International Journal of Civil Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-019-00478-3 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().
,- volV)

RESEARCH PAPER

Effect of Recycled PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

on the Electrochemical Properties of Rebar in Concrete
Yohandry Dı́az Blanco1 • Elsa Carmina Menchaca Campos1 • Carolin Ivette Rocabruno Valdés1 •

Jorge Uruchurtu Chavarı́n1

Received: 20 November 2018 / Revised: 22 September 2019 / Accepted: 30 October 2019

Ó Iran University of Science and Technology 2019

Abstract
This research is focused on the use of recycled PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) as an aggregate to improve the elec-
trochemical properties of reinforcing steel in concrete. Samples were made with different PET geometries such as: fibers
(F), rectangles (R), and mixture of fiber and rectangle (F–R). The PET was added as a substitute for sand with a PET/sand
ratio by volume percent of 3%/97%, 5%/95%, and 8%/92%. Specimens were exposed to an aggressive solution of sodium
chloride at 3%, simulating a marine environment, and were evaluated for 300 days through various electrochemical
techniques such as: open-circuit potential, electrochemical noise, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and linear
polarization resistance. Samples with PET reached more noble values of potential compared to the control sample. The
highest values of noise resistance (Rn) and polarization resistance (Rp) were reached for the reinforcing steel in concrete
samples prepared with particle of rectangles and fiber–rectangle mix. Likewise, these samples maintained a diffusive
behavior for a longer time. At the end of the test period, the favorable effect of the rectangles and the mixture of fibers and
rectangles in the concrete samples are evident, since they remain in the negligible range of corrosion rate, with values
below 1 9 10-1 lA/cm2. This behavior was not noticeable for samples with only PET fibers, due to the fact that they reach
the moderate range of corrosion rate, with values between 2 9 10-1 and 5 9 10-1 lA/cm2, similar to the control sample.

Keywords Reinforcing concrete  Recycled PET  Electrochemical techniques  Localized corrosion

1 Introduction this field. The reinforcement corrosion process in concrete

is influenced by several factors such as: the design of the
Corrosion of reinforcing steel is the main cause of deteri- mixture, the chemical composition of the solution inside
oration of reinforced concrete structures [1–3]. In the last the pores, the characteristics of the concrete cover, the
decades, numerous investigations have been carried out in curing process, among others [2]. The causes that most
affect steel corrosion are (1) depassivation of reinforcing
steel due to localized attack of chloride ions, which enter
& Jorge Uruchurtu Chavarı́n through to the concrete pore network [4–6] and (2) gen-
juch25@uaem.mx eralized corrosion of steel due to a process of carbonation
Yohandry Dı́az Blanco in concrete, as a consequence of reactions of the cement
yohandry.diaz@alumnos.uaem.mx matrix and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere [5–7].
Elsa Carmina Menchaca Campos The concrete offers a double protection to the rein-
cmenchaca@uaem.mx forcing steel. First, the concrete acts as a physical barrier,
Carolin Ivette Rocabruno Valdés isolating the reinforcing steel from the surrounding envi-
carolin.rocabruno@uaem.mx ronment, which hinders the entry of aggressive agents. In
1 addition, the high alkalinity of the concrete provides a pH
Centro de Investigación en Ingenierı́a y Ciencias Aplicadas
(CIICAP), Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Básicas y between 12 and 13, and at this pH, the steel forms a
Aplicadas (IICBA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de compact and passive film [6, 8]. Currently, many concrete
Morelos, Av. Universidad No. 1001, Col. Chamilpa, structures lose these characteristics at an early age. Due to
C.P. 62209 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico

