased mechanical s t r e s s on t h e body and
t e e t h , t o judge from t h e s e changes, which seem t o have been
achieved both through e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e t i c change and through phys-
i o l o g i c a l processes taking p l a c e during t h e l i v e s o f individuals
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , it seems t o b e a r e s p o n s e t o much l e s s e n e d p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e Cohen (Chapters 1
and 23 t h i s volume) i n t e r p r e t s -these changes mainly a s evidence o f
s t u n t i n g due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i n a c o n t e x t o f i n c r e a s e d popu-
l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , b u t , a s Larsen (Chapter 1 4 t h i s volume), p o i n t s
o u t , many of t h e p h y s i c a l changes r e l a t e t o a r e d u c t i o n i n muscular
activity (Both t h e h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g l i f e w a y and t h e h a b i t u a l ac-
t i o n s o f p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n and food p r e p a r a t i o n p u t s t r a i n s on t h e
human s k e l e t a l frame , however, and o s t e o a r t h r i t i s continued to oc-
c u r i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , though a t a lower r a t e )
Change i n bone remodeling - p a t t e r n s a s an i n d i c a t o r of changing
a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s seems a f r u i t f u l a r e a t o look i n t o i n t h e f u t u r e ,
b o t h f o r a b e t t e r understanding o f t h e c a u s e s and consequences o f
t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9, and Larsen, Chapter 1 4 , t h i s
volume) To improve o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of
s t r e s s t o bone remodeling, w e may need t o p u r s u e f u r t h e r l a b o r a t o r y
s t u d i e s o f bone remodeling under known s t r e s s e s , t o improve our
understanding of t h e mechanical and p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t cause
t h e bone p a t h o l o g i e s
The p a l e o p a t h o l o q i c a l evidence f o r d e c r e a s e d mechanical stress
s u g g e s t s t h a t one of t h e t h i n g s t h a t t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e might
have brought i s an improvement i n t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t r a t i o of sub-
sistence labor A s s u b s i s t e n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y p e r h e c t a r e was going
up, t h e l a n d e x p l o i t e d f o r s u b s i s t e n c e became more c o n c e n t r a t e d
s p a t i a l l y , and s o t h e r e was a d r o p i n l a b o r c o s t s p e r u n i t gained
T h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n t r a r y t o most r e c e n t t h e o r e t i c i a n s ' e x p e c t a -
tions Only Bronson (1975) seems t o have p r e d i c t e d i t
SUMMARY
The d a t a g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r and summarized i n t h i s conference

g i v e a p i c t u r e of widespread, r e c u r r i n g p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n
growth, based on i n c r e a s e s through t i m e i n s i z e s and numbers o f
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s and i n numbers of human s k e l e t a l remains
Concurrent w i t h t h i s growth, t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e t r e n d i n most
r e g i o n s toward s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n f o r i n c r e a s e d produc-
tion
i
During t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c s t a g e , s u b s i s t e n c e seems t o have
been based predominantly on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a r g e r game
s p e c i e s o f h i g h n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e and e a s y a v a i l a b i l i t y , such a s
/
576 ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT

/
herd animals o r anadromous f i s h . During t h e Mesolithic s t a g e ,

however, s u b s i s t e n c e was p r o g r e s s i v e l y a l t e r e d t o include more
foods such a s p l a n t s , which a r e abundant and s t o r a b l e b u t of
r e l a t i v e l y low d i g e s t i b i l i t y and p a l a t a b i l i t y The c o s t -
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s u b s i s t e n c e l a b o r during both p e r i o d s seems t o
have been low, f o r t h e bodies of most i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t s i g n s
of extensive remodeling and wear under mechanical s t r e s s , and
t h e r e a l s o seems t o have been s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e on t h e genome
f o r t h e maintenance of l a r g e and r o b u s t bones and t e e t h . During
both p e r i o d s , a l s o , s u b s i s t e n c e a d a p t a t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y i n e f -
f e c t i v e a t preventing p e r i o d s o f want, f o r most populations seem
t o have r e g u l a r l y experienced periods of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , t o
judge from t h e presence of s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s of t h e type t h a t
record episodes of physiological s t r e s s Nonetheless, throughout
t h e long period before e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e r e i s no e v i -
dence f o r chronic o r severe n u t r i t i o n a l o r d i s e a s e s t r e s s
During t h i s p e r i o d , sedentism i s r a r e o r absent, and y e t popula-
t i o n s grew during almost every period of occupation
By t h e end of t h e Mesolithic, i n t h e e a r l y Holocene, t h e
process of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had produced d i e t s i n c r e a s i n g l y focused
on a few highly productive p l a n t food sources t h a t were r e l a t i v e l y
s t a r c h y and low i n p r o t e i n , minerals, and vitamins This p a t t e r n
i s i n f e r r e d from changes i n t h e archaeological food remains,
a r t i f a c t s , p a t t e r n s of t o o t h d i s e a s e , and bone chemistry By
e a r l y Neolithic times e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l crops had been de-
veloped o r borrowed i n most r e g i o n s , and t h e s e provided a g r e a t l y
increased p o t e n t i a l f o r economic and demographic expansion and
sedentary s e t t l e m e n t l a t e r i n t h e s t a g e I n a few r e g i o n s , t h e
rapid economic expansion of t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c produced an upturn
i n h e a l t h contemporary with a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n population growth
This seems t o be one of t h e few i n s t a n c e s when population p r e s s u r e
may have been absent--due, apparently, t o t h e r a p i d expansion i n
subsistence permitted by t h e i n c e p t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e
I n c o n t r a s t , during t h e l a t e r N e o l i t h i c , when systems of i n -
t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e had developed and dense, sedentary s e t t l e m e n t
was t h e r u l e , t h e r e was a widespread, marked i n c r e a s e i n r a t e s of
1
physiological s t r e s s and m o r t a l i t y , apparently due both t o
lessened d i e t q u a l i t y , adequacy, and s t a b i l i t y , and t o increased
r a t e s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e This change i s evident i n t h e paleo-
demographic p a t t e r n s and t h e high frequencies of paleopathological
i n d i c a t o r s of chronic s t r e s s Since population growth continued
unabated; it seems t h a t t h e r e must have been a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n
b i r t h r a t e s t o balance t h e increased m o r t a l i t y Despite t h e ad-
v e r s e long-term e f , f e c t s of N e o l i t h i c d e v e l o p e n t s on h e a l t h and
n u t r i t i o n , t h e period brought a c l e a r i n c r e a s e i n t h e l a b o r e f -
f i c i e n c y of s u b s i s t e n c e Throughout most of t h e world, t h e r i s e
of e f f i c i e n t , sedentary a g r i c u l t u r e c o r r e l a t e s with a s u b s t a n t i a l
drop i n d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y and wear t h a t i s due,
apparently, t o a decrease i n t h e amount of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y
needed f o r subsistence
22 CONCLUSIONS 577
I t i s c l e a r t h a t none o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a r e completely
confirmed o r f a l s i f i e d by t h e s e p a t t e r n s o f p r e h i s t o r i c data
1 Cohen's v e r s i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y comes o f f b e t t e r
t h a n most, i n t h a t p o p u l a t i o n growth, p r e s s u r e , and economic
growth o c c u r c o n t i n u o u s l y throughout most sequences The con-
s i d e r a b l e i n t r i n s i c p o t e n t i a l o f human p o p u l a t i o n s f o r growth i s
evidenced by t h e s u b s t a n t i a l growth t h a t took p l a c e even among
mobile h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and by t h e r a p i d growth o f p o p u l a t i o n
even i n t h e f a c e of t h e heightened m o r t a l i t y r a t e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s .- Cohen' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e caus-
a l r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d by t h e u n i v e r s a l
p r o g r e s s i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e systems toward g r e a t e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i -
t y , r a t h e r than toward improved n u t r i t i o n o r economic s t a b i l i t y
The e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s f a r e l e s s w e l l Contrary t o t h e s e
' t h e o r i e s ' e x p e c t a t i o n of human a d a p t a t i o n , human s u b s i s t e n c e be-
comes l e s s s t a b l e and lower i n n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y a s a d a p t a t i o n
proceeds, and t h e r e i s a p r e v a l e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth and
n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s t h a t t h e t h e o r i e s do n o t p r o v i d e f o r I n con-
t r a s t t o such t h e o r i e s , e a r l y h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s d i d n o t c o n t r o l
t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s w e l l below c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , f o r t h e p a t h o l o g i e s
of t h e i r b o d i e s show r e p e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s .
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i r methods of p o p u l a t i o n management were
s u f f i c i e n t t o keep them from c h r o n i c s t a r v a t i o n f o r which t h e r e
is a b s o l u t e l y no evidence i n p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s
S e v e r a l t h e o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g Cohen's, p o s i t a p e r i o d of g r e a t e r
population pressure occurring j u s t a s i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e begins,
b u t it seems c l e a r t h a t t h e r e was no p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n
pressure a t t h a t juncture A g r i c u l t u r e probably developed a t t h i s
time n o t because p r e s s u r e was any more s e v e r e t h a n b e f o r e b u t be-
cause p r e v i o u s p o p u l a t i o n growth and s u b s i s t e n c e change had
f o s t e r e d a number o f s p e c i e s t h a t were a b l e -to respond t o i n c r e a s e d
l a b o r i n p u t s w i t h i n c r e a s e d o u t p u t s , a t t r a c t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y heavy
r e l i a n c e on them f o r food in t h e f a c e o f c o n t i n u e d p o p u l a t i o n p r e s -
sure Another t e n e t common t o most t h e o r i e s about t h e r i s e o f
I a g r i c u l t u r e was t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e had g r e a t e r l a b o r c o s t s than hunt-
i n g and g a t h e r i n g From t h e evidence of pathology, it seems t h a t
l a b o r c o s t s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e b u t d e c r e a s e d w i t h t h e implementation
of e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . T h i s f i n d i n g adds a second impetus t o
t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e : t h e p r i n c i p l e of l e a s t e f f o r t
To some d e g r e e most t e n e t s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s can b e ac-
commodated by s p e c i f y i n g d i f f e r e n t environmental, demographic, and
s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s f o r them ( t h i s approach i s e x p l a i n e d i n
g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Roosevelt 1980) Thus, a l t h o u g h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s -
- s u r e might be a c c e p t e d a s a major f o r c e f o r s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i -
c a t i o n i n human p r e h i s t o r y , t h e r e w i l l be t i m e s and p l a c e s where
t h e r e w i l l be e i t h e r no p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r no p o t e n t i a l f o r
' intensification So, i n t h e absence o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , a f t e r
an epidemic o r when p o p u l a t i o n s e n t e r an unpopulated r e g i o n , humans
would a c t a s t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y p r e d i c t s , t o minimize e f f o r t
and t o maximize n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y I n such a
--
J A
- t = =':.: '-0 '.Â¥,-...-r'% .-> ., .
-;;"$y,.-^;<cx;
< *
.-is.^:
"7-
^ i - .,.
L, _ y.^siês-*.y-.t-
ft
578 ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT
c o n t e x t , demographic p o t e n t i a l could a l s o b e optimized by r e l a x i n g

population c o n t r o l s Larger p o p u l a t i o n s i z e could have g i v e n a
group an advantage i n t h e f a c e of i n t e r g r o u p w a r f a r e and competi-
t i o n for resources
When p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e developed through t h e i n e v i t a b l e
, growth of p o p u l a t i o n , people would have i n t e n s i f i e d s u b s i s t e n c e a s
f a r a s was technoenvironmentally p o s s i b l e Where environmental
' p o t e n t i a l i s l i m i t e d , people would have had t o c o n t r o l t h e i r popu-
1 l a t i o n growth c u l t u r a l l y u n t i l some way t o i n t e n s i f y p r o d u c t i o n
' could be found I n r e g i o n s o f h i g h s u b s i s t e n c e p o t e n t i a l , popula-
t i o n p r e s s u r e would encourage s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , which
i s a q u i c k e r , more c o s t - e f f e c t i v e response t o s t r e s s t h a n popula-
t i o n c o n t r o l , which i s o n l y a long-range s o l u t i o n because o f t h e
, i n e v i t a b l e t i m e l a g between a change i n f a m i l y planning and t h e
\ r e s u l t i n g change i n t h e s i z e of t h e p o p u l a t i o n
The s p a t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e and
i t s f a v o r a b l e l a b o r c o s t s make it s u s c e p t i b l e t o t a k e o v e r by
e l i t e s , who could u s e t h e i r c o n t r o l of r e s o u r c e s t o e n s u r e t h e i r
own n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h i n t h e f a c e of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e The
burden of c e n t r a l i z e d e x p r o p r i a t i o n i n e f f e c t would have i n c r e a s e d
p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e on a l l b u t t h e e l i t e , and it may be t h a t t h i s
phenomenon, along w i t h urban crowding, produced t h e widespread
i n c r e a s e i n poor n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h among p o p u l a t i o n s s u b s i s t i n g
by i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e i n p r e i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e s
PALEOPATHOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY FOR THE FUTURE
The p a p e r s i n t h i s volume i l l u s t r a t e t h e g r e a t v a l u e o f
archaeological-physical anthropological s t u d i e s f o r t h e elucida-
t i o n o f t h e o r i e s about human e v o l u t i o n , and t h e y show how impor-
t a n t it i s t o c o l l e c t , p r e s e r v e , and a n a l y z e p r e h i s t o r i c
o s t e o l o q i c a l remains These p a p e r s a l s o demonstrate t h a t t o
gain r e a l l y useful data requires goal-oriented f i e l d c o l l e c t i o n
Where p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have been involved from t h e
s t a r t , t h e r e s e a r c h has produced r e a l l y u s e f u l and s o p h i s t i c a t e d
r e s u l t s based on h i g h - q u a l i t y and abundant d a t a Where t h e
p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have had o n l y t h e l e a v i n g s of p r o j e c t s
with o t h e r aims, i t h a s been v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o make u s e f u l
i n f e r e n c e s because remains f r e q u e n t l y were n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
c o l l e c t e d i n t h e f i e l d and were n o t p r e s e r v e d f o r a n a l y s i s i n
museums o r r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s , a s Palkovich p o i n t s o u t
(Chapter 1 6 t h i s volume) Because of t h e l a c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n of
t h e i r i n t e r p r e t i v e p o t e n t i a l , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have o f t e n r e l e g a t e d
t h e r e p o r t on s k e l e t a l remains t o an appendix i n t h e i r r e p o r t s ,
o r they have n o t b o t h e r e d t o have them a n a l y z e d Museums, i n
t u r n , have n o t valued t h e s e remains and o f t e n have not p r o p e r l y
c u r a t e d and conserved them There seems t o b e a l e s s o n t o a r -
chaeologists i n t h i s : t a k e c a r e over t h e e x c a v a t i o n , c o n s e r v a t i o n
22 CONCLUSIONS
a n a l y s i s , and c u r a t i o n of t h e human remains from your e x c a v a t i o n s

Bone have n o t been of v e r y h i g h p r i o r i t y amonq a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , b u t
t h e r i g o r of i n f e r e n c e s about many a s p e c t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c l i f e +
depends on t h e s e remains
I t should b e obvious why o s t e o l o q i c a l remains a r e i n t e g r a l t o
t h e study o f p r e h i s t o r i c human ecology, b u t t h e y a l s o have a con-
t r i b u t i o n t o make t o s t u d i e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
For example, almost a l l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s of s o c i o -
p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t y p e s and p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e human-
e c o l o g i c a l c a u s e s and consequences F r i e d ' s (1967) famous d e f i n i -
t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a s a key
t o s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s j u s t one example J u s t a few o f t h e
a s p e c t s o f l i f e t h a t might b e expected t o be a f f e c t e d by d i f f e r -
e n c e s i n s t a t u s and rank a r e housing, c l o t h i n g , d i e t , h e a l t h c a r e ,
and o c c u p a t i o n S i g n i f i c a n t differences i n t h e q u a l i t y of these
a s p e c t s o f L i f e w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n can b e expected t o have
e f f e c t s on t h e h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n o f p e o p l e H e a l t h and d i e t a r y
d i f f e r e n c e s , a s shown i n t h i s symposium, a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e
bones and can b e s t u d i e d i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s Thus,
paleopathology i s a primary method f o r t h e s t u d y o f p r e h i s t o r i c
socioeconomic o r g a n i z a t i o n a s B u i k s t r a (Chapter 9 t h i s volume)
i
I
and o t h e r s have p o i n t e d o u t Paleopathology can d e f i n e t h e h e a l t h
and d i e t a r y c o r r e l a t e s o f s o c i o p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and can l e a d
t o a b e t t e r understanding o f t h e p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a -
tion For example without i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h e a l t h ,
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s might d e t e c t a system o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r a n k i n g ,
b u t t h e y would b e u n a b l e t o s a y much about t h e n a t u r e of t h e
ranking because, w i t h o u t p a l e o b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e
s k e l e t o n s , t h e r e would b e no i n f o r m a t i o n o n d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e a l t h
o r d i e t o r age and sex between and w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l u n i t s
Ethnographers a l s o could do more i n t h e s t u d y o f h e a l t h , d i e t , 1
and demography We need e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s o f t h e v a r i o u s
p a t h o l o g i e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of p r e h i s t o r i c change
There i s a gap i n i n f o r m a t i o n between t h e l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o f
animals and t h e s t u d i e s o f t h e p r e h i s t o r i c dead To b e t t e r un- I
d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e bone p a t h o l o g i e s t o l i v i n g I
p h y s i o l o g i c a l and g e n e t i c systems we need t o s t u d y them i n t h e
f l e s h , and many o f t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s and p r o c e s s e s found
among t h e a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s a r e s t i l l o c c u r r i n g now, b u t g e n e r a l
1
I
ethnographers o f t e n seem t o be u n i n t e r e s t e d o r unaware of them

