Complex Vector

8 Spaces
8.1 Complex Numbers
8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers
8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem
8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products
8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices

Quantum Mechanics (p. 425)

Signal Processing (p. 417)

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (p. 406)

Mandelbrot Set (p. 400)

Electric Circuits (p. 395)

391
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Sybille Yates/Shutterstock.com; Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock; Štepán Kápl/Shutterstock.com
392 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.1 Complex Numbers

Use the imaginary unit i to write complex numbers.
Graphically represent complex numbers in the complex plane as
points and as vectors.
Add and subtract two complex numbers, and multiply a complex
number by a real scalar.
Multiply two complex numbers, and use the Quadratic Formula to
find all zeros of a quadratic polynomial.
Perform operations with complex matrices, and find the determinant
of a complex matrix.

REMARK COMPLEX NUMBERS

When working with products So far in the text, the scalar quantities used have been real numbers. In this chapter, you
involving square roots of will expand the set of scalars to include complex numbers.
negative numbers, be sure to In algebra it is often necessary to solve quadratic equations such as
convert to a multiple of i before
x 2  3x  2  0. The general quadratic equation is ax 2  bx  c  0, and its
multiplying. For instance,
consider the following
solutions are given by the Quadratic Formula
operations. b  冪b2  4ac
x
冪1冪1  i i 2a
 i2 where the quantity under the radical, b2  4ac, is called the discriminant. If
 1 Correct b2  4ac  0, then the solutions are ordinary real numbers. But what can you conclude
about the solutions of a quadratic equation whose discriminant is negative? For
冪1冪1  冪共1兲共1兲
instance, the equation x2  4  0 has a discriminant of b2  4ac  16, but there is
 冪1 no real number whose square is 16. To overcome this deficiency, mathematicians
1 Incorrect invented the imaginary unit i, defined as
i  冪1
where i 2  1. In terms of this imaginary unit, 冪16  4冪1  4i.
With this single addition of the imaginary unit i to the real number system, the
system of complex numbers can be developed.

Definition of a Complex Number

If a and b are real numbers, then the number
a  bi
is a complex number, where a is the real part and bi is the imaginary part of
the number. The form a  bi is the standard form of a complex number.

Some examples of complex numbers written in standard form are 2  2  0i,

4  3i, and 6i  0  6i. The set of real numbers is a subset of the set of complex
numbers. To see this, note that every real number a can be written as a complex
number using b  0. That is, for every real number, a  a  0i.
A complex number is uniquely determined by its real and imaginary parts. So, two
complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal. That
is, if a  bi and c  di are two complex numbers written in standard form, then
a  bi  c  di
if and only if a  c and b  d.
 8.1 Complex Numbers 393

Imaginary THE COMPLEX PLANE

axis
Because a complex number is uniquely determined by its real and imaginary parts,
(a, b) or a + bi it is natural to associate the number a  bi with the ordered pair 共a, b兲. With this
association, complex numbers can be represented graphically as points in a coordinate
b plane called the complex plane. This plane is an adaptation of the rectangular
Real
axis coordinate plane. Specifically, the horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis
a is the imaginary axis. The point that corresponds to the complex number a  bi is
共a, b兲, as shown in Figure 8.1.
The Complex Plane
Figure 8.1 Plotting Numbers in the Complex Plane

Plot each number in the complex plane.

a. 4  3i b. 2  i c. 3i d. 5
SOLUTION
Figure 8.2 shows the numbers plotted in the complex plane.
a. Imaginary b. Imaginary
axis axis

4 2
3 4 + 3i 1
or (4, 3) Real
2 axis
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
1
Real −2 − i
axis or (−2, −1)
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−3
−2 −4

c. Imaginary d. Imaginary
axis axis

2 4
1 3
Real
axis 2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
1 5 or (5, 0)
Real
−2 axis
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−3 −3i or (0, −3)
−4 −2

Figure 8.2

Another way to represent the complex number a  bi is as a vector whose

horizontal component is a and whose vertical component is b. (See Figure 8.3.) (Note
that the use of the letter i to represent the imaginary unit is unrelated to the use of i to
represent a unit vector.)
Imaginary
axis

1 Horizontal
component
Real
axis

−1

−2 Vertical
component 4 − 2i
−3

Vector Representation of a Complex Number

Figure 8.3
394 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, AND SCALAR

MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Because a complex number consists of a real part added to a multiple of i, the
operations of addition and multiplication are defined in a manner consistent with the
rules for operating with real numbers. For instance, to add (or subtract) two complex
numbers, add (or subtract) the real and imaginary parts separately.

Definition of Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The sum and difference of
a  bi and c  di
are defined as follows.
共a  bi兲  共c  di兲  共a  c兲  共b  d 兲i Sum

共a  bi兲  共c  di兲  共a  c兲  共b  d 兲i Difference

REMARK
Note in part (a) of Example 2
that the sum of two complex
numbers can be a real number. Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers

a. 共2  4i兲  共3  4i兲  共2  3兲  共4  4兲i

5
b. 共1  3i兲  共3  i兲  共1  3兲  共3  1兲i
 2  4i

Using the vector representation of complex numbers, you can add or subtract two
complex numbers geometrically using the parallelogram rule for vector addition, as
shown in Figure 8.4.
Imaginary
Imaginary
axis
axis
z = 3 + 4i
4
2
3 w=3+i
1
2
Real
1 z+w=5 axis
Real −3 1 2 3
axis
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−2
−3
−3 z = 1 − 3i
−4 w = 2 − 4i z − w = −2 − 4i
Addition of Complex Numbers Subtraction of Complex Numbers
Figure 8.4

Many of the properties of addition of real numbers are valid for complex numbers
as well. For instance, addition of complex numbers is both associative and commutative.
Moreover, to find the sum of three or more complex numbers, extend the definition of
addition in the natural way. For example,
共2  i兲  共3  2i兲  共2  4i兲  共2  3  2兲  共1  2  4兲i
 3  3i.
 8.1 Complex Numbers 395

Another property of real numbers that is valid for complex numbers is the
distributive property of scalar multiplication over addition. To multiply a complex
number by a real scalar, use the definition below.

Definition of Scalar Multiplication

If c is a real number and a  bi is a complex number, then the scalar multiple
of c and a  bi is defined as
c共a  bi兲  ca  cbi.

Scalar Multiplication with Complex Numbers

a. 3共2  7i兲  4共8  i兲  6  21i  32  4i

 38  17i
b. 4共1  i兲  2共3  i兲  3共1  4i兲  4  4i  6  2i  3  12i
 1  6i

Geometrically, multiplication of a complex number by a real scalar corresponds to

the multiplication of a vector by a scalar, as shown in Figure 8.5.
Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis

4 3

3 2
2z = 6 + 2i z=3+i
2 1
z=3+i Real
1 axis
Real 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
axis −z = −3 − i
−1 −2

−2 −3

Multiplication of a Complex Number by a Real Number

Figure 8.5

With addition and scalar multiplication, the set of complex numbers forms a
vector space of dimension 2 (where the scalars are the real numbers). You are asked to
verify this in Exercise 55.

LINEAR Complex numbers have some useful applications in

ALGEBRA electronics. The state of a circuit element is described by
APPLIED two quantities: the voltage V across it and the current I
flowing through it. To simplify computations, the circuit
element’s state can be described by a single complex
number z  V  li, of which the voltage and current are
simply the real and imaginary parts. A similar notation can
be used to express the circuit element’s capacitance and
inductance.

When certain elements of a circuit are changing with

time, electrical engineers often have to solve differential
equations. These can often be simpler to solve using
complex numbers because the equations are less
complicated.
Adrio Communications Ltd/shutterstock.com
396 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces
TECHNOLOGY
Many graphing utilities and
software programs can
calculate with complex
numbers. For example, on
some graphing utilities, you
can express a complex number
a  bi as an ordered pair 共a, b兲.
Try verifying the result of
Example 4(b) by multiplying
共2, 1兲 and 共4, 3兲. You should
obtain the ordered pair 共11, 2兲.
REMARK
A well-known result from
algebra states that the complex
zeros of a polynomial with real
coefficients must occur in
conjugate pairs. (See Review
Exercise 81.)
MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
The operations of addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication of complex numbers
have exact counterparts with the corresponding vector operations. By contrast, there is
no direct vector counterpart for the multiplication of two complex numbers.
Definition of Multiplication of Complex Numbers
The product of the complex numbers a  bi and c  di is defined as
共a  bi兲共c  di兲  共ac  bd 兲  共ad  bc兲i.
Rather than try to memorize this definition of the product of two complex numbers,
simply apply the distributive property, as follows.
共a  bi兲共c  di兲  a共c  di兲  bi共c  di兲 Distributive property
 ac  共ad 兲i  共bc兲i  共bd 兲i 2
Distributive property
 ac  共ad 兲i  共bc兲i  共bd 兲共1兲 Use i 2  1.
 ac  bd  共ad 兲i  共bc兲i Commutative property
 共ac  bd 兲  共ad  bc兲i Distributive property
Multiplying Complex Numbers
a. 共2兲共1  3i兲  2  6i
b. 共2  i兲共4  3i兲  8  6i  4i  3i 2
 8  6i  4i  3共1兲
 8  3  6i  4i
 11  2i
Complex Zeros of a Polynomial
Use the Quadratic Formula to find the zeros of the polynomial p共x兲  x 2  6x  13
and verify that p共x兲  0 for each zero.
SOLUTION
Using the Quadratic Formula,
b  冪b2  4ac 6  冪16 6  4i
x    3  2i.
2a 2 2
Substitute each value of x into the polynomial p共x兲 to verify that p共x兲  0.
p共3  2i兲  共3  2i兲2  6共3  2i兲  13
 共3  2i兲共3  2i兲  6共3  2i兲  13
 9  6i  6i  4  18  12i  13  0
p共3  2i兲  共3  2i兲2  6共3  2i兲  13
 共3  2i兲共3  2i兲  6共3  2i兲  13
 9  6i  6i  4  18  12i  13  0
In Example 5, the two complex numbers 3  2i and 3  2i are complex
conjugates of each other (together they form a conjugate pair). More will be said
about complex conjugates in Section 8.2.
 8.1 Complex Numbers 397

COMPLEX MATRICES
Now that you are able to add, subtract, and multiply complex numbers, you can apply
these operations to matrices whose entries are complex numbers. Such a matrix is
called complex.

Definition of a Complex Matrix

A matrix whose entries are complex numbers is called a complex matrix.

All of the ordinary operations with matrices also work with complex matrices, as
demonstrated in the next two examples.

Operations with Complex Matrices

Let A and B be the complex matrices

1i
冤2  3ii 冥 冤2ii 冥
0
A and B
4 1  2i
and determine each of the following.
a. 3A b. 共2  i兲B c. A  B d. BA
SOLUTION
1i 3i 3  3i
a. 3A  3 冤2  3ii 4
 冥 冤
6  9i 12 冥
2  4i
冤2ii 冥 冤 冥
0 0
b. 共2  i兲B  共2  i兲 
1  2i 1  2i 4  3i
1i 3i 1  i
冤2  3ii 冥 冤 冥 冤 冥
2i 0
c. A  B   
4 i 1  2i 2  2i 5  2i
i 1i
冤 i 1  2i冥冤2  3i 4冥
2i 0
d. BA 

2  0 2i  2  0
冤
1  2  3i  4i  6 i  1  4  8i冥
2 2  2i
 冤
7i 3  9i冥

Finding the Determinant of a Complex Matrix

Find the determinant of the matrix

TECHNOLOGY
冤2  4i3 冥
2
A .
Many graphing utilities and 5  3i
software programs can perform
matrix operations on complex SOLUTION

ⱍ ⱍ
matrices. Try verifying the 2  4i 2
calculation of the determinant det共A兲 
3 5  3i
of the matrix in Example 7.
You should obtain the same  共2  4i兲共5  3i兲  共2兲共3兲
answer, 共8, 26兲.  10  20i  6i  12  6
 8  26i
398 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.1 Exercises
Simplifying an Expression In Exercises 1–6, determine 42. p共x兲  x3  2x2  11x  52 Zero: x  4
the value of the expression. 43. p共x兲  2x3  3x2  50x  75 Zero: x  5i
1. 冪2冪3 2. 冪8冪8 3. 冪4冪4 44. p共x兲  x3  x2  9x  9 Zero: x  3i
4. i 3 5. i 4 6. 共i兲7
Operations with Complex Matrices In Exercises
Equality of Complex Numbers In Exercises 7–10, 45–54, perform the indicated matrix operation using the
determine x such that the complex numbers in each pair complex matrices A and B.
are equal.
冤21ⴚⴙ2ii 冥 冤1 ⴚⴚ3i 冥
1 3i
7. x  3i, 6  3i Aⴝ and B ⴝ
ⴚ3i ⴚi
8. 共2x  8兲  共x  1兲i, 2  4i 45. AB 46. BA
9. 共x 2  6兲  共2x兲i, 15  6i 47. 2A 48. 1
2B
10. 共x  4兲  共x  1兲i, x  3i 49. 2iA 50. 1
4 iB