123

the growing relevance of life-cycle cost analysis, the
durability issues are of paramount importance within the
aim of evaluating the suitability of a concrete mix or
constituent. Most of the concrete deterioration mechanisms
require the access of aggressive agents from the environ-
ment. Thus, concrete transport properties are one of the
governing factors in concrete durability. Afterwards,
chemical reactions between aggressive agents and concrete
constituents also play an important role [9].
With the aims of extending the useful life of the struc-
tures, as well as reducing the economic losses caused by
the corrosion of reinforcing steel in particular, in recent
years, there have been numerous investigations involving
concrete with the addition of other materials such as: jute,
bamboo, coconut, husk rice, cane bagasse, and sawdust
[10], as well as synthetic materials such as poly (vinyl
alcohol), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene, and poly-
amides [10–12].
Nowadays, plastics have become an important and
inseparable part of society. The production and consump-
tion of plastics have been growing annually, fundamentally
for its incredible characteristics, such as low density, light
weight, low cost, resistance, easy to use design, long
duration, manufacturing capabilities, among others [13].
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is one of the most widely
used polymers worldwide, especially for the manufacture
of beverage containers. However, an important part of PET
containers is discarded after their individual use, and ends
up in landfills causing serious environmental problems
[11]. Many researchers are focused on this problem in the
search for new original and innovative solutions for the
reuse of waste. Increasingly, the planet has less space for
landfills; special attention is given to the reuse of solid
waste as an alternative to disposal. Research is always
more interested in the use of such products in the concrete
mix. This makes the concrete more economical and, at the
same time, there is a reduction of the waste problem [14].
Regarding to shape and dimensions of PET, many
studies deal with the use of PET as fiber reinforcement for
concrete, with various kinds of fibers, different in shape,
dimension, and slenderness. Most of these studies involve
small fibers, generally with a width of a few millimeters
and a length of some centimeters, uniformly distributed
into the concrete matrix [15]. The effectiveness of the
action of the fibers and the resulting mechanical properties
of the material are determined by a combination of several
factors, such as: the adhesion between fibers and concrete
matrix, the fiber properties, the shape and dimensions of
the fibers, and the concentration of fibers in the material
composite [16].
Kim et al. [17] investigated the effect of the surface of
PET fibers in terms of adhesion with a concrete matrix. The
results show a favorable behavior in terms of bond between
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International Journal of Civil Engineering
the PET and concrete, especially for embossed fibers,
whereas adhesion was lower for corrugated and straight
fibers. Nepomuceno and Andrade [18] analyzed the pro-
tection capacity of modified Portland cement mortar with
polymers: styrene butadiene, acrylic latex with reinforced
plastic fibers, and acrylic latex with silica fume. The
analysis was carried out in different exposure environments
with CO2 and chlorides. Results show an improved for the
combination of silica fume and acrylic latex, as well as a
high resistance to the penetration of chlorides for the
mixture of acrylic latex with reinforced plastic fibers.
Kobayashi et al. [19] investigated the effect of poly-
ethylene and polyvinyl alcohol fibers and mortar compo-
sition of strain-hardening cement composite (SHCC) on the
rebar corrosion performance to clarify the properties of
cracked SHCC. The amount and unit volume of chloride on
the surface of the fracture varied according to the types of
fiber at an early age of testing. However, these differences
were less evident after 6 months. There is a good corre-
lation between the corrosion area of the reinforcing steel
and the number of cracks. The corrosion area was lower in
SHCC with a lower water–cement ratio when both mix-
tures had a similar number of cracks.
Other geometries of recycled PET have been used in
many studies to analyze different concrete properties such
as: form of shredded particles to analyzed fresh and hard-
ened concrete properties, permeability, impact, and abra-
sion resistances [20]; circular fibers to investigate the
behavior of tensile strength, among others [14]. Albano
et al. [21] investigated the mechanical behavior of concrete
with PET particles with an average size of 26 mm and
114 mm approximately. Results show a decrease in the
compressive strength with the increase in volume propor-
tion and size of PET particles. Frigione [22] incorporated
the waste-recycled PET to substitute in the concrete the 5%
by weight of fine aggregate. Small percentages of recycled
PET do not affect the water absorption of concrete. In
addition, no segregation was observed in any mix and the
variations of shrinkage values were acceptable for several
use of structural concrete.
Some characteristics of PET, such as high resistance to
chemicals, water and impact, and stability to the weather,
in addition to its behavior as a physical barrier [13]; they
could help to decrease the problems associated with the
corrosion of reinforcing steel and the durability of concrete
effectively [15].
The main objective of this work is to analyze the elec-
trochemical behavior of Portland cement mixtures with
fiber aggregates and PET rectangles. This paper presents
research directed to the study of the recycling of a waste
material and its use in concrete. For this work, the PET was
processed in a simple way without the use of any machine.
Two different sizes of PET geometries were designed to
International Journal of Civil Engineering
evaluate their effect on the electrochemical response of the
concrete. Various electrochemical techniques were used,
such as: open-circuit potential, electrochemical noise, lin-
ear polarization resistance, and electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy.
2 Experimental Description
2.1 Recycled PET
For this work, PET bottles were collected from different
plastic recycling disposal deposits. The bottles were
washed with water to eliminate residual liquids and dust.
PET recycling was done manually by cutting the bottles
into sheets, to later take them to their final geometry.
Recycled polymer was used as aggregate in concrete in
three different ways, such as: fibers 0.5–1 mm wide and
25 mm long, rectangles 3 mm wide and 4 mm long, and a
50%/50% mixture of fibers and rectangles, as shown in
Fig. 1.
To determine the shape and dimensions of the PET, it
was taken into account that other investigations focused on
studying the behavior of different properties of concrete
with aggregates of PET, both in the fresh and hardened
state [11, 15–17, 20–25]. The fibers were designed as
elements capable to restrain the shrinkage of micro-cracks
and control the width of the cracks, as well as delay the
propagation of these cracks within the concrete [15]. Fur-
thermore, the rectangles are designed with the aim of
creating a barrier within the concrete matrix, which pre-
vented access of aggressive agents through the pore
network.
2.2 Concrete Mix and Samples
The proportions for concrete mixtures are shown in
Table 1. Portland cement CPC 30R (Type II ASTM-C-
150) and a water/cement ratio of 0.45 were used for all
samples. Coarse aggregate from crushed stone with a
maximum size of 20 mm was used and river sand as fine
Fig. 1 a Fibers of PET and b PET particles in rectangle forms
Table 1 Design of the concrete mixture for 1 m3
Materials Quantity
Cement 330 kg
Sand 645 kg
Gravel 1015 kg
Water 150 l
aggregate. Each specimen contained three corrugated steel
bars grade 42 of 3/8 inch. Samples of reinforced concrete
were designed with the following dimensions:
7 9 10 9 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 2. Rebar were placed
into the specimens to obtain a concrete cover of 30 mm and
there were capillarity effects restricted by tightly wrapping
in the mortar/air interface with adhesive tape. Materials
were mixed correctly to ensure a fresh concrete as homo-
geneous as possible, and then, the mixture was poured into
wood containers pre-coated with burned oil, as seen in
Fig. 3.
The compressive strength of concrete tested (control
samples) was 248.9 kg/cm2 ± 4.4 kg/cm2, with respect to
the design strength of 250 kg/cm2 [26]. The samples were
cured for 28 days in the laboratory, 24 h after fabrication.
After that, they were placed in a 3% sodium chloride
solution simulating a marine environment. The specimens
were evaluated for 300 days, using different electrochem-
ical techniques such as: open-circuit potential, electro-
chemical noise, linear polarization resistance, and
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
On the other hand, the recycling polymer was added to
the mix as a substitute for the fine aggregate (river sand)
with a PET/sand ratio by volume percent as shown in
Table 2. Three concentrations of polymer were used for
each design of the recycled PET (3%, 5%, and 8%), with a
PET/sand ratio by volume percent of 3/97%, 5/95%, and
8/92%. The nomenclature of each sample is described in
Table 3.
2.3 Electrochemical Techniques
2.3.1 Open-Circuit Potential Technique (OCP)
The electrochemical behavior of reinforcing steel in con-
crete can be evaluated through different electrochemical
techniques. The open-circuit potential (OCP) is one of the
electrochemical techniques mostly used for the inspection
of concrete structures [6, 27]. The potential measurement
for all reinforcing bars was performed against a saturated
calomel electrode (SCE) and the sampling rate was two
readings per week. Furthermore, the average potential
value of each sample was determined. Table 4 shows the
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Fig. 2 Dimensions of the concrete samples containing three electrodes

