Dept.

of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

Fac. of Engineering-Universitas Indonesia
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 LECTURE 4

METALS:
ATOMIC BONDING, CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

3 3
Review on Metallic Bonding
“sea of electrons”
+ + + +
• Metals normally has one, two, or three
valence electrons + + + +
• Valence electrons are free to drift
through the entire material forming a + + + + ionic
cores
“sea of electrons” surrounding net
positive ionic cores. These electrons are
+ + + +
delocalized and so are free to move
through the whole structure.
• Non-directional bond

Properties
• good conductors of electricity and
heat
• lustrous appearance
• susceptible to corrosion
• strong, but deformable
 INTERESTING FACT

 When you mention crystal to most people, they think of fine

glassware. Metal is not the first thing that comes to mind. But,
in fact, most metals are crystalline, and it is rather difficult to
make non-crystalline metals. For the latter, it has become a
subject of extensive and intensive research for years of called
amorphous metals/glassy metals/metallic glasses).
LRO vs SRO
Crystalline materials have their atoms arranged in a
periodic, ordered 3D array (long range order, LRO), while
non-crystalline materials just have it in short range order
(SRO).
“METALLIC” CRYSTALS
 Why do metals form crystals? It turns out that the lowest
energy for metal atoms occurs when the atoms are packed
together as tightly as possible. Simple analogy: if you’ve
ever tried to put many small pieces into a large box, you
know that if you put the pieces in the box in an ordered
fashion you can fit much more in the box than if you just
throw things into the box in a disorderly fashion. So, for
metals, ordered structures tend to be nearer the minimum
energy and are more stable.
 In addition, since metallic bonds are non-directional it is
much simpler for metal atoms to densely pack than it is for
ceramics and polymers. So how do metal atoms pack
together?.
WHY ARE METALS GOOD HEAT AND
ELECTRICITY CONDUCTOR?
Delocalized electrons in metallic bonding allow metals to
conduct heat and electricity.
For example, when a metal is
heated, the delocalized electrons
gain kinetic energy.
These electrons then move faster
and so transfer the gained energy
throughout the metal.
This makes heat transfer in
metals very efficient.
Delocalized electrons also
conduct electricity through metals
in a similar way.
heat
WHY ARE METALS STRONG?
Metals are usually strong, not brittle. When a metal is hit,
the layers of metal ions are able to slide over each other,
and so the structure does not shatter.
metal before it is hit metal after it is hit

force force

The metallic bonds do not break because the delocalized

electrons are free to move throughout the structure.
This also explains why metals are malleable (easy to shape)
and ductile (can be drawn into wires).
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE: A MATTER OF PACKING
MODE
Simple Cubic Crystal Structure

 Start by taking four atoms and arranging

them in a square. Then take four more
atoms and arrange them in a square.
Then put the first square on the second
square to form a cube with eight atoms,
one at each corner. This structure is the
simple cubic crystal structure. It turns out
that only the metal Polonium (Po) has
this crystal structure. The reason this
crystal structure is so rare is that packing
atoms in this way does not lead to a very
high packing density.
 In the next section, if we add one atom to
the simple crystal structure, it produces a
crystal structure that is much more
common.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE: A MATTER OF PACKING
MODE
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

Just take the simple cubic crystal structure of eight atoms from the last
section and insert another atom in the center of the cube. This new structure
is referred to as body-centered cubic since it has an atom centered in the
body of the cube. Some examples : α phase of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr),
tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), and molybdenum (Mo).
ATOMIC STRUCTURE: A MATTER OF PACKING
MODE
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
This crystal structure has atoms at each corner of the cube and six atoms
at each face of the cube. By having this structure, the crystal has the atoms
packed as tightly as theoretically possible. Metals that possess face-
centered cubic structure include copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), silver (Ag)
and gold (Au).
ATOMIC STRUCTURE: A MATTER OF PACKING
MODE
Hexagonal Close Packed Crystal Structure (HCP)
Some metals with hexagonal close-packed crystal structures include
cobalt (Co), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and the α phase of titanium (Ti).

• 3D Projection

• 2D Projection
What is an alloy?
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other
element.
Steel is a common example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon
and other elements. Adding other elements to a metal changes its
structure and so changes its properties.
The final alloy may have very
different properties to the
original metal.

By changing the amount of

each element in an alloy,
material scientists can
custom-make alloys to fit a
given job.