Plotting Complex Numbers In Exercises 11–16, plot 51. det共A  B兲 52. det共B兲
the number in the complex plane. 53. 5AB 54. BA
11. z  6  2i 12. z  3i 13. z  5  5i
55. Proof Prove that the set of complex numbers, with the
14. z  7 15. z  1  5i 16. z  1  5i operations of addition and scalar multiplication (with
real scalars), is a vector space of dimension 2.
Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers In
Exercises 17–24, find the sum or difference of the
complex numbers. Use vectors to illustrate your answer. 56. Consider the functions
17. 共2  6i兲  共3  3i兲 18. 共1  冪2i兲  共2  冪2i兲 p共x兲  x 2  6x  10 and q共x兲  x 2  6x  10.
19. 共5  i兲  共5  i兲 20. i  共3  i兲 (a) Without graphing either function, determine
whether the graphs of p and q have x-intercepts.
21. 6  共2i兲 22. 共12  7i兲  共3  4i兲 Explain your reasoning.
23. 共2  i兲  共2  i兲 24. 共2  i兲  共2  i兲 (b) For which of the given functions is x  3  i a
Scalar Multiplication In Exercises 25 and 26, use zero? Without using the Quadratic Formula, find the
vectors to illustrate the operations geometrically. Be sure other zero of this function and verify your answer.
to graph the original vector.
25. u and 2u, where u  3  i 57. (a) Evaluate i n for n  1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
26. 3u and  32u, where u  2  i (b) Calculate i 2010.
(c) Find a general formula for i n for any positive integer n.
Multiplying Complex Numbers In Exercises 27–34,
find the product. 58. Let A  冤0i 0i 冥.
27. 共5  5i兲共1  3i兲 28. 共3  i兲共  i兲
2
3
(a) Calculate An for n  1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
29. 共冪7  i兲共冪7  i兲 30. 共4  冪2i兲共4  冪2 i兲
(b) Calculate A2010.
31. 共a  bi兲2 32. 共a  bi兲共a  bi兲
(c) Find a general formula for An for any positive
33. 共1  i兲3 34. 共2  i兲共2  2i兲共4  i兲
integer n.
Finding Zeros In Exercises 35–40, determine all the
True or False? In Exercises 59 and 60, determine
zeros of the polynomial function.
whether each statement is true or false. If a statement is
35. p共x兲  2x 2  2x  5 36. p共x兲  x 2  x  1 true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from
37. p共x兲  x 2  5x  6 38. p共x兲  x 2  4x  5 the text. If a statement is false, provide an example that
39. p共x兲  x  16
4 40. p共x兲  x 4  10x 2  9 shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
appropriate statement from the text.
Finding Zeros In Exercises 41–44, use the given zero 59. 冪2冪2  冪4  2 60. 共冪10兲2  冪100  10
to find all zeros of the polynomial function.
41. p共x兲  x3  3x2  4x  2 Zero: x  1 61. Proof Prove that if the product of two complex numbers
is zero, then at least one of the numbers must be zero.
 8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers 399

8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers

Find the conjugate of a complex number.
Find the modulus of a complex number.
Divide complex numbers, and find the inverse of a complex matrix.

COMPLEX CONJUGATES
In Section 8.1, it was mentioned that the complex zeros of a polynomial with real
coefficients occur in conjugate pairs. For instance, in Example 5 you saw that the zeros
of p共x兲  x 2  6x  13 are 3  2i and 3  2i.
In this section, you will examine some additional properties of complex conjugates.
You will begin with the definition of the conjugate of a complex number.

Definition of the Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of the complex number z  a  bi is denoted by z and is given by
z  a  bi.

REMARK
In part (d) of Example 1, note Finding the Conjugate of a Complex Number
that 5 is its own complex
conjugate. In general, it can Complex Number Conjugate
be shown that a number is its a. z  2  3i z  2  3i
own complex conjugate if and
only if the number is real. (See b. z  4  5i z  4  5i
Exercise 39.) c. z  2i z  2i
d. z5 z5
Imaginary
axis Geometrically, two points in the complex plane are conjugates if and only if they
z = − 2 + 3i are reflections in the real (horizontal) axis, as shown in Figure 8.6. Complex conjugates
3
have many useful properties. Some of these are shown in Theorem 8.1.
2

Real
axis
THEOREM 8.1 Properties of Complex Conjugates
−4 −3 −1 1 2
For a complex number z  a  bi, the following properties are true.
−2 1. zz  a2  b2 2. zz  0
−3 3. zz  0 if and only if z  0. 4. 共z兲  z
z = − 2 − 3i

Imaginary
axis PROOF
z = 4 + 5i
5 To prove the first property, let z  a  bi. Then z  a  bi and
4
3 zz  共a  bi兲共a  bi兲  a 2  abi  abi  b2i 2  a 2  b2.
2
1
Real The second and third properties follow directly from the first. Finally, the fourth
−3 −2 2 3 5 6 7
axis property follows from the definition of the complex conjugate. That is,
−2
−3 共 z 兲  共 a  bi 兲  a  bi  a  bi  z.
−4
−5
z = 4 − 5i Finding the Product of Complex Conjugates
Conjugate of a Complex Number

Figure 8.6 When z  1  2i, you have zz  共1  2i兲共1  2i兲  12  22  1  4  5.

400 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces
REMARK
The modulus of a complex
number is also called the
absolute value of the number.
In fact, when z is a real number,
ⱍzⱍ  冪a2  02  ⱍaⱍ.
THE MODULUS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Because a complex number can be represented by a vector in the complex plane, it
makes sense to talk about the length of a complex number. This length is called the
modulus of the complex number.
Definition of the Modulus of a Complex Number
ⱍⱍ
The modulus of the complex number z  a  bi is denoted by z and is given by
ⱍzⱍ  冪a2  b2.
Finding the Modulus of a Complex Number
For z  2  3i and w  6  i, determine the value of each modulus.
ⱍⱍ
a. z b. w ⱍ ⱍ c. zw ⱍ ⱍ
SOLUTION
ⱍⱍ
a. z  冪22  32  冪13
ⱍ ⱍ
b. w  冪6 2  共1兲2  冪37
c. Because zw  共2  3i兲共6  i兲  15  16i, you have
ⱍzwⱍ  冪15 2  16 2  冪481.
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ
Note that in Example 3, zw  z w . In Exercise 41, you are asked to prove that
this multiplicative property of the modulus always holds. Theorem 8.2 states that the
modulus of a complex number is related to its conjugate.
THEOREM 8.2 The Modulus of a Complex Number
For a complex number z, z 2  zz. ⱍⱍ
PROOF
Let z  a  bi, then z  a  bi and zz  共a  bi兲共a  bi兲  a2  b2  z 2. ⱍⱍ
LINEAR Fractals appear in almost every part of the universe. They
ALGEBRA have been used to study a wide variety of applications such
APPLIED as bacteria cultures, the human lungs, the economy, and
galaxies. The most famous fractal is called the Mandelbrot
Set, named after the Polish-born mathematician Benoit
Mandelbrot (1924 – 2010). The Mandelbrot Set is based on
the following sequence of complex numbers.
zn  共zn1兲2  c, z1  c
The behavior of this sequence depends on the value of the
complex number c. For some values of c, the modulus of
each term zn in the sequence is less than some fixed number
N, and the sequence is bounded. This means that c is in the
Mandelbrot Set, and its point is colored black. For other
values of c, the moduli of the terms of the sequence become
infinitely large, and the sequence is unbounded. This means
that c is not in the Mandelbrot Set, and its point is assigned
a color based on “how quickly” the sequence diverges.
Andrew Park/Shutterstock.com
 8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers 401

DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

One of the most important uses of the conjugate of a complex number is in performing
division in the complex number system. To define division of complex numbers,
consider z  a  bi and w  c  di and assume that c and d are not both 0. For
the quotient
z
 x  yi
w
to make sense, it has to be true that
z  w共x  yi兲  共c  di兲共x  yi兲  共cx  dy兲  共dx  cy兲i.
But, because z  a  bi, you can form the linear system below.
cx  dy  a
dx  cy  b
Solving this system of linear equations for x and y yields
ac  bd bc  ad
x and y .
ww ww
Now, because zw  共a  bi兲共c  di兲  共ac  bd兲  共bc  ad兲i, the following
definition is obtained.

Definition of Division of Complex Numbers

The quotient of the complex numbers z  a  bi and w  c  di is defined as
z a  bi
REMARK 
w c  di
If c2  d 2  0, then c  d  0, ac  bd bc  ad
and w  0. In other words, as  2  2 i
c  d2 c  d2
is the case with real numbers,
1
division of complex numbers  共zw 兲
by zero is not defined. ⱍ ⱍ
w2
provided c2  d 2  0.

In practice, the quotient of two complex numbers can be found by multiplying the
numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of the denominator, as follows.
a  bi a  bi c  di
c  di

c  di c  di 冢 冣
共a  bi兲共c  di兲

共c  di兲共c  di兲
共ac  bd兲  共bc  ad兲i

c2  d 2
ac  bd bc  ad
 2  2 i
c  d2 c  d2

Division of Complex Numbers

i 1i 1i 1 1
冢 冣
1 1 1
a.   2    i
1i 1i 1 i 1 i 2 2 2 2
2i 2i 3  4i 2  11i
冢 冣
2 11
b.     i
3  4i 3  4i 3  4i 9  16 25 25
402 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Now that you can divide complex numbers, you can find the (multiplicative)
inverse of a complex matrix, as demonstrated in Example 5.

Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix

Find the inverse of the matrix

2i 5  2i
A 冤3  i 6  2i 冥
and verify your solution by showing that AA 1  I2.
SOLUTION
Using the formula for the inverse of a 2 2 matrix from Section 2.3,
6  2i 5  2i
ⱍ ⱍ 冤 3  i 冥
1
A1  .
A 2i
Furthermore, because

ⱍAⱍ  共2  i兲共6  2i兲  共5  2i兲共3  i兲

 共12  6i  4i  2兲  共15  6i  5i  2兲
3i
it follows that
1 6  2i 5  2i
TECHNOLOGY
A1  冤
3  i 3  i 2  i 冥
共6  2i兲共3  i兲 共5  2i兲共3  i兲
If your graphing utility or
software program can perform

1
3i 3i
1
冢 冣冤
共3  i兲共3  i兲 共2  i兲共3  i兲 冥
operations with complex 1 20 17  i
matrices, then you can verify
the result of Example 5. If you

10 10 冤 7i
. 冥
have matrix A stored on a To verify your solution, multiply A and A1 as follows.
graphing utility, evaluate A1.

冤23  ii 5  2i 1 20 17  i
冥 冤 冥 冤 冥 冤 冥
1 10 0 1 0
AA1   
6  2i 10 10 7i 10 0 10 0 1
The last theorem in this section summarizes some useful properties of complex
conjugates.

THEOREM 8.3 Properties of Complex Conjugates

For the complex numbers z and w, the following properties are true.
1. z  w  z  w
2. z  w  z  w
3. zw  z w
4. z兾w  z兾w

PROOF
To prove the first property, let z  a  bi and w  c  di. Then
z  w  共a  c兲  共b  d兲i
 共a  c兲  共b  d 兲i
 共a  bi兲  共c  di兲
 z  w.
The proof of the second property is similar. The proofs of the other two properties are
left to you.
 8.2 Exercises 403

8.2 Exercises
Finding the Conjugate In Exercises 1–6, find the Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix In Exercises
complex conjugate z and geometrically represent both 31–36, determine whether the complex matrix A has an
z and z. inverse. If A is invertible, find its inverse and verify that
1. z  6  3i 2. z  2  5i AAⴚ1 ⴝ I.
2i 2  i
冤 冥 冤 冥
3. z  8i 4. z  2i 6 3i
31. A  32. A 
5. z  4 6. z  3 2i i 3 3i
1i 1i
33. A  冤
1 1  i冥
34. A  冤 冥
2 2
Finding the Modulus In Exercises 7–12, find the 0 1i
indicated modulus, where z ⴝ 2 ⴙ i, w ⴝ ⴚ3 ⴙ 2i, and

冤 冥 冤 冥
i 0 0 1 0 0
v ⴝ ⴚ5i.
35. A  0 i 0 36. A  0 1i 0
7. z ⱍⱍ 8. z2 ⱍ ⱍ 0 0 i 0 0 1i
9. zwⱍ ⱍ 10. wz ⱍ ⱍ
11. v ⱍⱍ 12. zv 2 ⱍ ⱍ Singular Matrices In Exercises 37 and 38, determine
all values of the complex number z for which A is
13. Verify that ⱍwzⱍ  ⱍwⱍⱍzⱍ  ⱍzwⱍ, where z  1  i and singular. (Hint: Set det冇A冈 ⴝ 0 and solve for z.)
w  1  2i.