Basic ethnographic s t u d i e s o f n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e need t o b e
done t o t e s t t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s
i
l
and bone pathology and c h e m i s t r y . For example, we need t o know

what l e v e l s o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s cause h y p o p l a s i a s and o t h e r
p a t h o l o g i e s among p r e - i n d u s t r i a l p o p u l a t i o n s The r e l a t i o n s h i p s
o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e p a t t e r n s t o d i e t need t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d
amonq l i v i n g people of known d i e t , a s do t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among
l e v e l s of s t r o n t i u m i n t h e body, t h e environment, and food
W e a l s o need t o l e a r n more a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s t r e s s
t o s t a t u r e depression I t i s common f o r ethnographers t o a s s e r t
t h a t " t h e i r " p o p u l a t i o n s a r e h e a l t h y and w e l l nourished because
t h e male a d u l t s appear s o I t i s u s u a l , however, f o r t h e a d u l t s

i n such p o p u l a t i o n s t o have v e r y low s t a t u r e , and t h e few ethno-
g r a p h i c s t u d i e s t h a t have been done of m a t e r n a l and i n f a n t h e a l t h
and d i e t document t h e p r e s e n c e o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , a p r o b a b l e
cause o f s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n I f more were known about t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s and s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n , s t r o n g e r
i n f e r e n c e s could b e made on t h e b a s i s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t a t u r e
variation
We a l s o need ethnographic i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e human e c o l o g i -
c a l consequences and c o r r e l a t e s o f d i f f e r e n t forms o f s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l organization Most of t h e c a u s a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t s c h o l a r s
e n v i s i o n a r e assumed; t h e y a r e n o t demonstrated Thus, we t h i n k
t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s i n access t o life-sustaining
resources within d i f f e r e n t types of s o c i e t i e s , b u t t h i s conclusion
needs t o be a s s e s s e d w i t h s t u d i e s of l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n s It i s a
p a r t i c u l a r problem t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l ethnographers have n o t been a s
i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e l i f e o f women and c h i l d r e n a s t h e y a r e i n men,
and t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e community i s o f t e n i n f e r r e d f rom
knowledge o f a d u l t males T h i s p r a c t i c e o f t e n y i e l d s an i n a c c u r a t e
view because women and c h i l d r e n o f t e n have lower s t a t u s t h a n men,
and, a s a consequence, t h e y may have l e s s f a v o r a b l e h e a l t h due t o
r e s t r i c t e d a c c e s s t o some r e s o u r c e s . V a r i a t i o n w i t h i n even e g a l i -
t a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n s needs t o be r e c o g n i z e d and s t u d i e d b e f o r e we
r e a l l y understand t h e meaning o f mean o r a v e r a g e h e a l t h . The
s t u d y of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n seems incomplete i f we do not know
what a r e t h e consequences t o h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n o f membership i n
d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s , whether age-grade, g e n e a l o g i c a l , achieved, o r
ascribed I f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a r e going t o i n f e r t h e n a t u r e of
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n from t h e h e a l t h c o r r e l a t e s o f rank and s t a t u s ,
then we need t o know more a b o u t t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among
l i v i n g peoples
These e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l problems and gaps i n knowledge i l l u s t r a t e
t h e i n e s c a p a b l e interdependence of t h e s u b f i e l d s of anthropology
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f ethnology r e q u i r e a knowledge o f t h e p a s t , t o
understand t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p a s t and
t h e p r e s e n t and t h e r e a s o n s f o r them. Conversely, t h e f i e l d of
archaeology i s dependent on s t u d i e s o f l i v i n g p e o p l e , s i n c e we
must model many vanished p r o c e s s e s o f t h e p a s t on knowledge of t h e
p r e s e n t n a t u r e of humans And any s t u d y of humans a s c u l t u r a l
b e i n g s , whether p a s t o r p r e s e n t , e v e n t u a l l y w i l l run up a g a i n s t
t h e need t o know t h e p h y s i c a l human, f o r c u l t u r e and t h e body
c o n t i n u a l l y i n t e r a c t , and t o e x p l a i n one without c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of t h e o t h e r seems i m p o s s i b l e
22 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Asch, N B , R I Ford, and D L Asch

1972 Paleoethnobotany o f t h e K o s t e r S i t e : The a r c h a i c h o r i z o n s
I
I
I l l i n o i s State Museum Research Papers Vol 6 , Reports of
Investigations No 6
Bender, M M , D A B a r r e l s , and R L S t e v e n t o n
1981 F u r t h e r l i g h t on carbon i s o t o p e s and Hopewell a g r i c u l t u r e
American Antiquity 46:34?-353
Binford L R.
1968 P o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e a d a p t a t i o n s . I n New perspectives i n
archaeology, e d i t e d by S R. Binford and L. R. Binford,
p p 313-341. Aldine, Chicago
Boserup, E
1965 The conditions of agricultural- growth: The economics of
agrarian change under p e a t i o n pressure Aldine ,
Chicago
Bronson, B.
1975 The e a r l i e s t farming: Demography a s a cause and conse-
quence i n Population, ecology, and s o c M evolution,
e d i t e d by S P o l g a r , pp 53-78 Mouton, The Hague
Brown, A
1973 Bone strontium as a dietary indicator i n 'human s k e l e t a l
popuhtions Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan,
Ann Arbor
B u i k s t r a , J , and D C. Cook
1981 Paleopatholoqy: An American account Annual Review of
Anthropology 9 : 933-970
Cohen, M N
1977 1h.e food c r i s i s i n prehistory: Overpopulation and the
0ri.g-i.n~of agric~lt-ure Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven !I
Earle, T K and A. L. Christenson ( e d i t o r s )
1980 Modeling change i n p r e h i s t o h subsistence economies
Academic P r e s s , New York
Flannery, K V
,
1969 O r i g i n s and e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f e a r l y d o m e s t i c a t i o n i n i
I r a n and t h e Near E a s t I n The domestication and exploi-
t a t i o n of plants and animals, e d i t e d by P J ucko and
G W Dimbleby, pp 73-100 Aldine, Chicago
1973 The o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e Annual Revieu of Anthropology
2: 271-310
Ford, Richard I I
1977 Evolutionary biology and t h e e v o l u t i o n of human ecosystems: I

I
A c a s e s t u d y from t h e Midwestern U S A. I n Explanation o f
prehistoric change, e d i t e d by J M H i l l , pp 153-184
U n i v e r s i t y o f New Mexico P r e s s , Albuquerque
1979 Paleoethnobotany i n American archaeology I n Advances i n
ca'chaeological method and t k o r y (Vol 2 ) , e d i t e d by
M. B S c h i f f e r , pp 285-336 Academic P r e s s , New York
Fried, M
1976 The evolution of p o x t i c a l society Random House, New
York
Gilbert, R I
1975 Trace element analysis of three s k e l e t a l Amerindian popu-
lations a t Dickson Mound. ~ h D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department
of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts, Amherst
Harris, M
1977 Cannibals and kings The oriqins of cultures Random
House, New York.
Hassan, F A
1975 Determination o f t h e s i z e , d e n s i t y , and growth r a t i o of
hunting-gathering populations I n P o w a t i o n , ecology,
and social evolution, e d i t e d by S P o l q a r pp 27-52
Mouton, The Hague
1978 Demographic archaeology I n Advances i n archaeo logical
method and t k o r y (Vol l ) , e d i t e d by M B S c h i f f e r ,
pp 49-103 Academic P r e s s , New York
1981 Demographic archaeology Academic P r e s s , New York
Hayden, B.
1981 Research and development i n t h e Stone Age: Technological
t r a n s i t i o n s among Hunter-Gatherers Current Anthropology
22 ( 5 ) :519-548
Jochim, M. A.
1976 Hunter-Gatherer subsistence and settlement: A predictive
model Academic P r e s s , New York
Martin, P L , and G J Armelagos
1979 Morphometrics o f compact bone: An example from Sudanese
Nubia American Journal of Physical Anthropo logy 51 :
571-578
Payne, S
1972a P a r t i a l recovery and sample b i a s : The r e s u l t s o f some
s i e v i n g experiments I n Papers i n economic prehistory,
e d i t e d by E S Higgs, pp 49-64 Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , Cambridge
1972b On t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of bone samples from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
sites I n Papers i n Economic Prehistory, e d i t e d by
E S Higgs, pp 65-82 Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
Cambridge
Roosevelt, A. C
1980 Pamana: Prehistoric maize and manioc subsistence along
t h e Amazon. and Orinco Academic P r e s s , New York
Stini, W A
1975 Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s o f human p o p u l a t i o n s under n u t r i t i o n a l
stress i n Biosociat i n t e r r e l a t i o n s i n population adapta-
t i o n , e d i t e d by E S Watts, F E Johnston, and G W
Lasker, pp 19-41 Mouton, The Hague
Struever, S
1968 F l o t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s f o r t h e recovery o f s m a l l - s c a l e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains American AntGuity 33 :353-362
22 CONCLUSIONS
Tauber,
1981 1 3 evidence
~ f o r d i e t a r y h a b i t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c man i n
Denmark Nature 292: 332-333
van d e r Merwe, N J , and J C Vogel
1978 "C c o n t e n t o f human c o l l a g e n a s a measure o f p r e h i s t o r i c
d i e t i n Woodland North America Nature 276:815-816
van d e r Merwe, N A. C Roosevelt and J C Vogel
1981 I s o t o p i c evidence f o r p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e change a t
Parmana, Venezuela Nature 292 :536-538
Wing, E S and A. B. Brown "
1979 P a l e o n u t r i t i o n : Method and theory i n p r e h i s t o r i c food-
Ways Academic P r e s s , New York
CHAPTER 2 3
PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE: EDITORS' SUMMATION
Mark Nathan Cohen

S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w York
College a t P l a t t s b u r g h
George J . Ame'Lagos
INTRODUCTION
D e s p i t e t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s and t h e problems
o f i n t e r p o p u l a t i o n and i n t e r - r e g i o n a l c o m p a r a b i l i t y d i s c u s s e d i n
t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , t h e s t u d i e s i n t h i s volume c o l l e c t i v e l y
d e s c r i b e a number of c l e a r t r e n d s in d a t a . Many o f t h e s e t r e n d s
h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on d i s c u s s i o n s of c o m p a r a t i v e h e a l t h
and o f economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l " p r o g r e s s " a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
N e o l i t h i c Revolution. The d a t a c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e
r e s o l u t i o n o f one long-standing c o n t r o v e r s y i n a n t h r o p o l o g y con-
c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e h e a l t h of h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and f a r m e r s . They
a l s o a d d r e s s a second c o n t r o v e r s y concerning t h e r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n
g r o w t h i n i n s t i g a t i n g economic change, but p r o v i d e no c l e a r r e s o l u -
t i o n of t h e l a t t e r . F i n a l l y , the techniques r e p o r t e d demonstrate
approaches ( b u t a s y e t no aggregated d a t a ) t o a number of o t h e r
l o n g - s t a n d i n g i s s u e s i n anthropology and p r e h i s t o r y .
PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS Copyright 0 1984 hy Academic Preis. Inc

OF AGRICULTURE All nghis of reprciduciion in any form reserved
ISBN 0-11-179080-0
MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J . ARMELAGOS
MAJOR TRENDS I N DATA ON HEALTH
The I n c i d e n c e o f I n f e c t i o n
The c l e a r e s t m a j o r t r e n d i n t h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a c o n c e r n s t h e
i n c i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n s a s m e a s u r e d by t h e f r e q u e n c y o f n o n s p e c i f i c
s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s o f i n f e c t i o u s e t i o l o g y a s w e l l a s by t h e f r e q u e n c y
o f c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s . Twelve s t u d i e s r e p o r t on t h e i n c i -
d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n ( B u i k s t r a / C o o k [ C h a p t e r s 9 a n d l o ] ; Angel
[ c h a p t e r 31 ; Goodman e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 111; N o r r [ c h a p t e r 181 ;
A l l i s o n [ c h a p t e r 201 ; C a s s i d y [ c h a p t e r 121 ; Rathbun [ c h a p t e r 61 ;
Rose e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 1 5 1 ; L a r s e n [ c h a p t e r 1 4 1 ; M e i k l e j o h n e t al.
[ c h a p t e r 41 ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 131 ; U b e l a k e r [ c h a p t e r 191 ) .
Most c o n c l u d e t h a t i n f e c t i o n was a more common and more s e r i o u s
p r o b l e m f o r f a r m e r s t h a n f o r t h e i r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g f o r e -
b e a r s ; and most s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s r e s u l t e d from some c o m b i n a t i o n
o f i n c r e a s i n g s e d e n t i s m , l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n a g g r e g a t e s , and t h e
w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d s y n e r g i s m between i n f e c t i o n a n d m a l n u t r i t i o n . A s
e x c e p t i o n s , Rose e t a l . n o t e a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r a t e of i n f e c t i o n s
i n a h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n i n o n e o f t h e t h r e e s u b z o n e s
o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Valley t h a t t h e y d i s c u s s ; and Norr n o t e s a
d e c l i n e i n i n f e c t i o n s from a h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n t o
a n e a r l y f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n f o l l o w e d by a r i s e t o new, much h i g h e r
l e v e l s w i t h more i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g i n Panama. M e i k l e j o h n e t a l .
r e p o r t a n i n c r e a s e in c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n s , b u t n o t i n p o s t c r a n i a l
l e s i o n s , w i t h t h e N e o l i t h i c i n E u r o p e . Rathbun r e p o r t s a h i g h e r
r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n f o r N e o l i t h i c and C h a l c o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s than
f o r pre-Neolithic groups i n I r a n , but, s u r p r i s i n g l y , notes t h a t
Bronze and I r o n Age s a m p l e s showed t h e l o w e s t r a t e s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o r e p o r t i n g on generalized l e s i o n s o f i n f e c t i o n ,
two s t u d i e s ( P e r z i g i a n e t a l . and B u i k s t r a a n d Cook) n o t e an
i n c r e a s e i n t h e frecfuency of m y c o b a c t e r i a l ( t u b e r c u l a r ) i n f e c t i o n s
i d e n t i f i a b l e i n t h e s k e l e t o n s o f f a r m i n g o r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s ; and
o n e s t u d y ( A l l i s o n ) working w i t h mummies documents a n i n c r e a s e i n
r a t e s of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l i n f e c t i o n s w i t h sedentism and a g r i c u l -
t u r e , a l t h o u g h no t r e n d i n r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e s was f o u n d . Where
i t was p o s s i b l e t o document s e v e r a l s t a g e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p -
m e n t , some s t u d i e s (Goodman e t a l . ; ~ n g e l )f o u n d a p r o g r e s s i v e
i n c r e a s e i n t h e frequency of i n f e c t i o n s while o t h e r s noted an
i n i t i a l s u r g e o f i n f e c t i o n r a t e s accompanying t h e a d o p t i o n o f ag-
r i c u l t u r e w i t h l a t e r rebound s u g g e s t i v e o f a more s u c c e s s f u l
a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e new l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s ( U b e l a k e r ; R o s e e t a l . ;
Rathbun) . I n c o n t r a s t , C a s s i d y s u g g e s t s t h a t i n f e c t i o n s , and most
o t h e r h e a l t h p r o b l e m s , were more commonly f o u n d i n l a t e , m a i z e -
dependent farming s i t e s than i n e i t h e r hunter-gatherer o r t r a n s i -
t i o n a l groups.
23 EDITORS' SUMMATION
Chronic Malnutrition
The s t u d i e s a l s o s u g g e s t f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a t t h e adoption
of farming was accompanied by a d e c l i n e i n t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i t y of
n u t r i t i o n . The c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t o r o f t h i s i s provided by t h e in-
c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a ( p o r o s i t y o f
t h e s k u l l and o r b i t s ) c o n s i d e r e d i n d i c a t i v e of anemia. Sixteen
s t u d i e s ( A l l i s o n ; B u i k s t r a and Cook; Goodman e t a l . ; Martin e t a l .
[ c h a p t e r 81; Norr; Smith e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 51; Kennedy [chapter 7 1 ;
Angel; Cassidy; Rathbun; Rose e t a l . ; Larsen; Meiklejohn e t a l . ;
-
Palkovich [ c h a p t e r 161 ; P e r z i g i a n e t a1 ; Ubelaker) n o t e r a t e s of
p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a n d most conclude t h a t t h e l e s i o n s appear o r
i n c r e a s e with f a n n i n g , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t anemia i s p r i m a r i l y a
d i s e a s e of a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s . (Such anemia i s most commonly
a t t r i b u t e d t o poor n u t r i t i o n b u t may a l s o be g e n e t i c o r p a r a s i t e -
r e l a t e d . ) Martin e t a l . , however, r e p o r t no comparative hunter-
g a t h e r e r d a t a ; A l l i s o n , ~ e i k l e j o h ne t a l . , and Larsen r e p o r t
g e n e r a l l y low r a t e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s with no c l e a r t r e n d ,
a s do Rose e t a l . f o r o n e o f t h e i r s t u d y areas. Palkovich r e p o r t s
no temporal t r e n d b u t d o e s n o t e t h a t , geographically, p o r o t i c
h y p e r o s t o s i s c o r r e l a t e s w i t h dependence on maize farming. Rathbun
n o t e s t h a t o r b i t a l l e s i o n s c l e a r l y i n c r e a s e through time but t h a t
c r a n i a l l e s i o n s a r e h i g h i n t h e N e o l i t h i c and d e c l i n e t h e r e a f t e r .
Other i n d i c a t o r s of c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n (slowing of growth,
t h i n n i n g o f lonqbone c o r t i c e s , changes i n s k u l l base and p e l v i c
i n l e t ) a r e more s p o r a d i c a l l y r e p o r t e d , and, i n some cases, l e s s
c e r t a i n of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t a p p e a r g e n e r a l l y t o support a
s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n . P a l k o v i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t chronic malnutrition
became an i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e problem i n t h e American Southwest
w i t h t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e , and s h e provides d a t a
i n d i c a t i n g s e v e r e stress i n l a t e r (Pueblo) groups, l a r g e l y i n
t h e form o f s i g n s of i n f a n t i l e m a l n u t r i t i o n ; b u t she o f f e r s no
good comparative d a t a o n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s . Goodman e t a l . r e p o r t
t h a t a slowing of g r o w t h i n c h i l d h o o d ( a s measured by a t t a i n e d
l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f bone f o r age) s u g g e s t s t h a t growth
dampening from m a l n u t r i t i o n was most marked i n t h e i r l a t e r a g r i -
c u l t u r a l groups. Cook s i m i l a r l y a r g u e s t h a t t h e slowing of
growth and t h e t h i n n i n g o f l o n g bone c o r t i c e s may be s i g n s of
r e l a t i v e m a l n u t r i t i o n i n g r o u p s f i r s t adopting maize a q r i c u l t u r e
i n I l l i n o i s . Cassidy s u g g e s t s t h a t c o r t i c a l thinning of bone i s
i n d i c a t i v e of p o o r e r n u t r i t i o n i n a l a t e farming group than i n
an e a r l i e r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g group i n Kentucky.
In t h e Old World, Smith e t a l . r e p o r t t h a t bone c o r t i c a l
t h i c k n e s s i s g r e a t e r f o r Middle ~ a l e o l i t h i cand ~ p i p a l e o l i t h i c
Natufian p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n f o r l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l groups i n t h e
Levant, s u g g e s t i n g b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n f o r t h e e a r l i e r groups; and
t h e y c i t e a s t u d y o f c o r t i c a l hypertrophy suggestive of calcium
d e f i c i e n c y i n e a r l y f a n n i n g g r o u p s . For t h e ~ e d i t e r r a n e a n ,
Angel u s e s measurements o f s k u l l b a s e h e i g h t and p e l v i c i n l e t
d e p t h a s i n d i c e s of n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and f i n d s a d e c l i n e i n
588 MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J. ARMELAGOS
t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i t y o f n u t r i t i o n from P a l e o l i t h i c through Meso-