Fig. 3 a Steel bars of 12 cm long, b steel bars with adhesive tape, and c sample of concrete containing three electrodes

Table 2 Relation PET/sand ratio by volume percent range of potential values for reinforcing steel in concrete
and its corrosion probability criteria, in accordance with
PET/sand ratio PET volume Sand volume
ASTM C876 [2, 28].
3
PET (%) Sand (%) m ml m3 ml

3 97 0.0129 12,900 0.4171 417,100 2.3.2 Electrochemical Noise Technique (EN)

5 95 0.0215 21,500 0.4085 408,500
8 92 0.0344 34,400 0.3956 395,600 The electrochemical noise technique (EN) is a versatile
tool and has been widely used in corrosion studies for
different materials [29], including reinforcing steel in
concrete [27]. This technique provides information on the
Table 3 Nomenclature of each samples corrosion mechanism from the spontaneous fluctuations of
potential and current. Furthermore, one of the most
Number of Percentage of Geometry of Nomenclature
samples PET (%) PET important advantages offered by this electrochemical
technique is that the system is not disturbed by any external
1 0 – CO voltage or current signal during test time [30]. An Auto
2 3 Fibers CO ? F.3% ZRA potentiostat of ACM Instruments was used to obtain
3 5 Fibers CO ? F.5% the spontaneous current and potential time series, gathering
4 8 Fibers CO ? F.8% 1024 points with a sampling rate of one data per second.
5 3 Rectangles CO ? R.3% Besides, the measurements were done every week.
6 5 Rectangles CO ? R.5% For this work, three nominally ‘identical’ electrodes
7 8 Rectangles CO ? R.8% were used as steel reinforcement in concrete [31]. With this
8 3 Fibers–rectangles CO ? F–R.3% configuration, the current noise measurement is made
9 5 Fibers–rectangles CO ? F–R.5% between working electrodes W1 and W2, and the potential
10 8 Fibers–rectangles CO ? F–R.8% noise between working electrodes W1 or W2, monitored
with respect to the electrode W3 (used as reference