冤 冥
2 2i 1  i
冤 冥
5 z
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ
14. Verify that zv 2  z v 2  z v 2, where z  1  2i 37. A 
3i 2  i
38. A  1  i 1  i z
and v  2  3i. 1 0 0

Dividing Complex Numbers In Exercises 15 – 20, 39. Proof Prove that z  z if and only if z is real.
perform the indicated operations.
2i 1 1i
15. 16. 40. Consider the quotient.
i 6  3i 6  2i
3  冪2i 5i (a) Without performing any calculations, describe
17. 18.
3  冪2i 4i how to find the quotient.
共2  i兲共3  i兲 3i (b) Explain why the process described in part (a)
19. 20. results in a complex number of the form a  bi.
4  2i 共2  i兲共5  2i兲
(c) Find the quotient.
Operations with Complex Rational Expressions In
Exercises 21–24, perform the operation and write the
result in standard form. 41. Proof Prove that for any two complex numbers z and
w, each of the statements below is true.
2 3 2i 5
21. 
1i 1i
22. 
2i 2i ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ
(a) zw  z w

i 2i 1i 3 ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍⱍ ⱍ
(b) If w  0, then z兾w  z 兾 w .
23.  24.  42. Graphical Interpretation Describe the set of
3i 3i i 4i
points in the complex plane that satisfies each of the
Finding Zeros In Exercises 25–28, use the given zero to statements below.
find all zeros of the polynomial function. ⱍⱍ
(a) z  3 ⱍ
(b) z  1  i  5 ⱍ
25. p共x兲  3x3  4x2  8x  8 Zero: 1  冪3 i ⱍ ⱍ
(c) z  i
2 (d) 2
z
5 ⱍⱍ
26. p共x兲  4x  23x  34x  10
3 2 Zero: 3  i 43. (a) Evaluate 共1兾i兲 for n  1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
n

27. p共x兲  x4  3x3  5x2  21x  22 Zero: 3  冪2i (b) Calculate 共1兾i兲2000 and 共1兾i兲2010.
28. p共x兲  x3  4x2  14x  20 Zero: 1  3i (c) Find a general formula for 共1兾i兲n for any positive
integer n.
Powers of Complex Numbers In Exercises 29 and 30, 1i 2
find each power of the complex number z. 44. (a) Verify that
冪2冢  i.冣
(a) z 2 (b) z 3 (c) zⴚ1 (d) zⴚ2
(b) Find the two square roots of i.
29. z  2  i 30. z  1  i
(c) Find all zeros of the polynomial x 4  1.
404 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem

Determine the polar form of a complex number, convert between
the polar form and standard form of a complex number, and
multiply and divide complex numbers in polar form.
Use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find powers and roots of complex
numbers in polar form.

POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Imaginary
axis At this point you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers. However,
there is still one basic procedure that is missing from the algebra of complex numbers.
(a, b) To see this, consider the problem of finding the square root of a complex number such
as i. When you use the four basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division), there seems to be no reason to guess that
r
b 1i
冪i  .
θ 冪2
Real
a 0 axis That is,
1i
冢 冪2 冣  i.
2

Standard Form: a + bi
Polar Form: r(cos θ + i sin θ ) To work effectively with powers and roots of complex numbers, it is helpful to use a
Figure 8.7 polar representation for complex numbers, as shown in Figure 8.7. Specifically, if
a  bi is a nonzero complex number, then let  be the angle from the positive real axis
to the radial line passing through the point 共a, b兲 and let r be the modulus of a  bi.
This leads to the following.
a  r cos 
b  r sin 
r  冪a 2  b2
So, a  bi  共r cos 兲  共r sin 兲i, from which the polar form of a complex number
is obtained.
REMARK
The polar form of z  0
is expressed as Definition of the Polar Form of a Complex Number
z  0共cos   i sin 兲, where
 is any angle. The polar form of the nonzero complex number z  a  bi is given by
z  r共cos   i sin 兲
where a  r cos , b  r sin , r  冪a 2  b2, and tan   b兾a. The number r
is the modulus of z and  is the argument of z.

Because there are infinitely many choices for the argument, the polar form of a
complex number is not unique. Normally, the values of  that lie between   and 
are used, although on occasion it is convenient to use other values. The value of  that
satisfies the inequality
 < 
 Principal argument

is called the principal argument and is denoted by Arg(z). Two nonzero complex
numbers in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same modulus and the
same principal argument.
 8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem 405

Finding the Polar Form of a Complex Number

Find the polar form of each of the complex numbers. (Use the principal argument.)
a. z  1  i b. z  2  3i c. z  i
SOLUTION
a. Because a  1 and b  1, then r 2  1 2  共1兲2  2, which implies that
r  冪2. From a  r cos  and b  r sin ,
a 1 冪2 b 1 冪2
cos     and sin     .
r 冪2 2 r 冪2 2
So,    兾4 and
 
z  冪2 cos  冤 冢 4 冣  i sin冢 4 冣冥.
b. Because a  2 and b  3, then r 2  2 2  32  13, which implies that r  冪13.
So,
a 2 b 3
cos    and sin   
r 冪13 r 冪13

and it follows that  ⬇ 0.98. So, the polar form is

冤
z ⬇ 冪13 cos 共0.98兲  i sin共0.98兲 . 冥
c. Because a  0 and b  1, it follows that r  1 and   兾2, so
 
z  1 cos 冢 2
 i sin .
2 冣
The polar forms derived in parts (a), (b), and (c) are depicted graphically in Figure 8.8.
Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis

2 4
z = 2 + 3i
1 3
Real 2
−2 −1 θ 2
axis
−1 1
z=1−i θ
Real
−2 axis
1 2

a. z  冪2 cos  冤 冢 4 冣  i sin 冢 4 冣冥 b. z ⬇ 冪13 关cos共0.98兲  i sin共0.98兲兴

Imaginary
axis

z=i
1

θ
Real
axis
1

 
c. z  1 cos冢 2
 i sin
2 冣
Figure 8.8
406 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Converting from Polar to Standard Form

Express the complex number in standard form.

冤 冢 3 冣  i sin冢 3 冣冥
z  8 cos 

SOLUTION
Because cos共 兾3兲  1兾2 and sin共兾3兲   冪3兾2, obtain the standard form

冤 冢 3 冣  i sin冢 3 冣冥  8冤12  i 冥
冪3
z  8 cos   4  4冪3i.
2

The polar form adapts nicely to multiplication and division of complex numbers.
Suppose you have two complex numbers in polar form
z1  r1共cos 1  i sin 1兲 and z2  r2共cos 2  i sin 2 兲.
Then the product of z1 and z2 is expressed as
z1 z 2  r1 r2共cos 1  i sin 1兲共cos 2  i sin 2兲
 r1r2 关共cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin 2兲  i 共cos 1 sin 2  sin 1 cos 2兲兴.
Using the trigonometric identities cos共1  2兲  cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin 2 and
sin共1  2兲  sin 1 cos 2  cos 1 sin 2 , you have
z1z 2  r1r2 关cos共1  2兲  i sin共1  2兲兴.
This establishes the first part of the next theorem. The proof of the second part is left to
you. (See Exercise 75.)

THEOREM 8.4 Product and Quotient of Two Complex Numbers

Given two complex numbers in polar form
z1  r1共cos 1  i sin 1兲 and z2  r2共cos 2  i sin 2 兲
the product and quotient of the numbers are as follows.
z1z2  r1r2 关cos共1  2兲  i sin共1  2兲兴 Product
z1 r1
z 2  r2 关cos共1  2兲  i sin共1  2兲兴, z2  0 Quotient

LINEAR Elliptic curves are the foundation for elliptic curve

ALGEBRA cryptography (ECC), a type of public key cryptography for
APPLIED secure communications over the Internet. ECC has gained
popularity due to its computational and bandwidth
advantages over traditional public key algorithms.

One specific variety of elliptic curve is formed using

Eisenstein integers. Eisenstein integers are complex
1 冪3
numbers of the form z  a  b , where    i,
2 2
and a and b are integers. These numbers can be graphed
as intersection points of a triangular lattice in the complex
plane. Dividing the complex plane by the lattice of all
Eisenstein integers results in an elliptic curve.
thumb/Shutterstock.com
 8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem 407

Theorem 8.4 says that to multiply two complex numbers in polar form, multiply
moduli and add arguments. To divide two complex numbers, divide moduli and subtract
arguments. (See Figure 8.9.)
Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis

z1z2 z2 z1 z2
θ1 + θ 2 r r2 r1 z1
2
z1 z2
r1r2 θ2 r1 r1 θ2 r2
θ1
θ1 θ1 − θ 2
Real Real
axis axis

To multiply z1 and z2 : To divide z1 and z2 :

Multiply moduli and add arguments. Divide moduli and subtract arguments.
Figure 8.9

Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form

Find z1z2 and z1兾z2 for the complex numbers

   
冢
z1  5 cos
4
 i sin
4 冣 and z2 
1
3 冢
cos  i sin .
6 6 冣
SOLUTION
Because z1 and z2 are in polar form, apply Theorem 8.4, as follows.
multiply

    5 5
冢3冣 冤cos冢 4  6 冣  i sin冢 4  6 冣冥  3 冢cos 12  i sin 12 冣
1 5
z1z2  共5兲

add add
divide

     
冤 冢 冣 冢 冣冥  15冢cos 12  i sin 12冣
z1 5
 cos   i sin 
z2 1兾3 4 6 4 6
subtract subtract

Use the standard forms of z1 and z2 to check the multiplication in Example 3.

For instance,

冢5 2 2  5 2 2 i冣冢 63  16 i冣  5126  5122 i  5126 i  5122 i

冪 冪 冪 冪 冪 冪 冪
z1z2  2

5冪6  5冪2 5冪6  5冪2

  i
12 12
5 冪6  冪2 冪6  冪2
REMARK

3 4冢 
4
i . 冣
Try verifying the division in To verify that this answer is equivalent to the result in Example 3, use the formulas for
Example 3 using the standard cos 共u  v兲 and sin 共u  v兲 to obtain
forms of z1 and z2.

冢512冣  cos冢6  4 冣  冢512冣  sin冢6  4 冣 

冪6  冪2 冪6  冪2
cos and sin .
4 4
408 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM
The final topic in this section involves procedures for finding powers and roots of
complex numbers. Repeated use of multiplication in the polar form yields
z  r 共cos   i sin 兲
z 2  r 共cos   i sin 兲r 共cos   i sin 兲
 r 2共cos 2  i sin 2兲
and
z3  r 共cos   i sin 兲r 2 共cos 2  i sin 2兲
 r 3共cos 3  i sin 3兲.
Similarly,
z4  r 4共cos 4  i sin 4兲
and
z 5  r 5共cos 5  i sin 5兲.
This pattern leads to the next important theorem, named after the French mathematician
Abraham DeMoivre (1667–1754). You are asked to prove this theorem in Review
Exercise 85.

THEOREM 8.5 DeMoivre’s Theorem

If z  r 共cos   i sin 兲 and n is any positive integer, then
zn  r n共cos n  i sin n兲.

Raising a Complex Number

to an Integer Power
Find 共1  冪3 i兲 and write the result in standard form.
12

SOLUTION
First convert to polar form. For 1  冪3i,
冪3
r  冪共1兲2  共冪3 兲2  2 and tan     冪3
1
which implies that   2兾3. So,
2 2
1  冪3i  2 cos 冢 3
 i sin
3 冣
.