l i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c fanning groups.
S e v e r a l of t h e s t u d i e s a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t a d e c l i n e i n a d u l t
s i z e , s t a t u r e , and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y as h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s
became f a r m e r s might be i n d i c a t i v e of d e c l i n i n g q u a l i t y o f n u t r i -
t i o n (Kennedy f o r I n d i a ; Angel f o r t h e Mediterranean; Larsen f o r
Georgia; Meiklejohn e t a l . f o r E u r o p e ) , b u t t h i s was a p o i n t of
c o n t e n t i o n i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . Not a l l of t h e s t u d i e s a g r e e on
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s i n d i c a t o r and n o t a l l show s i m i l a r
t r e n d s . Meiklejohn e t a l . r e p o r t a d e c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e from t h e
P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c i n Europe
f o l l o w e d by a rebound, b u t c a u t i o u s l y conclude t h a t t h e t r e n d
might r e f l e c t e i t h e r d i e t a r y s t r e s s o r a l t e r e d a c t i v i t i e s . Smith
e t a l . show a d e c l i n e i n s t a t u r e from P a l e o l i t h i c t o M e s o l i t h i c
groups i n t h e Levant with a rebound i n some N e o l i t h i c groups, b u t
a r g u e a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d e c l i n e i n s t a t u r e an i n d e x o f
d e c l i n i n g n u t r i t i o n , s i n c e t h e r e a r e no accompanying s t r e s s i n d i -
c a t o r s ( a l t h o u g h t h e y do c o n s i d e r t h e rebound i n one N e o l i t h i c
group a r e f l e c t i o n o f improved d i e t ) . (It was noted a t t h e con-
f e r e n c e , however, t h a t d i e t a r y l i m i t a t i o n s might s e l e c t f o r small
i n d i v i d u a l s who would n o t , t h e n , n e c e s s a r i l y d i s p l a y s i g n s of
s t r e s s i n t h e i r own s k e l e t o n s a l t h o u g h t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s were
e v o l v i n g t o meet s t r i n g e n t d i e t a r y c o n d i t i o n s . ) A l l i s o n , while
u s i n g d e c l i n i n g s t a t u r e a s an i n d e x of poor n u t r i t i o n , saw no
t r e n d i n t i m e i n Peru o t h e r t h a n a d e c l i n e i n s t a t u r e among groups
s u b j e c t t o c o l o n i a l domination. Cassidy and Ubelaker r e p o r t no
c l e a r t r e n d s i n s t a t u r e through t i m e . P e r z i g i a n e t a l . r e p o r t an
i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e from h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s t o t r a n s i t i o n a l groups
i n Ohio followed by a decrease from t r a n s i t i o n a l t o f u l l y a g r i c u l -
t u r a l groups. Rose e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n s i z e i n
t h e Caddoan r e g i o n of t h e Lower M i s s i s s i p p i Valley might r e f l e c t
an inereuse i n a v a i l a b l e p r o t e i n with farming, while n o t i n g t h a t
a d e c l i n e i n s i z e , r e f l e c t i n g declining n u t r i t i o n , occurred i n the
Lower M i s s i s s i p p i Valley proper. B u i k s t r a and Cook n o t e an i n -
c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e f o r women, but n o t f o r men, a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n
i n I l l i n o i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s l e a d them t o
conclude t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f n u t r i t i o n was d e c l i n i n g .
Changes i n s e x u a l dimorphism, sometimes c o n s i d e r e d i n d i c a t i v e
of changing n u t r i t i o n , show no c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d . Several d i f f e r -
e n t p a t t e r n s of changing dimorphism a r e noted. Moreover, a
d e c l i n e i n dimorphism (once equated with poor n u t r i t i o n ) c o n s i s t s
i n some c a s e s of a r e l a t i v e d e c r e a s e i n male s i z e and i n o t h e r s
o f an i n c r e a s e i n female s i z e . Hence, t h e meaning of dimorphism
i t s e l f a s an i n d e x appears t o b e ambiguous.
I n d i c a t o r s of Episodic S t r e s s
One o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g and, i n some ways, most problem-

a t i c s e t s of d a t a i s provided by s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of t h e d i s -
r u p t i o n of childhood growth. Two such i n d i c a t o r s a r e commonly
589
reported with s u r p r i s i n g l y c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s . Harris lines a r e

r e p o r t e d i n seven s t u d i e s c o m p a r i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and farmers
(Goodman e t a l . ; B u i k s t r a a n d Cook; A l l i s o n ; Cassidy; Rathbun;
Rose e t a l . ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . ) . Most c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e frequency
o f l i n e s i s h i g h e r i n h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s t h a n i n t h e farmers who
f o l l o w them, p o s s i b l y s u g g e s t i n g more f r e q u e n t growth-disrupting
s t r e s s e s i n t h e e a r l i e r g r o u p s . Rathbun, i n c o n t r a s t , r e p o r t s an
i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h t i m e ; and A l l i s o n p r i m a r i l y o f f e r s a geographic
r a t h e r t h a n a t e m p o r a l c o m p a r i s o n . Cook n o t e s t h a t t h e lowest
f r e q u e n c y o f H a r r i s l i n e s o c c u r s i n h e r t r a n s i t i o n a l group.
L i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a s (LEH) a n d enamel m i c r o d e f e c t s of
t e e t h t e l l a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . I n o n e s t u d y , Rose e t a l . 1
r e p o r t ( i n t h e v e r s i o n o f t h e i r p a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e conference)
t h a t i n t h e Caddoan r e g i o n o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Valley, l a t e hunter-
g a t h e r e r s and w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d f a n n e r s h a d comparable r a t e s of
h y p o p l a s i a s ; b u t t h e y n o t e t h a t n o d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e from t r a n -
s i t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t on o t h e r g r o u n d s t h e y b e l i e v e t o be the
most s t r e s s e d . Ten o t h e r s t u d i e s (Goodman e t a l . ; B u i k s t r a and
Cook; A l l i s o n ; Smith e t a l . ; Kennedy; Angel; Cassidy; P e r z i g i a n
e t a l . ; U b e l a k e r ; and, v e r y t e n t a t i v e l y , Rathbun) a l l r e p o r t t h a t
t h e f r e q u e n c y and/or s e v e r i t y o f t h i s i n d i c a t o r of growth disrup-
t i o n i n c r e a s e s i n f a r m i n g a n d l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s i n comparison t o
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , s u g g e s t i v e o f more f r e q u e n t and/or more severe
e p i s o d e s of s t r e s s i n l a t e r g r o u p s . T h r e e s t u d i e s (Cassidy;
Smith e t a l . ; P e r z i g i a n et a l . ) a l s o n o t e t h a t h y p o p l a s i a s o f
d e c i d u o u s t e e t h ( i n d i c a t i n g e p i s o d e s of p r e n a t a l s t r e s s presumably
r e f l e c t i n g poor m a t e r n a l h e a l t h ) a r e more common i n l a t e r a g r i c u l -
t u r a l g r o u p s than i n h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g g r o u p s . I n a d d i t i o n ,
Norr s t a t e s t h a t c a r i o u s e n a m e l h y p o p l a s i a s and h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n
o f d e c i d u o u s t e e t h a r e common i n h e r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s but not i n
h e r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ; and B u i k s t r a and Cook n o t e t h a t .while t h e
i n c i d e n c e o f d e c i d u o u s h y p o p l a s i a s d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e through time
i n t h e i r sample, t h e t e n d e n c y o f s t r e s s e d i n f a n t s t o d i e e a r l y
i n c r e a s e s i n l a t e r groups. P a l k o v i c h a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t episodic
s t r e s s would have been a n i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e problem f o r increas-
i n g l y d e n s e and immobile f a r m i n g g r o u p s i n t h e American Southwest,
b u t s h e o f f e r s no d a t a on LEH t o s u p p o r t t h e s u g g e s t i o n .
The a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f H a r r i s l i n e s
and enamel d e f e c t s may b e r e s o l v e d i n v a r i o u s ways. One p s s i -
b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e two r e p r e s e n t stresses o f d i f f e r i n g e t i o l o g y .
Both a r e c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s s u f f i c i e n t t o
c a u s e growth d i s r u p t i o n , b u t i n n e i t h e r c a s e i s t h e range of pos-
s i b l e s t r e s s i n g a g e n t s w e l l d e f i n e d . Hence, it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y t r e n d s i n d i c a t e a t r a d e - o f f o f one fom of s t r e s s
~ o s eet at. have eliminated a s p e t s of their discussion in

t h i s volume 'in response to space constraints. However, they have
informed us (personal, communication) that t b i r interpretation of
t h i s point has not changed.
f o r another. One s t u d y ( C a s s i d y ) s u g g e s t s t h a t m i n o r , r e g u l a r
hunger p e r i o d s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s may h a v e b e e n t r a d e d f o r
more i r r e g u l a r and more s e v e r e s t r e s s e s o f f a r m i n g l i f e i n v o l v i n g
b o u t s of i n f e c t i o n and more s e r i o u s famine a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c r o p
f a i l u r e . I t was a l s o p o i n t e d o u t i n s e v e r a l of t h e c h a p t e r s and
i n d i s c u s s i o n t h a t , o f t h e two, enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a r e a l m o s t c e r -
t a i n l y t h e more v a l i d and r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r of g e n e r a l s t r e s s .
H a r r i s lines a r e s u b j e c t t o s u b s e q u e n t e r a s u r e d u r i n g g r o w t h ,
w h i l e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a r e n o t . Moreover, H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d
n o t s o much t h e c e s s a t i o n o f g r o w t h a s t h e s u b s e q u e n t compensatory
a c c e l e r a t i o n o f growth. I t was a r g u e d by some a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e
t h a t t h e l o w e r frequency o f H a r r i s l i n e s i n f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s
m i g h t r e f l e c t c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g f a i l u r e of
t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n p h a s e a s much t h e a c t u a l i n c i d e n c e o f g r o w t h
a r r e s t . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d by r e s e a r c h
r e p o r t e d by Murchison e t a l . (1983) s u g g e s t i n g t h a t p r o t e i n -
d e p r i v e d Rhesus monkeys d e v e l o p fewer H a r r i s l i n e s t h a n t h o s e f e d
a h e a l t h i e r d i e t . A t b e s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e two i n d i c a t o r s t a k e n
t o g e t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t no r e l a x a t i o n o f e p i s o d i c s t r e s s r e s u l t e d
from t h e a d o p t i o n of f a n n i n g i n most r e g i o n s . They may i n d i c a t e
t h e t r a d e - o f f o f one type o f s t r e s s f o r a n o t h e r ; more p r o b a b l y ,
t h e y i n d i c a t e a n e t i n c r e a s e i n such e p i s o d e s .
I t s h o u l d b e noted, however, t h a t b o t h h y p o p l a s i a s and H a r r i s
l i n e s r e f l e c t n o t j u s t t h e i n c i d e n c e of s t r e s s e p i s o d e s b u t t h e
i n c i d e n c e o f s u c h e p i s o d e s that uere survived by t h e i n d i v i d u a l s
i n q u e s t i o n . One p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a low i n c i d e n c e o f
h y p o p l a s i a s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s commonly
f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e any s t r e s s e s s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o d u c e l e s i o n s .
(The p o s s i b i l i t y must a l s o b e e n t e r t a i n e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n t o o t h
s t r u c t u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f f a r m i n g somehow made it
i n c r e a s i n g l y l i k e l y t h a t c h i l d h o o d s t r e s s e s would b e r e f l e c t e d i n
h y p o p l a s t i c l e s i o n s . ) However, h y p o p l a s i a s a r e known t o occur
commonly i n w i l d a n i m a l s i n c l u d i n g o t h e r p r i m a t e s and t h e y a r e
r e p o r t e d among t h e A u s t r a l o p i t h e c i n e s (White 1 9 7 8 ) . Moreover,
t h e y a r e known t o o c c u r i n f a i r l y h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e t e e t h
o f r e c e n t and modern A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s (Smith e t a l . , C h a p t e r
5, t h i s volume) - Hence, t h e i r r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y among r e p o r t e d
p r e h i s t o r i c hunter-gatherers suggests a r e a l , r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y
o f m a j o r s t r e s s e p i s o d e s and s u p p o r t s t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t e p i s o d i c
s t r e s s was a s much, o r more commonly, f e l t by f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s
t h a n by t h e i r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g f o r e b e a r s .
Physical Stress
The d a t a on p h y s i c a l s t r e s s a s measured by a r t h r i t i s , s k e l e t a l
r o b u s t i c i t y and p h y s i c a l i n j u r y ) a r e more mixed, b u t seem t o a r g u e ,
on b a l a n c e , f o r a r e d u c t i o n i n p h y s i c a l s t r e s s and t h e r e f o r e a
p r o b a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n work l o a d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n of
a g r i c u l t u r e . I t should be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t b o t h a r t h r i t i s and
muscular r o b u s t i c i t y a r e l i k e l y to r e f l e c t t h e s e v e r i t y o f peak or
591
i n t e r m i t t e n t demand on m u s c l e s and j o i n t s r a t h e r than simply t h e