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International Journal of Civil Engineering
Table 4 Corrosion probability criteria for steel in concrete related
with open-circuit potential measurements
Open-circuit potential (OCP) Corrosion probability criteria
values (mV vs. SCE)
[ - 125 10% risk of corrosion
- 126 to - 275 Intermediate corrosion risk
\ - 276 [ 90% risk of corrosion
electrode). According to Cottis, this configuration is one of
the mostly used standard methods to measure EN [32].
The electrochemical noise data were analyzed statisti-
cally from the standard deviation of the current and
potential oscillations. From Ohḿs law, a relation between
the current and the voltage is established, resulting in the
electrochemical noise resistance Rn following the expres-
sion [29]:
Rn ¼ rv =ri ;
where Rn is the electrochemical noise resistance, rv is the
voltage standard deviation, and ri is the current standard
deviation.
The type of corrosion of the reinforcement steel in
concrete was determined from a parameter called Local-
ization Index (LI) by the following expression:
LI ¼ ri =Irms ;
where ri is the current standard deviation and Irms is the
current root-mean-square value. Table 5 shows the types of
corrosion according to the range of LI values [31].
2.3.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Technique
(EIS)
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is one of the
most widely used techniques, capable of measuring the
resistance of metals in different aggressive environments,
from the response of an alternating signal of potential or
current of very small amplitude. The EIS provides a large
amount of quantitative information such as: the corrosion
rate of steel in concrete, electrical resistivity of concrete,
properties of the passive film of steel and concrete cover, as
Table 5 Intervals of LI values to indicate the type of corrosion
Type of corrosion LI values
Max
Localized 1 0.1
Mixed 0.1
Generalized or passive 0.01
well as mass transport diffusion phenomena through to the
pore network and corrosion mechanisms [6].
A GillAC potentiostat from ACM Instruments was used
and the EIS measurements were carried out under the
following parameters: frequency sweep from 10,000 to
0.01 Hz with ten points per decade and a small amplitude
value of 20 mV was applied. Ribeiro and Abrantes suggest
that the values of the amplitude signal should be between 5
and 20 mV [33]. Furthermore, the tests were carried out
once per week.
2.3.4 Linear Polarization Resistance Technique (LPR)
Polarization measurements are an important measurement
tool in the investigations of a variety of electrochemical
phenomena. Such measurements permit studies of the
reaction mechanism and the kinetics of corrosion phe-
nomena [34, 35]. A GillAC potentiostat from ACM
Instruments was used and the established parameters were
ð1Þ
as follows: low-field voltage signal from (± 30 mV) and a
sweep rate of 10 mV/min. According to Andrade et al.
[36], the electrode should be slightly polarized (approxi-
mately 20–50 mV) of its free corrosion potential, Ecorr. In
addition, the sampling rate was one reading per week.
The Polarization Resistance (Rp), of a reinforcement
embedded in concrete is defined as the slope of polarization
ð2Þ curve around the corrosion potential, Ecorr [36–38]:
Rp ¼ ðDE=DI ÞDE  0 : ð3Þ
The polarization resistance is inversely proportional to
the corrosion rate (Icorr), and are related through a constant
B, according to Stern–Geary by the following equation
[2, 37–40]:
Icorr ¼ B=Rp : ð4Þ
The proportionality factor (constant B) varies from 13 to
52 mV. In the case of reinforcing steel in concrete, a value
of B = 26 mV was determined [36, 41]. The ranges of
corrosion rate (CR) values for steel in concrete are shown
in Table 6 [37].
Table 6 Intervals of corrosion current values related to the degree of
corrosion of steel and in terms of the useful life of reinforcement
Corrosion current CR (mm/y) Condition of the rebar
Min Icorr (lA/cm2)
Icorr \ 0.1 \ 0.001 Negligible
0.01 Icorr 0.1–0.5 0.001–0.005 Low-to-moderate corrosion
0.001 Icorr 0.5–1.0 0.005–0.010 Moderate-to-high corrosion
Icorr [ 1.0 [ 0.010 High corrosion rate
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3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Open-Circuit Potential Measurement
The values of corrosion potential measured in all samples
during a period of 300 days can be seen in Fig. 4.
At the beginning of the test time, it can be seen that
potentials of all samples quickly reached very noble values,
between - 100 and 0 mV, maintaining this behavior in the
range of 10% probability of corrosion. Different investi-
gations in reinforced concrete have shown good quality
concretes rebars, with a pH between 12 and 13 in the
solution of concrete pore network and without other
external factors, the steel forming oxide protective films
(Fe3O4 and Fe2O3), of very small thickness, waterproof,
and compact [40].
Between 150 and 180 days of immersion, the control
sample shows a fall in the potential values, to around
- 450 mV, with a corrosion probability of 90%. This
change was possibly related to an increase in concentration
of chloride ions on the reinforcing steel surface, which can
reduce the concentration of ferrous ions in a steel anode,
thus decreasing the corrosion potential [42]. The chloride
ions in contact with the steel can cause pitting corrosion by
promoting breakdown on the passive layer. After a certain
chloride threshold value, the breakdown starts to develop,
and the oxygen concentration availability contributes to the
corrosion process [3, 27, 40]. Another explanation about