By DeMoivre’s Theorem,
2 2 12
共1  冪3i兲12  冤 2冢cos 3
 i sin
3 冣冥
共  兲 12共2兲
冤 冥
12 2
 212 cos  i sin
3 3
 4096共cos 8  i sin 8兲
 4096 关1  i 共0兲兴
 4096.
 8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem 409

Recall that a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is that a

polynomial of degree n has n zeros in the complex number system. So, a polynomial
such as p共x兲  x6  1 has six zeros, and in this case you can find the six zeros by
factoring and using the Quadratic Formula.
x6  1  共x3  1兲共x3  1兲
 共x  1兲共x 2  x  1兲共x  1兲共x 2  x  1兲
Consequently, the zeros are
1 ± 冪3i 1 ± 冪3i
x  ± 1, x , and x .
2 2
Each of these numbers is called a sixth root of 1. In general, the nth root of a complex
number is defined as follows.

Definition of the nth Root of a Complex Number

The complex number w  a  bi is an nth root of the complex number z when
z  w n  共a  bi兲n.

DeMoivre’s Theorem is useful in determining roots of complex numbers. To see

how this is done, let w be an nth root of z, where
w  s共cos   i sin 兲 and z  r 共cos   i sin 兲.
Then, by DeMoivre’s Theorem
w n  s n共cos n  i sin n兲
and because w n  z, it follows that
s n 共cos n  i sin n兲  r 共cos   i sin 兲.
Now, because the right and left sides of this equation represent equal complex numbers,
equate moduli to obtain s n  r, which implies that s  冪 n
r, and equate principal
arguments to conclude that  and n must differ by a multiple of 2. Note that r is a
positive real number and so s  冪 n r is also a positive real number. Consequently, for

some integer k, n    2k, which implies that

  2 k
 .
n
REMARK
Finally, substituting this value of  into the polar form of w produces the result stated
Note that when k exceeds in the next theorem.
n  1, the roots begin to
repeat. For instance, when
k  n, the angle is
THEOREM 8.6 The nth Roots of a Complex Number
  2n 
  2 For any positive integer n, the complex number z  r 共cos   i sin 兲 has
n n
exactly n distinct roots. These n roots are given by
which yields the same values
  2 k   2 k
for the sine and cosine as
k  0.
冪 冤 冢
n r cos
n 冣
 i sin
n 冢 冣冥
where k  0, 1, 2, . . . , n  1.
410 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Imaginary The formula for the nth roots of a complex Imaginary

axis axis
number has a nice geometric interpretation, as
shown in Figure 8.10. Because the nth roots all −1 + 3i 1+ 3
i
2 2 2 2
have the same modulus (length) 冪 n r, they lie on a
2π
n circle of radius 冪r with center at the origin.
n
n
r 2π Furthermore, the n roots are equally spaced −1 1
n Real Real
axis around the circle, because successive nth roots axis
have arguments that differ by 2兾n.
You have already found the sixth roots of 1 by
factoring and the Quadratic Formula. Try solving
the same problem using Theorem 8.6 to get the −1 − 3i 1− 3
i
2 2 2 2
The nth Roots of a
roots shown in Figure 8.11. When Theorem 8.6 is The Sixth Roots of Unity
Complex Number applied to the real number 1, the nth roots have a
Figure 8.11
special name—the nth roots of unity.
Figure 8.10

Finding the nth Roots of a Complex Number

Determine the fourth roots of i.

SOLUTION
In polar form,
 
冢
i  1 cos
2
 i sin
2 冣
so r  1 and   兾2. Then, by applying Theorem 8.6,

i1兾4  冪 冤 冢4兾2  2k4冣  i sin冢4兾2  2k4冣冥

4 1 cos

 k  k
 cos冢  冣  i sin冢  冣.
8 2 8 2
Setting k  0, 1, 2, and 3,
 
z1  cos  i sin
8 8
5 5
z 2  cos  i sin
8 8
9 9
z3  cos  i sin
8 8
13 13
z4  cos  i sin
8 8
as shown in Figure 8.12.
REMARK
In Figure 8.12, note that when Imaginary
axis
each of the four angles
cos 5π + i sin 5π
兾8, 5兾8, 9兾8, and 13兾8 is 8 8
multiplied by 4, the result is of
the form 共兾2兲  2k. cos π + i sin π
8 8
Real
axis

cos 9π + i sin 9π
8 8
cos 13π + i sin 13π
8 8
Figure 8.12
 8.3 Exercises 411

8.3 Exercises
Converting to Polar Form In Exercises 1–4, express Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form In Exercises
the complex number in polar form. 27–34, perform the indicated operation and leave the
1. Imaginary 2. Imaginary result in polar form.
axis axis
   
Real
axis
3
1 + 3i 27. 冤3冢cos 3  i sin 3 冣冥冤4冢cos 6  i sin 6 冣冥
1 2
   
冤 4 冢cos 2  i sin 2 冣冥冤6 冢cos 4  i sin 4 冣冥
2 3
−1 28.
1
29. 关0.5共cos   i sin 兲兴关 0.5共cos 关兴  i sin关兴兲兴
−2 Real
2 − 2i   2 2
冤3冢cos 3  i sin 3 冣冥冤 3 冢cos 冣冥
−1
axis 1
1 2 30.  i sin
3. Imaginary 4. Imaginary 3 3
axis axis 2关cos共2兾3兲  i sin共2兾3兲兴
3i 31.
3
3 4[cos共5兾6兲  i sin共5兾6兲]
2
1 2 cos共5兾3兲  i sin共5兾3兲
−6 Real 32.
axis cos  i sin
−6 −5 −4 − 3 − 2 1
Real 12关cos共兾3兲  i sin共兾3兲兴
−2 33.
−3 −1 1
axis 3关cos共兾6兲  i sin共兾6兲兴
9关cos共3兾4兲  i sin共3兾4兲兴
34.
Graphing and Converting to Polar Form In Exercises 5关cos共 兾4兲  i sin共 兾4兲兴
5–16, represent the complex number graphically, and
give the polar form of the number. (Use the principal Finding Powers of Complex Numbers In Exercises
argument.) 35–44, use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find the indicated
5. 2  2i 6. 2  2i powers of the complex number. Express the result in
standard form.
7. 2共1  3i 兲
冪 8. 52 共冪3  i 兲
35. 共1  i兲 4 36. 共2  2i兲 6
9. 6i 10. 2i
37. 共1  i兲 10 38. 共冪3  i 兲 7
11. 7 12. 4
39. 共1  冪3i 兲
3
13. 3  冪3i 14. 2冪2  i
 
冤5冢cos 9  i sin 9 冣冥
3
15. 1  2i 16. 5  2i 40.

5 5
冤3冢cos 冣冥
Graphing and Converting to Standard Form In 4
Exercises 17–26, represent the complex number 41.  i sin
6 6
graphically, and give the standard form of the number.
5 5
冢cos 冣
10
   i sin
冢 冣
42.
17. 2 cos  i sin 4 4
2 2
 
冤2冢cos 2  i sin 2 冣冥
8
3 3
冢 冣
43.
18. 5 cos  i sin
4 4
3 3
冤冢 冣冥
4
5 5  i sin
冢 冣
3 44. 5 cos
19. cos  i sin 2 2
2 3 3
7 7 Finding Square Roots of a Complex Number In
冢 冣
3
20. cos  i sin Exercises 45–52, find the square roots of the complex
4 4 4
number.
   
冢 冣 冢 冣
15
21. cos  i sin 22. 8 cos  i sin 45. 2i 46. 5i
4 4 4 6 6
47. 3i 48. 6i
3 3 5 5
冢
23. 4 cos
2
 i sin
2 冣 冢
24. 6 cos
6
 i sin
6 冣 49. 2  2i 50. 2  2i
51. 1  冪3i 52. 1  冪3 i
25. 7共cos 0  i sin 0兲 26. 9共cos   i sin 兲
412 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Finding and Graphing nth Roots In Exercises 53–64, 75. Proof When provided with two complex numbers
(a) use Theorem 8.6 to find the indicated roots, (b) z 1  r1共cos  1  i sin  1兲 and z 2  r2共cos  2  i sin  2 兲,
represent each of the roots graphically, and (c) express with z 2  0, prove that
each of the roots in standard form. z1 r1
  z  r 关cos共 1   2兲  i sin共 1   2兲兴.
冢 冣
2 2
53. Square roots: 16 cos  i sin
3 3 76. Proof Show that the complex conjugate of
2 2 z  r共cos   i sin 兲 is
54. Square roots: 9 cos 冢 3
 i sin
3 冣 z  r 关cos共 兲  i sin共 兲兴.
4 4 77. Use the polar forms of z and z in Exercise 76 to find
55. Fourth roots: 16 cos 冢 3
 i sin
3 冣 each of the following.
(a) zz
5 5
56. Fifth roots: 32 cos 冢 6
 i sin
6 冣 (b) z兾z, z  0
78. Proof Show that the negative of z  r共cos   i sin 兲
57. Square roots: 25i
is
58. Fourth roots: 625i
z  r 关cos共  兲  i sin共  兲兴.
59. 2 共1  冪3i兲
Cube roots:  125
79. Writing
60. Cube roots: 4冪2 共1  i兲
 
61. Cube roots: 8 (a) Let z  r共cos   i sin 兲  2 cos冢
6
 i sin .
6 冣
62. Fourth roots: 81i Sketch z, iz, and z兾i in the complex plane.
63. Fourth roots: 1 (b) What is the geometric effect of multiplying a
64. Cube roots: 1000 complex number z by i? What is the geometric
effect of dividing z by i?
Finding and Graphing Solutions In Exercises 65–72, 80. Calculus Recall that the Maclaurin series for e x,
find all the solutions of the equation and represent your sin x, and cos x are
solutions graphically.
x 2 x3 x 4 . . .
65. x 4  256i  0 66. x 4  16i  0 ex  1  x    
2! 3! 4!
67. x 3  1  0 68. x3  27  0
x 3 x5 x 7 . . .
69. x  243  0
5 70. x 4  81  0 sin x  x    
3! 5! 7!
71. x 3  64i  0 72. x 4  i  0
x 2 x 4 x6 . . .
cos x  1     .
73. Electrical Engineering In an electric circuit, the 2! 4! 6!
formula V  I  Z relates voltage drop V, current I, and (a) Substitute x  i in the series for ex and show that
impedance Z, where complex numbers can represent ei  cos   i sin .
each of these quantities. Find the impedance when the (b) Show that any complex number z  a  bi can be
voltage drop is 5  5i and the current is 2  4i. expressed in polar form as z  rei.
(c) Prove that if z  rei, then z  rei.
74. Use the graph of the roots of a
(d) Prove the formula ei  1.
complex number.
(a) Write each of the roots in trigonometric form. True or False? In Exercises 81 and 82, determine
(b) Identify the complex number whose roots are whether each statement is true or false. If a statement is
given. Use a graphing utility to verify your results. true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from
the text. If a statement is false, provide an example that
(i) Imaginary (ii) Imaginary
axis axis shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
appropriate statement from the text.
3 3 81. Although the square of the complex number bi is given
2 2
30° 30° Real 45° 45° Real by 共bi兲2  b2, the absolute value of the complex

−1
2 1 axis
45°
3 3
45° axis
ⱍ ⱍ
number z  a  bi is defined as a  bi  冪a2  b2.
82. Geometrically, the nth roots of any complex number z
are all equally spaced around the unit circle centered at
the origin.
 8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products 413

8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products

Recognize and perform vector operations in complex vector spaces
C n, represent a vector in C n by a basis, and find the Euclidean
inner product, Euclidean norm, and Euclidean distance in C n.
Recognize complex inner product spaces.

COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

All the vector spaces studied so far in the text have been real vector spaces because the
scalars have been real numbers. A complex vector space is one in which the scalars are
complex numbers. So, if v1, v2, . . . , vm are vectors in a complex vector space, then a
linear combination is of the form
c1v1  c 2v2      cmvm
where the scalars c1, c2, . . . , cm are complex numbers. The complex version of Rn is
the complex vector space C n consisting of ordered n-tuples of complex numbers. So,
a vector in C n has the form
v  共a1  b1i, a 2  b 2i, . . . , an  bni 兲.
It is also convenient to represent vectors in C n by column matrices of the form

冤 冥
a1  b1i
a bi
v  2 .. 2 .
.
an  bni
As with R n, the operations of addition and scalar multiplication in C n are performed
component by component.