Materials Design and

Selection !!
 What other alloys are there?
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of
copper and tin, was commonly used by civilizations before iron
extraction methods were developed.
Other well-known alloys include:
 brass: an alloy of copper and zinc.
It does not tarnish and is used for door knobs,
buttons and musical instruments.

 solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is

used in electronics to attach components
to circuit boards.

 amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or

tin. It is used for dental fillings because it can
be shaped when warm
and resists corrosion.
 LECTURE 5

CAST IRONS AND STEELS

16 16
17

IRON AND STEEL

18
Blast Furnace Operation
In a blast furnace, iron ore is
reduced using coke (carbon)
and air to produce liquid pig
iron. The high-carbon content
in the pig iron is reduced by
introducing oxygen into the
basic oxygen furnace to
produce liquid steel.
An electric arc furnace can
be used to produce liquid
steel by melting scrap.
Blast Furnace Operation

raw materials

hot air

molten molten
iron slag
What is steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon,
nickel and chromium. Steel can contain up to 2% carbon.
Varying the amount of carbon gives steel different properties.

Steel is stronger than pure

iron and can be used for …to suspension bridges!
everything from sauce pans…
Why is steel stronger than iron?
The atoms in pure iron are arranged
in densely-packed layers. These
layers can slide over each other.
This makes pure iron a very soft
material.

The atoms of other elements are

different sizes. When other elements
are added to iron, their atoms distort
the regular structure of the iron
atoms.
It is more difficult for the layers of iron
atoms in steel to slide over each other
and so this alloy is stronger than pure
iron.
Basics of STRENGTHENING MECHANISM

Read: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/6214782/strengthening-mechanism-of-metals/5
Carbon solute atoms in Fe matrix
Fe-Fe3C DIAGRAM
General Classification of Metals

Metals & Alloys

Ferrous Non-ferrous

Steels Cu-Alloys Al-Alloys

Cast Irons
Ni-Alloys
Plain Carbon Steels White Cast Iron
Alloy Steels Malleable Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
S.G. Cast Iron
Chilled Cast Iron
Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing – Steels - cast irons
Nomenclature AISI & SAE
10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C

Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr

Cast Iron
 Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
 more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
 low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

 Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

 generally a slow process

 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e.
Carbon Steels
 Carbon steels are categorized in three groups:
 Low-carbon containing less than 0.30%,

 Medium-carbons (0.30% to 0.60%), and

 High-carbon (more than 0.60%)

 An example of low –carbon is nuts and bolts because they do

not require high strength.
 Medium-carbon is commonly used in machinery because its
resistance to high temperatures.
 High-carbons are unique in that they reduce durability and
require heat treatment. Examples are springs, wire, cutlery
and cables for the reason that one wants the reduction in
ductility.
Alloy Steels
 Alloy steels are steels containing substantial amounts
of desired elements. Typically made with more
precision than carbon steels.
 Alloys are used in applications where properties like
strength, hardness, creep and fatigue resistance, and
toughness are essential.
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA)

 Intended to improve strength to weight ratio of steels.

All it means is stronger product but less weight. Ex:
earthquake proof buildings. Made just as strong but
weigh less.
 Most commonly used for industrial applications
including transportation and construction.
 A micro alloyed steel is a high strength low alloy steel
that is made to eliminate the need for heat treatment.
 Overall the cost of High-strength low-alloy steels is
low.
 Stainless Steels
 The higher the carbon content the
lower the corrosion resistance.
Stainless steel has a lower carbon
content and has a higher corrosion
resistance. It is important because it
is used in everyday applications.
 The simplest example of a stainless
steel is a spoon. It is covered with
chromium oxide (Cr2O3) which
protects the metal from corrosion. It
builds up again in the effect of the
surface being scratched.
Stainless Steel Everyday Applications

Used for Healthcare and Medical Equipment, and Culinary

Tools.
Tool and Die Steels
 Tool and Die steels are high carbon steels (either
carbon or alloy) possessing high hardness, strength
and wear resistance, used commonly in machining. Tool
steels are heat treatable
Tool and Die Steels
In order to increase hardness and wear resistance of tool
steels, alloying elements forming hard and stable carbides
(chromium, tungsten, vanadium, manganese, molybdenum)
are added to the composition.
 Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
 graphite flakes
 weak & brittle under tension
 stronger under compression
 excellent vibrational dampening
 wear resistant Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.

Ductile iron
 add Mg or Ce
 graphite in nodules not flakes
 matrix often pearlite - better ductility
 Types of Cast Iron
White iron
 <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
 more cementite

Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.

Malleable iron
 heat treat at 800-900ºC
 graphite in rosettes
 more ductile
Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.