the potential change may be given to the exposure
100
-100
EOCP (mV) vs SCE.
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
0 30 60 90
CO CO+F.3%
CO+R.5% CO+R.8%
Fig. 4 Variation of the behavior of the corrosion potential with time
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International Journal of Civil Engineering
conditions. When the concrete is saturated with water,
sometimes, the concentrations of oxygen on the surface of
the reinforcement are low and this reduction in oxygen
availability will significantly change the corrosion potential
of the steel to less noble potential values [42]. In case of
samples with PET rectangles, very noble potential values
were observed throughout the testing period, with a cor-
rosion probability of 10%. The significant effect of PET
geometry on the electrochemical behavior of reinforcing
steel can be appreciated.
The concrete itself is a physical barrier that keeps the
steel isolated of aggressive agents for a certain time;
however, by adding the PET particles (rectangles) to the
concrete, probably another barrier is physically generated
that prevents access of these ions, considerably delaying
the corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Under these condi-
tions, the initiation of corrosion in reinforcing steel is
retarded and will depend on the relationship between Cl-
and OH-. Chloride and oxygen ions compete to reach the
surface of reinforcing steel through a diffusion phe-
nomenon [30, 37].
Also, it can be seen that samples with both geometries
(fibers and rectangles) have a very favorable behavior, with
very noble potential values, between - 125 and 50 mV. In
these samples, there is a double influence that improves the
electrochemical behavior of steel in concrete, a physical
barrier due to the rectangle, and fiber particles that act as
elements that stop the propagation of micro-cracks inside
120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (days).
CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%
CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%
International Journal of Civil Engineering
the concrete, preventing or retarding the access of
aggressive agents due to this phenomenon [15].
3.2 Electrochemical Noise Measurement
The corrosion potential and corrosion current sponta-
neously generated by corrosion reactions are known as
electrochemical noise [30]. According to Cottis [32] and
Katwan et al. [43], from the calculation of the current
standard deviation (ri), an analysis of the corrosion
behavior of steel in concrete can be made. This approach is
based on the relationship between the current standard
deviation with the increase in corrosion rate and the
affected area of electrodes. The magnitude of the sponta-
neous current fluctuations is determined from the ri and
these values can be used to estimate the corrosion activity
on the reinforcement [27]. Hence, its graphic representa-
tion also allows analysis on the behavior of the corrosive
process as a function of time, as shown in Fig. 5.
At the beginning of the test time, very high rI values are
observed, whereas during the concrete curing process, the
rI values decreased considerably. These results are in
correspondence with the standard deviation values of the
current shown by Zhao et al. [27]. Progressively, values of
rI become lower for all samples, about 5 9 10-8 mA/cm2,
that suggest the decrease and low corrosion activity of the
reinforcing steel in concrete.
On the other hand, from around 120 days of immersion,
the values of some samples start to increase as expected. At
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
σi (mA/cm ).
2
-7
1x10
-8
1x10
0 30 60 90
CO CO+F.3%
CO+R.5% CO+R.8%
Fig. 5 Variation of behavior of the current standard deviation with time
the end of the study, values close to 1 9 10-6 mA/cm2 can
be observed in the control sample and the samples with
fibers, showing a higher corrosion activity of the rein-
forcement. In contrast, the rest of the samples maintain
values between 1 9 10-7 mA/cm2 and 3 9 10-8 mA/cm2.
Another way to analyze the EN data is through the
electrochemical noise resistance; the values obtained are
shown in Fig. 6. During the first days of tests, a gradual
increase of the electrochemical noise resistance values was
observed. Progressively, all samples reached high Rn val-
ues close to 1 9 106 X*cm2, indicating that the corrosion
of steel bars caused by chlorides is negligible [27, 30].
These values have a relationship with values of the current
standard deviation, as shown in Fig. 5, where it was
observed that the electrochemical noise resistance (Rn) is
inversely proportional to rI [29].
After 150 days of immersion, a fall in Rn values for the
control sample and the samples with fibers showed this
behavior. Progressively, these values oscillate with signif-
icant peaks, indicating that the process of corrosion initi-
ation is not a steady one, but consists of a sequence of
several events [30]. After some months of exposure to the
chloride solution, the corrosion becomes more severe with
increase chloride-ion concentration on the steel surface
[27]. On the other hand, the three samples with fiber–
rectangle mix, present the highest values of Rn reaching up
to 2 9 106 X*cm2. Possibly, in these samples, the suit-
able conditions were maintained for a longer period of time
where the moisture, high pH, the availability of oxygen,
120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (days).
CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%
CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%
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 International Journal of Civil Engineering