number of hours of work i n v o l v e d i n t h e two economies. The d a t a
t h u s s u g g e s t t h a t i n most r e g i o n s s u c h peak demand was g r e a t e r
f o r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s t h a n f o r f a n n e r s ; b u t it does not n e c e s s a r i l y
i n d i c a t e t h a t farming r e s u l t e d i n a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e time invested
i n t h e food q u e s t . The arthritis d a t a a r e a l s o Complicated by t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s d i s c u s s e d commonly displayed
h i g h e r average ages a t d e a t h ( s e e below) t h a n d i d t h e fanning
p o p u l a t i o n s from t h e same r e g i o n . The hunter-gatherers would
t h e r e f o r e b e expected t o d i s p l a y more a r t h r i t i s as a function of
age even i f workloads w e r e comparable.
Smith e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t t h e g r e a t e r r o b u s t i c i t y of p r e -
N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e Levant i s s u g g e s t i v e of g r e a t e r
f u n c t i o n a l demand on t h e s k e l e t o n . Kennedy concludes t h a t pre-
farming groups i n I n d i a were s u b j e c t t o more physical s t r e s s than
farming groups a s e v i d e n c e d by s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y and degener-
a t i v e a r t h r i t i s . Meiklejohn e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r
r a t e s of a r t h r i t i s i n d i c a t e g r e a t e r f u n c t i o n a l demands on t h e
s k e l e t o n i n t h e European M e s o l i t h i c t h a n i n t h e Neolithic.
Rathbun's f i g u r e s f o r I r a n s u g g e s t t h a t high a r t h r i t i s l e v e l s
among ( a r e l a t i v e l y aged sample o f ) Neanderthals was followed by
h i g h e r l e v e l s f o r l a t e p r e - f a n n i n g groups and by Neolithic
( f a r m i n g ) l e v e l s e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of the Neandertals
( b u t i n a g e n e r a l l y y o u n g e r p o p u l a t i o n ) . Only a f t e r the N e o l i t h i c
d i d r a t e s of a r t h r i t i s d e c l i n e i n t h i s r e g i o n .
I n t h e New World, L a r s e n s u g g e s t s t h a t Amerindian groups i n
Georgia a l s o d i s p l a y a d e c l i n e i n r o b u s t i c i t y and i n a r t h r i t i s ac-
companying t h e a d o p t i o n o f f a r m i n g ; and P e r z i g i a n e t a l . n o t e a
d e c l i n e i n p h y s i c a l s t r e s s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l populations i n Ohio.
Rose e t a l . , however, n o t e a d e c r e a s e in arthritis from hunter-
g a t h e r e r t o t r a n s i t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n s followed by an increase t~
new, h i g h e r l e v e l s w i t h i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e in the Caddoan re-
g i o n o f t h e lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y . Osteophytosis shows a
s i m i l a r p a t t e r n i n t h e Lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y proper, whereas
o s t e o a r t h r i t i s simply d e c l i n e s t h r o u g h t i m e . Cassidy n o t e s t h a t
a r t h r i t i s i s most marked i n l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l populations i n
Kentucky, b u t she s u g g e s t s an i n f e c t i o u s e t i o l o g y f o r t h e a r t h r i t i s
i n q u e s t i o n ; and Goodman e t a l . a r g u e f o r a progressive i n c r e a s e
i n v a r i o u s k i n d s o f a r t h r i t i s a s a g r i c u l t u r e was adopted and in-
tensified in Illinois.
The i n c i d e n c e o f t r a u m a , b o t h a c c i d e n t a l and violence-related,
shows a s i m i l a r l y mixed p i c t u r e , g e n e r a l l y decreasing i n some
s t u d y r e g i o n s w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e (Rathbun; Meiklejohn
e t a l . ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . ) w h i l e i n c r e a s i n g i n others (Goodman e t
a l . ; Kennedy). Rose e t a l . s e e n o t r e n d i n t h e i r trauma data b u t
do s u g g e s t t h a t i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e was h i g h e s t e a r l y i n one of
t h e i r sequences and h i g h e s t v e r y l a t e i n a n o t h e r . For t h e most
p a r t , however, t h e r e p o r t i n g o f trauma and t h e resolution of a c c i -
d e n t a l and v i o l e n c e - r e l a t e d trauma i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o permit
s t a t e m e n t s about t r e n d s i n t h e two c l a s s e s . There i s a s y e t no
c l e a r r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e debate about hunter-gatherer non-violence;

but the evidence does not seem t o suggest any simple p a t t e r n of
change.
Mean Age a t Death
Perhaps t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s concern changes i n t h e

mean age a t d e a t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e -
Thirteen of t h e r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s provide d a t a (of varying q u a l i t y )
bearing on t h i s i s s u e . These d a t a a r e presented in a v a r i e t y of
forms and a r e t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t t o summarize. Moreover, t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n of ages-at-death from s k e l e t a l populations t o t h e
a c t u a l dynamics o f l i v i n g populations i s complex (Howell 1982;
S a t t e n s p i e l and Harpending 1 9 8 3 ) . Nonetheless it i s of i n t e r e s t ,
and counter t o p r e v a i l i n g wisdom, t h a t 10 of t h e s e sequences
e i t h e r conclude, o r provide fragmentary evidence suggesting, t h a t
mean age a t d e a t h (and/or l i f e expectancy a t various ages)
dsel-vned with t h e adoption of farming. Working with r e l a t i v e l y
good, w e l l - c o n t r o l l e d samples (A7 = 114, 2 2 4 , 219, r e s p e c t i v e l y )
from a s i n g l e well-defined l o c a t i o n , Goodman e t a l . suggest t h a t
t h e r e was a p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e i n l i f e expectancy f o r a l l a g e
c l a s s e s a s h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s f i r s t adopted and then i n t e n s i f i e d
a g r i c u l t u r e i n I l l i n o i s . With l a r g e r samples ( N s = 300-800) (Cook,
p e r s o n a l communication) Cook f i n d s some increase i n l i f e span as
c u l t i g e n s were added t o a hunting and gathering d i e t , but an i n -
c r e a s e i n a g e - s p e c i f ic m o r t a l i t y a s maize a g r i c u l t u r e was a d o p t e d
(followed by a p a r t i a l rebound in l i f e expectancy i n a l a t e r , in-
t e n s i v e maize f a n n i n g group). Cassidy f i n d s t h a t a maize-fanning
group i n Kentucky ( N = 2 9 6 ) had a lower l i f e expectancy f o r both
s e x e s and f o r a l l a g e groups t h a n d i d an e a r l i e r hunting and gather-
i n g group ( N = 2 9 5 ) . Ubelaker n o t e s t h a t l i f e expectancy a t birth
W a s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h in an e a r l y hunter-gatherer group (fl = 1 9 2 ) ~
r o s e s l i g h t l y i n what may b e a t r a n s i t i o n a l group (71? = 199) (which,
however, s t i l l e x h i b i t e d a low c a r i e s r a t e , leading him t o q u e s -
t i o n t h e i r d e g r e e o f r e l i a n c e on a g r i c u l t u r e ) and then f e l l
s h a r p l y i n an i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l group (7? = 30) before a
P a r t i a l rebound o c c u r r e d (N = 4 3 5 ) . He suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a
t r e n d toward i n c r e a s i n g i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y through h i s sequence-
L i f e expectancies a t more advanced ages (E5 and E15) f l u c t u a t e d
more i r r e g u l a r l y o v e r time, b u t t h e e a r l i e s t , c l e a r l y hunting and
g a t h e r i n g , p o p u l a t i o n had l i f e expectancies a t both ages comparable
t o t h e average of l a t e r groups.
Larsen, w h i l e c a u t i o n i n g t h a t a v a i l a b l e samples (N = 152, 1 7 7 )
are u n l i k e l y t o b e t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e (because both show t o o
h i g h a p e r c e n t a g e o f s u r v i v o r s t o adulthood), nonetheless n o t e s
t h a t t h e a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a v a i l a b l e sample of fanners is
l o w e r than t h a t o f t h e e a r l i e r hunter-gatherers i n Georgia. He
r e p o r t s h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e s of farmers dying i n a l l age c l a s s e s
b e l o w 2 5 and h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e s o f hunter-gatherers dying i n a l l
a g e c l a s s e s o v e r 2 5 w i t h t h e exception of t h e 30-35 year age
593
b r a c k e t . Even i f s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y is d i s c o u n t e d , t h e p r e a g r i -
c u l t u r a l a d u l t s have t h e h i g h e r a v e r a g e a g e a t death. In the
v e r s i o n of t h e i r c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e , Rose e t a l . 1
working w i t h samples o f s i m i l a r s i z e , s u g g e s t t h a t i n t h e Caddoan
r e g i o n of t h e lower M i s s i s s i p p i , h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s had a lower
p r o b a b i l i t y o f d y i n g b o t h a s c h i l d r e n and a s young a d u l t s than did
l a t e r farmers. I n t h e Lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y p r o p e r , they also
s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e l o w e s t m o r t a l i t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a dispersed
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r group.
Working w i t h more f r a g m e n t a r y a n d / o r s c a t t e r e d d a t a , a number
of o t h e r s t u d i e s r e p o r t s i m i l a r t r e n d s . Angel n o t e s a decrease in
a d u l t l i f e e x p e c t a n c y from P a l e o l i t h i c (u = 59) t o M e s o l i t h i c
J = 120) and N e o l i t h i c (N = 1 0 6 ) f o r m a l e s i n t h e Mediterranean.
For f e m a l e s he r e p o r t s a n i n c r e a s e i n a d u l t l i f e expectancy from
P a l e o l i t h i c (fl = 53) t o M e s o l i t h i c (N = 63) followed by a d e c l i n e
t o l e v e l s a t o r below t h a t o f t h e P a l e o l i t h i c f o r t h e N e o l i t h i c
(-A7 = 2 0 0 ) . Kennedy n o t e s t h a t t h e a g g r e g a t e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l
sample from I n d i a (A7 = Â ± 1 0 0 d i s p l a y s h i g h e r a g e s a t d e a t h than do
l a t e r agricultural populations. Rathbun, who claims no t r e n d be-
cause h i s samples a r e s o s m a l l , c i t e s f i g u r e s on average age a t
d e a t h o f known a d u l t s p e c i m e n s t h a t a r e h i g h e r f o r p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l
i n d i v i d u a l s (A? = 9 ) t h a n f o r e a r l y a g r i c u l t u r a l ( N e o l i t h i c ) groups
(S = 6 9 ) . I n h i s t a b l e s , 1 0 s m a l l s a m p l e s of N e o l i t h i c b u r i a l s
g e n e r a l l y have a v e r a g e a g e s a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s below t h o s e of the
S h a n i d a r N e a n d e r t a l s and t h e p r e - N e o l i t h i c Hotu population ( a l -
though t h e l a t t e r may b e s e l e c t g r o u p s . ) And A l l i s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t
childhood m o r t a l i t y was l o w e s t i n h i s e a r l i e s t population (although
r e c o v e r y b i a s i s p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e d in t h i s s a m p l e ) .
These l a t t e r s t u d i e s , w h i c h s u f f e r from v e r y poor sampling of
e a r l y h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , mean r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e
i n d i v i d u a l l y ; b u t c o l l e c t i v e l y , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e l a r g e r and
b e t t e r c o n t r o l l e d samples d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , and b o l s t e r e d by "the
e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f h e a l t h , t h e y b e g i n t o suggest a
f a i r l y widespread p a t t e r n o f d e c l i n i n g mean a g e a t d e a t h with the
adoption of fanning. C e r t a i n l y t h e d a t a a t l e a s t challenge t h e
p r e v a i l i n g r e v e r s e a s s u m p t i o n . I t must b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e s e
d a t a may r e f l e c t changes i n f e r t i l i t y and p o p u l a t i o n growth r a t e s
a s w e l l a s i n m o r t a l i t y ( S a t t e n s p i e l and Harpending 1 9 8 3 ) . How-
e v e r , s e v e r a l o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t a downward t r e n d i n l i f e ex-
p e c t a n c y even when o n l y a d u l t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d .
Three s t u d i e s do s u g g e s t a n i n c r e a s e i n mean age a t death with
farming. Smith e t a l . r e p o r t a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n l i f e expectan-
cy from l a t e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l ( ~ a t u f i a n )p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e Levant
through t h e Bronze a g e ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . c i t e a comparison
I ~ o s ee t d.have eziminated a s p e c t s of t h e i r discussion i n

t h i s volume i n response t o space c o n s t r a i n t s . However, they 'have
informed u s (personal commun-Lcation) t h a t t h e i r vizterpretation of
t h i s point has n o t changed.
s u g g e s t i n g b e t t e r s u r v i v o r s h i p f o r an a g r i c u l t u r a l ( S = 4 4 ) group
i n Ohio t h a n f o r p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l groups (.S = 13271, b u t t h e y n o t e
t h a t t h e l a t e r , s m a l l e r sample a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e s
subadult m o r t a l i t y accounting a t l e a s t i n p a r t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e
i n l i f e e x p e c t a n c y . F i n a l l y , f i g u r e s p r o v i d e d by Norr might a l s o
b e read a s suggesting g r e a t e r survivorship t o adulthood i n a g r i -
c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s compared t o p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n
Panama, b u t s h e adds s e v e r a l d i s c l a i m e r s , b o t h a b o u t t h e s i z e
( N = 8 7 , 2 8 , 3 2 ) o f h e r samples and a b o u t p r o b a b l e a g e b i a s e s r e -
l a t e d t o known b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s .
THE RELATIVE HEALTH OF HUNTER-GATHERERS AND FARMERS
Taken a s a whole, t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s f a i r l y c l e a r l y s u g g e s t an
o v e r a l l d e c l i n e i n t h e q u a l i t y - - a n d p r o b a b l y i n t h e length--of
human l i f e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e . T h i s de-
c l i n e was o f f s e t i n some r e g i o n s , b u t n o t i n o t h e r s , by a d e c l i n e
i n p h y s i c a l demands on t h e body. The s t u d i e s s u p p o r t r e c e n t e t h -
n o g r a p h i c s t a t e m e n t s and t h e o r e t i c a l arguments a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e l y
good h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n o f h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . They a l s o s u g g e s t
t h a t h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s were r e l a t i v e l y w e l l b u f f e r e d a g a i n s t
e p i s o d i c s t r e s s . These d a t a c a l l i n q u e s t i o n s i m p l i s t i c p o p u l a r
i d e a s a b o u t human p r o g r e s s . They a l s o c a l l i n q u e s t i o n models of
human p o p u l a t i o n growth t h a t a r e based on assumed p r o g r e s s i v e i n -
c r e a s e s i n l i f e expectancy. The d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t t h e w e l l -
documented expansion o f e a r l y f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s was accomplished
i n s p i t e o f g e n e r a l d i m i n u t i o n of b o t h c h i l d and a d u l t l i f e expec-
t a n c y r a t h e r t h a n being f u e l e d by i n c r e a s e d s u r v i v o r s h i p .
I t s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r / f armer compari-
son 'lumps t o g e t h e r a number of s e p a r a t e a d a p t i v e s h i f t s whose
i m p o r t a n c e i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e changes i n h e a l t h i s n o t always
c l e a r . The e f f e c t s of p o p u l a t i o n growth, o f new f o o d s , o f farming
a s an a c t i v i t y , o f s e d e n t i s m , of t h e d i s p e r s a l o r n u c l e a t i o n of
s e t t l e m e n t s , and o f changing p o l i t i c s a l l need t o b e e v a l u a t e d
s e p a r a t e l y . S e v e r a l o f t h e c h a p t e r s a l l u d e t o t h e e f f e c t s o f some
o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s but t h e t a s k of s o r t i n g o u t t h e i r individual
e f f e c t s o n h e a l t h is approached most s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i n t h i s volume
by Rose e t a l . , who u s e a comparison o f t h e i r t h r e e s u b r e g i o n s o f
t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Valley t o i s o l a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l
v a r i a b l e s , ' n o t i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e e f f e c t s of population nuclea-
t ion.
THE POPULATION PRESSURE MODEL
Although t h e d a t a p o i n t f a i r l y c l e a r l y t o a d e c l i n e i n h e a l t h
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , i t is n o t y e t c l e a r
w h e t h e r t h e y c o n f i r m t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e (Boserupian) population
p r e s s u r e model o f a g r i c u l t u r a l o r i g i n s . The g e n e r a l l y negative
s l o p e o f h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n d o conform t o t h e model. Moreover,
p o p u l a t i o n growth i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a c o n c o m i t a n t of changes i n
h e a l t h and economy in most o f t h e s e q u e n c e s ( a l t h o u g h n o t i n a l l
p o r t i o n s o f a l l s e q u e n c e s ) ; and t h e s e q u e n c e of p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l
economic changes i n most r e g i o n s d i s c u s s e d i s c o n s i s t e n t with p r e -
d i c t i o n s a b o u t economic c h a n g e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p p u l a -
t i o n d e n s i t y and/or d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s ( C h r i s t e n s o n 1980; Cohen
1977; E a r l e 1980; Hespenheide 1 9 8 0 ; O'Connell and Hawkes 1981;
Winterhalder 1981).
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e d a t a , though mixed, suggest an o v e r a l l
d e c l i n e i n work l o a d and p h y s i c a l stress t h a t may have helped t o
m o t i v a t e t h e economic t r a n s i t i o n , r e d u c i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y t o postu-
l a t e d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a n d / o r growing p o p u l a t i o n s a s a necessary
s t i m u l u s t o economic change. I n some o f t h e s t u d i e s , t h e r e f o r e ,
it i s p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t p a t h o l o g y t r e n d s i n terms o f t h e
s c e n a r i o d e s c r i b e d by Reidhead (1980) i n which p o p u l a t i o n s a r e
s e d u c e d by d e c l i n i n g l a b o r c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e
( r a t h e r than being forced t o a d o p t i t ) b u t i n c u r unanticipated
h e a l t h problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e d e n t i s m , n u c l e a t i o n , p r o t e i n
s h o r t a g e , and c r o p f a i l u r e t h a t r e s u l t from t h e t r a n s i t i o n .
Moreover, some of t h e s t u d i e s i n q u e s t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t s t r e s s
(whether o r n o t it o c c u r s i n a p a t t e r n o f p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e a s
a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model m i g h t s u g g e s t ) may occur w i t h o u t con-
c o m i t a n t e v i d e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h (Angel) o r may b e more
r e a d i l y e x p l a i n e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h a s p o p u l a t i o n n u c l e a t i o n
.
(Rose e t a l . ) o r p o l i t i c a l e x p l o i t a t i o n ( M a r t i n e t a1 ; A l l i s o n ;
Goodman e t a l . ) .
The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h e a l t h t r e n d s 'before t h e adoption of ag-
r i c u l t u r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e popula-
t i o n p r e s s u r e hypothesis, which p r e d i c t s d e c l i n i n g (or a t l e a s t
s t e a d y ) l e v e l s o f h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n r a t h e r than improvements i n
h e a l t h (compare Hayden 1 9 8 1 ) a s h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s approach t h e
t r a n s i t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e t r e n d s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y hard
t o u n r a v e l i n t h e absence o f good e a r l y ( " P a l e o " ) h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s -
A s n o t e d , s e v e r a l of t h e Old World s t u d i e s (Meiklejohn e t a l . ;
Angel; Smith e t a l . ; Kennedy) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s a d e c l i n e i n
s i z e b e g i n n i n g i n t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and e x t e n d i n g through t h e
M e s o l i t h i c . Such a w i d e s p r e a d t r e n d c o u l d be o f f e r e d as evidence
o f a d e c l i n e i n n u t r i t i o n o r s e l e c t i o n f o r reduced n u t r i t i o n a l
n e e d s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s b e f o r e t h e a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e ,
s u p p o r t i n g a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model; b u t , as d i s c u s s e d above,
t h i s interpretation is controversial. One s t u d y shows t h e t r e n d
p a r a l l e l e d by o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f i n c r e a s i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s
(Angel) w h i l e two o t h e r s do n o t (Smith e t a l . ; Meiklejohn e t a l . ) .
Decreasing s i z e and r o b u s t i c i t y might a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d evidence