Vector Operations in C n

Let
v  共1  2i, 3  i兲 and u  共2  i, 4兲
be vectors in the complex vector space C 2. Determine each vector.
a. v  u
b. 共2  i兲v
c. 3v  共5  i兲u

SOLUTION
a. In column matrix form, the sum v  u is
1  2i 2  i 1  3i
vu 冤
3i
 冥 冤 4
 冥 冤
7i
. 冥
b. Because 共2  i兲共1  2i兲  5i and 共2  i兲共3  i兲  7  i,
共2  i 兲v  共2  i 兲共1  2i, 3  i 兲
 共5i, 7  i 兲.
c. 3v  共5  i兲u  3共1  2i, 3  i兲  共5  i兲共2  i, 4兲
 共3  6i, 9  3i兲  共9  7i, 20  4i兲
 共12  i, 11  i兲
414 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Many of the properties of R n are shared by C n. For instance, the scalar multiplicative
identity is the scalar 1 and the additive identity in C n is 0  共0, 0, 0, . . . , 0兲. The
standard basis for C n is simply
e1  共1, 0, 0, . . . , 0兲
e 2  共0, 1, 0, . . . , 0兲
.
.
.
en  共0, 0, 0, . . . , 1兲
which is the standard basis for Rn. Because this basis contains n vectors, it follows that
the dimension of C n is n. Other bases exist; in fact, any linearly independent set of n
vectors in C n can be used, as demonstrated in Example 2.

Verifying a Basis

Show that S  再v1, v2, v3冎  再共i, 0, 0兲, 共i, i, 0兲, 共0, 0, i兲冎 is a basis for C 3.
SOLUTION
Because the dimension of C 3 is 3, the set 再v1, v2, v3冎 will be a basis if it is linearly
independent. To check for linear independence, set a linear combination of the vectors
in S equal to 0, as follows.
c1v1  c2v2  c3v3  共0, 0, 0兲
共c1i, 0, 0兲  共c2i, c2i, 0兲  共0, 0, c3i兲  共0, 0, 0兲
共共c1  c2 兲i, c2i, c3i兲  共0, 0, 0兲
This implies that
共c1  c 2 兲i  0
c2i  0
c3i  0.
So, c1  c2  c3  0, and 再v1, v2, v3冎 is linearly independent.

Representing a Vector in C n by a Basis

Use the basis S in Example 2 to represent the vector v  共2, i, 2  i兲.

SOLUTION
By writing
v  c1v1  c2v2  c3v3
 共共c1  c 2 兲 i, c2i, c3i兲
 共2, i, 2  i兲
you can obtain
共c1  c 2 兲 i  2
c2i  i
c3i  2  i
which implies that
REMARK
2i 2i
Try verifying that this linear c2  1, c1   1  2i, and c3   1  2i.
combination yields 共2, i, 2  i 兲. i i
So, v  共1  2i兲v1  v2  共1  2i兲v3.
 8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products 415

Other than C n, there are several additional examples of complex vector spaces.
For instance, the set of m n complex matrices with matrix addition and scalar
multiplication forms a complex vector space. Example 4 describes a complex vector
space in which the vectors are functions.

The Space of Complex-Valued Functions

Consider the set S of complex-valued functions of the form

f共x兲  f1共x兲  if 2共x兲
where f1 and f2 are real-valued functions of a real variable. The set of complex numbers
forms the scalars for S, and vector addition is defined by
f共x兲  g共x兲  关f1共x兲  if 2共x兲兴  关g1(x兲  i g2共x兲兴
 关f1共x兲  g1共x兲兴  i 关f 2共x兲  g2共x兲兴.
It can be shown that S, scalar multiplication, and vector addition form a complex
vector space. For instance, to show that S is closed under scalar multiplication, let
c  a  bi be a complex number. Then
cf共x兲  共a  bi兲关f1共x兲  if 2共x兲兴
 关af1共x兲  bf 2共x兲兴  i 关bf1共x兲  af 2共x兲兴
is in S.

The definition of the Euclidean inner product in C n is similar to the standard dot
product in R n, except that here the second factor in each term is a complex conjugate.
REMARK
Note that if u and v happen to
be “real,” then this definition Definition of the Euclidean Inner Product in C n
agrees with the standard inner
(or dot) product in Rn. Let u and v be vectors in C n. The Euclidean inner product of u and v is given by
u  v  u1v1  u2v2      unvn.

Finding the Euclidean Inner Product in C 3

Determine the Euclidean inner product of the vectors

u  共2  i, 0, 4  5i兲 and v  共1  i, 2  i, 0兲.
SOLUTION
u  v  u1v1  u2v2  u 3v3
 共2  i兲共1  i兲  0共2  i兲  共4  5i兲共0兲
3i

Several properties of the Euclidean inner product C n are stated in the following theorem.

THEOREM 8.7 Properties of the Euclidean Inner Product

Let u, v, and w be vectors in C n and let k be a complex number. Then the
following properties are true.
1. u  v  v  u 2. 共u  v兲  w  u  w  v  w
3. 共ku兲  v  k共u  v兲 4. u  共kv兲  k共u  v兲
5. u  u  0 6. u  u  0 if and only if u  0.
416 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

PROOF
The proof of the first property is shown below, and the proofs of the remaining
properties have been left to you (see Exercises 59–63). Let
u  共u1, u 2, . . . , un 兲 and v  共v1, v2, . . . , vn 兲.
Then
v  u  v1u1  v2u2  . . .  vn un
 v1u1  v2u2  . . .  vnun
 v1u1  v2u 2  . . .  vnun
 u1v1  u2v2      unvn
 u  v.

The Euclidean inner product in C n is used to define the Euclidean norm (or length)
of a vector in C n and the Euclidean distance between two vectors in C n.

Definitions of the Euclidean Norm and Distance in C n

The Euclidean norm (or length) of u in C n is denoted by 储u储 and is
储u储  共u  u兲1兾2.
The Euclidean distance between u and v is
d共u, v兲  储u  v储 .

The Euclidean norm and distance may be expressed in terms of components, as

follows (see Exercise 51).

ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
储u储  共 u1 2  u2 2  . . .  u n 2兲1兾2
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
d共u, v兲  共 u1  v1 2  u 2  v2 2  . . .  un  vn 2兲1兾2 ⱍ
Finding the Euclidean Norm and Distance in C n

Let u  共2  i, 0, 4  5i兲 and v  共1  i, 2  i, 0兲.

a. Find the norms of u and v. b. Find the distance between u and v.
SOLUTION
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
a. 储u储  共 u1 2  u 2 2  u 3 2兲1兾2
 关共22  12兲  共02  02兲  共42  共5兲 2兲兴1兾2
 共5  0  41兲1兾2
 冪46

ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
储v储  共 v1 2  v2 2  v3 2兲1兾2
 关共12  12兲  共22  12兲  共02  02兲兴1兾2
 共2  5  0兲1兾2
 冪7

b. d共u, v兲  储u  v储
 储共1, 2  i, 4  5i兲储
 关共12  02兲  共共2兲2  共1兲2兲  共42  共5兲2兲兴1兾2
 共1  5  41兲1兾2
 冪47
 8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products 417

COMPLEX INNER PRODUCT SPACES

The Euclidean inner product is the most commonly used inner product in C n. On occasion,
however, it is useful to consider other inner products. To generalize the notion of an
inner product, use the properties listed in Theorem 8.7.

Definition of a Complex Inner Product

Let u and v be vectors in a complex vector space. A function that associates u
and v with the complex number 具u, v典 is called a complex inner product when
it satisfies the following properties.
1. 具u, v典  具v, u典
2. 具u  v, w典  具u, w典  具v, w典
3. 具ku, v典  k具u, v典
4. 具u, u典  0 and 具u, u典  0 if and only if u  0.

A complex vector space with a complex inner product is called a complex inner
product space or unitary space.

A Complex Inner Product Space

Let u  共u1, u2兲 and v  共v1, v2兲 be vectors in the complex space C 2. Show that the
function defined by
具u, v典  u1v1  2u2v2
is a complex inner product.
SOLUTION
Verify the four properties of a complex inner product, as follows.
1. 具v, u典  v1u1  2v2u2  u1v1  2u2v2  具u, v典
2. 具u  v, w典  共u1  v1兲 w1  2共u2  v2兲w2
 共u1w1  2u 2w2 兲  共v1w1  2v2w2 兲
 具u, w典  具v, w典
3. 具ku, v典  共ku1兲v1  2共ku 2 兲v2  k 共u1v1  2u2v2 兲  k 具u, v典
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
4. 具u, u典  u1u1  2u2 u2  u1 2  2 u2 2  0
Moreover, 具u, u典  0 if and only if u1  u2  0.
Because all the properties hold, 具u, v典 is a complex inner product.

LINEAR Complex vector spaces and inner products have an important

ALGEBRA application called the Fourier transform, which decomposes
APPLIED a function into a sum of orthogonal basis functions. The given
function is projected onto the standard basis functions
for varying frequencies to get the Fourier amplitudes for
each frequency. Like Fourier coefficients and the Fourier
approximation, this transform is named after the French
mathematician Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768 –1830).

The Fourier transform is integral to the study of signal

processing. To understand the basic premise of this
transform, imagine striking two piano keys simultaneously.
Your ear receives only one signal, the mixed sound of the
two notes, and yet your brain is able to separate the notes.
The Fourier transform gives a mathematical way to take a
signal and separate out its frequency components.
Eliks/Shutterstock.com
418 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.4 Exercises
Vector Operations In Exercises 1– 8, perform the Finding the Euclidean Norm In Exercises 27–34,
indicated operation using determine the Euclidean norm of v.
u ⴝ 冇i, 3 ⴚ i冈, v ⴝ 冇2 ⴙ i, 3 ⴙ i兲, and w ⴝ 冇4i, 6冈. 27. v  共i, i兲 28. v  共1, 0兲
1. 3u 2. 4iw 29. v  3共6  i, 2  i兲 30. v  共2  3i, 2  3i兲
3. 共1  2i兲w 4. iv  3w 31. v  共1, 2  i, i兲 32. v  共0, 0, 0兲
5. u  共2  i兲v 6. 共6  3i兲v  共2  2i兲w 33. v  共1  2i, i, 3i, 1  i兲
7. u  iv  2iw 8. 2iv  共3  i兲w  u 34. v  共2, 1  i, 2  i, 4i兲

Linear Dependence or Independence In Exercises Finding the Euclidean Distance In Exercises 35–40,
9–12, determine whether the set of vectors is linearly determine the Euclidean distance between u and v.
independent or linearly dependent. 35. u  共1, 0兲, v  共i, i兲
9. 再共1, i兲, 共i, 1兲冎 36. u  共2  i, 4, i兲, v  共2  i, 4, i兲
10. 再共1  i, 1  i, 1兲, 共i, 0, 1兲, 共2, 1  i, 0兲冎 37. u  共i, 2i, 3i兲, v  共0, 1, 0兲
11. 再共1, i, 1  i兲, 共0, i, i兲, 共0, 0, 1兲冎 38. u  共冪2, 2i, i兲, v  共i, i, i兲
12. 再共1  i, 1  i, 0兲, 共1  i, 0, 0兲, 共0, 1, 1兲冎 39. u  共1, 0兲, v  共0, 1兲
Verifying a Basis In Exercises 13 –16, determine 40. u  共1, 2, 1, 2i兲, v  共i, 2i, i, 2兲
whether S is a basis for C n.
Complex Inner Products In Exercises 41–44, determine
13. S  再共1, i兲, 共i, 1兲冎 whether the function is a complex inner product, where
14. S  再共1, i兲, 共i, 1兲冎 u ⴝ 冇u1, u2冈 and v ⴝ 冇v1, v2冈.
15. S  再共i, 0, 0兲, 共0, i, i兲, 共0, 0, 1兲冎 41. 具u, v典  u1  u2v2
16. S  再共1  i, 0, 1兲, 共2, i, 1  i兲, 共1  i, 1, 1兲冎 42. 具u, v典  共u1  v1兲  2共u2  v2兲
43. 具u, v典  4u1v1  6u2v2
Representing a Vector by a Basis In Exercises 17–20,
express v as a linear combination of each of the following 44. 具u, v典  u1v1  u2v2
basis vectors.
Finding Complex Inner Products In Exercises 45–48,
(a) {冇i, 0, 0冈, 冇i, i, 0冈, 冇i, i, i冈} use the inner product 具u, v典 ⴝ u1v1 ⴙ 2u2v2 to find
(b) {冇1, 0, 0冈, 冇1, 1, 0冈, 冇0, 0, 1 ⴙ i冈冎 具u, v典.
17. v  共1, 2, 0兲 18. v  共1  i, 1  i, 3兲 45. u  共2i, i兲 and v  共i, 4i兲
19. v  共i, 2  i, 1兲 20. v  共i, i, i兲 46. u  共3  i, i兲 and v  共2  i, 2i兲
47. u  共2  i, 2  i兲 and v  共3  i, 3  2i兲
Finding Euclidean Inner Products In Exercises 21 and
22, determine the Euclidean inner product u  v. 48. u  共4  2i, 3兲 and v  共2  3i, 2兲
21. u  共i, 2i, 1  i兲 22. u  共4  i, i, 0兲 Finding Complex Inner Products In Exercises 49 and
v  共3i, 0, 1  2i兲 v  共1  3i, 2, 1  i兲 50, use the inner product
具u, v典 ⴝ u11v11  u12v12  u21v21  u22v22
Properties of Euclidean Inner Products In Exercises
23–26, let u ⴝ 冇1 ⴚ i, 3i兲, v ⴝ 冇2i, 2 ⴙ i冈, w ⴝ 冇1 ⴙ i, 0冈, where
and k ⴝ ⴚi. Evaluate the expressions in parts (a) and (b)
to verify that they are equal. [
u ⴝ 11
u u12
u21 u22 ] and v ⴝ 11
v
[ v12
v21 v22 ]
23. (a) u  v 24. (a) 共u  v兲  w to find 具u, v典.
(b) v  u (b) u  w  v  w 1  2i
冤 冥 冤 冥
0 i 1
49. u  v
25. (a) 共ku兲  v 26. (a) u  共kv兲 1 2i 0 i
(b) k共u  v兲 (b) k 共u  v兲 2i
冤1  1i 冥 冤3ii 冥
2i
50. u  v
0 1
 8.4 Exercises 419