6
4x10

6
1x10

Rn (Ω*cm )
2

5
1x10

4
1x10

3
1x10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (days)
CO CO+F.3% CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%
CO+R.5% CO+R.8% CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%

Fig. 6 Variation of noise resistance values (Rn) over time

and the low concentration of chloride on the surface of the
steel created the optimal combination to keep the steel in a
passive state [40]. Another possibility is the obstacle pre-
senting these particles in the pore network, for the
aggressive ions diffusing and reaching the steel surface.
Through the EN technique, it is possible to determine
the type of corrosion of steel in concrete. The LI values are
shown in Fig. 7. During the first months of the test, all
samples show a similar behavior, with LI values in the
mixed corrosion range in general, between 1 9 10-2 and
1 9 10-1. At the beginning, on the steel, a film of pro-
tective oxides is being developed, this passive layer
evolves with time and with internal conditions of the
concrete (high pH, presence of oxygen and humidity)
became stable, and, therefore, some transient periods

0
1x10

-1
1x10
LI.

-2
1x10

-3
1x10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (days).
CO CO+F.3% CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%
CO+R.5% CO+R.8% CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%

Fig. 7 Behavior of LI values versus time to determine the type of corrosion

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
between 1 9 10-1 and 1 9 100 of the LI values were
observed in this period of time without chloride ions [40].
After 150 days of immersion, the control sample shows
a fall in LI values towards the generalized corrosion range
between 1 9 10-3 and 1 9 10-2 [31]. At this time, values
of Rn for the control sample show a sharp drop due to the
presence of chloride ions that produce a continuous
breakdown of the passive layer and possible corrosion.
Gradually, these small active areas of corrosion increase in
quantity and size, so that a more generalized corrosion is
evidenced at the end of the test period. Samples with fibers
during the last months of exposure show a decrease of LI
values lower than 1 9 10-2. This result and the low values
of Rn shown in Fig. 6 indicate an advanced corrosion
process on the steel and depassivation of the film due to the
chloride-ion concentration in the steel surface [30].
The samples with fiber–rectangle mix and the samples
with rectangles were maintained in the range of mixed
corrosion for a longer period, possibly because the pro-
tective oxide layer remained stable.
3.3 Linear Polarization Resistance Measurement
The values of polarization resistance (Rp) are shown in
Fig. 8. During the 28 days of concrete curing, a rapid
increase of the Rp values can be observed in all the sam-
ples. Comparing the values of noise resistance and polar-
ization resistance, it can be observed the same trend in the
behavior of both parameters. Several workers have
6
2x10
6
1x10
L.P.R. (Ω *cm ).
5
2
1x10
4
1x10
3
1x10
0 30 60 90
CO CO+F.3%
CO+R.5% CO+R.8%
Fig. 8 Behavior of linear polarization resistance values (L.P.R.) over time
analyzed the relationship between the Rn and the Rp, and
some claim to have proved that both are equivalent for
certain systems [27, 32, 44].
The favorable effect of the rectangle particles added to
the concrete can be seen in the values of Rp, which remain
above 3 9 105 X*cm2 during the last months of the test.
Similar to the results obtained by the electrochemical noise
technique, the highest values of Rp are reached by the
samples with the mixture of fibers and rectangles. It is
evident that these PET geometries and concentrations
protect the reinforcing steel as opposed to the fibers alone.
3.3.1 Corrosion Rate
The corrosion rate is a parameter, which depends on the
ratio of the anodic and cathodic processes. It may occur an
anodic control when the changes in the anodic process, the
dissolution of the metal, determine the changes in the
electrochemical parameters; a cathodic control when a
limiting flux of oxygen exists or a combination when both
processes are involved [45]. Figure 9 shows the Icorr values
obtained from the Rp values.
At the start of immersion, all samples have very high
Icorr values, higher than 1 lA/cm2 giving a very high cor-
rosion rate. Although conditions such as wetness and cer-
tain oxygen availability are present, a high pH in the pores
of the concrete may not yet available at this time. After-
wards, a quick decrease of two orders of magnitude in Icorr
120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (days).
CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%
CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%
123