o f d e c l i n i n g l a b o r demands, s u p p o r t i n g t h e Hayden model.
Changes i n t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of e p i s o d e s of growth a r r e s t p r i o r
t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e would b e , p e r h a p s , t h e most impor-
t a n t d a t a f o r resolving t h i s controversy. A population pressure
model would p r e d i c t i n c r e a s i n g o r a t l e a s t s t e a d y r a t e s of such
i n d i c a t o r s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s a s s o c i a t e d with growing popula-
t i o n s and changing economic s t r a t e g i e s , s i n c e it would s u g g e s t
t h a t new food economies wrought no n e t improvement i n economic
h o m e o s t a s i s . The Hayden h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t s t h e d e c l i n e of such
i n d i c a t o r s because it assumes an i n c r e a s e i n economic b u f f e r s .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , althougl/ good comparisons can be made between
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and farmers w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n c i d e n c e of
growth a r r e s t e p i s o d e s ( a s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ) , t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y
\
few d a t a on which t o measure changes i n t h e i r f r e q u e n c i e s among
p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l popu a t i o n s . One p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y i n Europe w i t h
very small samples ( S othwell 1963) d i d r e p o r t an i n c r e a s e i n
f .
h y p o p l a s i a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c compared t o t h e P a l e o l i t h i c . In
t h i s volume, f i n d no t r e n d i n t h e incidence of hypo-
p l a s i a from U ~ ~ ~ ~ h P ~ t~o & Ep~ i p a~l eto lhi t h
i i c i n t h e Levant.
Two o t h e r s t u d i e s in t h e symposium, not y e t d i s c u s s e d because
t h e y i n v o l v e no f u l l y a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , a r e worthy of n o t e
i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . Dickel e t a l . (Chapter 1 7 ) r e p o r t on t h e
r e l a t i v e h e a l t h o f e a r l y a n d l a t e h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g popula-
t i o n s o f C a l i f o r n i a , t h e l a t t e r employing a very i n t e n s i v e h u n t i n g
and g a t h e r i n g s t r a t e g y i n v o l v i n g t h e p r o c e s s i n g of a c o r n s i n a
r e g u l a r p a t t e r n showing a n e t i n c r e a s e i n frequency through time

( o r , p o s s i b l y , no n e t t r e n d i f t h e confounding e f f e c t s o f
European-introduced d i s e a s e s d u r i n g a p o r t i o n of t h e i r l a t e
p e r i o d a r e c o n s i d e r e d ) . P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was g e n e r a l l y r a r e
i n t h i s group and showed no t r e n d . S t a t u r e d e c l i n e d s l i g h t l y
e a r l y i n t h e sequence b u t g e n e r a l l y showed no s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d
and o v e r a l l l i f e expectancy decreased through time f o r most age
classes. Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s suggest no n e t improve-
ment o v e r t i m e i n h e a l t h o r economic homeostasis.
Data from a second study (Benfer, Chapter 2 1 ) of a "proto-
a g r i c u l t u r a l " p o p u l a t i o n i n Peru w i t h some i n c i p i e n t c u l t i v a t i o n
seems t o s u g g e s t a p r o g r e s s i v e improvement i n h e a l t h over time.
The sequence documents a s e r i e s of q u a n t i t a t i v e s h i f t s i n economy
among p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t f i r s t moved toward i n c r e a s i n g dependence
on m a n i p u l a t e d o r c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s and then s h i f t e d back
toward i n c r e a s i n g dependence on seafood. The s h i f t s were
23 EDITORS' SUMMATION 597
accompanied by an o v e r a l l improvement i n s u r v i v o r s h i p ( t o t a l
IV = 1681, an i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e , and a d e c r e a s e i n Harris l i n e
formation. (Benfer c o n s i d e r s t h e l a t t e r a good i n d i c a t o r of
r e l a t i v e s t r e s s i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s s i n c e t h e r e is a n e g a t i v e
c o r r e l a t i o n between H a r r i s l i n e s and s t a t u r e among i n d i v i d u a l s . )
On t h e o t h e r hand, Benfer a l s o p r o p o s e s t h a t s e v e r a l means were
being adopted t o c u r t a i l p o p u l a t i o n growth, s p e a k s o f population
p r e s s u r e and i n t e n s e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r r e s o u r c e s , and n o t e s t h a t
h i s P e r u v i a n s were l i v i n g i n a p r o g r e s s i v e l y degraded environ-
ment. A l l of t h e l a t t e r s u g g e s t t h a t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e played
a r o l e i n i n s t i g a t i n g economic changes by a p o p u l a t i o n more
s u c c e s s f u l than most a t m a i n t a i n i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l well-being of
i n d i v i d u a l s amidst d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s .
I n sum, t h e s e d a t a p r o v i d e some s u g g e s t i v e evidence b u t no
c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n of d e c l i n i n g h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n among l a t e r
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s a s a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model might suggest.
Conversely, t h e d a t a may show a d e c l i n i n g workload among l a t e
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , b u t o t h e r w i s e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e Benfer
s t u d y , t h e y p r o v i d e l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n o f any g e n e r a l , p r o g r e s s i v e
improvement i n h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s 1 l i f e s t y l e s and economic homeo-
stasis.
APPROACHES TO OTHER PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTEREST
Although t h e conference was p r i m a r i l y d e s i g n e d t o address t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d above, it was a l s o designed t o a l e r t
a n t h r o p l o g i s t s / p r e h i s t o r i a n s and s k e l e t a l b i o l o g i s t s t o t h e po-
t e n t i a l f o r c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n between t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s .
The Food Crisis in Prehistory (Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) , a l t h o u g h e x p r e s s l y
d e a l i n g w i t h p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t changing d i e t , n u t r i t i o n , and
h e a l t h , was w r i t t e n l a r g e l y i n i g n o r a n c e of t h e p o t e n t i a l (and
even of t h e e x i s t i n g ) c o n t r i b u t i o n of s k e l e t a l pathology t o t h e
i s s u e s under d i s c u s s i o n . And, i n r e c e n t y e a r s , much of t h e con-
t i n u i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d i s s u e s h a s continued
t o i g n o r e t h e s k e l e t a l d a t a . On t h e o t h e r s i d e , much of t h e work
i n s k e l e t a l pathology, d e r i v e d from a t r a d i t i o n focusing on
s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s and t h e i r d i a g n o s i s , has n o t been designed w i t h
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i s s u e s i n mind; a n d , a s became c l e a r i n t h e p r o -
c e s s o f d e s i g n i n g and h o l d i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e , even many s k e l e t a l
b i o l o g i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n p r e h i s t o r y have n o t b e e n aware of t h e
f u l l p o t e n t i a l of t h e i r t e c h n i q u e s f o r r e s o l v i n g a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
i s s u e s . I n many c a s e s t h e y have n o t been aware of t h e i s s u e s
themselves, T h e r e f o r e , it seems i m p o r t a n t t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o
some a d d i t i o n a l examples o f a p p r o a c h e s t o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l problems
o f f e r e d by t h e s t u d i e s i n t h i s book, even though t h o s e problems
a r e t a n g e n t i a l t o our main g o a l s and t h e d a t a a r e n o t y e t system-
a t i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d i n t h e volume.
MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J. ARMELAGOS
S e v e r a l c h a p t e r s ( B u i k s t r a ; Smith e t a l . ; M a r t i n e t a l . ;
Benfer) d i s c u s s t h e u s e o f s k e l e t a l d a t a a s a means o f d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e d e g r e e of g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y and g e n e t i c i s o l a t i o n among
g r o u p s s p a n n i n g t h e economic t r a n s i t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n s . A s
B u i k s t r a p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
a p p e a r a n c e o f a new group t h a t c o i n c i d e n t a l l y b r i n g s new t e c h n o l o g y
and new d i s e a s e s t o a r e g i o n and t h e appearance of new s t r e s s e s i n ,
a n i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n g e n t on a d o p t i o n of a new economy.
Moreover, t h e meanings o f c e r t a i n s k e l e t a l i n d i c e s s u c h a s a l t e r e d
s t a t u r e , when t h e y occur w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n a r e very d i f f e r e n t
from when t h e y o c c u r w i t h replacement o f o n e p o p u l a t i o n by a n o t h e r .
S k e l e t a l d a t a a r e a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t supplement t o a r t i f a c t s t u d i e s
i n a s s e s s i n g models o f c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n , d i f f u s i o n , and t r a d e ,
a s w e l l a s i n a s s e s s i n g models o f p o p u l a t i o n " f l u x , " p o p u l a t i o n
movement, and b r e e d i n g i s o l a t i o n . (See C a v a l l i - S f o r z a 1983; Wobst
1974) .
S e v e r a l c h a p t e r s i n t h e volume (Smith e t a l . ; Rathbun; Norr;
Benfer; Angel) d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y employ d a t a from new t e c h -
n i q u e s o f t r a c e element and i s o t o p e a n a l y s i s of s k e l e t o n s t o sup-
plement a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e f u s e i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g human d i e t s .
Smith e t a l . c i t e o n e s t u d y by S c h o e n i g e r (which t h e y c o n s i d e r
c o n t r o v e r s i a l ) s u g g e s t i n g a d e c l i n e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e of animal
p r o t e i n i n t h e d i e t from Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o E p i p a l e o l i t h i c i n
.he L e v a n t , a r e s u l t t h a t , i f c o r r e c t , adds s u p p o r t t o a r c h a e o l o -
[ i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e "Broad-Spectrum r e v o l u t i o n " and t o t h e
? o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model. Smith e t a l . a l s o u s e s t r o n t i u m
a n a l y s i s t o s u g g e s t t h a t animal p r o t e i n may have i n c r e a s e d i n i m -
portance i n t h e d i e t over l a t e hunter-gatherer l e v e l s i n a t l e a s t
some p a r t s o f t h e Levant d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e
a d o p t i o n of animal husbandry. I n a d d i t i o n , Smith e t a l . c i t e a
s t u d y u s i n g s t r o n t i u m a n a l y s i s a s a means o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e age
of weaning and d i e t s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s ,
an a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t could h e l p r e s o l v e a major ongoing c o n t r o v e r s y
a b o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e N e o l i t h i c Revolution on n u r s i n g p r a c t i c e s
and t h e r e l a t i o n between a l t e r e d n u r s i n g and t h e a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e
i n human f e r t i l i t y t h a t accompanied t h e a d o p t i o n of farming ( c f .
Cohen 1980; Hassan 1980; Konner and Worthman 1980; Lee 1 9 8 0 ) .
Benfer n o t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t r a c e element a n a l y s i s , u s i n g h a i r ,
t o d e t e r m i n e s e a s o n a l t r e n d s i n d i e t , supplementing d a t a on l o n g e r -
term t r e n d s o b t a i n e d from bone. F i n a l l y , i m p l i c i t i n s e v e r a l o f
t h e s t u d i e s i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r u s i n g t r a c e element and i s o t o p i c
a n a l y s i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a g e and s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n o f food consump-
t i o n p a t t e r n s w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n (and t h e changing p a t t e r n of t h i s
d i s t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e ) , d a t a r a r e l y a v a i l a b l e from o t h e r a r -
chaeological refuse.
S e v e r a l of t h e c h a p t e r s , s t u d y i n g o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f h e a l t h
d i s c u s s e d above, a l s o p r o v i d e d a t a on age and s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n of
p a r t i c u l a r s t r e s s e s and t h e i r changes o v e r time t h a t can b e used
t o t e s t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s about t h e s t r u c t u r e of s o c i a l
groups and about changes i n s o c i e t y r e l a t e d t o major economic
s h i f t s . L a r s e n , f o r example, u s e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n Âe c t i o u s
23 EDITORS' SUMMATION 599
l e s i o n s , d e n t a l c a r i e s , and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y t o measure the