51. Let u  共a1  b1i, a2  b2i, . . . , an  bn i兲. Finding an Image and a Preimage In Exercises 67–70,
(a) Use the definitions of Euclidean norm and Euclidean the linear transformation T : C m → C n is shown by
inner product to show that T冇v冈 ⴝ Av. Find the image of v and the preimage of w.
1i
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
储u储  共 u1 2  u2 2  . . .  un 2兲1兾2. 67. A  冤
1 0
i i
, v 冥
1i 冤
, w
0
0 冥 冤冥
(b) Use the results of part (a) to show that
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
冤 冥
i
d共u, v兲  共 u1  v1 2  u2  v2 2
冤 冥 冤冥
0 i 1 1
68. A  , v 0 , w
ⱍ ⱍ
 . . .  un  vn 2兲1兾2. i 0 0
1i
1

冤 冥 冤 冥 冤冥
1 0 2
52. The complex Euclidean inner 2i
69. A  i 0 , v , w  2i
product of u and v is sometimes called the 3  2i
i i 3i
complex dot product. Compare the properties of

冤 冥 冤冥 冤 冥
the complex dot product in C n and those of the dot 0 1 1 2 1i
product in R n. 70. A  i i 1 , v  5 , w  1  i
0 i 0 0 i
(a) Which properties are the same? Which properties
are different? 71. Find the kernel of the linear transformation in Exercise 68.
(b) Explain the reasons for the differences. 72. Find the kernel of the linear transformation in Exercise 69.

Finding an Image In Exercises 73 and 74, find the

53. Let v1  共i, 0, 0兲 and v2  共i, i, 0兲. If v3  共z1, z2, z3兲
image of v ⴝ 冇i, i冈 for the indicated composition, where
and the set 再v1, v2, v3冎 is not a basis for C 3, what does
T1 and T2 are the matrices below.
this imply about z1, z2, and z3?
ⴚi
54. Let v1  共i, i, i兲 and v2  共1, 0, 1兲. Determine a vector
v3 such that 再v1, v2, v3冎 is a basis for C 3.
T1 ⴝ [ ]
0 i
i 0
and T2 ⴝ
i ⴚi[i
]
73. T2  T1 74. T1  T2
Properties of Complex Inner Products In Exercises
55–58, verify the statement using the properties of a 75. Determine which of the sets below are subspaces of the
complex inner product. vector space of 2 2 complex matrices.
55. 具u, kv  w典  k具u, v典  具u, w典 (a) The set of 2 2 symmetric matrices.
56. 具u, 0典  0 (b) The set of 2 2 matrices A satisfying 共 A 兲T  A.
57. 具u, v典  具u, v典  具v, 2u典 (c) The set of 2 2 matrices in which all entries are
58. 具u, kv典  k具u, v典 real.
(d) The set of 2 2 diagonal matrices.
Proof In Exercises 59–63, prove the property, where 76. Determine which of the sets below are subspaces of
u, v, and w are vectors in C n and k is a complex number. the vector space of complex-valued functions (see
59. 共u  v兲  w  u  w  v  w Example 4).
60. 共ku兲  v  k共u  v兲 (a) The set of all functions f satisfying f 共i兲  0.
61. u  共kv兲  k 共u  v兲 (b) The set of all functions f satisfying f 共0兲  1.
62. u  u  0 (c) The set of all functions f satisfying f 共i兲  f 共i兲.
63. u  u  0 if and only if u  0.
True or False? In Exercises 77 and 78, determine
64. Writing Let 具u, v典 be a complex inner product and let whether each statement is true or false. If a statement is
k be a complex number. How are 具u, v典 and 具u, kv典 true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from
related? the text. If a statement is false, provide an example that
shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
Finding a Linear Transformation In Exercises 65 and appropriate statement from the text.
66, determine the linear transformation T : C m → C n that 77. Using the Euclidean inner product of u and v in C n,
has the given characteristics. u  v  u1v1  u2v2  . . .  unvn.
65. T共1, 0兲  共2  i, 1兲 78. The Euclidean norm of u in C n denoted by 储u储 is
T共0, 1兲  共0, i兲 共u  u兲2.
66. T共i, 0兲  共2  i, 1兲
T共0, i兲  共0, i兲
420 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices

Find the conjugate transpose A* of a complex matrix A.
Determine if a matrix A is unitary.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian matrix, and
diagonalize a Hermitian matrix.

CONJUGATE TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

Problems involving diagonalization of complex matrices and the associated eigenvalue
problems require the concepts of unitary and Hermitian matrices. These matrices
roughly correspond to orthogonal and symmetric real matrices. In order to define
unitary and Hermitian matrices, the concept of the conjugate transpose of a complex
matrix must first be introduced.

Definition of the Conjugate Transpose of a Complex Matrix

The conjugate transpose of a complex matrix A, denoted by A*, is given by
A*  A T
where the entries of A are the complex conjugates of the corresponding entries
of A.

Note that if A is a matrix with real entries, then A*  AT. To find the conjugate
transpose of a matrix, first calculate the complex conjugate of each entry and then take
the transpose of the matrix, as shown in the following example.

Finding the Conjugate Transpose

of a Complex Matrix
Determine A* for the matrix
3  7i
冤 冥
0
A .
2i 4i
SOLUTION

A 冤3  7i
2i
0
4i
 冥
3  7i
2i 冤
0
4i 冥
3  7i 2i
A*  AT  冤 0 4i 冥
Several properties of the conjugate transpose of a matrix are listed in the following
theorem. The proofs of these properties are straightforward and are left for you to
supply in Exercises 47–50.

THEOREM 8.8 Properties of the Conjugate Transpose

If A and B are complex matrices and k is a complex number, then the following
properties are true.
1. 共A*兲*  A 2. 共A  B兲*  A*  B*
3. 共kA兲*  kA* 4. 共AB兲*  B*A*
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 421

UNITARY MATRICES
Recall that a real matrix A is orthogonal if and only if A1  AT. In the complex
system, matrices having the property that A1  A* are more useful, and such matrices
are called unitary.

Definition of Unitary Matrix

A complex matrix A is unitary when
A1  A*.

A Unitary Matrix

Show that the matrix A is unitary.

1 1i 1i
A 冤
2 1i 1i 冥
SOLUTION
Begin by finding the product AA*.

冤11  ii 1i 1 1i 1i

冥冤 冥
1
AA* 
2 1i 2 1i 1i

冤40 04冥
1

4

冤
0 1冥
1 0

Because

AA*  冤10 01冥  I 2

it follows that A*  A1. So, A is a unitary matrix.

Recall from Section 7.3 that a real matrix is orthogonal if and only if its row
(or column) vectors form an orthonormal set. For complex matrices, this property
characterizes matrices that are unitary. Note that a set of vectors
再v1, v2, . . . , vm冎
in C n (a complex Euclidean space) is called orthonormal when the statements below
are true.
1. 储vi储  1, i  1, 2, . . . , m
2. vi  vj  0, i  j
The proof of the next theorem is similar to the proof of Theorem 7.8 presented in
Section 7.3.

THEOREM 8.9 Unitary Matrices

An n n complex matrix A is unitary if and only if its row (or column) vectors
form an orthonormal set in C n.
422 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

The Row Vectors of a Unitary Matrix

Show that the complex matrix A is unitary by showing that its set of row vectors forms
an orthonormal set in C 3.

冤 冥
1 1i 1

2 2 2
i i 1
A 
冪3 冪3 冪3
5i 3i 4  3i
2冪15 2冪15 2冪15
SOLUTION
Let r1, r2, and r3 be defined as follows.
1 1i 1
冢 2, 冣 冢 冣
i i 1
r1  ,  , r2   , , ,
2 2 冪3 冪3 冪3
3  i 4  3i
冢2冪15, 2冪15, 冣
5i
r3 
2冪15
Begin by showing that r1, r2 , and r3 are unit vectors.
1i
冤 冢2冣冢2冣  冢 冣冢1 2 i冣  冢 12冣冢 21冣冥 冤 4  42  14冥
1 1 1兾2 1 1兾2
储r1储   1
2

冤冢 冪i 3冣冢 冪i 3冣  冢冪i 3冣冢冪i 3冣  冢冪13冣冢冪13冣冥

1兾2
储r2 储 

冤   冥
1 1 1 1兾2

3 3 3
1

冤冢2冪5i15冣冢2冪5i15冣  冢23冪15i 冣冢23冪15i 冣  冢42冪153i冣冢42冪153i冣冥

1兾2
储r3储 

冤 
60 60 60冥
25 10 25 1兾2


1
Then show that all pairs of distinct vectors are orthogonal.
1i
 r2  冢 2 冣冢 冪3 冣  冢 冣冢 冣 冢 冣冢冪13冣
1 i i
1
r1  
2 冪3 2
i i 1 1
   
2冪3 2冪3 2冪3 2冪3
0
1i 3i
r1  r3  冢 2 冣冢
5i
2冪15
1

2 2冪15
  冣 冢
1
2 冣冢 冣 冢 冣冢42冪153i冣
5i 4  2i 4  3i
  
4冪15 4冪15 4冪15
0

REMARK
r2  r3  冢 冪
i
3 冣冢2冪5i15冣  冢冪i 3冣冢23冪15i 冣  冢冪13冣冢42冪153i冣
Try showing that the column 5 1  3i 4  3i
  
vectors of A also form an 6冪5 6冪5 6冪5
orthonormal set in C 3. 0
So, 再r1, r2, r3冎 is an orthonormal set.
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 423

HERMITIAN MATRICES
A real matrix is symmetric when it is equal to its own transpose. In the complex
system, the more useful type of matrix is one that is equal to its own conjugate
transpose. Such a matrix is called Hermitian after the French mathematician Charles
Hermite (1822–1901).

Definition of a Hermitian Matrix

A square matrix A is Hermitian when
A  A*.

As with symmetric matrices, you can recognize Hermitian matrices by inspection.

To see this, consider the 2 2 matrix A.
 a2i b1  b2i
A 冤ac 1

1  c2i d1  d2i 冥
The conjugate transpose of A has the form
A*  A T

冤 冥
a1  a2i c1  c2i

b1  b2i d1  d2i
a  a2i c1  c2i
 1 冤
b1  b2i d1  d2i
. 冥
If A is Hermitian, then A  A*. So, A must be of the form
a1 b1  b2i
A 冤b 1  b2i d1 冥
.

Similar results can be obtained for Hermitian matrices of order n n. In other words,
a square matrix A is Hermitian if and only if the following two conditions are met.
1. The entries on the main diagonal of A are real.
2. The entry aij in the ith row and the jth column is the complex conjugate of the
entry aji in the jth row and the ith column.

Hermitian Matrices

Which matrices are Hermitian?