1
1x10
0
Icorr (μ A/cm ). 1x10
2
-1
5x10
-1
1x10
-2
1x10
0 30
CO
CO+R.5%
Fig. 9 Variation of the corrosion rate (Icorr) as an indicator of the degree of corrosion of reinforcement
values to less than 1 9 10-1 lA/cm2 can be seen in this
range, the corrosion rate is negligible [4].
Between 150 and 200 days of immersion, the activation
of the steel bars is observed in the control sample and the
samples with fibers. Icorr values higher than 3 9 10-1 lA/
cm2 are reached, which indicate the time for initiation of
active corrosion and a low-to-moderate corrosion rate [1].
On the contrary, samples with rectangles maintain low Icorr
values throughout the immersion test period of
1 9 10-1 lA/cm2, significantly delaying the initiation of
corrosion. A similar behavior is observed for the samples
with fiber–rectangle mix, with very low values of Icorr.
Progressively, a slight increase in the Icorr was observed
close to 1 9 10-1 lA/cm2, for samples CO ? F–R.3%
and CO ? F–R.8% indicating a low corrosion rate [4].
3.4 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Measurement
One way to interpret the results obtained by the EIS
technique is through the Nyquist diagram, the real impe-
dance (Z0 ) is represented on the X axis, and the imaginary
impedance (Z00 ) on the Y axis [37]. These diagrams are
shown in Fig. 10.
At the start of the electrochemical measurement, the
corrosion behavior was controlled by diffusion as pre-
sented, with an incomplete and depressed capacitive
semicircle at higher frequencies which is observed attrib-
uted to this phenomenon and a mass transfer straight line at
123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (days).
CO+F.3% CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%
CO+R.8% CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%
low frequencies. According to Ribeiro and Abrantes [33], if
the semicircle formed at low frequencies is significantly
reduced, then there is a corrosion process of the steel, as
seen in the Nyquist diagram. Therefore, the lower the
charge transfer resistance values, more advanced the cor-
rosion activity will be.
In Fig. 10b, it can be seen that the low-frequency arc of
all the samples enlarged significantly, increasing the value
of Z00 similar to Z0 value, associated with another charac-
teristic phenomenon of steel in concrete. According to
González et al. [46], in a Nyquist diagram, the diffusion
control is shown by a straight line with 45° angle. Other
author explains that in low frequencies when the real and
imaginary impedances are almost inversely proportional to
the square root of the frequency, a diffusion phenomenon is
attributed [1]. This means that the corrosion rate of the
steel is controlled by diffusion. This phenomenon is very
slow, suggesting a high polarization resistance and a lower
corrosion current density.
After 168 days of immersion, the Nyquist diagram
shows an important change for the control sample, a
reduction of the arc at low frequencies is observed asso-
ciated with a corrosive activity on the steel surface, in
correspondence with the OCP values which are very neg-
ative indicating the active corrosion of the reinforcing
steel. In contrast, samples CO ? F.8% and CO ? R.5%
maintain a behavior controlled by diffusion.
The Warburg diffusion process is the result of oxygen
diffusion through the concrete pores to the steel–concrete
International Journal of Civil Engineering

4
(a) 4x10 (b) 1x10
5

4
4 8x10
3x10

Z" (Ω * cm )
4

2
6x10
Z" (Ω * cm )
2

4
2x10
4
4x10

4
1x10
4
2x10

0 0
4 4 4 4
0 1x10 2x10 3x10 4x10 0 2x10
4
4x10
4
6x10
4 4
8x10 1x10
5

2 2
Z´(Ω *cm ) Z´(Ω *cm )
5 5
(c) 1x10 (d) 2,5x10

4 5
8x10 2,0x10
Z" (Ω * cm )

Z" (Ω * cm )
2

2
4 5
6x10 1,5x10

4 5
4x10 1,0x10

4 4
2x10 5,0x10

0 0,0
4 4 4 4 5 4 5 5 5 5
0 2x10 4x10 6x10 8x10 1x10 0,0 5,0x10 1,0x10 1,5x10 2,0x10 2,5x10
2 2
Z´ (Ω *cm ) Z´ (Ω *cm )
5
(f) 1,5x10 (e) 1,5x10
5

5 5
1,0x10 1,0x10
Z" (Ω * cm )
Z" (Ω * cm )

2
2

4 4
5,0x10 5,0x10

0,0 0,0
4 5 5 4 5 5
0,0 5,0x10 1,0x10 1,5x10 0,0 5,0x10 1,0x10 1,5x10
2 2
Z´ (Ω *cm ) Z´ (Ω *cm )

CO CO+F.3% CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%

CO+R.5% CO+R.8% CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%

Fig. 10 Nyquist diagrams for days a 1, b 28, c 84, d 168, e 245, and f 300

interface. Under these conditions, the system is under the However, the values of Z0 are high, indicating that steel
restricted oxygen access of the diffusion process [27]. The remains in a passive state and the initiation of significant
rest of the samples present an incomplete semicircle at low corrosion has not yet started at this period [6].
frequencies and a reduction of the diameter of semicircles Between 245 and 300 days of immersion, the control
is noticeable, indicating a control by charge transfer. sample maintains the same behavior, evidencing a