d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s of t h e adoption of farming on males and f e -
males, and it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s more broadly t o
determine t h e e f f e c t s of economic change on t h e r e l a t i v e health,
n u t r i t i o n , workload, and, i n d i r e c t l y , s t a t u s of t h e sexes.
The age and sex d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s s t r e s s o r s (particu-
l a r l y e p i s o d i c r a t h e r than chronic s t r e s s o r s ) a r e used i n several
of t h e s t u d i e s ( s e e e s p e c i a l l y Cassidy; Goodman e t a l . ; Martin e t
a l . ; Benfer) a s a means o f determining n o t o n l y t h e " n a t u r a l " d i s -
t r i b u t i o n of h e a l t h problems, b u t a l s o t h e c u l t u r a l l y determined
focus o f s t r e s s . Cassidy and Benfer a r e perhaps most e x p l i c i t i n
s u q g e s t i n g t h a t s o c i a l s t r a t e g i e s i n t e n t i o n a l l y focus b i o l o g i c a l
s t r e s s and even death on p a r t i c u l a r age o r sex c l a s s e s a s a matter
of a d a p t i v e p o l i c y ; but o t h e r s t u d i e s (Goodman e t a l . ; Martin e t
a l . ) d e s c r i b e methods f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of chronic
m a l n u t r i t i o n through age c l a s s e s ; and, of c o u r s e , m o r t a l i t y pro-
f i l e s f o r many p o p u l a t i o n s d i s p l a y t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of deaths,
j u s t a s t h e s t u d i e s of H a r r i s l i n e s and enamel hypoplasias (see
e s p e c i a l l y Cassidy; Goodman e t a l . ) provide d a t a on age and sex
d i s t r i b u t i o n s and p e r i o d i c i t y of e p i s o d i c s t r e s s o r s .
The combined h e a l t h i n d i c a t o r s a r e a l s o used i n s e v e r a l of
t h e c h a p t e r s t o a s s e s s t h e importance o f high s o c i a l rank i n a f -
f o r d i n g r e a l economic p r i v i l e g e s a s measured by h e a l t h and n u t r i -
t i o n (Palkovich; A l l i s o n ; Angel; B u i k s t r a and Cook) - Such s t u d i e s
add a dimension t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e d i s t i n c -
t i o n between mere rank and r e a l c l a s s p r i v i l e g e ( s e e Fried 1967).
One c h a p t e r (Buikstra) d i s c u s s e s t h e u s e s of s k e l e t a l data t o
d i s t i n g u i s h a s c r i b e d and achieved s t a t u s . And s e v e r a l chapters
(Martin e t a l . ; Goodman e t a l . ; A l l i s o n ) comment on t h e e f f e c t s
of p o l i t i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n on h e a l t h . (The impact i s l a r g e l y
n e g a t i v e i n t h e s e s t u d i e s .) These d a t a p r o v i d e one approach f o r
t e s t i n g t h e o r i e s t h a t view e a r l y c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l systems
a l t e r n a t e l y a s supportive homeostatic mechanisms (Service 1975)
o r a s systems e s s e n t i a l l y e x p l o i t i v e of s u b j e c t populations !pried
1967) .
This i s n e c e s s a r i l y a h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e l i s t f r o m among a po-
t e n t i a l l y r i c h a r r a y of a r e n a s i n which anthropology, p r e h i s t o r y ,
and s k e l e t a l biology might b e n e f i t from b e t t e r communication. We
hope t h a t t h i s volume w i l l s e r v e n o t o n l y t o s t i m u l a t e new work
on t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d b u t a l s o t o promote c r e a t i v e ex-
p l o r a t i o n of new avenues of j o i n t r e s e a r c h among t h e s e f i e l d s .
REFERENCES
Brothwell, Don
1963 The macroscopic d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f some e a r l i e r popula-
t i o n s . In Dental ant'hmpo'Logy, e d i t e d by D. R. Brothwell,
pp. 271-288. Pergamon, Oxford.
C a v a l l i - S f o r z a , L. L.
1983 The t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e and some o f i t s consequen-
c e s . HOW h m n s adopt, e d i t e d by D. O r t n e r , p p . 103-120.
S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , Washington, D .C.
C h r i s t e n s o n , Andrew
1980 Changes i n t h e human n i c h e i n r e s p o n s e t o p o p u l a t i o n
growth. I n Modeling prehistoric subsistence economies,
e d i t e d by T. E a r l e and A. L. Chri s t e n s o n , p p . 31-72.
Cohen, M. N.
1977 The food c r i s i s i n prehistory. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
New Haven.
1980 S p e c u l a t i o n s on t h e e v o l u t i o n o f d e n s i t y measurement and
p o p u l a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n Homo s a p i e n s . I n Biosocial
mechanisms of population regulation, e d i t e d b y M . N . Cohen,
R. S. Malpass, and H . G. K l e i n , pp. 275-304. Yale
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven.
E a r l e , Timothy
1980 A model o f s u b s i s t e n c e change. I n Modeling prehistoric
subsistence economies, e d i t e d by T. E a r l e and A . L.
.
C h r i s t e n s o n , pp 1-29. Academic P r e s s , New York.
F r i e d , Morton
1967 The evolution of po'Lztiea'L society. Random House, New
York .
Hassan, F e k r i
1980 The g r o w t h and r e g u l a t i o n o f human p o p u l a t i o n i n p r e h i s -
t o r i c t i m e s . I n Biosocial mechanisms of population regu-
f a t i o n , e d i t e d by M . N. Cohen, R. S. Malpass, and H. G .
K l e i n , pp. 305-320. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w Haven.
Hay den, B r i a n
1981 R e s e a r c h and development i n t h e Stone Age. Current An-
t h ~ o p o l o g y2 2 : 519-548.
Hespenheide, H. A.
1980 E c o l o g i c a l models o f r e s o u r c e s e l e c t i o n . I n Modeling
prehistoric subsistence economies, e d i t e d by T. E a r l e and
A. L. C h r i s t e n s o n , p p . 73-78. Academic P r e s s , New York.
Howell, Nancy
1982 V i l l a g e composition i m p l i e d by a p a l e o d e n o g r a p h i c l i f e
table: t h e Libben s i t e . American Journal o f Physical
Konner, M e l v i n , a n d C a r o l Worthman
1980 N u r s i n g f r e q u e n c y , gonad f u n c t i o n , and b i r t h s p a c i n g among
!Kunq Hunter-Gatherers . Science 207: 788-791.
Lee, R. B.
1980 L a c t a t i o n , o v u l a t i o n , i n f a n t i c i d e and women's work: A
s t u d y of hunter-gatherer population regulation. In
BiosooiaZ mechanisms of population ~ e g u l a t i o n ,e d i t e d by
M. N. Cohen, R. S . Malpass, and H . G . K l e i n , p p . 321-348.
Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven.
M u r c h i s o n , M . A . , D . W. Owsley, a n d A. J . R i o p e l l e
1 9 8 3 Transverse line formation i n protein deprived phesus
monkeys. P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e annual meeting of the
Paleopathology As s o c i a t i o n , Indianapolis.
O f C o n n e l l , J . F . , a n d K r i s t e n Hawkes
1981 Alyawara p l a n t use a n d o p t i m a l f o r a g i n g t h e o r y . In
Hunter -Gatherer foraging s t r a t e g i e s , e d i t e d by
B . W i n t e r h a l d e r a n d E . A . S m i t h , pp. 99-125. ~ l d i n e ,
Chicago.
R e i d h e a d , Van
1980 The e c o n o m i c s o f s u b s i s t e n c e change: A t e s t of an
o p t i m i z a t i o n model. In Mode ling prehistoric s u b s i s t e m
economies, e d i t e d b y T. E a r l e and A . L. Christenson, pp.
141-186. Academic P r e s s , New York.
S a t t e n s p i e l , L i s a a n d Henry H a r p e n d i n g
1 9 8 3 S t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s a n d s k e l e t a l a g e . A m e ~ c a nAntiquity
48:489-498.
S e r v i c e , Elman
1975 Origins of the s t a t e and eiviti-sation. Norton, New York.
W h i t e , Tim D.
197 8 E a r l y h o m i n i d enamel h y p o p l a s i a s . American Journal of
W i n t e r h a l d e r , Bruce
1 9 8 1 O p t i m a l f o r a g i n g s t r a t e g i e s and Hunter-Gatherer research
i n a n t h r o p o l o g y : t h e o r i e s a n d models. I n Bunker-
Satherev foraqing s t r a t & e s , e d i t e d by B. ~ i n t e r h a l d e r
a d E. A. S m i t h , p p . 13-35. A l d i n e , Chicago.
Wobst, M.
1 9 7 4 B o u n d q c o n d i t i o n s f o r p a l e o l i t h i c s o c i a l Systems: A
s i m u l a t i o n a p p r o a c h . faneriaan Antiquity 39: 147-177-
4'
in Panama, 466, 469. 470, 475, 478,

479, 482
A Group, 194-211 in Peru and Chile, 515, 517 520, 531
Acorns, 439, 441-444, 452-456, 596 547-549
Adena, 307-338 in South Asia, 169, 183-184
Age at death of skeletons, 17 591 592, 594 in Southwest Asia, 137-161
in the American Southwest, 431 434, 435 intensification of, 560-561 567 573, 574,
in California, 453-454 577 585-595
in Ecuador 498-501 in the American Southwest, 426, 430,
in Georgia, 368-370, 372, 380 432, 433, 436
in Illinois, 261 291 295, 299, 300 in Ecuador 493-495, 5 10, 5 11
in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329, 330-332 in Illinois, 235-261 272, 277
in the Levant, 117- 120 in Kentucky 315, 318, 334-335, 337
in the Mediterranean, 54-57 in the Levant, 101- 130
in Panama, 477 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 63-65
in Peru, 535-536, 545-546, 547 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan
in South Asia, 173, 184 region, 399, 406, 417
in Southwest Asia, 144- 145, 158 in Nubia, 194, 198-21 1
Age determination from skeletons, 17 57 in Ohio, 349, 354, 355-357 361
260-261 274, 453-454. 477 in Panama. 467 468, 470, 47 1 476,
Age, effects on health, 26-27 368, 379, 380 478, 479, 481 482
Agriculture in Peru q d Chile, 516, 517 519, 520,
adoption of, 1 2, 560-562, 567 573, 576 527
585-595 in South Asia, 169-1 85
in the American Southwest, 425, 426, in Southwest Asia, 137- 161
436 American Southwest, 425-436, 587
in Ecuador 493-494 Anasazi, 426-436
in Europe, 77-78 Ancylosroma, 525 see also Hookworm
in Georgia, 368, 369, 387 Anemia, see Porotic hyperostosis
in Illinois, 235-261 Animal domestication, 61 62, 107- 108, 153,
in Kentucky 307 309, 314, 318, 319, 173, 184, 198, 199, 515, 517 573, 598
335, 337 as a source of infection, 160
in the Levant, 101- 130 as a source of trauma, 159
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 61 Anthracosis, 521
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan Antibiotics, natural, 208, 210
region, 393, 394, 398, 401 406, Aquatic resources, 1 3, 566, 576, 597
408,409,412,414,416 in California, 440-444, 453-454
in Nubia, 194, 196, 203, 210 in Ecuador 492-495
INDEX
in Europe, 78 Birth trauma, 177

as an explanation of stature reduction, 91 Blastomycosis, 259, 523
in Georgia, 369, 386 Boserup, Ester 1 3, 261 559-560
in Illinois, 217 227-229, 235, 246 Bone
in Kentucky 308-309, 314, 318 attained length-for-age 18, see also Growth
in the Levant, 109 cortical thickness and maintenance, 4, 20,
in the Mediterranean, 58, 60, 66 570, 571 575, 587 588, 599
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, in the American Southwest, 434
401 403, 404, 417 in Georgia, 376-378, 381 386
in Nubia, 196, 197 in Illinois, 244-245, 247 249, 272
in Ohio, 347 279-282, 297 299-300
in Panama, 466, 467 469, 471 472, 474, in Kentucky 322, 326, 330, 331 333
475, 480 in the Levant, 120- 122
in Peru and Chile, 516-518, 531-534, in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 66
538-539, 541 543, 548, 549 in Nubia, 206-208, 210
Archaic period, economy and health of in Ohio, 352, 360
populations, 4, see also Preceramic period in Peru and Chile, 543, 547-548
in California, 439-456 in South Asia, 181 185
in Illinois, 221 224-226, 229, 235-261 Bone remodeling, see Bone, cortical thickness
in Kentucky 307-338 Broad spectrum foraging, 560, 561 567 568,
in the Mississippi River-Caddoan region, 576, 598, see also Aquatic resources;
395, 396 Archaic; Gathering economy Hunting
in Ohio, 347 350-355 economy; Mesolithic period; Perceramic
in Panama. 466. 468, 474-476, 478, 479, period
48 1 in California, 439-456
Arthritis, 35-36, 574-575, 590-592 in Ecuador 492, 493, 5 10
in Europe, 8 1 82 in Europe, 78, 126
in Georgia, 367 373-374, 379, 382, 383, in Illinois, 226
385, 386 in Kentucky 309, 337
infectious, 325-326, 330-332, 591 in the Levant, 126
in Illinois, 260, 294-295, 298 in the Mediterranean, 58-59, 337
in Kentucky 321 325-327 329-332 in Panama, 464, 467 468, 470, 480
in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, in P ~ N - h dChile, 516, 517 520, 533-534,
405, 406, 410, 412, 414, 415 417 541 548
in Peru and Chile, 526, 527 Bronze Age, health and economy of
in South Asia, 177-180, 183-184 in the Levant, 112, 113, 114, 116, 123
in Southwest Asia, 154, 156- I59 in the Mediterranean, 63-66
Ascaris, 329 in South Asia, 170- 185
Asymmetry in the skeleton as an indication of in Southwest Asia, 140- 160
stress, 21 256, 326, 539, 547 Burials, see Mortuary practices
Australian aborigines, 124, 590
C Group, 194-211
Ballana, see X Group Caddoan culture, 393-399, 405-409
Bartonella, 5 11 Cadmium, 546, 548, see also Trace element
Barley 53, 58, 61 106, 107 197 198, 200 analysis
Basketmaker culture, 426-428, 430, 436 Calcium, 62, 126- 127 159, 208, 244, 245,
Beans, 226, 308, 315, 318, 319, 333, 349, 259, 333, 386, 544-546
398, 399, 430, 433, 470, 471 481 533 California, 439-456, 567 596
Biological distance, see Genetic continuity of Cancer paleopathology of, 68, 157 177 179
populations Candida, see Infection, yeast
Birth spacing, see Fertility Cannibalism, 329
INDEX
Carbon isotopes, see Isotopic analysis of bone Cribra orbitalia, see Porotic hyperostosis
Caries, as an indicator of health and diet, 5, 7 Cropping frequency, 197, 198, 200
37 565, 573, 589, 599 Crowding, see Population nucleation;
in California, 448-450 Population pressure
in Ecuador 506-508, 5 10 Culture change, as a source of stress, 418, see
in Europe, 84-87 92 also specific transitions
in Georgia, 367 371-373, 374, 379, 382,
383, 385, 386 D
in Illinois, 252-256, 258 Dairy products in the diet, 129, 175, 198
in Kentucky 320, 321 323, 324, 328, 329,- Degenerative joint disease, see Arthritis
331 332 Dental attrition, see Tooth wear
in the Levant, 123- 125 Dental crowding, 177
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, Dental malocclusion, 177
394-408, 415 Dental morphology 111 276; see also Tooth
in Nubia, 203, 205, 210 size
in Ohio, 355-356, 361 Dental pathology 5, 25-29, 36-37 573,
in Panama, 477 589-590, 599, see also Caries; Enamel
in Peru and Chile, 519-520 Hypoplasias; Periodontal disease; Tooth
in South Asia, 178- 179, 183 wear
in Southwest Asia. 150- 151 157- 159 in the American Southwest, 430
Caries, circular 240, 252-253, 477 478, in California, 445-447 448-450, 453-455
481 589 in Ecuador 505-509
Cereals, in the diet, 58, 59, 61-66, 105-107 in Europe, 84-87 92
197 200, see also specific cereals in Georgia, 367 371-374, 379, 382-386
Chalcolithic in Illinois, 229, 252-256, 258, 285-289.
in the Levant, 112, 114, 116, 123 297 -299
in South Asia, 170- 185 in Kentucky 320, 321 326, 328, 329
in Southwest Asia, 140- 160 in the Levant 121- 125
i.
Childbirth, as a cause of mortality see in the Mediterranean, 54-56
Mortality in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
Chile, 515-527 Â¥'394-399 401-408, 415
Chromium, 547 in Nubia, 203, 205-206, 210
Climate, as a factor in economy and health, in Ohio, 353-356, 361
53, 58, 76-77 217-219, 425-427 in Panama, 477 478, 480, 481
432-436, 442-443, 455-456, 464, 467 in Peru and Chile, 519-520, 539
491 494, 495, 532, 562, 563 in South Asia, 173, 177 184
Christian period, 194-21 1 in Southwest Asia, 141 149-153, 157
Coevolution of host and parasite, 160 Depopulation, see Population decline
Cohen, Mark, 560-561 567-569, 574-575, Diabetes, 547
577 Diarrhea, see Infection, gastrointestinal
Colonialism, 518, 522, 588, see also Political Diet, see Agriculture; Animal domestication;
centralization; Political exploitation Aquatic resources; Broad spectrum
Copper 547 548 foraging,, Gathering economy Hunting
Coprolites, see Feces economy Isotopic analysis of bone; Trace
Cranial osteoporosis, see Porotic hyperostosis element analysis; Tooth microwear; Tooth
Craniofacial morphology wear; specific nutrients
in the Levant, 111 113-116, 125 Diseases
in Nubia, 199, 202-203, 210 endemic
in Peru and Chile, 519-520, 533, 541 in California, 447
in South Asia, 174 in Illinois, 236, 297
in Southwest Asia, 140- 141 in Kentucky 321 325, 328. 330, 331
Cremation, see Mortuary practices 332
INDEX
in the Levant, 130 Fats in the diet, 224-227

in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan Feces, analysis of, 314, 532, 534, 538, 543
region, 415, 418 Femur shaft index as an indicator of stress,
in the Mediterranean, 59-60 54-56, 59, 352, 376-378, 381
in the Levant, 130 Fertility 51 52, 54-56, 77 336, 361 427
in Ohio, 358 454, 456, 562, 574, 576, 593
in Peru and Chile, 522 Fiber dietary and health, 66, 396, 399, 403
in Southwest Asia, 153 Fire, 439
epidemic, 2, 59, 64, 68, 155, 229, 571- see Fish, see Aquatic resources
also Stress, episodic Fishing, see Aquatic resources
Dislocations, see Trauma Food preparation techniques
Division of labor see Women, health of, effects on health, 159, 324-325, 333, 396,
social status of 519, 521
Domestic animals, see Animal domestication in relation to tooth size, 175
Foraging, see Gathering economy Hunting
economy
Ecuador 491 -5 11 586-588, 592 Foraging, marine, see Aquatic resources
Elites, see Stratification of societies Formative period, 492-494, 496, 497 499,
Enamel hypocalcification, of teeth, 29, 477 500-510
480, 589 Fort Ancient, 307-338, 348-361
Enamel hypoplasia, of teeth, 4, 25-27 Fractures, see Trauma
Functional demand, see Stress, mechanical
570-573, 579, 589-590, 599
in California, 445-447 453, 455
of deciduous teeth, 26, 252-253, 322, 326, G
328, 330-332, 354, 480, 589, 596 Gallstones, 66
in Ecuador 505-506, 510 Gathering economy 560, 561 567 573,
in Europe, 87 89 585-595
in Georgia, 368 in the American Southwest, 425, 426, 430,
in Illinois, 255-256, 285-286, 297 299 ~- 433
in Kentucky 322, 326-328, 330, 331 in California, 439-456
in the Levant, 121 123-124 in Ecuador 492, 493, 5 10
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 64, 68 in Georgia, 368-369, 386
in Nubia, 205-206 in Illinois, 226, 227
in Ohio, 353-355, 361 in Kentucky 308, 309, 314, 318-319
in Panama, 477 481 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
in Peru and Chile, 5 19-520, 539 395-399, 401 403, 404
in South Asia, 176, 179, 184 in Nubia, 196, 197 200
in Southwest Asia, 147-148, 150-151 in Ohio, 347 361
Enamel microdefects (of teeth), 27-29, 589 in Panama, 464, 467 468, 480
in Georgia, 368 in Peru and Chile, 516, 517 533, 534, 541
in Illinois, 225, 252-253, 287-289, 297, 543
299 Gender effects on health 26; see also Sexual
in Nubia, 205-206 dimorphism; Women
Endocarditis, 522 Genetic continuity of populations, 571 598
Epipaleolithic period, 101- 130, see also in California, 440-441
Mesolithic period in Illinois, 216, 222, 227-228, 276-277
Equilibrium theory 562, 577 in Kentucky 307 315
Europe, Western, 75-100, 586-588, 591 in the Mediterranean, 53
595, 596 in Nubia, 197, 199
in Peru and Chile, 519, 520, 533, 542, 548
in Southwest Asia, 138
Famine, see Stress, episodic Genetic distance, see Genetic continuity of
Farming, see Agriculture populations
INDEX
Genetic drift, 533 in Kentucky 322, 325, 329, 330, 333