1 3i 3  2i
a. 冤
3i i 冥 b. 冤3  2i0 4 冥

冤 冥 冤 冥
3 2i 3i 1 2 3
c. 2  i 0 1i d. 2 0 1
3i 1  i 0 3 1 4
SOLUTION
a. This matrix is not Hermitian because it has an imaginary entry on its main diagonal.
b. This matrix is symmetric but not Hermitian because the entry in the first row and
second column is not the complex conjugate of the entry in the second row and first
column.
c. This matrix is Hermitian.
d. This matrix is Hermitian because all real symmetric matrices are Hermitian.
424 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

REMARK One of the most important characteristics of Hermitian matrices is that their
Note that this theorem implies
eigenvalues are real. This is formally stated in the next theorem.
that the eigenvalues of a real
symmetric matrix are real, as
stated in Theorem 7.7. THEOREM 8.10 The Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix
If A is a Hermitian matrix, then its eigenvalues are real numbers.

PROOF
Let  be an eigenvalue of A and let
a1  b1i

冤 冥
a bi
v 2 . 2
..
an  bni
be its corresponding eigenvector. If both sides of the equation Av  v are multiplied
by the row vector v*, then
v*Av  v*共v兲  共v*v兲  共a12  b12  a22  b22  . . .  an2  bn2兲.
Furthermore, because
共v*Av兲*  v*A*共v*兲*  v*Av
it follows that v*Av is a Hermitian 1 1 matrix. This implies that v*Av is a real
number, so  is real.

To find the eigenvalues of complex matrices, follow the same procedure as for real
matrices.

Finding the Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix

Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A.

冤 冥
3 2i 3i
A 2i 0 1i
3i 1  i 0
SOLUTION

ⱍ ⱍ
The characteristic polynomial of A is
  3 2  i 3i
ⱍI  Aⱍ  2  i  1  i
3i 1  i 
 共  3兲共2  2兲  共2  i兲关共2  i兲  共3i  3兲兴
 3i 关共1  3i兲  3i兴
 共3  32  2  6兲  共5  9  3i兲  共3i  9  9兲
 3  32  16  12
 共  1兲共  6兲共  2兲.
So, the characteristic equation is 共  1兲共  6兲共  2兲  0, and the eigenvalues of A
are 1, 6, and 2.
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 425

To find the eigenvectors of a complex matrix, use a procedure similar to that used
for a real matrix. For instance, in Example 5, to find the eigenvector corresponding to
the eigenvalue   1, substitute the value for  into the equation

冤 冥冤 冥 冤 冥
  3 2  i 3i v1 0
2  i  1  i v2  0
3i 1  i  v3 0
to obtain

冤 冥冤 冥 冤 冥
4 2  i 3i v1 0
2  i 1 1  i v2  0 .
3i 1  i 1 v3 0
Solve this equation using Gauss-Jordan elimination, or a graphing utility or software
program, to obtain the eigenvector corresponding to 1  1, which is shown below.
TECHNOLOGY
1
Some graphing utilities and
software programs have built-in
programs for finding the
冤 冥
v1  1  2i
1
eigenvalues and corresponding
eigenvectors of complex
Eigenvectors for 2  6 and 3  2 can be found in a similar manner. They are
matrices. 1  21i 1  3i

冤 冥
6  9i
13
and
冤 冥
2  i , respectively.
5

LINEAR Quantum mechanics had its start in the early 20th century
ALGEBRA as scientists began to study subatomic particles and light.
APPLIED Collecting data on energy levels of atoms, and the rates of
transition between levels, they found that atoms could be
induced to more excited states by the absorption of light.
German physicist Werner Heisenburg (1901–1976) laid a
mathematical foundation for quantum mechanics using
matrices. Studying the dispersion of light, he used vectors to
represent energy levels of states and Hermitian matrices to
represent “observables” such as momentum, position, and
acceleration. He noticed that a measurement yields precisely
one real value and leaves the system in precisely one of a set
of mutually exclusive (orthogonal) states. So, the eigenvalues
are the possible values that can result from a measurement
of an observable, and the eigenvectors are the corresponding
states of the system following the measurement.
Let matrix A be a diagonal Hermitian matrix that represents
an observable. Then consider a physical system whose
state is represented by the column vector u. To measure the
value of the observable A in the system of state u, you can
find the product

冤 冥冤 冥
a11 0 0 u1
u*Au  关u1 u2 u3兴 0 a22 0 u2
0 0 a33 u3
 共u1 u1兲a11  共u2 u2兲a22  共u3u3兲a33.

Because A is Hermitian and its values along the diagonal

are real, u*Au is a real number. It represents the average
of the values given by measuring the observable A on a
system in the state u a large number of times.
Jezper/Shutterstock.com
426 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Just as real symmetric matrices are orthogonally diagonalizable, Hermitian

matrices are unitarily diagonalizable. A square matrix A is unitarily diagonalizable
when there exists a unitary matrix P such that
P1AP
is a diagonal matrix. Because P is unitary, P1  P*, so an equivalent statement is
that A is unitarily diagonalizable when there exists a unitary matrix P such that P*AP
is a diagonal matrix. The next theorem states that Hermitian matrices are unitarily
diagonalizable.

THEOREM 8.11 Hermitian Matrices and Diagonalization

If A is an n n Hermitian matrix, then
1. eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
2. A is unitarily diagonalizable.

PROOF
To prove part 1, let v1 and v2 be two eigenvectors corresponding to the distinct (and
real) eigenvalues 1 and 2. Because Av1  1v1 and Av2  2v2, you have the
equations shown below for the matrix product 共Av1兲*v2.
共Av1兲*v2  v1*A*v2  v1*Av2  v1*2v2  2v1*v2
共Av1兲*v2  共1v1兲*v2  v1*1v2  1v1*v2
So,
 2v1*v2  1v1*v2  0
共 2  1兲v1*v2  0
v1*v2  0 because 1 2
and this shows that v1 and v2 are orthogonal. Part 2 of Theorem 8.11 is often called the
Spectral Theorem, and its proof is left to you.

The Eigenvectors of a Hermitian Matrix

The eigenvectors of the Hermitian matrix shown in Example 5 are mutually orthogonal
because the eigenvalues are distinct. Verify this by calculating the Euclidean inner
products v1  v2, v1  v3, and v2  v3. For example,
v1  v2  共1兲共1  21i兲  共1  2i兲共6  9i兲  共1兲共13兲
 共1兲共1  21i兲  共1  2i兲共6  9i兲  13
 1  21i  6  9i  12i  18  13
 0.
The other two inner products v1  v3 and v2  v3 can be shown to equal zero in a
similar manner.

The three eigenvectors in Example 6 are mutually orthogonal because they

correspond to distinct eigenvalues of the Hermitian matrix A. Two or more eigenvectors
corresponding to the same eigenvalue may not be orthogonal. Once any set of linearly
independent eigenvectors is obtained for an eigenvalue, however, the Gram-Schmidt
orthonormalization process can be used to find an orthogonal set.
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 427

Diagonalization of a Hermitian Matrix

Find a unitary matrix P such that P*AP is a diagonal matrix where

冤 冥
3 2i 3i
A 2i 0 1i .
3i 1i 0
SOLUTION
The eigenvectors of A are shown after Example 5. Form the matrix P by normalizing
these three eigenvectors and using the results to create the columns of P.
储v1储  储共1, 1  2i, 1兲储  冪1  5  1  冪7
储v2储  储共1  21i, 6  9i, 13兲储  冪442  117  169  冪728
储v3储  储共1  3i, 2  i, 5兲储  冪10  5  25  冪40
So,

冤 冥
1 1  21i 1  3i

冪7 冪728 冪40
1  2i 6  9i 2  i
P .
冪7 冪728 冪40
1 13 5
冪7 冪728 冪40

Try computing the product P*AP for the matrices A and P in Example 7 to see that
1

冤 冥
0 0
P*AP  0 6 0
0 0 2
where 1, 6, and 2 are the eigenvalues of A.
You have seen that Hermitian matrices are unitarily diagonalizable. It turns out
that there is a larger class of matrices, called normal matrices, that are also unitarily
diagonalizable. A square complex matrix A is normal when it commutes with its
conjugate transpose: AA*  A*A. The main theorem of normal matrices states that
a complex matrix A is normal if and only if it is unitarily diagonalizable. You are asked
to explore normal matrices further in Exercise 56.
The properties of complex matrices described in this section are comparable to the
properties of real matrices discussed in Chapter 7. The summary below indicates the
correspondence between unitary and Hermitian complex matrices when compared with
orthogonal and symmetric real matrices.

Comparison of Symmetric and Hermitian Matrices

A is a symmetric matrix A is a Hermitian matrix
(real) (complex)
1. Eigenvalues of A are real. 1. Eigenvalues of A are real.
2. Eigenvectors corresponding 2. Eigenvectors corresponding
to distinct eigenvalues are to distinct eigenvalues are
orthogonal. orthogonal.
3. There exists an orthogonal 3. There exists a unitary matrix P
matrix P such that such that
PTAP P*AP
is diagonal. is diagonal.
428 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.5 Exercises

冤 冥
Finding the Conjugate Transpose In Exercises 1–4, i i i
determine the conjugate transpose of the matrix. 
冪2 冪3 冪6
i i i i
冤1  2i1 2i
冤 冥 冥
i 16. A 
1. 2. 冪2 冪3 冪6
2 3i 1
i i
0 

冤 冥 冤 冥
0 5  i 冪2i 2 i 冪3 冪6
3. 5i 6 4 4. 5 3i
 冪2i 4 3 0 6i Row Vectors of a Unitary Matrix In Exercises 17–20,
(a) verify that A is unitary by showing that its rows are
Finding the Conjugate Transpose In Exercises 5 and orthonormal, and (b) determine the inverse of A.
6, use a software program or graphing utility to find the

冤 冥 冤 冥
1  i 1  i
4
conjugate transpose of the matrix. 3
i
5 5 2 2
17. A  18. A 

冤 冥
1i 0 1 i 3 4 1 1
2i 1 0 2i 5 5
i
冪2 冪2
5.
1i i 2 4i
i 2i 1 0
19. A 
1
冤 冪3  i
1  冪3i
2冪2 冪3  i 1  冪3i 冥
冤 冥
2i 1 1 2i

冤 冥
0 2i 2i 1i 0 1 0
6.
i 2i i 1 1  i 1i
20. A  0
1  2i 4 0 2i 冪6 冪3
2 1
Non-Unitary Matrices In Exercises 7–10, explain why 0
冪6 冪3
the matrix is not unitary.
Identifying Hermitian Matrices In Exercises 21–26,
冤0 冥 冤i 冥
i 0 1 i
7. A  8. A  determine whether the matrix is Hermitian.
0 1

冤i 0冥 冤0 冥
0 i i 0

冤 冥
1i 0
 i 21. 22.
i
9. A  冪2 冪2

冤 冥 冤 冥
0 1 0 0 2i 1 0 i 1
23. 2  i i 0 24. 2  i i 0

冤 冥
1 1 1i
 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 2 2
i 1 i
10. A   2i 3i
冪3
1
冪3
1
冪3
1i
25. 冤2  1i 2 3i 冥
 

冤 冥
2 2 2 1 冪2  i 5
26. 冪2  i 2 3i
Identifying Unitary Matrices In Exercises 11–16,
5 3i 6
determine whether A is unitary by calculating AA*.

冤11  ii 1i
冤11  ii 1i Finding Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix In
11. A 
1i 冥 12. A 
1i 冥 Exercises 27–32, determine the eigenvalues of the matrix A.