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

corrosive process due to the localized attack of the chloride with the corrosion activity [6]. In the Bode diagrams
ions that cause the continuous depassivation of the passive throughout the period of exposure, an increase in high
layer of the steel. The samples with fibers at this time frequencies of the solution resistance in the concrete pore
began to exhibit a similar behavior, indicating that some of network (Rps) can be observed.
the passive film has been destroyed by the presence of At the beginning, the Rps values are around
chlorides [27]. In general, the samples with rectangle par- 1 9 103 X*cm2; however, at the end of the immersion test
ticles and with the mixture of fibers–rectangles, maintain time, the control sample reached a value of
for a longer period a behavior controlled by diffusion 2.2 9 104 X*cm2 and the samples with rectangles and
attributed to the effect of the geometry of the polymer and fiber–rectangle mix presented higher values between
the concentration thereof. The barrier effect of the polymer 2.5 9 104 and 3 9 104 X*cm2. This behavior is associated
and the influence which it has on the diffusion phenomenon with the barrier effect of the different geometries of PET
of concrete are evidenced. immersed in the concrete matrix and with the continuous
Another way to analyze the impedance results is to process of hydration of cement or internal change of con-
graph the impedance module and the phase angle as a crete. Silva y Liborio [8] studied the steel corrosion in
function of frequency. These types of graph are known as high-performance concrete with silica fume and silica from
Bode diagrams [37] and are shown in Fig. 11. The behavior rice husk, evidencing a more significant increase of Rps
at high-frequency values can be attributed to the electrolyte values in samples with silica aggregates compared to the
present in the pores of concrete. The medium frequency samples without silica.
and low frequency are associated with characteristic pro- During the first 150 days of immersion, an increase in
cesses of the steel–concrete interface and can be correlated the |Z| values is observed for all the samples and an

5 5
(a) 4x10 -100 (b) 2x10 -120
5
1x10
5 -80 -100
1x10
Phase angle ( ).
o

IZI (Ω*cm )

Phase angle ( ).
IZI (Ω*cm )

-80
2
2

o
4
-60 1x10
-60
1x10
4 -40
1x10
3 -40
-20 -20
3 2
1x10 0 1x10 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
5
(c) 2x10 -120 (d) 5
4x10 -100
5
1x10
-100
1x10
5 -80
Phase angle ( ).

Phase angle ( ).
IZI (Ω*cm )

-80
o
IZI (Ω*cm ).

o
4
1x10
2

-60
-60
1x10
4 -40
1x10
3 -40

-20 -20
2
1x10 0 1x10
3
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10
Frecuency (Hz). Frequency (Hz)
5
(e) 4x10
5 -100 (f) 4x10 -100

1x10
5 -80 1x10
5 -80
IZI (Ω*cm )

Phase angle ( ).

Phase angle ( ).
2

IZI (Ω*cm )
o

o
2

-60 -60

1x10
4 -40 1x10
4 -40

-20 -20

3 3
1x10 0 1x10 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10 1x10

Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

CO CO+F.3% CO+F.5% CO+F.8% CO+R.3%

CO+R.5% CO+R.8% CO+F-R.3% CO+F-R.5% CO+F-R.8%

Fig. 11 Bode diagrams for days: a 1, b 28, c 84, d 168, e 245, and f 300

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
increase in values of phase angle up to - 40° indicating a
capacitive behavior of the double layer capacitance. During
the last months of exposure, it can be observed for the
samples CO, CO ? F.3%, CO ? F.5%, and CO ? F.8%, a
change in the slope of |Z| versus frequency and a decrease
in the values of phase angle at low frequencies, related to
the capacitive effect of double layer capacitance. This
behavior indicates the start of corrosion on the surface of
reinforcing steel [8]. The rest of the samples did not exhibit
this behavior; on the contrary, the high values of |Z| up to
2 9 105 X*cm2 are maintained at the end of the test
period.
4 Conclusions
The favorable effect of the different percentages and
geometries of PET introduced to the concrete matrix in
terms of its electrochemical properties is remarkable,
restraining the onset of corrosion and maintaining the
passive state of rebars for a longer period. In this sense,
PET is shown as an excellent alternative for recycling
focused on the disposal of solid waste and its use in
concrete.
The main conclusions were:
The samples with fiber–rectangle mixture, as well as the
samples with rectangles presented very noble potential
values and very high Rp and Rn values. Electrochemical
noise and linear polarization resistance show a similar
tendency, demonstrating that both techniques are
equivalent.
The lowest values of corrosion rate were reached for the
samples with rectangles and samples with the mixture of
fibers and rectangles, with values lower than 0.1 lA/cm2.
These values of corrosion rate are negligible compared to
the samples with fibers and control sample which reached a
moderate corrosion rate, with values between 2 9 10-1
and 5 9 10-1 lA/cm2.
Reinforcing steel bars generally show a susceptibility to
mixed corrosion type, with localization index values
between 0.01 and 0.1. Although the samples CO, CO ?
F.3%, CO ? F.5%, and CO ? F.8% with the advance of
exposure time to the aggressive medium, the localization
index values decrease by an order of magnitude, between
0.001 and 0.01 to the generalized corrosion range.
Through the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
technique, it was possible to determine that the samples
with fiber–rectangle mix and with rectangles only, main-
tained a behavior controlled by diffusion for a longer time.
It is recommended to carry out studies for the analysis of
other properties of the concrete both in the fresh state and
hardened state from the concentrations and geometries of
PET used in this work. Consequently, all the characteristics
of the composite material for use in reinforced concrete
structures would be established. In addition, although PET
is one of the main solid wastes worldwide, there are pos-
sibly other waste materials that can be incorporated into
concrete mixtures, in the search for alternative materials
that are friendlier to the environment and respond to the
needs of the society.
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