Genetic factors in the Levant, 121
in host resistance, 15, 277-279 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
and malaria, 60 408-409, 416
in stature, 240 in Ohio, 352-353
Georgia, economy and health in, 367-388. in Peru and Chile, 518-520. 523, 542, 547
586-588, 591 592 548
Gourds. 226, 235, 308, 314, 318, 533 in South Asia, 176, 184-185
Growth in Southwest Asia, 147-148, 152-154, 158
disruption of, 4, 16, 18, 23-25, 570, 571 Hellenistic period, in the Levant, 112
573. 576, 587 589, 590. see also Herding, see Animal domestication
Enamel hypoplasia; Harris lines Histomorphometrics, 543, 547 see also Bone,
in the American Southwest, 434 cortical maintenance
in California, 444-447 450, 453-455 Hookworm, 60, 62, 525
in Ecuador 505-506, 5 10 Hopewell, 222, 223, 314, 400, 403
in Illinois, 247-256. 272, 279-282, 297 Howell's Sigma ratio, 52
299-301 Hunger periods, see Stress, episodic; Stress,
in Kentucky 322-330 seasonal
in Peru and Chile, 518-520, 523, 542, Hunting economy 560, 567 573, 575,
547 548 585-595
in South Asia, 176, 184 in the American Southwest, 425. 426, 433
in Southwest Asia, 147-148 in California, 441 443, 448-450
skeletal, as an indicator of health, 4, 16, in Ecuador 492-494, 510
17-21 570, 587 588, 595, 596, 599, in Europe, 76-78
see also Stature in Georgia, 368-369, 372, 386
in the American Southwest, 434 in Illinois. 226-227 235, 272, 300
in California, 448 in Kentucky 308, 309,314, 318, 319
in Ecuador 498-499 in the Levant, 107--108, 127
in Georgia, 374-379, 381 -383 in the Mediterranean, 58-60
in Illinois, 237-240, 249, 272, 279-282, in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
297 299-301 399, 401 403
in Kentucky 335, 336 in Nubia, 196, 197 200
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60, 62 in Ohio, 347 349, 361
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan in Panama, 464, 467 468, 470, 480, 483
region, 407 409, 412, 414-416 in Peru and Chile, 516, 517 533-534,
in Nubia, 204-205, 210 543
in Ohio, 349-352, 361 in South Asia, 170
in Peru and Chile. 518, 519, 525, 526,
533, 539, 541 547
in South Asia, 181
in Southwest Asia, 143, 147 Illinois, health of prehistoric populations in,
slowing of as a sign of stress in childhood, 18, 28, 33, 215-230, 235-262,
see Growth 271-301 359, 586-589, 591 592
slowing of, intrauterine, 358 Inbreeding, effects of, 533, 538, 548
Growth arrest, see Growth, disruption of Inca, 518, 519
India, see South Asia
Infant mortality see Mortality infant
Infanticide, see Mortality, social
Hayden, Brian, 1 455-456, 595, 596 Infection, 4, 32-34, 570, 572-574, 586, 590,
Harris lines, 4, 23-25, 570-572, 589-590, 598
596, 598, 599 in the American Southwest, 432, 434, 436
in California, 444-447 450, 454, 455 associated with age at death, 291 357
in Georgia, 367 in California, 444, 446
in Illinois, 247-252 in Ecuador 502, 504, 5 10
INDEX
gastrointestinal, 62, 152, 153, 524-525, Kidney disease, 522

586 Kidney or bladder stones, 323
in Georgia, 367 370-371 379-380, 383, !Kung San, 1 3
385, 386
in Illinois, 229, 236, 259, 291-293, 297
299 Labor demands of different economies, 1 2,
in Kentucky 321 325 328-332, 334 63, 198, 244, 336, 347 380-381 406,
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 455, 560, 574-576, 591 596, see also
405-406, 408-410, 412, 414, 415, Arthritis, Muscular development
417 418 Lactation, health effects of, 159, see also
in Nubia, 208-210 Women, health of
in Ohio, 356-358 Lead in the diet, 153
in Panama, 477-484 Lee, Richard, 1
in Peru and Chile, 515, 516, 5 19, 520-527 Leisure time, see Labor demands of different
538, 542, 547 549 economies
respiratory 521-523, 586; see also Leprosy 32
Pneumonia; Tuberculosis Levant, 101-136, 567 587 588, 591 593,
secondary to trauma, 85, 155, 481 482, 595, 596, 598
484 Life expectancy 2, 3, 4, 16-17 561
of skin, 522 592-594
in South Asia, 177 180 in the American Southwest, 431 434, 435
in Southwest Asia, 154, 158-159 in California, 452-456
synergistic with malnutrition, 3 1 81 155, in Ecuador 500 ,
208, 291 297 299, 325, 330, 332, in Illinois, 260-261 295-296
335, 353, 358-360, 382, 408, 432, in Kentucky 320, 329-332
434, 436, 444, 481 482, 484 in the Levant, 118-120, 124
yeast, 522 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 58, 59, 65-66
Integration period, 492, 496, 497 499, 500, in Nubia, 209-21 1
501 503-510 in Ohio, 360
Intestinal contents, see Feces, analysis in Peru, 534-537
Iron, in the diet, 29, 62, 159, 244, 332, 386, in South Asia, 173
409, 415, 417 430-432, 481 572, see in Southwest Asia, 139, 144-145, 158
also Porotic hyperostosis Life tables, 16-17 139, 144, 158, 274-276,
Iron age, health and nutrition 295,432, 434,435, 453
in the Mediterranean, 64-65 Liver disease, 522
in South Asia, 170-185 Linear enamel hypoplasia, see Enamel
in Southwest Asia, 142 hypoplasia
Irrigation, 63, 149, 199, 201 427 430 Long bones, attained length and
Isotopic analysis of bone, 5, 7 37-38, 565, circumference, see Growth
579, 598
in Costa Rica, 472-474 M
in Ecuador 494 Maize, 215, 223, 225-227 229, 244-258,
in Europe, 92 272, 289, 299, 300, 308, 314-315, 318,
in Illinois, 226, 252 319, 331 347 348, 349, 351 358, 359,
in Ohio, 349 360, 361 368, 380, 382, 386, 387 394,
in Panama, 472-474 398-410, 415-418, 430, 433, 469-471
in South Asia, 185 473, 481, 482, 484, 491 493, 566, 586,
587
K Malaria, 30, 59, 62, 64, 67 149, 182-183,
Kebaran, 101-130 see also Porotic hyperostosis
Kentucky economy and health in, 307-338, Malnutrition
586-589, 591 592 chronic, 18, 60-63, 65, 181-184,
"7
INDEX
203-208, 322, 334, 381 382, 427 in Georgia, 368-370, 387

432, 434, 436, 518, see also Bone, of infants, 119, 157 209, 320, 324, 326,
cortical thickness and maintenance; 329, 330, 332, 358, 360, 431 436,
Growth, Porotic hyperostosis; Stress, 453-454, 524, 534-535, 538
chronic in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329, 330-332
episodic, 2, 147 229, 286-287 353, 409, in the Levant, 118-120
412, 416, 417 430, 436, 439, in the Mediterranean, 54-56
443-447 450, 455, 456, see also in Nubia, 209-21 1
Enamel hypoplasia; Growth disruption; in Ohio, 360
Harris lines in Panama, 477
Manioc, 470, 471 482, 493 in Peru and Chile, 517-520, 524-525,
Meat, as a component of human diets, 3, see 534-536, 547
also Animal domestication; Hunting seasonal, 443-444, 450
economy socially induced, 324, 332, 335,336, 337
in California, 449-450 467 477 534, 599
in the Levant, 107-108, 126, 127 129 in South Asia, 173, 184
in the Mediterranean, 58, 59, 60, 61 62, 66 in Southwest Asia, 139, 144, 158
in Southwest Asia, 153 subadult
Mediterranean, region, health and economy in, in the American Southwest, 431 436
51-73, 586-588, 593, 595 in California 453, 454
Meroitic period, 194-21 1 in Georgia, 369
Mesolithic period, health and nutrition in, 4, in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329-331
564, 566, 567 572-576, 588, 596, see in the Levant, 120
also Epipaleolithic period in Nubia, 209
in Europe, 75-77 in Ohio, 360
in the Mediterranean, 54, 60, 61 in Peru and Chile, 518, 524, 534-536,
/
in Nubia, 194-21 1 538
in South Asia. 169-185 in Southwest Asia, 139
Migration, 147 158 Mortuary practices
Millet, 197 in the American Southwest, 427 431 432
Mining and disease, 523 in Calfomia, 444-445, 453
Mississippi Valley (Central), 393, 394, in Ecuador 495, 497 498
400-402, 410, 412-413, 586, 588, 589, in Illinois, 216, 219-223, 240, 242, 274
591 593, 594 in Kentucky 314, 326, 327
Mississippi Valley (Lower), 402-406, 410, in the Levant, 118
412, 413, 586, 588, 589, 591 593, 594 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
Mississippian period, 223-225, 228-229, 398
235-261 272-301 307-338, 348, in Panama, 467 471 475-476
350-357 386, 401 402, 404, 41 1 412, in Peru and Chile, 518, 525, 527 534,
414, 417 549
Mortality 3, 16-17 563, 570-572, 574, 576, in South Asia, 173
577 592-594 in Southwest Asia, 138- 139
in the American Southwest, 431 434, 436 Mummies, analysis of, 328, 515-517
in California, 452-456 520-527 532, 586
in childbirth, 59, 66, 454, 456, 518, 538 Muscular development, as an indicator of
in Ecuador 498-502 workload, 5, 574-576, 588, 592-594,
female, see also Women, health of 599
in California, 456 in Georgia, 374, 376-379
in the Levant, 120 in Illinois, 243-244
in the Mediterranean, 54-56 in Ohio, 35 1-352
in Peru and Chile, 5 18 in Peru and Chile, 540-541 547
in Southwest Asia, 142, 144-145, 158 in South Asia, 174, 184
INDEX
in Illinois, 260-261 274-276, 295-296,

Natufian, 103-130 298, 299, 301
Neandertals, 110-111 124, 140, 144, 146, in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329-331
150 in the Levant, 118-120
Necator 525, see also Hookworm
in Nubia, 209-21 1
Neolithic Period, health and nutrition, 564, in Ohio, 360-361
566, 567 575, 577 586-588, 596 in Panama, 477
in Europe, 78-79, 81 -94 in Peru, 534-538, 548
in the Levant, 103-130, 138 in South Asia, 173
in the Mediterranean, 61 -63 in Southwest Asia, 139, 144
in Nubia, 194-21 1 Paleoindian, economy and health of
in South Asia, 169-185 populations, 4, 7 221 308, 425, 466,
in Southwest Asia, 138, 140-161 468, 475
Nile River changes in level effecting Paleolithic, economy and health of
economy 194, 197 201 210 populations, 4, 7 59-60, 76-77 564,
Nitrogen, see Isotopic analysis of bone 566, 572-575, 587, 588, 596
Nomadism, as a source of stress, 59, 60, 62, in Europe, 76-78
549 in the Levant, 101 130
Nordin's index, 245-246 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 58-60
Nubia, Sudanese, economy and health in, 31 in South Asia, 170-185
192-211 587 in Southwest Asia, 140-160
Nuts, in the diet. 217 224-226, 229, 235, Panama, 463-484, 586, 587 594
246, 314, 318, 347 403, 433, see also Pastoralism, see Animal domestication
Acorns Pelvic inlet, measurement of as an indicator of
choronic stress, 21 52, 54-56/59, 62,
63, 242, 571 587
Pelvic scars of parturition, 54-56, 66
Obesity 249 Pericarditis, 522
Odontometrics, see Dental morphology Tooth Periodontal disease, 565
size in Ecuador 506-508, 510
Ohio, economy and health in, 31 35, n Europe, 87 92
347-361 586, 587 588, 589, 591 in Georgia, 368, 385, 387
594 in Kentucky 320, 324, 329
Ohio River Valley, 307-338, 347-361 in Illinois, 258
Oral pathology see Dental pathology in the Levant, 125
Osteitis, see Infection in Nubia, 210
Osteoarthritis, see Arthritis in Panama, 477
Osteolytic bone reactions, 434-436, see also in South Asia, 177-179, 183
Porotic hyperostosis in Southwest Asia, 150-151 157 159
Osteomyelitis, see Infection Periostitis, see infections
Osteopenia, 543 Peritonitis, 524
Osteophytosis, see Arthritis Peru, health of prehistoric populations in, 18,
Osteoporosis, see Bone, cortical thickness of 515-527 531-553, 586, 587, 588, 589,
Otitis media, 155 593, 596-597 598
Phytates, binding iron and zinc, 62, 65, 66,
68. 481
Paleodemography 570, 592-594, see also Pinworm, 525
Age at death; Fertility Mortality Platymeric index, see Femur shaft index
in the American Southwest, 431 434, 436 Pneumonia, see Pulmonary disease
in California, 450-455 Political centralization, health effects of, 3, 7
in Ecuador 498-502 63-67 568, 580, 588
in Georgia, 368-370 in Ecuador 494-495
INDEX
in Illinois, 223-224, 229, 235, 272-274, in Nubia, 198-202, 210