冤i0 0i冥 冤i3 3i冥

冤 冥
i i 27. A  28. A 
冤i0 冥 冪2 冪2
0
13. A  14. A 
i i i 1i 2i
冪2

冪2
29. A  冤1  3i 2 冥 30. A  冤2  0i 4 冥

冤 冥
4 3

冤 冥
 1 4 1i
5 5
15. A  31. A  0 i 3i
3 4
i i 0 0 2i
5 5
 8.5 Exercises 429

冤 冥
i i Unitary Matrices In Exercises 45 and 46, use the result of
2  Exercise 44 to determine a, b, and c such that A is unitary.
冪2 冪2
i

冤 冥
32. A  2 0 6  3i
1 1 1 a
冤 冥
冪2 a
45. A  46. A  冪45
i 冪2 b c 冪2
 0 2 b c
冪2
Proof In Exercises 47–50, prove the formula, where A
Finding Eigenvectors of a Hermitian Matrix In and B are n ⴛ n complex matrices.
Exercises 33 – 36, determine the eigenvectors of the 47. 共A*兲*  A 48. 共A  B兲*  A*  B*
matrix in the indicated exercise.
49. 共kA兲*  kA* 50. 共AB兲*  B*A*
33. Exercise 27 34. Exercise 30
51. Proof Let A be a matrix such that A*  A  O. Prove
35. Exercise 31 36. Exercise 28 that iA is Hermitian.
Diagonalization of a Hermitian Matrix In Exercises 52. Show that det共A兲  det共A兲, where A is a 2 2 matrix.
37–41, find a unitary matrix P that diagonalizes the
Determinants In Exercises 53 and 54, assume that the
matrix A.
result of Exercise 52 is true for matrices of any size.
2i
37. A  冤i0 0i冥 38. A  冤2  0i 冥
4
53. Show that det共A*兲  det共A兲.
ⱍ
54. Prove that if A is unitary, then det共A兲  1. ⱍ

冤 冥
i i
2  55. (a) Prove that every Hermitian matrix A can be written as
冪2 冪2
the sum A  B  iC, where B is a real symmetric
i
39. A  2 0 matrix and C is real and skew-symmetric.
冪2
(b) Use part (a) to write the matrix
i
 0 2
1i
冪2
A 冤1  2i 3 冥
4 2  2i
40. A  冤
2  2i 6 冥 as the sum A  B  iC, where B is a real symmetric
matrix and C is real and skew-symmetric.

冤 冥
1 0 0
(c) Prove that every n n complex matrix A can be
41. A  0 1 1  i
written as A  B  iC, where B and C are
0 1  i 0
Hermitian.
(d) Use part (c) to write the complex matrix
42. Consider the following matrix.
冤2  ii 2
冥
冤 冥
2 3  i 4  i A
1  2i
A 3i 1 1i
4i 1i 3 as the sum A  B  iC, where B and C are
Hermitian.
(a) Is A unitary? Explain.
56. (a) Prove that every Hermitian matrix is normal.
(b) Is A Hermitian? Explain.
(b) Prove that every unitary matrix is normal.
(c) Are the row vectors of A orthonormal? Explain.
(c) Find a 2 2 matrix that is Hermitian, but not unitary.
(d) The eigenvalues of A are distinct. Is it possible
to determine the inner products of the pairs of (d) Find a 2 2 matrix that is unitary, but not
eigenvectors by inspection? If so, state the Hermitian.
value(s). If not, explain why not. (e) Find a 2 2 matrix that is normal, but neither
(e) Is A unitarily diagonalizable? Explain. Hermitian nor unitary.
(f) Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors
of your matrix in part (e).
43. Show that A  In is unitary by computing AA*.
(g) Show that the complex matrix
44. Let z be a complex number with modulus 1. Show that

冤0 i冥
the matrix A is unitary. i 1

冤z 冥
1 z
A
冪2 iz iz is not diagonalizable. Is this matrix normal?
430 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8 Review Exercises
Operations with Complex Numbers In Exercises Converting to Polar Form In Exercises 31– 36,
1–6, perform the operation. determine the polar form of the complex number.
1. Find u  z: u  2  4i, z  4i 31. 4  4i 32. 2  2i
2. Find u  z: u  4, z  8i 33. 冪3  i 34. 1  冪3i
3. Find uz: u  4  2i, z  4  2i 35. 7  4i 36. 3  2i
4. Find uz: u  2i, z  1  2i
Converting to Standard Form In Exercises 37–42,
u find the standard form of the complex number.
5. Find : u  6  2i, z  3  3i
z
 
u
6. Find : u  7  i, z  i
冤 冢 6 冣  i sin冢 6 冣冥
37. 5 cos 
z
 
Finding Zeros In Exercises 7–10, use the given zero to
冤 冢 3 冣  i sin冢 3 冣冥
38. 2 cos 

find all zeros of the polynomial function. 5 5 2 2

7. p共x兲  x 3  2x 2  2x  4 Zero: 冪2i 冢
39. 4 cos
4
 i sin
4 冣 40. 6 cos冢 3
 i sin
3 冣
8. p共x兲  x  2x  4
3 Zero: 1  i 3 3
9. p共x兲  x  x  3x  5x  10
4 3 2 Zero:  冪5i 冢
41. 7 cos
2
 i sin
2 冣 42. 4关cos   i sin 兴

10. p共x兲  x4  x3  x2  3x  6 Zero: 冪3i

Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form In Exercises
Operations with Complex Matrices In Exercises 43–46, perform the indicated operation. Leave the result
11–18, perform the operation using in polar form.
   
Aⴝ
4ⴚi
冤 3 3ⴙi
2
冥
and B ⴝ
1ⴙi
冤
2i 2 ⴙ i
i
. 冥 冤冢
43. 4 cos
2
 i sin
2 冣冥冤3冢cos 6  i sin 6 冣冥
11. A  B 12. A  B    
冤 2 冢cos 2  i sin 2 冣冥冤2 冢cos 冢 2 冣  i sin 冢 2 冣冣冥
1
44.
13. 2iB 14. iA
15. det共A  B兲 16. det共A  B兲 9 关cos共兾2兲  i sin 共兾2兲兴
45.
17. 3BA 18. 2AB 6 关cos共2兾3兲  i sin 共2兾3兲兴
4 关cos 共兾4兲  i sin 共兾4兲兴
Operations with Conjugates and ModuliIn Exercises 46.
19 – 24, perform the operation using w ⴝ 2 ⴚ 2i, 7 关cos 共兾3兲  i sin 共兾3兲兴
v ⴝ 3 ⴙ i, and z ⴝ ⴚ1 ⴙ 2i.
Finding Powers of Complex Numbers In Exercises
19. z 20. v 21. w ⱍ ⱍ 47–50, find the indicated power of the number and
22. vzⱍ ⱍ 23. wv 24. zw ⱍ ⱍ express the result in polar form.
47. 共1  i兲4 48. 共2i兲3
Dividing Complex Numbers In Exercises 25 –28,
   
冤 冢 冣冥 冤冢 冣冥
7 4
perform the indicated operation. 49. 冪2 cos  i sin 50. 5 cos  i sin
6 6 3 3
2i 1i
25. 26.
2i 1  2i Finding Roots of Complex Numbers In Exercises
共1  2i兲共1  2i兲 5  2i 51–54, express the roots in standard form.
27. 28.
3  3i 共2  2i兲共2  3i兲 2 2
51. Square roots: 25 cos 冢 3
 i sin
3 冣
Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix In Exercises
 
29 and 30, find Aⴚ1 (if it exists).
3i 1  2i
52. Cube roots: 27 cos冢 6
 i sin
6 冣
29. A  冤
 23
5 
11
5 i 2  3i 冥 53. Cube roots: i
 
30. A  冤50 1i
i 冥 54. Fourth roots: 16 cos 冢 4
 i sin
4 冣
 Review Exercises 431

Vector Operations in C n

冤 冥
In Exercises 55–58, find the 9 2i 2
indicated vector using u ⴝ 冇4i, 2 ⴙ i冈, v ⴝ 冇3, ⴚi 冈, and 76. 2  i 0 1  i
w ⴝ 冇3 ⴚ i, 4 ⴙ i冈. 2 1  i 3
55. 7u  v 56. 3iw  共4  i兲v
57. iu  iv  iw 58. 共3  2i兲u  共2i兲w Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors In Exercises
77 and 78, find the eigenvalues and corresponding
Finding the Euclidean Norm In Exercises 59 and 60, eigenvectors of the matrix.
determine the Euclidean norm of the vector.

冤 冥
2 0 i
2i
冤 冥
4
59. v  共3  5i, 2i兲 60. v  共3i, 1  5i, 3  2i兲 77. 78. 0 3 0
2i 0
i 0 2
Finding the Euclidean Distance In Exercises 61 and
62, find the Euclidean distance between the vectors. 79. Proof Prove that if A is an invertible matrix, then A*
61. v  共2  i, i兲, u  共i, 2  i兲 is also invertible.
62. v  共2  i, 1  2i, 3i兲, u  共4  2i, 3  2i, 4兲 80. Determine all complex numbers z such that z  z.
81. Proof Prove that if z is a zero of a polynomial
Finding Complex Inner Products In Exercises 63–66,
equation with real coefficients, then the conjugate of z
use the inner product 具u, v典 ⴝ u1v1 ⴙ 2u2v2 to find 具u, v典.
is also a zero.
63. u  共i, 3i兲 and v  共2i, 2i兲
82. (a) Find the determinant of the Hermitian matrix
64. u  共i, 2  i兲 and v  共5  i, i兲

冤 冥
3 2i 3i
65. u  共1  i, 1  2i兲 and v  共2  i, 1  2i兲 2i 0 1i .
66. u  共2  2i, 1兲 and v  共3  4i, 2兲 3i 1i 0
Finding the Conjugate Transpose In Exercises 67–70, (b) Proof Prove that the determinant of any
determine the conjugate transpose of the matrix. Hermitian matrix is real.
1  4i 3  i 83. Proof Let A and B be Hermitian matrices. Prove that
67. A  冤 3i 2i 冥 AB  BA if and only if AB is Hermitian.
84. Proof Let u be a unit vector in C n. Define
冤122ii 2i
68. A 
2  2i 冥 H  I  2uu*. Prove that H is an n n Hermitian and
unitary matrix.

冥
2i 3  2i

冤
5
85. Proof Use mathematical induction to prove
69. A  2  2i 3  2i i DeMoivre’s Theorem.
3i 2i 1  2i
86. Proof Show that if z1  z2 and z1z2 are both nonzero

冤 冥
2 1i i real numbers, then z1 and z2 are both real numbers.
70. A  i 2  2i 0 87. Proof Prove that if z and w are complex numbers,
1 1i 2i then
Identifying Unitary Matrices In Exercises 71–74, ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
zw
z  w.
determine whether the matrix is unitary. 88. Proof Prove that for all vectors u and v in a complex

冤 冥 冤 冥
i  1 2i 1i inner product space,
冪2 冪2 4 4 具u, v典  14 关 储u  v储2  储u  v储2  i储u  iv储2
71. 72.
i 1 i 冪2  i储u  iv储2兴.
冪2 冪2 冪3 冪3
True or False? In Exercises 89 and 90, determine

冤 冥
1 0 1
whether each statement is true or false. If a statement is
冪2 冪2
true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from
冤 冥
1 0
73. 74. 0 i 0 the text. If a statement is false, provide an example that
i i
1i 1  i shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
0
2 2 appropriate statement from the text.
89. A square complex matrix A is called normal if it
Identifying Hermitian Matrices In Exercises 75 and
commutes with its conjugate transpose so that
76, determine whether the matrix is Hermitian.
AA*  A*A.

冤 冥
1 1  i 2  i
90. A square complex matrix A is called Hermitian if
75. 1  i 3 i A  A*.
2i i 4
432 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8 Project

1 Population Growth and Dynamical Systems (II)

In the projects for Chapter 7, you were asked to model the populations of two
species using a system of differential equations of the form
y 1 共t兲  ay1共t兲  by2共t兲
y 2 共t兲  cy1共t兲  dy2共t兲.
The constants a, b, c, and d depend on the particular species being studied. In
Chapter 7, you looked at an example of a predator-prey relationship, in which
a  0.5, b  0.6, c  0.4, and d  3.0. Now consider a slightly different model.
y 1 共t兲  0.6y1共t兲  0.8y2共t兲, y1共0兲  36
y 2 共t兲  0.8y1共t兲  0.6y2共t兲, y2共0兲  121
1. Use the diagonalization technique to find the general solutions y1共t兲 and y2共t兲 at
any time t > 0. Although the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

冤0.8 冥
0.6 0.8
A
0.6
are complex, the same principles apply, and you can obtain complex exponential
solutions.
2. Convert the complex solutions to real solutions by observing that if   a  bi
is a (complex) eigenvalue of A with (complex) eigenvector v, then the real and
imaginary parts of etv form a linearly independent pair of (real) solutions. Use
the formula ei  cos   i sin .
3. Use the initial conditions to find the explicit form of the (real) solutions of the
original equations.
4. If you have access to a graphing utility or software program, graph the solutions
obtained in part 3 over the domain 0
t
3. At what moment are the two
populations equal?
5. Interpret the solution in terms of the long-term population trend for the two
species. Does one species ultimately disappear? Why or why not? Contrast this
solution to that obtained for the model in Chapter 7.
6. If you have access to a graphing utility or software program that can numerically
solve differential equations, use it to graph the solutions of the original system
of equations. Does this numerical approximation appear to be accurate?
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