300-301 in Ohio, 361
in the Mediterranean, 63-67 in Panama, 471 480
in the "Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, in Peru, 534, 537 538
393, 399, 401 403, 404, 412, 418 in South Asia, 169, 173, 183
in Nubia, 197 198, 200, 201 206, in Southwest Asia, 139-140
209-2 11 Population of hunter-gatherers, 2, 53-54,
In Panama, 467 471, 476, 478 58-60, 76-78, 169-173
in Peru and Chile, 515, 518, 522, 525, 527 Population nucleation and dispersal, 6, 7, 594,
Political exploitation, health effects, 573, 578, 595
588, 595 in the American Southwest, 430, 433, 434,
in Illinois, 223-224, 229, 272, 300 436
in Nubia, 197-21 1 in Georgia, 368, 380
in Peru and Chile, 5 18, 522, 527 in Illinois, 229, 259, 261
Polygyny 477 in the Mediterranean, 62, 63
associated Stature and sexual dimorphism, in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
146 398, 401 406, 408, 409, 412, 414,
Population decline, 222, 399, 434, 563, 568 415-418
Population density 2, 15 in Nubia, 199-20 1 206
in the American Southwest, 426, 427 433 in Ohio, 349, 361
in California, 439, 440, 443, 447 452, 455 in Panama, 464
in Ecuador 495-5 11 in Peru and Chile, 5 19, 524, 527
in Europe, 76-78 in Southwest Asia, 139, 147 158-159
in Georgia, 388
^
in Illinois, 227-229, 259-261 272,
Population pressure, 559-564, 566, 568, 569,
572-574, 576-578, 595-598
299-301 in California, 455
in Kentucky 309, 318, 319, 336, 338 in Europe, 87 92
in the Levant, 105, 130 in Illinois, 261
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60, 61 64, 67 in Kentucky 335, 337 338
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, in the Levant, 129
393, 394, 398, 409, 413 in the Mediterranean, 65, 67
in Nubia, 198 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
in Ohio, 360-361 393-394
in Panama, 464, 469, 480 in Peru, 534, 537
in Peru, 538 in South Asia, 169, 183
in Suth Asia, 173 Population size, and infection rates, 2, 59, 64,
in Southwest Asia, 139 159, 259, 358, 380, 524
Population growth, 2, 3, 17 60-62, 68, 560, Population regulation, 335 336, 455, 534,
562-564, 567 569, 573-576, 593-595, 536-538 547 561 562, 578, see also
598 Mortality social
in the American Southwest, 426, 427 433 Porotic hyperostosis, 29-31 570, 572, 573,
in California, 440, 447 450, 452, 454-456 587 596
in Ecuador 495 in the American Southwest, 427-429, 430,
in Europe, 76-78 432, 434
in Georgia, 368, 380 in California, 444
in Illinois, 222, 227 229, 236, 259-261 in Ecuador 504-505
272, 299, 301 in Europe, 81 92
in Kentucky 309, 314, 315 318, 335, 336 in Georgia, 382, 386, 387
in the Levant, 105, 128 in Illinois, 240, 257-258, 289-290, 297
in the Mediterranean, 60-62, 68 299
in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, in Kentucky 321 325-327 329-332
393, 398, 400, 403, 409, 415-417 in the Levant, 120-121
INDEX
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60, 65, 67-68 Sampling bias in studies, 6, 17 52-53, 75,
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 79-80, 104, 137-139, 159-160, 170,
405, 406, 409, 410, 415, 417 177 194. 216,219-221 236, 237 247
in Nubia, 205-206, 210 256, 276, 310-312, 427 431 474-476,
in Ohio, 359-360 496-498, 564-565, 592-594
in Panama, 477-479, 481 483-484 Sanitation, 527 548
in Peru and Chile, 518-520 Scurvy see Vitamin C
in South Asia, 178, 181-183 Sea levels, changing, and human economies
in Southwest Asia, 149, 154, 159 and health, 53, 64
Pott's disease, 523, see also Tuberculosis Seafood, see Aquatic resources
Preceramic period, see also Archaic period Sedentism, as a factor in health, 2, 562-564,
in Ecuador 492, 496-497 499, 500-510 568, 569, 573, 574, 576, 586, 594, 595
in Peru, 531 553 in the American Southwest, 426-427
Pregnancy health effects of, 159, 456, see in California 439, 441 443, 447 454, 455
also Women, health of in Ecuador 494
Protein, adequacy of in the diet, 598 in Europe, 77-78
in the American Southwest, 433 in Georgia, 368, 379, 380, 387
in Georgia, 381 382, 385 in Illinois, 228-229
in Illinois, 224-229 in Kentucky 309, 315, 319
in Kentucky 319 in the Levant, 129, 130
in the Mediterranean, 59-60, 62-63, 65-66 in the Mediterranean, 59-60
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region,
399, 401 408 393, 403, 409, 416
in the Levant, 129 in Nubia, 196
in Nuhia, 210 in Ohio, 349, 359
in Panama, 4 6 4 4 7 0 in Panama, 470, 480, 481
in South Asia, 181-182 in Peru and Chile, 524. 527 532, 537 545,
Protein-calorie malnutrition 549
in the American Southwest, 434, 436 in Southwest Asia, 139
in Illinois, 244-245, 249, 252, 258 Seeds, as economic resources, 3, 59, 224,
in Kentucky 335 225
in Nubia, 208 Sex, methods of determination from the
Pueblo, 426-428, 430-436 skeleton, 275
Pulmonary disease, 521-523, see aiso Sexual dimorphism, as an indicator of health,
Tuberculosis 5, 18, 20-21 588
in California, 448
R in Ecuador 499
Radio-opaque lines, see Harris lines in Europe, 88-91 92
Radiographs, uses in diagnosis, 24, 32, see in Georgia, 383-385
also Harris lines in Illinois. 237 243-244, 255, 256,
Rainfall, see Climate 280-282, 297 299
Rank, see Stratification of societies in the Levant, 112, 128
Regional Development Period, in Ecuador in the Mediterranean, 54-56
492, 495-497 500-5 10 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,
Resource degradation. 533, 534, 549, 563, 407 408, 412-414
597 in Nubia, 205
Rice, 175, 184 in Ohio, 350-352
Rickets, 182, see also Vitamin D in Panama, 477
Rohusticity see Growth; Bone, cortical in Peru, 539-541 547
maintenance, Muscular development in South Asia, 174- 175
in Southwest Asia, 143-147 157- 159
s Sickle cell trait, see Porotic hyperostosis
Salmonella, 522, 523, 524 Size as an indicator of health and stress, see
INDEX
Bone, cortical maintenance; Growth; Storage of food, 61-62, 153, 208, 210,
Muscular development; Stature 225-227 229,309, 314,400,416,417
Skeleton, growth of as indicator of health, see 430, 440, 443-444, 455, 481 493, 527
Growth, skeletal 543, 548, 549, 561 567 568, 576
Skeletons, limitations in the diagnosis of Stratification of societies, effects on health, 7
disease, 515-516 26, 562, 568, 573, 574, 578, 579, 599
patterns of stress seen in, 13-68 in the American Southwest, 430,-432
Skin disease, see Infection, of skin in California, 439, 441
Skull-base height, as an index of nutrition, in Ecuador 494, 495, 5 10
54-56, 59, 60, 62, 65, 67 571 587 in Georgia, 385, 387
Social status, see Stratification of societies in Illinois, 216, 221-224, 235, 236, 240,
South Asia, economy and health of, 169- 185, 242, 255, 272, 300
587-589, 591 593, 595 in Kentucky 309, 324, 326, 327
Southwest, see American Southwest in the Mediterranean, 66, 67
Southwest Asia, 137- 167 586, 587 589, in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region,
591 593 395, 399-401 404, 415, 417
Spanish Conquest, effects on health in the in Nubia, 200
New World, 515, 522 in Ohio, 355
Squash, 226, 235, 308, 314, 318, 399, 430, in Panama, 467 47 1 476
433, 533 in Peru and Chile, 525-527
Stable carbon isotopes, see Isotopic analysis of in South Asia, 184
bone in Southwest Asia, 147 160
Stable nitfogen isotopes, see Isotopic analysis Streptococcus, 32, 522, see also Infection
of bone Stress
Staphylococcus, 32, 358, 480, see also annual, 251 286-287 309, 325, 330, 332,
Infection 334,353, 416, 417 439, 443, 444, 446,
Starvation, episodic, 2, 333, see also Stress, 447 450, 456
episodic chronic, 15-23, 482, 561 572, 573, 576,
State level of organization, health effects of, 577 587-588
see Political centralization cumulative effects of, 15-23
Stature demographic, see Population pressure
as an indicator of health and nutrition, 5, episodic, 1 3, 15, 16, 23-29, 152, 251
18, 19-20, 570, 573, 579-580, 588, 353, 409, 412, 416, 417 430, 436,
595, 596, 598 439, 443, 444, 446, 447 450, 455,
in the American Southwest, 430 456, 542, 547-549, 561 569, 571
in California, 448 572, 576, 588-590, 594, see also
in Ecuador 498-499 Enamel hypoplasia; Harris lines
in Europe, 88-91 92 general model of, 13-17 277-279
in Georgia, 379, 381 -383, 387 mechanical, 83, 159, 367 380-383, 385,
in Illinois, 223, 237 240-242, 272, 387 406, 408, 409, 412, 414, 415,
279-282, 297 299, 301 574-576, 590-592, 594, 595, see also
in Kentucky 335 Arthritis; Labor costs
in the Levant, 111-113, 127-129 prenatal, 23, 26, see also Enamel
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 59, 60, 62, hypoplasias of deciduous teeth
66, 67 Striae of Retzius, see Enamel microdefects
in Nubia, 203 Strontium content of bone as an indicator of
in Ohio, 350 diet, see also Trace element analysis
in Peru and Chile, 518, 519, 525, 526, in Georgia, 386
533, 539, 541 547 548 in Illinois, 228
inSouth Asia, 173-175, 181 184 in the Levant, 126-128, 129
in Southwest Asia, 141 143- 146, in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 62
158-159 m Peru, 544-545, 547, 548
in relation to climate, 174- 175 in Southwest Asia, 153- 154, 159
INDEX
Subperiosteal hemorrhage, 33 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region,

Sudanese Nubia, see Nubia 418
Syphilis, see Treponemal infection in Nubia, 197-202, 211
in Peru and Chile, 523
T Transverse lines, see Harris lines
Teeth Trauma, 34-35, 591-592
antemortem loss in California, 441
in Europe, 87 in Ecuador 501 -503, 5 10
in Ecuador 506, 508-5 10 in Europe, 87-88, 92
in Illinois, 258 in Georgia, 385, 387
in Kentucky 323, 324, 329 in Illinois, 260, 293-294, 298-300
in the Levant, 124-125 in Kentucky 321 325
in Peru and Chile, 519 in the Levant, 121
in South Asia, 177 in the Mediterranean, 59-60, 67
in Southwest Asia, 157 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region,
pathologies of, see Dental pathology 405, 406, 410, 412
Tetracycline, naturally occurring in stored in Ohio, 360, 361
grain, 208-210 in Peru and Chile, 526, 549
Thalassemia, see Porotic hyperostosis in South Asia, 177- 180, 183
Tooth microwear analysis, 396, 403, 538, 547 in Southwest Asia,' 154-156, 158- 159
565 violence related, 3, 15, 34-35, 578, 592
Tooth size in California, 441
in the Levant, 111 113, 118-119 in Ecuador 501 502
in Nubia, 210 in Europe, 87-88, 92
in Peru, 539 in Georgia, 386
in South Asia, 175-176 in Illinois, 260, 299-301
Tooth wear and diet, 37 574, 575 in the Levant, 121
in California. 453 in the Mediterranean, 59-60, 67
in Europe, 85 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan
in Illinois, 258 region, 401 406, 409, 412, 416,
in Kentucky 322-324, 332 417
in the Levant, 124- 125 in Ohio, 360-361
in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, in Peru, 549
395, 396, 403 in South Asia, 177-178, 183
in Nubia, 203, 210 in Southwest Asia, 155, 159
in Peru, 538, 543, 547 Trephination, 156
in South Asia, 179, 183 Treponemal infection, 157 180, 259, 321
in Southwest Asia, 149- 1.51 157 325, 328, 330-332, 414, 415
Trace element analysis Tryptophan, 244
of bone as an indicator of diet, 5, 7 37 Tuberculosis, 4, 33, 68, 157 229, 246, 254,
565, 566, 571 598 258, 259, 328, 358-359, 521 523
in Georgia, 386, 387
in Illinois, 223, 228, 242-244
in the Levant, 126- 128, 129
Urbanization, see Population nucleation
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60-63
Undernutrition, see Malnutrition,
in Peru, 544, 546-547
protein-calorie malnutrition
in South Asia, 185
in Southwest Asia, 153, 159
of hair 546-547 598
Trade, 598 Vertebral osteophytosis, see Arthritis
in Illinois, 235, 272, 274, 299, 301 Violence, see Trauma, violence related
in the Mediterranean, 59, 63 Vitamin A, 52, 180
INDEX
Vitamin C, 52, 180, 183, 481-482 in Peru and Chile, 518, 525 534-536,
Vitamin D, 52, 59, 60, 62, 121 537 539, 542, 545, 548
in South Asia, 182
m Southwest Asia, 142, 149&
-
15&-156,
Warfare, see Trauma, violence related 158-159
Water wheel, 198, 200-201 labor costs to, 3, 147
Weanlings, nutrition and disease, 3 1 124, social status, of 3, 598, 599
152, 245, 252, 258, 299, 326, 329, 331 in the American Southwest, 431
332, 335-337 360, 408, 409, 434, 453, in Illinois, 228-229, 237 241 -244, 247--
598 249, 255, 256, 260
n the Levant. 120
Wheat, 53, 61 183, 197 200
Whipwonn, 525 in the Medite ranean, 67
Wilson bands, see Enamel microdefects in Panama, 477
Women in Peru and Chile, 525, 534, 536-539,
discriminated against in diet, 336, 337 545
health of, 3, 31 580, 598, 599, see also in Southwest Asia, 147
Sexual dimorphism
in the American Southwest, 43 1
in California, 454, 456
in Ecuador 499 x
in Georgia, 370-378, 381 383 X Group, 194-211
in Illinois, 228-229, 237 241-243, 247
249, 255, 256, 260, 283, 293, 295
m Kentucky 323-326, 329, 330, 335,
336 Yaws, see Treponemal infecti I
in the Levant, 120 Yeast, see Infection, yeast
in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 59, 62,
65-66
in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan
region, 408, 413, 414 Zinc, 63, 65, 359, 544-547 548, see also
in Nubla, 203, 206-208, 210 Trace element analysis

Mark Nathan Cohen Paleopathology at The Origins of Agriculture PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Mark Nathan Cohen Paleopathology at The Origins of Agriculture PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Academic Press Rapid Manuscript Reproduction

Proceedings of the Conference on Paleopathology

Mark Nathan Cohen

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

United Kingdom Edition published by

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Early Iron Age 64

Marvin J Allison (515) Institute de Antropologia, Universidad de Tarapacd,

Present address: Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsyl-

David N Dickel 439), Department of Anthropology, University of California,

Patricia Smith (101 Department of Anatomy, Hebrew University-Hadassah

Present address: Department of Anthropology Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana 47405

This volume contains revised papers from a 1982 Wenner-Gren-sponsored sym-

INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH

INTRODUCTION: MODELING DISEASE I N PREHISTORIC POPULATION

This overview i s organized around a model of t h e causes and r e -

General, cumulative i n d i c a t o r s include m o r t a l i t y measures and

GENERAL AND CUMULATIVE STRESS INDICATORS

cated a t o o l f o r l i m i t e d a v a i l a b l e paleodemographic d a t a . However,

Growth assessment i s a common t o o l f o r a n a l y s i s of t h e degree

l e n g t h and width of long bones f o r each age c a t e g o r y o f subadults;

Subadult Long Bone Length and Width Curves

The a n a l y s i s o f growth i n s u b a d u l t long bones i s based on t h e

A d u l t Long Bone Length and Width

The measurement o f s i z e and shape of a d u l t long bones is

Though common, a n a l y s e s of t h e d e g r e e of s e x u a l dimorphism a r e

While comparison of t h e degree of sexual dimorphism b o t h among

Other s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s may prove t o be u s e f u l i n providing

INDICATORS OF GENERAL AND EPISODIC STRESS

H a r r i s (1926, 1933) was one o f t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h e r s t o s t u d y

FIGURE 2 . 3 Enamel hypoplasia of t h e rnaxiZZavy c e n t r a l and

Enamel hypoplasia (chronologic o r l i n e a r hypoplasia o r

These d a t a a r e evidence t h a t hypoplasias r e c o r d childhood e v e n t s

Enamel microdef e c t s ( p a t h o l o g i c a l s t r i a e of R e t z i u s , Wilson

FIGURE 2.4 Witson band from a permanent canine ( 1 6 0 ~ ) . Note

and abnormal p r i s m s t r u c t u r e . Condon (1981) and Rudney ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,

INDICATORS OF SPECIFIC DISEASE STRESS

FIGURE 2.5 Porotio h p e r o s t o s i s (cribra orb-ital'La) of t h e

bones. Because t h e c r a n i a l bones a r e so t h i n , they a r e o f t e n a f -

hemoglobin derived anemias) can n o t b e a p p l i e d t o New World popu-

FIGURE 2.6 Periosteal reactions involving the long bone

Traumatic l e s i o n s have been c l a s s i f i e d by O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r

a t t h e s i t e o f t h e bone c a n s e r i o u s l y hamper r e p a i r , and t h e

O s t e o a r t h r i t i s i s among t h e o l d e s t and most commonly known

Dental p a t h o l o g i e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y found i n p r e h i s t o r i c popula-

(Turner and Machado 1 9 8 3 ) . Both may be a r e s u l t of d i e t and e a t i n g

I s o t o p i c and Trace Element S t u d i e s

New chemical methods have r e c e n t l y been developed and t e s t e d

CONCLUSIONS : PATTERN, PROCESS,

The purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r has been t o p r e s e n t a model f o r

We wish t o acknowledge t h e following sources of f i n a n c i a l sup-

Bocquet-Appel, J . P . , and C. Masset

Goodman, A. H., and G. A. Clark

Huss-Ashmore, R . , A. H . Goodman, a n d G. J. Armelagos

example from t h e Libben S i t e , Ottowa County, Ohio.

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f growth a r r e s t l i n e s . Ameriean Journal o f

P l a t t , B. S., and R. J. C. Stewart

1976 Demographic anthropology. W. C. Brown, Dubuque,

HEALTH A S A CRUCIAL FACTOR I N THE CHANGES FROM HUNTING

and D n i e p e r bend sites V a s i l i e v k a and V o ~ ~ s c h k o y ,o )and N o r t h

The r e g i o n h a s n o t always e x p e r i e n c e d g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y be-